The Works of John Stuart Mill - Tomo 26
The Works of John Stuart Mill - Tomo 26
The Works of John Stuart Mill - Tomo 26
VOLUME XXVI
The Collected Edition of the Works of John Smart Mill has been planned and is
being directed by an editorial committee appointed from the Faculty of Arts and
Science of the University of Toronto, and from the University of Toronto Press.
The primary aim of the edition is to present fully collated texts of those works
which exist in a number of versions, both printed and manuscript, and to provide
accurate texts of works previously unpublished or which have become relatively
inaccessible.
Editorial Committee
Edited by
JOHN M. ROBSON
University Professor and Professor of English,
Victoria College. University of Toronto
ISBN 0-8020-2674-5
London: Routledge
ISBN 0-415-03788-3
, ISBN 0-415-03790-S (set)
France, 1820-21
1. Journal and Notebook of a Year in France
(May 1820 to July 1821) 3
2. Trait_ de Logique ( 1820-21 ) 145
I Consid6rations G6n6rales 145
II Des Id6es en G6n6ral 150
IIl Sources off Nous Puisons Nos ld6es 152
IV Classification des Id6es 159
V Des Notions Abstraites 161
VI De la Division 167
VII De la D6finition 171
VIII Du Langage 179
IX De l'Origine des Id6es 187
3. Lecture Notes on Logic (1820-21) 191
Diary, 1854
APPENDICES
MAPS
JOHN M. ROBSON
MILL IS KNOWNAS A SAGE,whose major works are detachable from time and
author; only careful analysis shows them related to "persons and places," to
borrow George Santayana's chosen determiners for his memoirs. More easily
connected with episodes in Mill's life are periodical essays, great and small,
occasioned by and developed in response to external forces. The principal sources
of personal information are his Autobiography and his correspondence, which
provide a great wealth of information about his development, almost always in
relation to his ideas (decided and tentative). This record needs to be supplemented
from records of his daily life that locate him--body as well as mind--in public
places and in relation to other people. These are the materials of this collection.
This is not, however, the place for a biography, especially as these documents
are concentrated in one period of Mill's life, heavily significant for an
understanding of him hut not leading to a full portrait. An appropriate goal is an
outline of the biographical surround that touches on the relations between life and
thought, and suggests significances.
FRANCE: 1820-21
up TO 1820, Mill's fourteenth year, his recorded life is mainly one of directed
study, not of cram but of a planned expansion of intellectual powers, driven by his
father's will and his own curiosity. His year in France (1820-21) did not change the
direction or intensity of this programme, but it laid the ground for later
developments that diversified his ideas and his behaviour. Initially the plan was
very much part of the established pattern. James Mill had thought it essential, as
early as 1814, to nurse his limited means by moving his family to the less
expensive domain of France. 1As his position, financial and public, improved, the
translation seemed less attractive, and his appointment to the Examiner's Office of
IFordetailsconcerningtheseplans,as wellas generallyforthebackground
of theFrenchtrip,see
JohnMill's BoyhoodVisitto France:Beinga JournalandNotebookWrittenby JohnStuartMill in
France,1820-21,ed. AnnaJ. Mill(Toronto:University ofTorontoPress,1960),x-xxv.Asindicated
elsewhere,we havedrawnheavilyandunashamedly ontheworkof Dr.Mill,whowasto havebeena
co-editorof thesevolumes.
xii Introduction
the East India Company made it impracticable. But the possibility of his son's
benefiting from a linguistic and cultural immersion was still appealing, especially
because the family of Sir Samuel Bentham, the younger brother of Jeremy, already
known to the Mills, was living in the south of France. In response to a query about
the progress of his education, John Mill wrote a detailed letter to Samuel Bentham
that surely must have surprised even a man so accustomed to talent as he. 2 Shortly
thereafter Jeremy Bentham's current amanuensis, Richard Doane, joined the
Samuel Bentham family, with whom he stayed for more than six months, and
Jeremy proposed that he be replaced by John Mill.
Well: I must draw back one pet-boy from you; what say you to my sending you another?...
What other? Why John Mill, whom you may shew for 6d. _get rich. The scheme
is this, ff you happen to take to it. John Milft_-_ntinue here 6 month_D.'s return,
learning French of him, and teaching him other things. This will suffice to enable him to ask
for victuals on the road, and then you may manufacture him into a French boy in 6 other
months. I remember you had a project.., or manu actunng mper; this it m s l
have some need of, but it is a good deal better, I believe, now. I thought that what he saw and
heard of P[om]pignan and R.D. would excite the fellow's concupiscence. But I would not
throw out the least hint about it; waiting for him to rub his cheeks against my legs, and pur,
which at last he did)
A month later the project was agreed, as Jeremy Bentham informed his brother:
James Mill is reported as having "grinned pleasure and twice declared himself
'much gratified': gratified is a conjugate to grateful and gratitude: but nearer to
gratitude than this he never comes; for he is and always was proud as Lucifer. "4
The plans moved to completion, and finally Bentham was able to write on 12 May
to Lady Bentham to say that the boy would set out on Monday for Paris by
diligence via Calais, in the company of their friend George Ensor; the date of his
departure for the South was still uncertain. 5
James Mill thought it wise to prepare the somewhat secluded youth for a wider
acquaintance, and did so effectively, as Mill's Autobiography records:
I remember the very place in Hyde Park where, in my fourteenth year, on the eve of leaving
my father's house for a long absence, he told me that I should fred, as I got acquainted with
new people, that I had been taught many things which youths of my age did not commonly
know; and that many persons would be disposed to talk to me of this, madto compliment me
upon it. What other things he said on this topic I remember very imperfectly; but he wound
up by saying, that whatever I knew more than others, could not be ascribed to any merit in
me, but to the very _un_ual advantage which had fallen to my lot, of having a father who was
able to teach me, and willing to give the necessary trouble and time; that it was no matter of
2Letterof 30 July, 1819, in The Earlier Letters ofJohn Stuart Mill, 1812-1848 [EL], ed. FrancisE.
Mineka,Vols. XII-XIIIof Collected Works [CW] (Toronto:Universityof TorontoPress, t963), XII,
6-10.
_BenthamCorrespondence,IX, ft. 380-1.
41bid., f. 386 (9 Feb., 1820). Bentham added later in the same letterthat JamesMill said what
SamuelBenthamhadtakenfor"somethingelse intheboy was su_s. Quarenon. ButI havea notion
you will find him mended,---considerablymended." (lb/d., f. 387.)
_lbid., f. 411.
Introduction xiii
praise to me, if I knew morethan those who had not had a similar advantage, butthe deepest
disgrace to me if I did not.6
This lesson well engraved, John began his trip a few days before his fourteenth
birthday (20 May), and started his journal immediately. Instructed by his father to
record all his activities, John responded in typically obedient fashion, differing in
this as in other respects from David Ricardo and George Grote, who were similarly
instructed by James Mill, but fell short of his exacting standards .7 In fact, this was
not his fLrstattempt; in one of his very few childhood letters, written from Forde
Abbey on 13 September, 1814, the eight-year-old boy says: "What has been
omitted here will be found in a journal which I am writing of this and last year's
journeys."s That journal has not survived, and the one of his French journey gives
us such full detail that the loss of the former must be regretted.
The outline of the French trip may be quickly sketched. After two weeks in Paris
at the home of Jean Baptiste Say, the eminent economist, the youth travelled by
himself to the Chfiteau de Pompignan, near Toulouse, where the Samuel Benthams
were in accommodation rented from the impecunious Marquis. There he stayed
until 24 June, when the Benthams took him with them to Toulouse, where they
lived for almost two months. Then on 10 August they began touring about, going
first to Bagntres-de-Bigorre, then on a long excursion to Bayonne, followed by
more time spent in Bagntres-de-Bigorre and Bagntres-de-Luchon, then back to
Toulouse, before settling finally in Montpellier in mid-October. Though it had
been planned that he return to England after six months, Mill stayed with the
Benthams in Montpellier, attending lectures and further expanding his acquaint-
ante, until March 1821. After a brief visit to Restinclitres in mid-March he went to
Paris, where he again stayed with the Says, from 23 April to 19 May, and then
went on to Caen, visiting his father's friend, Joseph Lowe, before finally going /z- l
home in July.
This brief glance at his itinerary does not even hint at the importance of the year
in France to Mill's education, formal and informal.9 The first pages of the Journal,
written in an unformed, large, youthful hand, and much blotted, give the
impression of a normally intelligent, healthy if somewhat fastidious boy, excited
by a first trip alone and abroad, but determined to keep his feelings under control.
While in Paris he consorted, appropriately in view of Bentham's and his father's
reputations, with prominent French radicals, and was in "high request":_° but only
6Autobiography [A], in Autobiography and Literary Essays, ed. John M. Robson and Jack
Stillinger, CW, I (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981), 37.
7ForRieardo, see The Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo, ed. Piero Sraffa (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1973), IX, 209 (4 Aug., 1822); for George Grote, see John M. Robson.
"John Stuart Mill to the Grotes: An Unpublished Letter of 1824," Mill News Letter. XX, No. 2
(Summer, 1985), 2 -12.
SEL, CW, XII, 5.
next few paragraphs draw extensively, and often verbatim, from Anna J. Mill's account.
xiv-xxv.
*°Letter from Jercmy to Samuel Bcntham, Bentlmm Correspondence, IX, f. 418.
xiv Introduction
11Abouthimmuchmaybelearnedfromhiswife'stwobooks:MariaSophiaBentham, Memoirofthe
Late Brigadier-General
Sir SamuelBentham(London:Wcal¢,1856) lindThe Life of Brigadier-
GeneralSir SamuelBentham(London:Longnmns,1862);onegets only informationabouthim,
however,therebeingnohint,exceptonthe titlepage,eventhathe wasmarried.The volmr_sof
cone_ inthe CollectedWorksof JeremyBenthamareessentialto anappreciationof the
family.
tZMuch supportingdetail,usedhereandintheeditorialnotesto theJournal
andNotebook,comes
fromGeorgeBentham'smanuscript autobiography
anddiary,KewGardens,which wereusedasthe
basicsourcesforBenjamin DaydonJackson'sGeorgeBentham(London:Dent;NewYork:DuRon,
1906).
Introduction xv
months between his return to London and John's departure. But because Doane did
not leave the Benthams until the end of February,13 and Mill started on his trip in
early May, not much teaching can have taken place. Nonetheless, a start was
certainly made, and it seems probable that Mill got busy on his own account with a
French grammar as soon as the trip was bruited. And, as the entry for 4 July
indicates, he had been reading (perhaps with a translation) Voltaire's Essai sur les
moeurs before his departure. Jeremy Bentham mentions that James Mill had
"found a man for commencing the instruction of the son in French and supplying
his place as instructor to the other children, ''_4 but there is no evidence that such an
engagement actually took place, and Sarah Austin may have taken on the latter part
of the scheme.
The progress he had made was already evident when he reached Paris, for he
indicates in his entries of 19 May, 1820, that "None of them except [M. Say] and
his eldest son can speak a word of English" and that "Mme Say . . . does not
understand English, so that I was obliged to speak always French to her, and
commonly also to M. Say." And of a visit to the theatre in Toulouse on 3 June, just
after his arrival at the Benthams', he says he "understood a good deal" (Journal
entry for 3 June). George Bentham's diary entry for the same day gives further
evidence: "he conversed a good deal in French about crops, the country he has
passed etc. though he has been but a fortnight in France and had leam[ed] but a
month or six weeks before from Richard. '''5 And in another place he comments on
Mill's "rapid progress in French," as well as his "readiness at difficult algebraic
problems which had rather puzzled me etc. ''_6
Mill's reading programme, begun as soon as he reached Pompignan, is equally
impressive. Beginning with Millot (probably Elements de l'histoire de France), he
moved quickly to plays, "by the advice of Mr. George and of Lady Bentham, who
say that dialogues are better to be read, on account of their giving the 1st and 2nd £z, __
person of the verbs, and for many other reasons" ( 13 June). Between 9 and 16 June
he read three or four plays by Voltaire, three by Racine, one or two by Moli_re, and
one by Corneille. Lady Bentham also recommended parts of the Code Napoleon. _7
neglect and family chaos, his books packed, unpacked, repacked, as the timetable
for removal shifts. A week later there is a glimpse of the supposedly self-sufficient
youngster haunting the Toulouse post-office in what seems a rather homesick way,
and responding to the long-awaited news with eager messages and requests for
more. He is able to accept what comes, however, commenting with dry humour,
and with increasing niceness of phrase, on life's hazards and mishaps. The general
tone, it may be admitted, is laconically impersonal, with little to choose between
the accounts of reading and fencing; the rare outbursts of enthusiasm (not his
father's m6tier) defy classification, spontaneous delight over Lucian being
matched by awed wonder at Franconi's amazing horses. 2°
Other elements, however, catch the eye: family jokes, trouble with the
domestics and the dilatory washerwoman; comments with a liberal bias on
political events; accidents in the redoubtable charabanc, now past its prime; a great
deal of the outdoors, especially of the hot, thirsty Sunday expeditions, chasing
butterflies (for scientific reasons, of course, although the exercise and broader
observations were not merely coincidental) and consuming glass after glass of
water. These welcome details in fact merely bring into sharper focus the central
occupation of the Pompignan-Toulouse period: the boy's prodigious programme _,
of reading and study, carried on in defiance of continual distractions and i
competing claims.
The next period (and the last covered in the Journal as distinct from the
Notebook), the visit to the Pyrenees with three weeks at Bagn_res-de-Bigorre and
ten days at Bagu_res-de-Luchon, has special interest. First, there is the evidence of
Mill's growing competence in French and topographical descriptions rendered
with the help of guidebooks and within the limits of an untrained eye and an as yet
narrow basis for comparison. But also one finds a constantly expanding awareness
of externals, gradually being incorporated into understanding and judgment.
While it is true that, deprived of his books and his routine, the boy has to
record--for record he must--impressions other than those of his studies, it is
equally true that the trip and its recording put him in the way of a new maturity, by
giving him both experience and the opportunity to reflect on it. The scenery, so
different from the familiar gentle landscapes of southern England, indelibly
marked his aesthetics: "This first introduction to the highest order of mountain
scenery," he says in the Autobiography, "made the deepest impression on me, and
gave a colour to my tastes through life. ''21 Even more, he was introduc__
_ to his
lifelong avocatign_ botanizing. At Toulouse, the Sunday "entomotheric" expedi-
" _s_a_l_ interludes-in the graver concerns of the week; in the Pyrenees
botanical and entomological activities were the main business. George Bentham
was (unknowingly) laying the foundation of his fwst important work, on the flora
of the region, 22and Mill was privileged to be with him on many of his field trips.
The Journal entries end on 13 October, two days before the party reached
Montpellier, and the Notebook records the next few months there, until 6
February, after which the French record is blank except for the lecture notes in
logic and one letter of 25 April to his father from Paris. But the Notebook,
supplemented by the lecture notes and the related Trait6 de logique (Nos. 2 and 3
below), gives us ample evidence that the tour through the Pyrenees did not alter,
except by strengthening, Mill's relentless pursuit of the knowledge that makes
wisdom possible. There can be little doubt that he took as careful and detailed
notes in Chemistry and Zoology as in Logic, and the surviving notes of the last bear
witness to his still surprising mastery of French (how seldom is there a gap
indicating a term not understood or not heard), and his ability to comprehend and
even to criticize the lecturer's presentation of concepts. Indeed the fullness and
accuracy of his notes demonstrate yet another extraordinary power, even allowing
for his making revisions when copying. That he attempted to make a book out of
his logic notes is less surprising, given his previous addiction to composition, 23
but still when looking at it one has to make oneself remember that it was the work
of a fourteen-year-old, writing in a language he had begun to learn less than a year
earlier.
of law under the tutelage of John Austin, and of philosophy, stimulated by his
father but carried on solo. Before long he became a force for reform in his own
fight, in a whirl of activities not fully evident even in the Autobiography's detailed
account. In bare outline, with the debating activities discussed below, he busied
himself first by forming the Utilitarian Society in 1822-23, whose membership
included Richard Doane, for discussion of political and ethical questions; this was
succeeded by the Society of Students of Mental Philosophy (1824-29) that dealt 1!
with detailed questions in philosophy and economics; during the period he kept a
journal (not extant) of his group's activities, and also plannej! a Phil_Qsophical
Dictionary for which he wrote a few articles (also not extant). Having begun his
extensive work as a newspaper journalist in 1822, he became the most frequent
contributor to the Westminster Review after its foundation in 1824, participated as -
one of the major planners and authors in the Parliamentary History and Review
from 1825 to 1828, and edited the three manuscripts of Jeremy Bentham's
Rationale of Judicial Evidence into its five published volumes (1827). He engaged
in what seems like continuous discussion of all subjects from architecture to
zoology during extensive daily, weekly, and holiday walks while botanizing and
searching out the picturesque, and cultivated music through practice on the piano
and at musical evenings. Quite enough for a man of leisure, which he was not: in
May 1823 on his seventeenth birthday (the earliest possible date), he entered the
Examiner's Office of the East India Company, where he was to earn his living
for thirty-five years.
Mill's activities as a debater demonstrate clearly his maturation. From his early
years he had been trained in "dissecting a bad argument," and had studied with his
father the Greek and Latin orators, especially Demosthenes, "some of whose
principal orations [he] read several times over, and wrote out, by way of exercise,
a full analysis of them." James Mill, in addition to stressing the substance,
to see as far as I could recollect, if they contained every thing, and if I had them in the best
possible order; that is, the order in which that is taken first which needs nothing of what
follows to explain it, and which serves to explain what follows; that is taken second which is
explained by what precedes, and is serviceable for explaining what follows, without
needing what follows for explaining itself. This is the plain rule of utility, which will always
guide you right, and in which there is no mystery. After this, I would sit down to write, and
expand. When the writing is done, you should talk over the subject to yourself. I mean not
harangue, but as you would talk about it in conversation at your own table; talk audibly,
however, walking about in your room. This will practice your memory, and will also
practice you in finding words at the moment to express your thoughts. After this you shall
talk the various subjects over to me, when we have again an opportunity of being together:
and after this you may have perfect confidence in yourself. One thing more, however; you
must write your discourses, with the purpose of sending them to me. Depend upon it, this
will be a stimulus, not without its use. I will be the representative of an audience, of a public;
and even if you had in your eye a person whom you respect much less than you do me, it
would be a motive both to bestow the labour more regularly, as it should be; and to increase
the force of your attention. Therefore no apologies, and no excuses will be listened to. 2s
He had thought much on the principles of the art of reading, especially the most neglected
part of it, the inflexions of the voice, or modulation as writers on elocution call it (in contrast
with articulation on the one side, and expression on the other), and had reduced it to rules,
grounded on the logical analysis of a sentence. These rules he strongly impressed upon me,
and took me severely to task for every violation of them: but I even then remarked (though I
did not venture to make the remark to him) that though he reproached me when I read a
sentence ill, and tom me how I ought to have read it, he never, by reading it himself, shewed
me how it ought to be read .... It was at a much later period of my youth, when practising
elocution by myself, or with companions of my own age, that I for the first time understood
the object of his rules, and saw the psychological grounds of them. At that time I and others
followed out the subject into its ramifications, and could have composed a very useful
treatise, grounded on my father's principles. He himself left those principles and rules
unwritten. I regret that when my mind was full of the subject, from systematic practice, I did
not put them, and our improvements of them, into a formal shape. 29
Just before John Mill began to debate, he was advised by his father to write
practice orations. Obedient as ever, and availing himself of his "familiarity with
Greek history and ideas and with the Athenian orators," he wrote "two speeches,
one an accusation, the other a defence of Pericles on a supposed impeachment."3°
Thus armed, he was ready for actual debate, initially in a "Mutual Improvement
Society," a little documented organization. 3! However, his surviving contribu-
tions to it (Nos. 4-6) are formal and rigid, seldom indicating any flexing in
response to audience or occasion--though one must recall that these, like all the
similar surviving manuscripts, were prepared in advance, and (these may be an
exception) not actually read from in debate. In the absence of any indication, one
cannot assume that he formulated the topics for debate in the Mutual Improvement
Society, though they certmnly are apt to his interests then and later.
Considerable rhetorical advance is seen in the next speeches (Nos. 7-13),
prepared for debates between the young Utilitarians (or Philosophic Radicals as -
they became known later) and the followers of Robert Owen at the latter's
Co-operative Society, which has left surprisingly few traces. In the Autobiography
Mill notes that early in 1825 Roebuck had attended some of their weekly public
discussions in Chancery Lane, and the proposal was mooted that a debate between
the two groups would be useful. He continues:
The question of population was proposed as the subject of debate: Charles Austin led the
case on our side with a brilliant speech, and the fight was kept up by adjournment through
five or six weekly meetings before crowded auditories, including along with the members of
the Society and their friends, many hearers and some speakers from the Inns of Court. 32
The texts themselves indicate that the Philosophic Radicals were in the
affirmative, asserting the perils of over-population, and that, following the first
round, Mill took over the management of their side from Charles Austin. After this
debate, Mill says, "another was commenced on the general merits of Owen's
system"; 33 it appears from No. 9 that again the Philosophic Radicals were in the
affirmative, criticizing the Owenites' view of economics, and that Mill himself
had proposed the question. The "contest altogether lasted about three months,"
Mill says:
It was a lutte corps-d-corps between Owenites and political economists, whom the
Owenites regarded as their most inveterate opponents: but it was a perfectly friendly
dispute. We who represented political economy had the same objects in view as they had,
and took pains to shew it; and the principal champion on their side was a very estimable
man, with whom I was well acquainted, Mr. William Thompson, of Cork, 34author of a
book on the Distribution of Wealth, and of an Appeal in behalf of women against the
passage relating to them in my father's Essay on Government. Ellis, Roebuck, and I, took
an active part in the debate, and among those from the Inns of Court who joined in it I
remember Charles Villiers. The other side obtained also, on the population question, very
efficient support from without. The well known Gale Jones, then an elderly man, made one
of his florid speeches; but the speaker with whom I was most struck, though I dissented from
nearly every word he said, was Thirlwall, the historian, since bishop of St. David's, then a
Chancery barrister, unknown except by a high reputation for eloquence acquired at the
Cambridge Union before the era of Austin and Macaulay. His speech was in answer to one
of mine. Before he had uttered ten sentences, I set him down as the best speaker I had ever
heard, and I have never since heard any one whom I placed above him. 35
The encounter with the Owenites led to the formation of the debating society
most important in Mill's intellectual and social development. It is better
documented: many of the details missing from Mill's own account and not to be
inferred from his speeches and letters are supplied by three printed documents of
the London Debating Society 36 and Henry Cole's Diary; 37 there are some
references and a few surviving speeches by others. The description in the
Autobiography of its founding follows immediately on that of the Owenite battles.
The great interest of these debates predisposed some of those who took part in them, to
catch at a suggestion thrown out by McCulloch, the political economist, that a society was
wanted in London similar to the Speculative Society at Edinburgh, in which Brougham,
Homer and others ftrst cultivated public speaking. Our experience at the Cooperative
Society seemed to give cause for being sanguine as to the sort of men who might be brought
together in London for such a purpose. McCulloch mentioned the matter to several young
men of influence to whom he was then giving private lessons in political economy. Some of
these entered warmly into the project, particularly George Villiers, afterwards Earl of
Clarendon. He and his brothers Hyde and Charles, Romilly, Charles Austin, and I, with
some others, met and agreed on a plan. We determined to meet once a fortnight, from
November to June, at the Freemason's Tavern, and we had soon a splendid list of members,
containing, along with several members of parliament, nearly all the most noted speakers of
the Cambridge Union and of the Oxford United Debating Society.3s
It was, of course, not particularly the procedures, but the proved utility of the
goals and experience of these societies that suggested them as models for the
London Debating Society. Consequently a few words about them are appropriate.
J.R. McCulloch seems not to have been a member of the Speculative Society,
3'*Thompsonhad stayed in Bentham's house, next to the Mills', on earlier visits to London.
3SA,129.
Y°TheLaws and Transactions of the London Debating Society; with A List of the Members,
Corrected up toNovember 1st, 1826 (London:printed Taylor, 1826);Fourth Supplementto the Laws
and Transactions of the London Debating Society; Comprising the Transactions of the Season
1829-1830;and A List of the Members, Corrected up to November 1, 1830 (London: printed Pageand
Son, 1831); and The Laws of the London Debating Society; Corrected up to November 1st, 1831
(London- printed Burslem, 1832). Copies of the intervening supplementshave not been located.
37Victoriaand AlbertMuseum.
3SA,129-31.
Introduction xxiii
39Letterof 16 May, 1842, inThe History of theSpeculative Society. 1764-1904, ed. WilliamWatson
(Edinburgh:SpeculativeSociety, 1905), 27-8. This work gives mostof the details, butomits the hst of
subjectsof debate, which are found in the earliervolume thatCockburnwas encouraging,Thomas
Cleghornand RobertBalfour'sHistory of the Speculative Society (Edinburgh:SpeculativeSocmty,
1845).
4°Recollectionsof the Cambridge Union, 1815-1939, ed. PercyCraddock (Cambridge:Bowes and
Bowes, 1953), 3n. The list of officers ishere given, butdetails concerningthe subjectsand speakersare
impressionistic.Millmay himself have attendedthe CambridgeUnion in 1822, whenvisitingCharles
xxiv Introduction
subjects, chosen by the body of some two hundred a few weeks in advance, were,
in keeping with the spirit of the times, political and historical, and within two years
conflict with the university authorities arose, at a time when Connop Thirlwall,
whose debating skills so impressed Mill in 1825, was Secretary. As a result, the
Union became a reading club from 1817 to 1821, when the restrictions on
dangerous topics were relaxed by making it permissible to debate political topics
before 1800, and then prior to twenty years before the date of debate. This
limitation was ingeniously evaded by adding the phrase "twenty years ago" to
obviously contemporary questions, such as reform of the Commons, or the
appropriateness of the Greek independence struggle--in 1799. 4_ In the early
1820s the Union attracted brilliant speakers, including many later to join the
Loadon Debating Society, such as Macaulay, Bulwer, Charles and Hyde Villiers,
Praed and, most relevant to Mill, Charles Austin, President in 1822, who was a
powerful propagator of Bentham's and James Mill's views. Later in the decade
other familiars of Mill were active, not least Charles Buller, F.D. Maurice, and
John Sterling, the last well known in that context as a radical. The Union was the
place to make a name, and many succeeded. Some of course failed, W.M.
Thackeray being a well established case, his initial disaster presaging his notorious
lifelong inability to speak in public. 42
The Oxford Union was less significant, being itself founded only in 1823 in
obvious imitation of Cambridge. 43 Indeed, early in 1825 the two Unions offered
reciprocal privileges, and the temper and subjects ran in parallel, with the
pressures of contemporary politics making for divisions into liberal and conserva-
tive, though the former was less strident at Oxford, and conflict with the
authorities, though not unknown, was less significant. The topics of debate are
reminiscent of those in Edinburgh and Cambridge, and foreshadow those in
London. One of the most significant debates from this point of view occurred in
1829, when the London Society was well into its active life; at Cambridge's
instigation, representatives from its Society went to Oxford to debate the relative
merits of Byron and Shelley. That the subject attracted much interest, ranging over
Austin; see Karl Britton, "J.S. Mill andthe CambridgeUnionSociety," Cambridge Review (29 Oct.,
1955), 92. However, the statement in Caroline Fox, Memories of OMFriends, ed. Horace N. Pyre
(Philadelphia:Lippineott, 1882), thatMill's acquaintancewith Sterlingdatedfrom a meeting at the
CambridgeUnion, when Sterling appeared"as a mystic," is undoubtedlymistaken;Sterlingthere
appearedRadical,as indicatedbelow.
411bid.,9-10.
't2Hisown descriptionlaysbarethe despairof failingwhen"spouting"attheUnion:"... Igotup and
stuckin themidstof thefirstfootstep, andthen, inendeavouringto extricatemyselffrommydilemma,
I went deeper and deeperstill, till at last, with one desperatesentence, to wit, that 'Napoleonas a
captain,a lawgiver,anda king, merited and received the esteem andgratitudeof France,' I rushedout
of thequagmire into whichI hadso foofishly plungedmyself, and stooddown, like Lucifer, never to
rise again with open mouth in that august assembly. So much for the Union." (Gordon N. Ray,
Thackeray:The Uses of Adversity, 1811-1846 [New York: McCn'aw-Hill,1955], 35.)
43SeeHerbertArthurMorrah, The Oxford Union, 1823-1923 (London: Cassell, 1923). Here again
the subjectsand speakersaregiven merely illustratively;the Presidents only arelisted for each term.
Introduction xxv
political as well as literary grounds, indicates yet again the importance attached to
such issues in the 1820s. And the interest was not only among the participants, for
the public took note of the activities of the rising generation.
Though, as mentioned, the Oxford Union was less important as a model for
London than the Edinburgh or Cambridge societies, the overall parallels are obvi-
ously significant, and some members of the London Debating Society had made a
name at Oxford. Most important in determining Mill's role was Donald Maclean,
who had presided over the fLrStdebate at Oxford in 1823, and was to fail in the first
one in London. And the intention, to acquire confidence and control while dealing
with great issues, was of course similar, though the London debates were, for the
Oxbridge men, postgraduate, and therefore more mature but also less enthralling.
To ensure the requisite heat, Mill and his friends tried to recruit Tories, but
had more success in attracting a number of prominent men of diverse but general-
ly liberal views. Mill's account, with its suppressed but evident enthusiasm,
continues:
Nothing could seem more promising. But when the time for action drew near, and it was
necessary to fix on a President, and fred somebody to open the fwst debate, none of our
celebrities would consent to perform either office. Of the many who were pressed on the
subject, the only one who could be prevailed on was a man of whom I knew very little
[Donald Maclean], but who had taken high honours at Oxford and was said to have acquired
a great oratorical reputation there; who some time afterwards became a Tory member of
parliament. He accordingly was fixed on, both for filling the President's chair and for
making the first speech. The important day arrived; the benches were crowded; all our great
speakers were present, to judge of, but not to help our efforts. The Oxford orator's speech
was a complete failure. This threw a damp on the whole concern: the speakers who followed
were few, and none of them did their best: the affair was a complete fiasco; and the
oratorical celebrities we had counted on went away never to return, giving to me at least a
lesson in knowledge of the world. This unexpected breakdown altered my whole relation to
the project. I had not anticipated taking a prominent part, or speaking much or often,
particularly at f'trst; but I now saw that the success of the scheme depended on the new men,
and I put my shoulder to the wheel. I opened the second question [with No. 14], and from
that time spoke in nearly every debate. It was very uphill work for some time. The three
Villiers' and Romilly stuck to us for some time longer, but the patience of all the founders of
the Society was at last exhausted, except me and Roebuck. _
he was not an officer, he joined the Committee of Management, and his activities
soon included the unhappy treasurer's duties of dunning delinquent members (the
subscription was £1 per annum), 45 and undoubtedly attempting to ensure a good
attendance at the sessions, which, as indicated above, were held fortnightly on
Friday evenings from November until June. Occasionally they assembled on other
days and infrequently at weekly intervals. There was a month's gap from
mid-December to mid-January. The sessions began with a business meeting at 7
p.m. (attended, one may safely assume, by Mill and very few others), the debate
opening at 8 p.m.
The fast debate, the "fiasco," on the topic, "That the Colonies are beneficial to
Great Britain," was held on 25 November, 1825, with the negative carrying the
day,, 28 to 21. The second, "That the Influence of the Aristocracy in the
Government of this Country is beneficial," on 9 December, was not proposed by
Mill but opened by him (against normal practice, in the negative). Mill's
contribution was anticipated by a letter of December from Henry Taylor to his
mother that gives, from another point of view, the excitement generated by the
Society (called by Taylor the Academics).
The audience was a more striking one in appearance than one can see elsewhere--the
Houses of Lords and Commons furnish no remarkable assemblage. Young Mill is to open
the debate on Friday week with an attack upon the aristocracy as a pernicious class. He is
about twenty years old, a great speaker, and considered to be a youth of very singular
ability. Singular one can certainly tell him to be in a moment. I have only heard him speak a
few words now and then when the rules of the Society were debated. He is an animated,
determined-looking youth, and speaks, I am told, without hesitation, digression, ornament,
or emphasis, in a tone to me in the little I heard almost ridiculously simple and with very odd
but very considerable effect. 46
Taylor wrote after the second debate to his father, mentioning Hyde Villiers'
success in the fast session and his own failure, and adding:
But our great speaker hitherto (we have only had two meetings) is young Mill, son of the
Radical of that name at the India House. The youth (only nineteen years old) believes as he
has been taught--that is, in the book of Jeremy; from which he preaches in all parts, being
the apostle of the Benthamites. The smallest ornament or flourish is a sin with this school,
and they draw their conclusions from their narrow premises with logical dryness and
procision. 47
The vote in the second debate, despite what Mill saw as a heavy liberal
overloading, was 63 afftrrnative and 17 negative. The number of votes, of course,
is not equivalent to the attendance, but it is noteworthy that considerably more
members took an active interest in the second than in the fast debate, indicating
"*5SeeEL, CW, XII, 20, 21, 24, and 25. Mill served as Treasurer for two terms, 1827-28 and
1828-29.
46Correspondenceof Henry Taylor, ed. EdwardDowden (London:Longmans,Green, 1888), 6.
4_lbid.,7 (undated).A few sentences fromTaylor's speechinthisdebatearein theAutobiography of
Henry Taylor, 1800-75, 2 vols. (London:Longnums,Green, 1885), 8Oh-In.
Introduction xxvii
either that Mill's anxieties were misplaced, that his memory was faulty, or that his
shoulder got the wheel moving quickly. At the next session, however, on 20
January, 1826, when he proposed the subject, "That the Law and Custom of
Primogeniture are detrimental to Society," and, though not the opener, spoke to it
in the affLrmative (No. 15 ), there were only 16 affirmative and 12 negative votes. 4s
Perhaps, however, the weather was bad, for there were more than 70 votes at the
debate on 3 February, 49 at which Mill did not speak, 5° though only 47 on 17
February, when, on the question, "That it is expedient that the New Catholic
Association be suppressed," Mill opened, once more in the negative, and won
easily, there being no speakers in the affmnative. There is no record of his remarks
on this occasion, though one would expect that, as opener, he would have prepared
some. Perhaps the small and single-minded attendance forced him into the
opener's role. The shortest extant list of speakers is recorded for the session on 28
February when Mill (and only he) opposed Roebuck (and only him), arguing
against the proposition "That the Character of Catiline has been calumniated by the
Roman Historians" (No. 16); the vote was 25 negative (with Mill) and 12
afftrmative. 5_ He proposed and opened for the affirmative on the next topic (16
March), "That the Resolution lately moved by the Chancellor of the Exchequer for
the Suppression of One and Two Pound Notes was inexpedient," this time losing
by two votes in a total of 40. Again no text survives.
Sustaining his loyalty, Mill spoke-a_ifi-6_'7 April, arguing, with a winning
majority, against the proposition "That the System pursued at our Universities is
adapted to the Ends of Education" (see Nos. 17 and 18, not all spoken, but
prepared for this occasion). He did not speak during the next debate, on 21 April,
"That a speedy Emancipation of the Slaves in the West Indies is incompatible with
_In this and other cases when there is no record of a manuscript, it is possible--and usually
probable--that Mill spoke extemporaneously.
49Atthis meetingthe Society deleted "Umon" from its initial name, the London Union Debating
Society.
_This debate, "That the present Decline in the Influence of Oratory is a striking Mark of the
Improvementof the Age," was both proposed and opened by Maclean, who perhapswished tojustify
his previous failure.
Sljohn Neal, who like Mill and Roebuck was involved in the managementof the Sooety, recalled
morethan forty years laterthat Roebuck had undertakento show, "beyond all question," that Catiline
"was a much-abusedpatriot andtrustworthycitizen, andCicero a slanderer and a sneak; and really,
though there was nothing very new in the facts he brought to bear upon his theory, they were so
ingemouslyparaded and so cleverly urged, that the impression he made was quite favorable. He
seemed so much in earnest, and so thoroughly convinced himself, that one had not the heart to
disbelieve,or contradict him, though his argument was crowded with paradox and assumption, from
beginningto end." ("_No. 2," American PhrenologicalJournal, XLVII [June 1868],
209.) The manuscriptof this speech wasformerly in the possession of the late ProfessorFrancis Hyde,
withother speechesby Roebuck on the immorality of Byron's poems ( 19 Jan., 1827), the desirability
of avowingobnoxiousopinions( 14 Dee., 1827), on the Church( ! Feb., 1828), andon theconduct of
the ConstituentAssembly in France (14 Nov., 1828). A list in Roebuck's hand that accompaniedthe
manuscriptsmentioned (without dates) speeches on "the Ministers" (presumablyon 22 or 29 June,
1827), "on the execution of CharlesI," and"on the Revolutionof 1688."
xxviii Introduction
the Interests of all parties concerned," though, since he was not given to arguing a
case against his beliefs, one may be sure he would have been in the negative;
however, he returned to the fray in the next debate, the first one to be adjourned to a
second session, on 5 and 19 May, "That the practical constitution of Great Britain
is adequate to all the Purposes of good Government." He spoke (see Nos. 19 and
20) only on the second occasion, and not surprisingly in the negative; though there
was a good roster of speakers at both sessions, there were only eighteen votes,
equally divided, with the affirmative winning by the casting vote of the chair. Mill
is not recorded as contributing to the discussion on 2 June, "That the Character of
Napoleon Buonaparte deserves the detestation of Mankind," a subject on which he
certainly had views, but he joined in the winning affirmative on 16 June, the last
debate of the session, "That the Residence of the Irish Landlords upon their Estates
would' not alleviate any one of the Evils of Ireland"; again his remarks are not
.__corded.
This,theend of theopeningsession,1825-26,isasfarasthefirst
printed
record
oftheSocietytakesus.Millsaysthatinthesecond session,1826-27,
things began to mend. We had acquired two excellent Tory speakers, Hayward, s2 and Shee
(afterwards Sergeant Shee): the radical side was reinforced by Charles Buller, Cockburn,
and others of the second generation of Cambridge Benthamites; and with their and other
occasional aid, and the two Tories as well as Roebuck and me for regular speakers, almost
every debate was a bataiUe rangde between the "philosophic radicals" and the Tory
lawyers; until our conflicts were talked about, and several persons of note and consideration
came to hear us. 53
One practical result is seen in Roebuck's career. "Mr. Roebuck first became
celebrated as one of the most eminent members of the London Debating Society.
:4
The celebrity which he obtained for his oratory at this society, and for his various
literary productions in the 'Westminster Review' and elsewhere, made him known _.
to several leading Reformers, and through their recommendations he was _:
introduced to the citizens of Bath.'54
Cole, who met Mill first on 7 November, 1826, and says he attended debates on
10, 18, and 22 November, 1826, 55 and 10 January, 1827 (respectively a Friday, _
Saturday, Thursday, and Wednesday), did not begin to record the topics until 19 )
January, 1827, and did not join the Society until 25 May of that year, though
thereafter he attended regularly. There are no surviving texts, and no record of _
S2AbrahamHayward became an inveteratefoe of Mill's, battling with him over an article in the
London and Westminster Review, being blackballedat a club by Mill's ally Roebuck, and finally
poisoning the wells by spreading the story of Mill's early arrestfor broadcastingneo-Malthusian
literature,andso leadingGladstoneto withdrawsupportfromtheproposaltoplace a memorialtoMill
in WestminsterAbbey. _
S3A,131-3.
54"Johil ArthurRoebuck," British Ladies" Newspaper, 27 Jan., 1838, 56. _._
(;
_y
Introduction xxix
SO'Thiswould appearto be the period when Mill suffered thefirst attackof depressionso famously
described in hisAutobiography as leading to a "mental crisis." It is muchtobe regrettedthat Cole does
not say more than that he met Mill at this time, for the biographicalrecord is remarkablybare. not a
single letter being extant.
Thesemonths mayalso havebeen markedbytwo debatesmentionedby Neal:"that theendsof penal
law can be obtainedwithout thepunishment ofdeath'"(proposedby Roebuck),and"that theintellectual
powers of the sexes are equal" (proposed by Neal). ("Phantasmagoria." 209. )
STA,153-5.
5Slnthe account(quotedin the Textual Introductionbelow) byHaroldJ. Laskiof his acquiringthe
manuscriptsof Mill's debating speeches, it is suggestedthat he had such a manuscript, though one
could interprethis remarks as applyingto No. 32. There is some speculationthat there was another
manuscript, destroyed by enemy action duringWorldWar If.
S9AutobiographyofHenry Taylor, I, 90. Taylorprints his speech (the manuscriptof whichis in the
BritishLibrary)on 90-5.-
e°Otherpossible dates are 24 April and 19 June, 1829, when the law and lawyers were under
discussion,but neitherseems as likely on internalevidence as this.
61_Vhen Laski edit_l thc speech (with its folios incorrectly ordered) for the Bermondsev Book, 6
(1929), 11-17, he dated it to 1823, and said it was prepared for the Utilitarian Society; thejudgments
areinexplicable, given that the manuscript and the derived typescript both unambiguouslysay 1827.
xxx Introduction
Cole was "too much fatigued" to attend on 13 June, but D'Eichthal reports, "J'ai
de nouveau assist6 _ cette socitt6 le vendredi 13 juin. La question dtbattue 6tait: le
gouvernement de l'lnde doit-il #tre iaissd d la Compagnie ?" and adds disparagingly:
Telle m'a paru du moins 6tre la position de la question, car elle n'a 6t6 nettement pos6e
par personne.
J'ai trouv6 gtntralement le mtme dtfant que la premitre fois, c'est-_t-dire le penchant _t
se jeter dam les gtntralit_s et nne grande negligence des faits provenant sans doute de leur
ignorance. J'ai trouv6 la mtme hostilit_ contre le gouvemement et aussi la mtme
disposition _ mettre le mot pour rire et h donner un tour plaisant _ la discussion, ce dent
j'avoue, j'ai 6t6 surpris et charmt. On ne manquait jamais l'occasion de faire quelque
manifestation de principes bien libtrale et de lancer nn coup de patte _tses adversaires .... 67
In Mill's view, the acclaim that the Society gained in 1826-27 had increased in
1827-28,
when the Coleridgians, in the persons of Maurice and Sterling, made their appearance in the
Society as a second Liberal and even Radical party, on totally different grounds from
Benthamism and vehemently opposed to it; bringing into these discussions the general
doctrines and modes of thought of the European reaction against the philosophy of the
eighteenth century; and adding a third and very important belligerent party to our contests,
which were now no bad exponent of the movement of opinion among the most cultivated
part of the new generation. Our debates were very different from those of common debating
societies, for they habitually consisted of the strongest arguments and most philosophic
principles which either side was able to produce, thrown often into close and serrd
confutations of one another. 6s
_TDiary, ibid.
_A, 133. Writingto CharlesEdmund Mauriceon 19 May, 1872. Millrecalls those days: "during
abouttwo yearsthatyourfather was a memberof [theLondonDebatingSociety], he was not a very
frequentspeaker, but your uncle Sterling was, and together they formed a third intellectualparty or
nuance, opposed bothto the Benthamiteandto the Torysections whichused to fight theirbattles there"
(LL, XVII, 1898).
egNeal, "Phantasmagoria,"209. For Mill's publishedviews on the Revolution,see Essays on
French History and Historians, CW, XX (Toronto:University of TorontoPress, 1985), 1-110.
the interval Cole records two debates without mention of Mill: on 12 December, 1828,
"Whetherthe competitionlikely to arisebetween King's College and LondonUniversity will he
beneficialto Education," andon 2 January,1829, "The Claimsof the Catholics."
xxxii Introduction
most excellent speech." On 20 January, Cole visited Mill to talk over the merits of
Byron and Wordsworth, and perhaps warmed by this discussion Mill, when the
debate resumed on 30 January, "delivered a most excellent essay which from its
length (2 hours) caused some squabbling at the end of the debate. ''71 Sterling's
judgment is recorded in a letter to Joseph Williams Blakesley on 8 February, where
he says: "I practised upon the vigilance of no one but Roebuck, and I suppose you
do not consider it an atrocity to cheat that mousing owl." His speech was, he
thinks, too short; he "should have stipulated for being allowed to speak for at least
five hours." He continues:
On the second evening of the Debate there were two or three unhappy performers of
nonsense of whom I remember little.--but Mill. the Westminster Reviewer (attacked
absurdly ih the last Edinburgh) made an admirable speech m defence of Wordsworth. It was
at least as long as mine, & infinitely better. 1 wish you had heard it. Except in Wordsworth
& Coleridge & Maurice's conversation I have never seen or heard anything like the same
quantity of acute & profound poetical criticism. Late in the evening I replied in a speech of
half-an-hour, & was obliged from want of time to omit the greater part of what 1 should have
liked to have said. 72
Richard Monckton Milnes reported to his father after the debate that the Society
did not seem "half as good" as the Cambridge Union, adding: "Sterling spoke
splendidly, and Mill made an essay on Wordsworth's poetry for two and
three-quarter hours, which delighted me, but all the rest was meagre in the
extreme. ),73
Mill seems not to have participated in the next two sessions listed by Cole (13
February and 13 March), 74 but he ended his appearances for that spring on the
topic, "That Montesquieu as a political and philosophical writer is not worthy of
the character he usually bears." The debate opened on 27 March, when Sterling
spoke; on its resumption on 3 April, Mill spoke against Sterling (No. 28) in
exceptionally strong terms. 75
nothing I ever wrote was more carefully elaborated both in matter and expression than some
of those speeches. My delivery was and remained bad; but I could make myself listened to;
and I even acquired a certain readiness of extemporary speaking, on questions of pure
practicallawyeris morallyand intellectually pernicious" (24 April, proposed, Cole says, by Roebuck
"who made a good speech thereupon--followed by Haywardin a passion and others"); "That the
periodicalsof this Countryaredetrimental to itsLiterature" (8 May, opened by Cole, whoproposed the
question);"that the Ministry had forfeitedthe Confidence of theCountry" (22 May); "That therights of
manproperly understood form a component part of education"(5 June); and the last of the session,
"That an efficient administrationof the law can only be obtaine.dby a code" (19 June, opened by
Roebuck).
76,4,163.
77Milldates its beginning from the debate on Byron and Wordswor_th,though saying that they
"continued for some years longer to be companions" (ibid., 155); Roebuck unequivocally gives the
cause as his suggestiona few yearslater that Mill was beingindiscreetin appearingin publicwith a
marriedwoman, HarrietTaylor. See The Life and Letters of John Arthur Roebuck, ed. R.E. Leader
(London:Arnold, 1897), 39, and SarahWilks, "The Mill-RoebuckQuarrel,"MillNews Letter, XIII
(Summer, 1978), 8-12.
7SSeeNewspaper Writings, ed. AnnP. and John M. Robson, Vols. XXII-XXVof CW (Toronto:
Universityof Toronto Press, 1986), XXH, 180-263.
xxxiv Introduction
argument, and could reply offhand, with some effect, to the speech of an opponent: but
whenever I had an exposition to make in which from the feelings involved or from the nature
of the ideas to be developed, expression seemed important, I always most carefully wrote
the speech and committed it to memory, and I did this even with my replies, when an
opportunity was afforded by an adjourned debate. Therefore many of my speeches were of
some worth as compositions, to be set against a bad and ungraceful manner. I believe that
this practice greatly increased my power of effective writing. The habit of composing
speeches for delivery gave me not only an ear for smoothness and rhythm but a practical
sense for telling sentences and an immediate criterion of their telling property, by their
effect on a mixed audience. 79
The few extant reports do not give strong evidence of his having a "bad and
ungraceful manner," but, looking at the speeches in sequence, we can certainly see
evidence, of his growing powers of persuasion. The early ones are stiff and
unresponsive, vehement through shrillness rather than power, and shaped more by
the extrinsic evidence supplied by his teachers than by the intrinsic evidence of the
strong yet supple mind. It is of course almost as difficult to judge delivery from a
manuscript as to record it in writing. There are in the manuscripts few instances of
underlining for emphasis, or of exclamation points ("The people capricious!"
[384]; "But no!" [405]). One may treat merely as an example of the combined
emotional and ethical appeals, rather than objective description, Mill's early
remark to the Cooperative Society: "the tones of my voice are not sufficiently
vehement and sufficiently energetic--in short... I do not speak well" (306). This
kind of self-deprecation appears more frequently in the first speeches--in the
exordia of Nos. 5 and 7 (which are almost identical), and of Nos. 14 and 18, for
instance--but even there with increasing skill; the last of these incorporates a
defence of his limited range of comment on universities. The anti-rhetorical stance
of the novice is also evident: in No. 7 he asserts that the subject, population, does
not permit of panegyric, vivid painting, glowing and poetical description, elegant
metaphor, or florid declamation; in No. 9 he apologizes "for confounding.., one
who treats his audience like children, to be dazzled by a gaudy brilliancy of
colouring, with one who treats them like men, and I may add, like women, of
judgment and sense" (298); s° in No. 14 he deplores topics that invite rhetorical
_Early Draft, CW, I, 132. The word "mixed" heredoes not of course meanof both sexes, but of
divergentviews.
s°l'hisis an earlymdicationof hisadherencetosexualequality.Perhapstheearliestexposureto such
questions is seen in his notes of Gergonne's 26th lecture: "On a voulu proscriresur ce principe
l'instructiondes femmes, parce qu'elles sont queiquefois p_lantes, et qu'elles ne voudraientpas
s'occuper des soins domestiques. Mais si l'instmction dtait universellementr_pandueparmi ies
femmes,elles ne se glorifieraientpaspluspourleursavoirClUe pour|a possessionde brasetde jambes:
et si les femmesinspires sontd'ordinaireplus tx_mtes que les homrnes,c'_st que l'instruction_st
moins r_pandueparmi elles. D'ailleurs si elles _tment parfaitementbien instruites, elles ne se
t_ffusemientpointauxsoinsdomestiques;elles en sentirmentlan_essit_ de s'y apphquer:toutcomme
les hommesles plus savanssoretr_ssouventobliges its'appliqueritdes choses qui n'exigent pasune
intelligencedgale/t la sienne, mais ils en voient la n(_cessit_,et s'y donnentsans murmurer."(227.)
Introduction xxxv
early perorations are, like his exordia, not well developed. It may be observed, of
course, that closing remarks are much better conceived on the spot, being most
powerful when they take into account the past and future of the debate; probably
Mill left them to the impulse of the moment, although there are some effective
elements in the drafts. One may instance a conciliatory note (313-15), a
supplication to the uncommitted as well as to allies (335), and (that favourite
radical ploy) an appeal to the inevitable future (371). An unusual note is struck in
No. 23, where he closes with the announcement that he will not vote in the
division, as events will settle the question. Certainly where the speeches show him
attempting to anticipate a reaction from his audience one must assume that he in
fact modified his words ad hoc. 8_That he took notes during the debate is evident in
the manuscript materials for No. 21 (and doodles are found elsewhere, though they
appear t6 be byproducts of the process of composition rather than of boredom).
Non-rational persuasion is, of course, present. While figurative language--
viewed as the false rhetorician's poisoned honey--is not Mill's forte, he always
was capable of some power, referring as early as No. 4, for instance, to "the terrific
engines of auricular confession and absolution" (260). His greater strength,
displayed in several of the examples above, is epigrammatic, as when he
anticipates Emerson: "Every man is a man, long before he is a poet or a
philosopher" (410). In one place (375-7) he uses a fable that he felt telling enough
to be used almost without modification in print nine years later. 82Given the habits
of the age, it is surprising that Mill uses so few Latin tags, but perhaps he simply
threw them in ad libitum; there are, indeed, few quotations of any kind, except
when, as in No. 27, they are the main part of the argument (and here they are only
signalled in the manuscript). One can only guess at the background of his remark in
No. 20, "quotations have become so ridiculous that I shall not venture upon the
original [in Italian]" (385); the earlier version of that speech (No. 19) in fact has
the original. There are many allusions, including rather more Biblical ones than
might be expected, and one interesting "dramatized" illustration: "Well, the
provident man says to the spendthrift, You are a strong man..." (311).
Rhetorical questions are found in plenty but not excess, often involving irony;
for instance: "is eating my dinner inconsistent with the practice of benevolence?
Must we either renounce our virtues or our meals?" (316.) 83 At 337 a question is
S_SeeNo.11,wherethetextreads:"Ipauseforananswer"andthenresumesafteraparagraphbreak:
"Thegentlemanhasjudgedrightly"(313).In No. 16Millguessesinadvance"thegreaterpartofthe
argumentswhichhavebeenadvancedagainstus this evening"(431), and laterin the samespeech
includesdetailthatalmostsuggeststhatthe speechwaswrittenretrospectively,
perhaps
forsomeoneto
or evenas practice.
s2Sce"Rationaleof Representation," in Essayson PoliticsandSociety,Vols.XVIII-XIXof CW
(Toronto:University of TorontoPress,1977),XVIII,44n-5n.
_Otherusesofironytypifyhisandhis allies"temperat thetime:he refersin No.6 to Members of
Parliament
assubservient to"mobinfluence"(275--laterofcoursethiswouldnotheanironyforhim);
healludestothenationasmadeupof"thehappiest peopleintheworld"inthesamespeech(279). In
Introduction xxxvii
put into his opponents' mouths in another of his rare excursions into reported direct
speech, and at 372 there is a nice twist from the assertive to the interrogative. Also
effective is the anaphora at 407: "Do they... ? Do they•.. ? Do they... ? Do they
•.. ? No."84 Another variation is seen at 406: "I would ask Mr. Canning--if I were
at this moment in his presence I would ask him .... "
In such speeches we would not expect much evidence of the fairness (or, in the
judgment of those who are suspicious, the appearance of fairness) for which Mill
later strove, s5 although it is traditional in debating, of course, to make some claim
to disinterest, even when the basis of the game is evident enough to all. But Mill
shows throughout at least the minimal courtesy of attending to his opponent's
arguments, including those offered on previous occasions; s6 this courtesy he was
later to elevate into an essential part of the endeavour to discover truth.
His major goal in these years, however, was the exposure and uprooting of
error, and many will find the matter of his speeches more revealing than the
manner. The b_ts round which the earlier speeches are structured will
quickly be recognized as those of the_up. The march_ of
mind is ce!ebrat_ed: "Knowledge has triumphed .... It is in vain to suppose that it
will pass by and spare any institution the existence of which is pernicious to
mankind" (261); "I am an enemy to ¢h_da_e.gahlJshaw_s because an established
clergy must be enemies to the progressiveness of the human mind" (424). Perhaps
with a reference to his senior colleague in the Examiner's Office of the East India
Company, Thomas Love Peacock, he notes that the "march of intellect" is to
opponents "a subject of laughter and derision" (424), whereas in truth the "most
important quality of the human intellect is its progressiveness, its tendency to
improvement" and "a really good education would promote to the utmost this spirit
of progression, to inspire an ardent desire of improvement" (349). Here lie the
grounds for hope, enabling us to judge mankind not "merely by what they are" but
"by what they are capable of becoming" (349). 87 To that end, another of the
Radicals' nostrums, cheap publications, will advance the cause, for "a stupid and
ignorant people cannot be a happy one" (382; cf. 368-9).
The Radicals' adaptation of Aristotle's distinction between the "few" and the
No. 9 he has some fun with Gale Jones's ability to measure and determine his own imponderable
invention.Typical radicaltargets are treatedto a curl of the lip: fox-hunting country gentlemen(No.
14), the paternalsolicitudeof the rich (No. 15), the Church of England and thehigher classesgenerally
(No. 18). Another that he would later regret having abused is found in No. 28: "the miserable
contrivanceof a ballot box" (448)•
S*Cf.in No. 15 the fine logical sequence, "If, if, if, if, if, then, but if, if, then..." (340).
a'_bere can be littledoubt that the excitement of the gamewas spoiled for Mill by Sterling's reaction
to hisvigorousindictmentsof him for religious bigotry in No. 25, and for arrogance and lackof care in
prepmingevidence in No. 28, his last speech atthe London Debating Society.
at'See,e.g., Nos. 11 and 12.
STThissentiment is expressed most consistently in No. 26, but one important Romantic note not
concordantwithJamesMill's views is also there sounded: "moral excellencedoes not supposea high
orderof intellectualcultivation,sinceit is oftenfound in greatestperfectionin the rudestminds" (432).
xxxviii Introduction
"many" appears time and again.SS In only one place is the distinction applied to
other than the ruling few and the subject many, and here the balance jumps quickly
to the other side, as Mill refers to the "cant words by which the many who do not
think are in the habit of expressing their contempt for the few who do" (364). This
tergiversation, typical of Radicals torn between populism and elitism, led to the
tension in Mill's mature thought when he tries to balance the values of democratic
participation and expert leadership.
Most strongly marked in the apprentice speeches is the retailing of James Mill's
characteristic tenets. Mill draws directly on his father's "Government" for the idea
that there are three simple forms of government, s9 and security for person and
property is stressed, 9° as are securities for good government. 91These are common
in the son's early essays as well, accompanied by the hallmarks of the father's
short and easy way with the irrational who oppose him. The young debater asserts:
"Now I proved in my opening speech, on data the correctness of which cannot be
and has not been called in question" (315); he avers that "to wait for specific
experience is [the characteristic] of the man who is incapable of doing more than
groping in the dark" (268); he bluntly claims that "Experience has shewn" (378),
and that "All experience.., bears testimony to the extreme difficulty of supplying
' motives sufficient to keep such men within the line of virtue--it is the grand
problem of political science" (395). The great problem in moral science, he might
then have said, was to avoid the irrational; we know from his Autobiography that
he was taught to eschew feeling, 92 and the lesson is manifest at 296: "this is the
fhst time I ever heard that feeling is the test of truth; that a proposition is true or
false, according as we happen to like or dislike it, and that there can be no such
things as unpleasant truths." And again: "Feeling has to do with our actions, reason
with our opinions; it is by our reason that we find out what it is our duty to do; it is
our feelings which supply us with motives to act upon it when found" (307).
Equally characteristic of his father's message is the appeal to an undescribed
human nature: reasoning from "the properties of the human mind" leads him to the
"general principles of human nature" (284); he appeals to "our experience of
human nature" (350); and asserts that 'q'he best measures, we know, cannot from
the nature of man, be always adopted..." (366). 93 Its authority is constantly
appealed to: "that favourable opinion of human nature which universal experience
shows to be a necessary foundation of all the active virtues" (390); that "volume
saSee,e.g., Nos.4, 6, 14, 19,and20.
sgSeeNos.5 and 14.
g°SeeNos.5, 15,16, and19.
9_SeeNos.6 and20. Undoubtedly less owingtohis father'slessonsthanto JohnAustin'srecent
tutoringis the veryearlyargumentforthenecessitythatthesupremepowerinany government be
unified(264).
_A, 51-3.
93"I'he
assmmaee thatallis plainto thesoundinintellectandmoralsis manifestin suchphrasesas"its
utterinconsistencywithallthatis knownofhumannanny"(319),and"Thereisnotnowtime,noris it
necessary,to enquireintothatprincipleofhumannature..." (384).
Introduction xxxix
which should be [a statesman's] guide is not the book of history but the book of
human nature" (393). 94 And that book is not hard to scan: "When I wish to foretel
men's actions, I endeavour to put myself in possession of the motives under which
they act, and to see how other men would act in their situation" (284). 95
Parental manner and matter are combined in "I rest [my case] upon two
assertions: that an aristocracy is bad, and that this government is an aristocracy"
(271). 96 A further attack on the aristocratic hegemony draws on James Mill's
"seesaw" argument that there is no difference between the Whigs and Tories
except as "ins and outs" (273). 97 Another reiterated early lesson concerns the
values and relations between theory and practice: 9s "If by calling it theory he
means to allege that it is unfounded, this is precisely the question on which we are
at issue. I dare him to the proof, but if by theory, he means general principles I
agree with him..." (283; the argument continues for some time). 99 And in a most
filial moment, he asks his honourable opponents to "point out in the whole world a
single individual who believes a theory for any reason except because he considers
it to be founded upon experience..." (392).
Mill's other great mentor, Jeremy Bentham, is also present in attitude and, when
lawyers are in the dock, even tone: "If the law were so clear and intelligible that its
import could not be mistaken, and if the administration of justice were so cheap
and expeditious that no one could benefit himself by contesting a just claim,
lawyers must starve" (386). 1oo Similarly Benthamic is the willing acceptance of
the sanction of public opinion: "Each working man becomes himself better
qualified to distinguish right from wrong, while each knows that he is under the
constant surveillance of hundreds and thousands equally instructed with himselF'
(259). _olThe notion of the opposition between "sinister interests" and the "general
interest" is heavily deployed in key speeches: "The many can act wrong only from
mistake--they cannot act wrong from design, because they have no sinister
interest" (366). _o2 Also Benthamic are passages bearing on the relation between
morals and politics, such as: "a time is approaching when the enquiry, What has
been, shall no longer supersede the enquiry, What ought to be, and when the rust of
antiquity shall no longer be permitted to sanctify institutions which reason and the
public interest condemn" (269-70). Other of the master's targets are sighted:
ambiguity of terms (365), the unpaid magistracy (273-4, 361, and 362), the
universities (354-5 and 274) and with them poetry, Mill asserting that at Oxford
the Classical poets, "being the least useful, are the most cultivated, and as the
dramatists are hardly of any use at all it may easily be conceived with what ardour
they are studied" (352). A less celebrated Benthamic echo is seen in Mill's hope
that "the time will come" when there will be "no evils but those arising from the
necessary constitution of man and of external nature" (442).
In all of this (and there is much) one might miss the independence of mind that
becomes increasingly apparent. And, of course, it is not judicious to assume that
agreement with his teachers and friends signals mere parroting; thought and
discussion, even if directed down set channels, developed the powers that enabled
Mill to originate, assess, and revise rather than merely adopt. So it is, for instance,
with his views on population in the debates with the Owenites; see especially his
reference to the failure of the prudential check to operate in Ireland (305). lO3 One
can almost date to the same debates his conversion to sexual equality. Earlier he
_°°Herethe rhetorical effect is questionable, for Millwas facing a Society many of whose members
were reading, if not practising law.
l°qs this the germof Mill's laterrejection of the ballot? Compare 367, and see also 378, wherehis
later view of civic libertyis adumbrated. His opponents agree that "public opimon" is "the proper
check" on the Houseof Commons, butthey "think thatthe check is sufficientif thepublic are allowed
to speak freely, I think that it is not sufficient unless they are allowed to act as well as speak."
m°zCf."Another reason for preferring stupid, obstinate andignorant personawho havenot a sinister
interest, tostupid,obstinateand ignorantpersonswhohave, isthat theformeractingunderthedictation
of theirinterestwill do as muchgood as theirlimited facultieswill permit,thelatteras muchharm. And
thoughit requiressome capacityto do good, unfortunatelyit requiresnone to do mischief" (381); each
class having "its separate interest and its share of the general interest," that "which ought to be
represonlcdis the latter"(375). The need for an identityof interestbetweengovernorsand governedis
emphasir_ throughontNo. 19;see also 269-70.
l°_I'hat "ill-fated island," he says, "I believe is the only countryin the worldwhere the two sexes
begin topropagatetheirkind as soon as neturconables themtodo so withouttheslightestthought ofthe
future..."(305). Hethen turnsto amatterthathad broughthim intocourt(as manyofhis hearersnmst
have known), when he says that he has "some reason to know" thatthe idea (of nco-Mal_usianism)
wasspreading inthemanufacturing districts(306).
Introduction xli
seems committed to the usual diction and banter: "if the greater good, a
government responsibleto the people, can only be obtained by means of a
commotion, no weak and fem.h_e humanity will induceme at leastto deprecate
sucha result" (270); 1°4andhas sometypical male fun with his opponent'ssaying
that the British Constitutionresults in the beauty of women:"$h', no one would
lamentmore than myself, that any deteriorationshouldtakeplacein femalebeauty
•.." (277). But suddenlyin 1825 one finds a quitedifferent note:"nor does Mr.
Thompsonhimself lament more deeplythan we, that miserablethraldom in which
the weaker half of our speciesarcheld, by the tyrannyof the stronger,aidedand
encouragedby their own abject and slavishsubmission"(314).
It is easy also to detect a new note in another of his argumentsagainst the
Owenites, when he objects to the Cooperative system because
in its very nature it is a system of universal regulation. I am not one of _9se_ whq setup
liberty as an idol to _ worshipped, andI am even willingto go farther than mostpeople in
__when there is a special advantageto be obtainedby regulationand
control I presume, however, that no one will deny that there is a pleasure in enjoying
perfect freedomof action;that to be controlled, even if it be for our own good, is in itself far
from pleasant, andthat other things being alike, it is infinitely better to attain a given end by
leaving people to themselves than to attain the same end bycontrollingthem. It is delightful
to man to be an independent being. (321.)
And On Liberty seems even less far in the future in other passages. Referring to
Condorce{ on questioning the authority of received opinions, he says: "If they are
wrong, it is of course an advantage to get rid of an error: ff they are right, it is still .---_
no small advantage, to believe upon evidence what we had hitherto believed upon
trust" (341). Again, he argues that, supposing established opinions to be correct,
"It is not the less true that in the progress of human improvement every one of these
opinions comes to be questioned. The good of mankind requires that it should be
so." (350.) _°5
Mill's new interest in poetry, increasingly seen as a moralizing agent, is
demonstrable in the speeches that follow the first onset of his mental crisis. While
the comment that "our literature has declined and is declining" incorporates a
debating commonplace, it is followed by the personal judgment that Wordsworth
is the only active British "poet of the fwst rank," who "will probably never write
any more" (410). One thinks of the moral aesthetic to be enunciated in the early
1830s when reading that "the passions are the spring, the moral principle only the
regulator of human life" (432); while the image is taken from his father, the "only"
is his. And he is certainly on his own when he asserts the importance of poetry to
_°4Cf. Mill's later strictures on George Grote for such language, cited in John M. Robson,
"Feminine' and 'Masculine': Mill vs. _," Mill News Letter, XII (Winter, 1977), 18-22.
a°SThe economical debater never throwing away a good phrase or two, when for the _s of
argument he allows that all the opinions taught by the clergy are fight, he concludes: "It ts not the less
true that in the progress of human improvement, every one of these opinions comes to be qnestaoned.
The good of mankind requiv_ that it should he so." (425.)
xlii Introduction
education, referring explicitly to his own need, the education of the feelings (436).
Indeed the tone for once becomes confessional when, after asserting that the
condition of one's own mind determines the response to poetry, he says:
I have learned from Wordsworth that it is possible by dwelling on certain ideas to keep up a
constant freshness in the emotions which objects excite and which else they would cease to
excite as we grew oldermto connect cheerful and joyous states of mind with almost every
object, to make every thing speak to us of our own enjoyments or those of other sentient
beings, and to multiply ourselves as it were in the enjoyments of other creatures: to make the
good parts of human nature afford us more pleasure than the bad parts afford us pain--and
to rid ourselves entirely of all feelings of hatred or scorn for our fellow creatures .... My
own change since I thought life a perpetual strugglemhow much more there is to aim at
when we see that haI_iness may coexist with being stationary and does not reqmre us to
keep moving. (441.) ''_
In the s_me speech--given in January 1828--he notes the need to "Shew the
difference between describing feelings and being able to analyse them..." (440),
and evidence that he had already been analyzing his own experience and seeking
defences of his guides is found a few months earlier (November 1827) both in
themes and diction:
We all know the power of early impressions over the human mind and how often the
direction which they give, decides the whole character, the whole life of the man. The
greatest men of every age, generally bear a family likeness to their contemporaries: the most
splendid monuments of genius which literature can boast of, bear almost universally in a
greater or less degree the stamp of their age. (411; cf. 430-1.) 107
! Hints at the reassessment of his heritage are also seen when he conducts his
defence of Bentham in No. 28 in terms that suggest some defence is needed l°8-
and Coleridge, Bentham's "completing counterpart, ''1°9 makes an appearance at
429-30. His praise of Turgot, who had been attacked as a visionary and theorist
_°6Hewas not yet ready to give up the "Movement," however, adding a few moments later. "Allow
that at present great struggles are necessary and that men who were nourished only with
[Wordsworth's] poetrywould be unnerved for such struggles" (442).
_°7Itis interestingto seehim as a manof his age, exemplifyingwhat areoftenthought tobe Victorian
moresa decadebeforeVictoriacame to thethrone:"We live ina refined age .... It is now the heightof
mauvais ton to be drunk,neither isit any longerconsidereddecorousamonggentlemen, thatthe staple
of theirconversationshould consist of bawdy." (412. )
Minorbiographicaldetails are buriedin the speeches, forexample, the indication thathe is not a
member of the Mutual Improvement Society (271). The unanticipatedonus of a major role in the
London Debating Society is alluded to in the opening of No. 14, and his scientific education is
mentioned: "I too have paid some attention to chemistry and natural philosophy" (300). One is
reminded of George Bentham's judgment when Mill says, concerning the mathematics taught at the
universities:"I think it will beallowed thathereis no morethan maybe acquiredbyany boyof ordinary
capacity by theage of fourteen"(356; given his sisters' attainments, he mighthave said "girl" as well as
"boy"). A memoryof Franceis seen inhis referenceto the peasants of Languedocbeing betteroff than
parallelgroups in the United Kingdom (374).
l°aParticularlyindicative is his assertionat452 that Benthamdid not believe inconstructinga good
govenanent out of negatives.
t°gSee"Coleridge," in Essays on Ethics, Religion and Society, CW, X, 121.
Introduction xliii
(396-7), is another adumbration of his mature views, and in this context may also
be placed his disclaimer of___AA), a lesson he says in the
Autobiography he _ from Condorcet's life of Turgot. 11oOther themes that
he developed later in theory and practice are seen in his comment on the effect on
an author of writing anonymously (416); his definition of nature (295-6); his
assertion that, of the "culture of our intellectual faculties.., there are two great
instruments, education and discussion" (424); his argument, foreshadowing that in
the Principles of Political Economy, that the distribution as well as the production
of human happiness is a proper consideration for legislators (336); and his
anticipation of a main strategy of that work: "it is not by a review of the evils of the
Competitive system that this great question can be decided, but by a fair
comparison of the evils of the Competitive and the evils of the Cooperative
system" (319). __ And a difference from his senior guides is that, while they were
committed in their own fashion to the well-being of the lower orders, there is
already in Mill's enunciation of principles a modified message (that would of
course become further modified): "the working people being the majority of the
whole population, the interests of all the other classes are of no importance
compared with theirs" (312). 112
I passed most Sundays, throughout the year, in the country, taking long rural walks on that
day even when residing in London. The month's holiday was, for a few years, passed at my
father's house in the country: afterwards a part or the whole was spent in tours, chiefly
pedestrian, with some one or more of the young men who were my chosen companions; and
at a later period, in longer journeys or excursions, alone or with other friends, n3
In fact, through his life, he went afoot and apace, though one must infer most of the
activity from incidental and indirect evidence.
There are, however, extant journals of five early holiday tours, all but the last in
mid-summer: Sussex (20-30 July, 1827); Berkshire; Buckinghamshire, Oxford-
n°A, 115-17.
nqn connection _th the Principles, one may also detect an early justification of the Ricardian
method:"For if there are any tendencies, common to all mankind and in particular if all the slronger
tendencies of human nature are such.... it surely is not an irrational subject of enquiry, what arethe
laws and other social arrangements which would be desirable, if no other tendencies than these
universaltendencies of human nature existed" (451).
_2Forother refenmees tothe "people'' thatshow both the heritage and the growing independenceof
thought, see 382-3,405, and 433.
n3A, 85-7.
xliv Introduction
shire, and Surrey (3-15 July, 1828); Yorkshire and the Lake District (ca. 8 July-
8 August, 1831); Hampshire, West Sussex, and the Isle of Wight (19 July-6 August,
1832); and Western Cornwall (3-9 October, 1832). 114(Only the Yorkshire one has
no dated entries.)
He did not walk alone: in the first tour he was accompanied by his close friends
George John Graham and Horace Grant; the latter, who worked with Mill in the
Examiner's Office, also joined him in the second, along with Francis Edward
Crawley and Edwin Chadwick, both members of the London Debating Society and
otherwise connected with Mill. Grant again went with Mill on the third tour, and
they were joined towards the end by Henry Cole, a recently acquired friend, who
continued his walk (guided by Mill's instructions) after they left him; Cole was
Mill's sole companion on the fourth of these tours. On the last one, setting out
- alone, he was met by Sarah and John Austin for the main part.
Both purpose and inclination were generally served best by pedestrian travel,
but occasionally coaches were necessary to get to starting points or ending places,
to get quickly over uninteresting or previously traversed ground, or because of a
companion's infirmity. 115 More occasionally boats were used to make views
possible or better, or simply to get to promising areas. Neither destinations nor
routes were by chance; internal evidence reveals consultation of guide books and
maps. 116
That Mill took such tours is as unsurprising as it is commendable; his having
kept records of them may appear to some both unexpected and unmeritorious. He
himself seems not to have been unaware of the problem, saying, in words that will
strike a responsive chord: "It is dull work describing every inch of a country: The
only way to be endurable is to select such particulars as will suggest a conception
of the rest" (617). _17 Passing by the unendurable, one may ask, What guided his
selection?
Lx)oking at the details, one is of course struck (or oppressed) by the comments
on the walker's main concern, topography, hut Mill, who should perhaps, like
H_l'he fauna are almost unnoticed: at 467 seagulls are admired, and at 582 "'small... shrimps or
prawns" come into view, "not larger than woodlice."
ngSuch colour terms are rare; most of his landscapes are without hue (for an exception, see 591 ).
xlvi Introduction
merits, though I was greatly struck with several pictures"; those he mentions are
portraits, which of course have non-aesthetic associations (474).
Towns and villages are in his narrative mainly places where inns are found and
whence one can walk, but there is a sufficient account of their plans and leading
features. And observation is much more common than participation in local
opportunities: one exception is immersion in the cold chalybeate water at
Tunbridge Wells (472). Mill was never one to seek promiscuous society, and there
is here little about people. It is surprising to find those on the road to Portsmouth
characterized as "altogether a different race from the people about Selborne, and
far from handsome or prepossessing; the women instead of being merely free and
lively, as at Selborne, seemed impudent" (567). 12oThe people observed seem not
much occupied; local details are seldom cited, 121and even politics is not a major
theme,'though we are introduced to one opinionated nurseryman (599), 122 and
treated to some irony when we are told of a conservative who is "averse to those
violent innovations and changes which some call for" (574-5).
So far interest will take us in explanation of the journal keeping, but what of
habit and use? As seen above, Mill was trained by his father to keep daily records
when afoot and abroad, and it seems primafacie probable that these journals were
kept primarily for his own use. They are, like diaries and personal memoranda,
utile in recording data for later consideration and reconsideration. There can be
little in the way of internal evidence to show that the record was designed to
stimulate memories; one does not expect to find in travel diaries statements such as
"This description will enable me to recall the experience more vividly"--though
such may indeed be the intention and the fact. There is, however, negative
evidence of a kind; that which is clearly remembered need not be recorded: "I was
now upon ground familiar to me, and have therefore the tess occasion to be
extremely particular in the description" (491). 123 As he says at 566, the
"remainder of our day's journey has been described in one of my former tours"
(i.e., No. 29), and therefore need not be recorded. His occasional rough
illustrations seem to be designed as prods to recollection, 124and one may stretch a
point to say that his reticences (most notably the boating escapade with Cole at
IZ_Comparison with Cole's diary suggests that it was Cole's observation that prompted the account,
and the succeeding one that in Portsmouth the people were "all well dressed, and all ugly, with broad
squatfaces" (568). Cole frequentlyhas occasionto notice the sparklein women'seyes, which
presumably were avertedfromMill,whoseattentionwasas littleonotherlowphysical needs, forhe
saysalmostnothingaboutanotherofCole'sthemes,foodandaccommodation. Mill'sattitudeisfairly
caughtbyhis remarkat 587about"TheGeorgeInn [atYarmouth],whereweputup, (andwere,par
parenthdse,verywellentertained)."
12qnspection of anInfantSchoolin Lewesproducesonlya sentenceaboutits typeanditspatrons
(465), andalmosttheonlylocal"news"is anaccountof apprebended smugglers(590).
l_It caneasilybe forgottenin theseaccountsthattheRadicals'agitationforReformtriumphed in
theseyears.Thereis reference,knowledgeable of coursebuthardlypassionate:see 564,574-5,and
621. Electioneeringappearsat 594-5,and one mayrecallthatMill recommended parliamentary
candidatesin theExaminerat thistime(seeCW, XXIII,507-9).
t2aCf. "I shalhtot describe the vale of Albtn'y, as it was familiar to me before" (499) algl "thus far the
road was familiar to me, and I need not describe it" (557).
_2'tSee those at 473, 528, 552, 622, and 630.
Introduction xlvii
598) may cover matters for which reminders were unnecessary and which were
better left unrecorded.
Field naturalists will be pleased with those entries recording botanical finds,
where Mill is probably expanding entries in notebooks like those that exist for
other excursions. _25These lists typically include some comments of interest, such
as that the people of the neighbourhood practised forbearance in not picking the
flowers in the gardens, though such often happens "where the taste for flowers is
new" (512). This conservationist's passion (normal in Mill) is balanced by the
collector's urge evident in his regret at not being able to gather specimens on an
inaccessible part of a cliff (588).
Other, sometimes tenuous, evidence suggests that Mill saw journal keeping as
an exercise in composition, the goal being to record impressions (and some events)
in a clear narrative form; doing so evidently meant writing the full account from
jottings, for there is unmistakable evidence that he went over notes or a draft when
composing the extant versions. For instance, at 455 he says in an interlineation:
"N.B. I have since discovered that it [a ridge of high land] does lie just beyond
Cobham .... ,,_26 And of one of his illustrations he says: "This being taken from
memory is of course extremely inaccurate in respect of proportions, but it is quite
correct in the general conception" (630).
Practice made better, if not perfect. Mill increasingly founded aesthetic judg-
ments on more fully considered grounds. The implied audience is increasingly
evident, subjective responses multiply, and metaphors appear. His self-conscious
training is most obvious in the frequent flourishes, a few of which may be quoted.
In No. 29: "until at last these hills dropped down, and so did we" (464); "village,
or hamlet (call it which you will)" (472). Ironically, he says: "And here 'ends this
strange eventful history'" (499--one of his favourite Shakespearean tags). In No.
31: "It is a great quality in a mountain as in a woman, to carry herself well and to
seem conscious of her whole height" (505). 127 In No. 32, quite exceptionally:
"when we reachedthe top we left the road and exspatiated like young horses over
the turfy slopes and eminences" (566). And finally, with a touch of litotes, "petty
obstacles of various kinds connected with time, space, and conveyance, rendered
this journey impracticable" (635). If one played the game of quoting lines from
Mill least likely to be identified as his, a serious contender would be: "I should like
to ride over the forest on a forest pony, and immerse myself more completely in its
green and grassy glades" (607).
Another personal use related to rhetorical practice is undeniable: Mill was
developing his sensibilities through testing and training his perception. Increasing-
ly the tours show his cultivation of the romantic response to the picturesque, his
initiation having occurred as early as 1813, when on a tour of the West Country
with his father and Bentham, he had acquired his "first taste for natural scenery, in
the elementary form of fondness for a 'view.'"12s In France his appreciation had
deepened, the mountains of the Pyrenees giving birth to his "ideal of natural
beauty, ''129 a phrase he uses in connection with Wordsworth's healing effect on
him. He obviously was acquainted with writings on the picturesque, especially
those of William Gilpin, which were the staple of travellers in the period, t3oand of
Uvedale Price, as well as contributing works such as Archibald Alison's
associationist Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste (formerly in his
library). Not that he could be considered either a practised "painter" or an
uncritical devotee (his mentor Wordsworth was opposed to the pure picturesque).
Nonetheless Mill was affected by the passion, and in these journals uses the term
itself to reveal an implicit norm: the hills had "'nothing picturesque in their forms"
(504); the brooks "are crossed by numerous bridges, built of lumps of slate put
upon their ends; these have a highly picturesque effect" (537). TM Usually,
however, the descriptions themselves embody the desiderata. In the tradition,
behind the natural forms lie the ideal ones, towards which a painter turns. But
actual observation leads to revision, and--certainly in Mill's case--the natural
transforms the ideal. He typically looks for a view that is varied, with sinuous
development of a treed valley towards a horizon closed by jagged heights without a
break at ground level: for instance, "We could see the valley for the length of miles
before us, winding down towards the plain, among cornfields and woods, until
stopped and closed by the high chalk hill beyond Wycombe" (491). To close, to
embrace, to hem in: this is essential for the beauty of views that would otherwise be
"incomplete and tame" (599). 132
128A,57.
1291b/d.,151.
iS°Fora fulldiscussion,seeAnnaJ. Mill,"JohnStuartMillandthe Picturesque,"
VictorianStudies,
XIV(Dec. 1970),151-63.
13tAsearlyas 1820MillhadusedtheFrenchequivalent,sayingthatthevalleyde laPique"_stdire
_trepluspittoresqncqueeellede Campan,etje nepuistrierqueeetteopinionnc mesemblefortbien
fond_e" (Journal,18September).
t_2Forotherinstances,seeespeciallyNo.31,e.g.,at 506,510,537,540,542,542-3,548,549,and
570: "Thiscrowdingof all theformations intoa smallspacethrowsthehillsclosetogether,andis
thereforeveryfavorableto beautyof scenery."
Introduction xlix
Mill also mentions the observer's point of view, so central to picturesque theory:
when valleys are observed from within themselves, "especially by a spectator
placed halfway up one of their hilly sides, they are seen to be, as they in fact are,
one of the most strikingly beautiful and remarkable objects in this or in any
country" (614; of. 570). Other aspects of scenic composition are elucidated: were
Crummock lake "no otherwise beautiful, it is water, and therefore an unequalled
foreground to hill or mountain scenery" (547). Every "fine prospect should have
some points more conspicuous than others" (512). The outline of Skiddaw "might
be correctly conveyed by a much smaller number of lines than even the little
mountains near Ambleside; and this is eminently favorable to imposingness of
effect as we see in a Greek temple" (531).
The massing of mountains is crucial: Patterdale is "much finer" than the other
broad valleys, but it is not easy to say
in what its superiority consists: the mountains are not so high;they are hardly even steeper,
but there seems to be more anaong them of what a painter would call, harmony of
composition: there are no strikingcontrasts, or bold reliefs, but one mountain seems to glide
naturally into another, every one seems in his place, and you feel at every point, that his
shape isjust what it should be. The secret, I suspect, is, variety withouttameness.... (553.)
The solitude is dearer, however, to the Romantic in training: the tall trees
"contribute greatly to give [the ruin of Netley Abbey] that tranquil yet wild and
deserted air which harmonizes so well with the other parts of the scene" (609).
Wordsworth had made his mark; tranquillity, felt and recollected, would never
cease to charm Mill: "We... could have staid here a week with pleasure under the
certainty of seeing this, and nothing but this, every day" (513). Solitude, a basic
Byronic goal, is valued: "[We had] for the fLrSttime in our present journey, a
feeling of perfect separation from the world and all its concerns .... ,134 This
passage allows, in its continuation, for a Wordsworthian mixture of the social, for
Mill says that other features "superadd to the feeling of seclusion, that of life and
rural enjoyment, and render the spot one of those, among all I ever saw, which
excited in the imagination the most vivid sense of the delight of living there for
one's whole life" (543). But some forms of "rural enjoyment" are far from
admirable: Mill remarks--and will win modern hearts in doing so--that a
sea-mark of chalky material is much "cut or . . . mouldered away, and the
remainder as far as arm can reach, is scribbled over with the names of sundry John
Browns and Dick Smiths, who with that aspiring desire so general among
Englishmen, that something of them though it be but a thumb-nail shall survive
them, have taken the trouble of informing posterity of the name of the Norton or
Sutton or Greatham or Littleham which they inhabited" (571). Similarly, he sees
Netley Abbey as "a place where (if tourist and sight-seers could be but for so long a
time excluded) one might dream and muse for a whole summer day"; the passage
continues, and one recalls that Mill was just then formulating his distinction
between the artist (Shelley, Harriet Taylor, Carlyle) and the scientist (his humble
but active self), "and a poet might perhaps derive inspiration from time so passed,
though to any one else, if in the full vigour of his health and faculties, it would be a
scarcely justifiable piece of indolent self-indulgence" (609). But the logician,
unlike the hills, should not be hemmed in: a "spot of green meadow.., alone
distinguishes the prospect before you from a mere desert; but a desert of cheerful
aspect; you see nothing of man, but you do not seek him .... Were there a single
house on its banks, its peculiar charm would be gone: it would be beautiful, but no
longer Wastwater." (545-6.) That most Wordsworthian of the tours concludes
with the comment, as they leave Windermere, that their "departure had something
of the melancholy character of parting from a beloved friend; and the image of the
lake and mountains remained impressed upon the internal eye, long after the
physical organs could see them no more" (556).
Mill was also, not surprisingly, open to__contrast between the
beautiful and the sublime: "we were enabled to study, under most favorable
circumstances, the effect, pictorially considered, of that imposing feature in a
landscape, darkness" (504). He "who has not seen mountains in the very worst
state of the weather is far from knowing what beauty they are capable of" (554).
"Sunny seas are fine things, for the ocean is beautiful as well as sublime: but there
is nothing really awe-striking but a gloomy sea" (631). 135
All of the foregoing suggests that the jourt_s were_ ....
ex._n and development. But, as suggested above, there is evidence that
someone else was expected to read..andprofa_pm __final versions. We know
that _-F'_'h-_j6Ui'fial was written for James Mill (and the rest of the family);
similarly in these journals explicit (utilitarian) intimations are given, with respect
to the cost: "I subjoin an account of the expenses of our tour for the information of
myself and others on future occasions" (475); "I shall insert an account of our
expenses in case we or any others should wish to go this journey hereafter" (499).
Most of the other intimations of audience are muted, but seem not merely tokens of
rhetorical practice. Minor examples abound: for example, if the record were only
for his eyes, why say that Hastings is, "as all know," a very old town (470)? Or that
a particular stretch of country "need not be described to any person who has seen
chalk hills" (482)? It might also be inferred that his rough illustrations (especially
the later ones) were intended for another's instruction (delight seems unlikely).
Other clues are comments that parallel guide-book inducements: "the mode I
should recommend of seeing Beaulieu is to come to it by water quite from the
river's mouth" (598-9); advice to visit the Pearce brothers' hotels is prefaced by
"Notice to all travellers who read this" (624). Some of these passages evolve into
fuller descriptions, more lyrically conceived (and in part executed). "Thus far have
I ventured though without much confidence of success, to attempt to convey an
idea of what I saw; but here I hardly dare proceed further, so impossible do I feel it
to make any one who has not seen Falmouth and its harbour, comprehend what it is
that renders them so enchantingly beautiful" (619). Later in the same journal there
is d_to response as well as action:
Now stand on the extreme verge of one of the rocks, and look down, you will see.., and
you will see .... but you will see it different in every different period of the tide .... Look to
the left, and you will see .... But now look rather to your right .... [You] are saved from
hearing [the faint murmur of an expiring wave] by the groaning of the succeeding waves
long series of which are already up and following the fast. The fast! as if there had been a
fast! Since there has been a world, these breakers have succeeded one another
uninterruptedly; and while there is a world they shall never cease. (628-9.) 136
: These remarks seem indeed to be dir_te.d .at a s_cific audience, and if one
recalls when Mill was first experiencing the love of a man for a woman, it seems
not at all fanciful to think that the last two or three, and most surely No. 32, were
written at least in part for Harriet Taylor. In No. 32 occur curious references to an
article on Sandown Bay in the Monthly Repository. Mill is coy about the
authorship of the article (572), though he must have known that i_,J.
Fo_xt__e editor, who had introduced Mill to the Taylors in 1830 (and had been a
contributor to the Westminster Review from its inception). There seems no reason
for the tone in a journal meant only for himself, 137especially given the excessive
sentiment of his second reference to the article: "the beauty of the scene" at
Sandown Bay was "enhanced... by the charm which true poetry whether metrical
or not gives to all which it has touched, endowing it with beauties not its own"
(581). It seems reasonable to assume that such a comment was intended for a close
friend, and she is the most likely, particularly in the light of external evidence.
That tour concluded in the New Forest of Hampshire, where Mill gathered some
flowers. An undated letter to Harriet Taylor, almost certainly written just after his
return, in an attempt to prevent a cessation of their relations, begins: "Benie soit la
main qui a trac6 ces caract_res!" and ends: "Elle ne refusera pas, j'esp6re,
l'offrande de ces petites fleurs, que j'ai apport6es pour elle du fond de la
Nouvelle-For6t. Donnez-les lui s'il le faut, de votre part.''13s
Whatever uses Mill may have had in mind, there is no question that we can use
the jo_. e_-denc¢ of biographical far.Land as basis of inference about his
beha.¥iour and development. One of his frequent devices is comparison, which
normally,t-iitvotves"til:emory of past experience. So little is documented about his
early life and views that even the trivial takes on interest. For example, he believes
that the judgment that the bread of Godalming is the best in England "will not be
easily credited by any person who has lived at Dorking" (456). In No. 30 he went
over much ground familiar to him from an extensive journey in 1821: he refers to
"living near Sandhurst College" (478), and notes that after passing through the
village or hamlet of Sandhurst, they "soon came to the Military College, where
[he] revived [his] old recollections by wandering about the semi-cultivated ground
in front of the College, about the Governor's house, and on the margin of the first
lake" (497). He also mentions that the plants of the neighbourhood were not "rare
or curious" to him, for he had "explored the Surrey chalk hills," but worth enumer-
ating-and here is another hint of (at least ideally) a reader--because "a young
botanist may expect to find" them (490). 139This same tour describes a second
137"I'neanonymity of journalism at the time might be thought to have induced an unbreakable habit,
but the tone of the passage is not compatible with his simply following inappropriate custom.
t_EL, CW, Xll, 114. That the letter is in French might mean many things, but certainly suggests a
desire to express sentiment; that the third person is used for Harriet Taylor does not necessarily signal an
avoidunee of the naoyer mode.
139Otherl_.rnini_itee s in this jourllal include the: "we were not so much struck with this country
[around Marlow] as I had been in 1821, or as it is probable we all should have been, if we had taken it in
Introduction liii
anearlierpart of our walk" (492); andhis remarking thatonthe Oxfordshire side there is "an old house,
which sevenyears before, when I was last there needed to be propped up by buttresses" (495) In No.
32 also bits of the past are found: pieces "of this same Weald Clay, taken from the roadside at DenPark
near Horsham, in Sussex, have hardened into shale of the very same kind in my pocket" (579); an
"inland lake or pond" resembles"one of the Broads (as they are called) inNorfolk" (597--reflecting
his staywith the Austins in 1822); and Netley Abbey is compared to Bolton Pnory (608-9--here the
memoryis of the previous trip, recorded m No. 31).
_'U_Notsurprisingly,the young Mill abroad had home thoughts. In his FrenchJournal it willbe noted
that he makes occasionalcomparisonswith the West Country, undoubtedlyremembering the times his
family spent with Bentham at Forde Abbey.
_41Atam is "the first genuine" one he has seen "in these mountams (I had seen others in the
Pyrenees)" (550), and he isdelighted to find the "beautiful Campanulaheredacea growing amongstthe
fern: I hadgathered it in the Pyrenees, but never in England till now" (608).
_4_omparisonis stirredalso by memoriesdrawnfrom books and pictures. For example, inNo. 31, a
prospect remindshimof"panoramic views of the Alps'" (511); they locate the prospect of Windermere
which they "had oftenest seen in paintings" (515); Skiddaw reminds him "of the conception [he] had
formed of Aetna, from its extensive base, its insulated position, and the descending arms which it
stretches out into the plain" (530). No. 32 finds him commenting that the "finest river scenery m
England" (nearHythe) is "the only scenery which I supposecan be assimilated, however remotely, to
that of the great American rivers" (608)--which, to preserve his illusion, he never saw. Dartmoor is
"intersected at very shortdistances by glens or chasms, similarto the 8aranca's which divide the great
plateauof Mexico" (614). The rather unpleasantvillageof Sennandoes "not differ much from one's
idealof an Irishvillage" except"in thebetter constructionof the housesand the well-glazedwindows";
he adds, "I notice this not as the rule but as the exception" (627).
liv Introduction
demonstrate an acute visual memory: "As I walked along the solitary and
sequestered beach [looking at the Solent], I was forcibly reminded of the shores of
Ulleswater and Windermere .... In this respect the resemblance [of the long
projecting headlands] was still greater to the south coast of Cornwall" (569; cf.
572). 143
DIARY: 1854
Ending the account with the diary entries of 1854, valetudinarian in tone (though
Mill had nearly twenty more active years of life), makes for a "Whiggish" effect,
with all the documents showing development and adumbrating mature views.
Because Mill matters to most people as a political philosopher and sage, such an
effect is almost inevitable, and need not be regretted. But there is in the journals
and speeches other matter with other messages. Mill is revealed--not that he -i
would like the term--as a social being, caught up in the excitement of youth,
curious about his world, looking about rather than within, and responding to
people as well as ideas. We can look elsewhere in the period, say to Crabb -
Robinson for gossip, to Carlyle for vituperative personalities, to Macaulay for
brilliant paradox, or to Sidney Smith for boisterous wit; these are not Mill's
weaknesses or strengths. He shows, however, what none of those does in the same
degree, an extraordinary intellectual sensitivity, almost unmarked by egocentrici-
ty. Even in the years when he later admitted he may have appeared to be "a mere
reasoning machine," these personal documents prove that the ideal improvement
he sought was vital as well as ideal, individual as well as social. The highest
standards he set were for himself.
Textual Introduction
JOHN M. ROBSON
tThe journaland notebook, with partsof both summarized,the nineteenthlogic lecture,and some
related materials, were cdited by Anna J. Mill as John Mill's Boyhood Visit to France (Toronto:
Universityof Toronto Press, 1960).
2Appendix A gives a physical description of the manuscnpts.
lviii Textual Introduction
a• lso notebooks covering the other lecture courses that he took at Montpellier, but
there is no record of these having survived. The rest of lot 727 in the Sotheby's sale
was the "Trait6," also incorrectly ascribed to James Mill in the catalogue, with the
title correctly given, and described as "interesting Auto. MS. of 82 pp. 4to,
sewed." It was purchased by H. Bradley Martin and given by him to the Pierpont
Morgan Library in 1959; though Mill had apparently begun a treatise under the
same title before Gergonne's lecture series started, this seems to be a revised
version of notes from the In'st part of that series.
(b) The surviving manuscripts of Mill's early debating speeches derive from lot
719 in the same sale at Sotheby's, described in the catalogue as "Auto. drafts of
Speeches on Lord Byron's Writings, Wordsworth, Co-operation, Education,
Parliamentary Reform, Population, Influence of the Aristocracy, etc., etc. a large
parcel." The lot was bought by Professor Harold J. Laski, who gleefully described
his "best find.., in the last few years" to Oliver Wendell Holmes in a letter worth
quoting at length as Laski's fullest account of the collection:
It was a bundle containing thirty unprinted speeches delivered by John Stuart Mill to the
London Debating Society in his own autograph--on which society and its value to him, see
the Autobiography. You will find there what a change in him was produced by the reading of
Wordsworth. I have the MS of a speech on Wordsworth in which all this is set out. There is
an able, if Puritan attack on Byron. You will find in the Autobiography a reference to an
impressive debate with Thirlwall the historian. I have Mill's original speech and his answer
to Thirlwall's reply. All the others are good stuff--on the Church, lawyers, radical reform,
the use of history, university education. What exactly I shall do with them I don't quite
know yet. The debate with Thu'lwall I expect I shall print in the Economic Journal as it is
historically important because of its attack on Robert Owen and its analysis of Malthus. It's
a pity that I haven't Thirlwall's own speech to complete the sequence. It's very amusing to
note what a saving disposition Mill had. Some of the speeches are written on the backs of
letters from George Grote, Charles Austin et al. I sold two of them for two guineas which
was the price I paid for them all. The Oxford Press wanted me to make a little volume of
them to be called the early speeches of J.S.M. but I have refused since he could have
published them himself and evidently did not care to, and in any case their interest is rather
for a person to whom Mill i_ nct'sonallv attractiv_ as he is to me than any general widespread
mapcmance. But I shall have a jolly afternoon readmg them to Morley when I come back
from Paris and reminiscing on the Victorian age. 3
Laski, it should be said immediately, appears never to have made a list of the
manuscripts, or to have examined them carefully to see, for example, if the texts
overlapped. As a result, a degree of conjecture taints one's equanimity in editing
the speeches, though the quiet delights of successful inference preserve one's
appetite. The puzzles begin with the letter just quoted; since it was written less than
three weeks after the sale, the discussion between the Oxford University Press and
Laski must have been perfunctory. (Later, as will be seen, some of the manuscripts
and typescripts were sent to Oxford in connection with Laski's edition of Mill's
Autobiography, and remained there for about forty years.) After Justice Holmes
approved Laski's plan (without of course seeing the manuscripts), Laski wrote:
•.. I am glad you agree with me about my Mill mss. I propose to print two small speeches
that have a definite historical importance and, for love of Felix [Frankfurter], to give the
Law Review a jolly little piece on the influence of lawyers. Otherwise I think they had better
be an heirloom. The B. Museum has been after me for them, but vainly. 4
At this time also he gave one page of manuscript notes (No. 13) to Trinity
College, Cambridge, for unassigned reasons. And soon thereafter he changed his
mind about publication, for in the edition of Mill's Autobiography that he prepared
for Oxford University Press in 1924 5 he included six speeches (one of them not a
debating speech) in an Appendix, 6 and announced in his Introduction that the
Fabian Society would publish, "in the autumn of 1924, a large selection of these
speeches.'7 To that end, the speeches and fragments still i'n Laski's possession
(that is, excluding the two he had sold to recover his purchase cost) were typed,
with carbon copies, by (or for) the Fabian Society. 8
Subsequently, "so many lacunae were discovered in the manuscripts that the
Fabian Society decided that it would be inadvisable to publish the speeches.'9
41bid.,429 ( 15 May, 1922); for Holmes's agreement,see 422 (3 May, 1922). Justice Frankfurter, it
maybe noted, wrote the Foreword to theHolmes-Laski Letters.
_Autobiography by John Stuart Mill with an Appendix of Hitherto Unpublished Speeches and a
Preface by Harold J. Lask/, World's Classics (London: Oxford University Press, 1924). Although
Laski had seen atleast one of the three manuscripts of the Autobiography bought by Maggsfor five
guineasin the same Sotheby's sale, and knew there were significant differences, he reprinted--with
furthererrors--the faulty 1st edition of 1873.
6He included No. 4, pp. 267-74, part of No. 20, pp. 275-87, No. 25, pp. 310-25, No. 26, pp.
288-99,and partof No. 28 (our "Montesqmeu," entitledby him"Notes of My Speech againstSterling,
1829," 300-9). The non-debating speech, "Secular Education," will be found m Public and
Parliamentary Speeches, Vols. XXVIII andXXIX of CW; it appearson 326-30 of Laski'sedition.
7Ibid., xii n, deleted in later reprints.
'The scheme preceded the editing of the Autobiography, for the six speeches there printed exist in
FabianSociety transcripts. Oxford University Press retained four manuscripts(No. 7, the first part of
No. 9, the first part of No. 20, and No. 26; of these the last two wereincluded in Laski's edition of the
Autobiography), and typescripts of No. 12 (in part) and No. 14 (neither of which appearedin that
edition). In the mid-1960s these materials were donated (with Mrs. Laski's approval) to the British
Library of Political and Economic Science.
9James McNab McCrimmon, "Studies towards a Biography of John Stuart Mill" (unpublished
Ph.D. disseration, Northwestern University, 1937), 48n. ProfessorMcCrimmon, who laterdid much
of the editing work on Mill's list of his writings (ed. Ney MacMinn,J.M. McCrimmon, and J.R.
Hainds[NorthwesternUniversity Press, 1945] ), listedeighteen speechesascontainedin thatcollection
(two of them being combin-,tionsof typescripts, andthe non-debatingspeech, "Secular Education"),
identifiedthosepublishedby _ski, and includedfive others(Nos. 5, 9.14, 20 [with 6], and22), inan
Appendix. Comparisonwith the manuscripts and internalevidence have led to a readjustmentmad
recountingof thetypescripts, butit appearsthatcopies of all thosetheninthe collectionare nowin our
hands.
lx Textual Introduction
"The Present State of Literature" (No. 24) was published in The Adelphi, I
(1923-24), 681-93, without an editor's name. As there is no Fabian Society
typescript, and the manuscript is in the Ogden Collection at University College
London, it seems likely that this speech was sold by Laski to C.K. Ogden
immediately after the Sotheby's sale. In 1925 Laski published No. 21 in
Economica, and then did nothing further about publication until 1929, when he
decided to edit several for a variety of journals: The Realist (No. 5), the Journal of
Adult Education (Nos. 8 and 9), the Archiv fiir Sozialwissenschaft und
Sozialpolitik (Nos. 12, 14, and 20 [in part]), and The Bermondsey Book (No.
22). lo
Presumably Laski decided he had exhausted the public potential of the
speeches, and began, evidently without recording the gifts, to give manuscripts to
friends, lJ In 1935, perhaps having been told of the typescripts by Laski, the late
Professor Ney MacMinn of Northwestern University bought, with the aid of James
McCrimmon, carbon copies from the Fabian Society. J2 There is no indication that
Laski told MacMinn where the manuscripts were then. When the Collected Works
were initiated, MacMinn kindly donated his set of carbons to me (having formerly
allowed Professor Francis E. Mineka to use them). The whereabouts of the
original typescripts is not known; the Fabian Society's archives, now in Nuffield
College, Oxford, contain another set of carbon copies. 13
The current state of the documents may be tabulated, with N = No, Y = Yes,
and p = in part:
will be seen that we have (counting "Secular Education," a later public speech)
twenty-six separate entries, whereas Laski says he bought thirty (including the
non-debating speech), but he is undoubtedly rounding, and the discrepancy can be
explained. Of the twenty-six, one (No. 13) is made up only of notes. Laski may
have counted it or the fragments (now lost) that are represented by typescripts.
seven cases, we have combined manuscripts and/or typescripts; if we counted
them separately, our total would be over thirty. On the assumption that we have at
least some part of every speech Laski bought, _4we do not know the location of five
whole manuscripts (Nos. 4, 6, 15, 17, 18), plus four part or fragmentary manu-
scripts (Nos. 8, 20, 21, and 25).
As indicated above, there are typescripts representing all the items Laski did not
publish except Nos. 10, 11, 13, 16, 24, and 27; of these, No. 13 was given away by
Laski immediately to Trinity College Cambridge. Ruling out those that Laski is
known to have retained, one concludes that the two he sold immediately are Nos.
and 24. And we have typescripts of all those he published except for parts of
Nos. 8, 12, 21, and 28.
1922: MSS bought by Laski; two sold by him (probably Nos. 16 and 24);
and one given (No. 13)
1923-24: No. 24 published
1924 (?): Typescripts made by Fabian Society
1924: Nos. 4, 20 (in part), 25, 26, 28 (in part), and "Secular Education"
(not a debating speech) published in Laski's ed. of Autobiography
(OUP)
1925: Laski published No. 21
1928: Laski gave Hull No. 19 (in part)
1929: Laski published Nos. 5, 8 (in part), 9 (in part), 12, 14, 22, and 23
1930s: Laski gave away several MSS, including those listed in nl 1
1935: MacMinn purchased a set of carbon copies of the typescripts
1960s: Mill edition given the set of carbon copies by MacMinn
Mill-Taylor Collection given MSS of Nos. 7, 9 (in part), 20 (in part),
and 26, and typescripts of Nos. 12 (in part) and 14 by OUP
University of Toronto Library acquired MSS of Nos. 16, 19 (in part),
and 28 (fragment)
It will be evident from this account that no one during that period examined the
collection of manuscripts closely enough to determine the relations of various
parts: Sotheby's description merely highlights what might catch the buyer's eye at
a time when Mill's reputation was low (as Laski's contemporary judgments make
abundantly clear), and Laski's attitudes and actions were not such as to endear him
to textual editors. Indeed, it is only by a lucky chance (or two) that the materials
have survived in even their present incomplete state. Given the lacunae, one
cannot pretend to certainty about the texts of those speeches that exist only in
typescript (or in typescript and the form edited by Laski), or about the relations of
fragments to one another. The physical characteristics of the materials, however,
plus internal evidence and the records that remain of the debates (discussed in the
Introduction above), make possible the inferences lying behind the texts as here
edited.
(c) The fLrstof the manuscripts of Mill's tours of England, that of his walk in
Sussex during July 1827 (No. 29), was in the possession of the family of Mill's
friend and companion on this trip, George John Graham, until it was sold to a
dealer, and after passing through the hands of other dealers, was bought by St.
Andrews University Library in 1954.16 The other four manuscripts (correctly
identified as Mill's) were sold at the Sotheby's sale of 22 March, 1922. Lot 712
(our No. 30), "Auto. MS. of a tour in Berkshire, Buckingham and Surrey, July
1828, 44 pp. 4to, sewed," was obtained by the Yale University Library. Lot 713
(No. 32), "Auto. MS. of a tour through Hampshire, West Sussex and the Isle of
Wight, July 1832, 92 pp. 2 vols. 4to, sewed," was purchased by Bernard Quaritch,
and sold to Mt. Holyoke College (at the instigation of Dr. Anna J. Mill, who taught
English there). Lot 714 (No. 31 ), "Auto. MS. of a tour through Yorkshire and the
Lake District, circa 1830, 108 pp. 4to," is in the Bodleian Library. Lot 715 (No.
33), "Auto. MS. of a tour through Western Cornwall in October, 1832, 40 pp. 4to.
sewed," provides a puzzle: there were in fact two notebooks covering this trip; the
first was in the possession of Isaac Foot, and a photocopy was deposited m the
Mill-Taylor Collection, but the manuscript seems not to have been included in his
collection when sold to the University of California. The other notebook, which
completes that tour, was bought by the British Library of Political and Economic
Science for the Mill-Taylor Collection.
With these was sold yet another manuscript, Lot 716, "Auto. MS. of a tour to
the Rhine in July, 1835, 82 pp. 2 vols. 4to, sewed"; there is no record of its
subsequent history. Its loss is much to be deplored, as nothing is known of this trip
by Mill.
(d) The final item in this category, Mill's brief Diary of spring 1854 (No. 34),
existed in manuscript at least until 1910, when it was used for the text of Appendix
B in Hugh Elliot's edition of Mill's Letters. Until then it was undoubtedly in the
hands of Mary Taylor, who gave Elliot access to the Mill-Taylor material in her
possession, putting an embargo only on the family letters. Many of the draft letters
used by Elliot were obtained by the Brotherton Library, Leeds, but this manuscript
was evidently not among them, and its location is not now known.
THE TEXTS
E^CHXrEMconsists of a headnote, the text, and notes. The headnote gives the
provenance of the copy-text, lists other versions, and provides the immediate
context, with other closely relevant information. The notes, at the foot of the page,
are substantive and textual. The substantive notes include Mill's own (in the
sequence *, t, etc. ) and the editor's (in numerical sequence, beginning anew in
each item or section of an item). The textual notes normally record variant
16Published
as "Accountof a Tour in SussexinJuly 1827,"TheWorthingParadeNumberOne
(Worthing:AldridgeBros.forthe WorthingArtDevelopmentScheme.1951), !65-91.
lxiv Textual Introduction
readings, with alphabetic markers in the text signalling the word or words for
which the variant reading is a substitute (these too begin anew in each item or
section of an item).
The texts themselves have been determined in ways appropriate to their kind and
provenance.
1. The Journals and Notebooks. In these cases (Nos. 1-3, 29-33), there is no
textual competition: the manuscripts alone have authority, and have been followed
exactly apart from the editorial interventions explained below.
2. The Debating Speeches. Here there are three sources, though not for each text
and not of equal authority. Where there are manuscripts, they are used; when there
are not, the Fabian Society typescripts are used. In only two cases (Nos. 21 and 23)
is it necessary to rely in part on a printed source; in a few others, though the
typescript provides the copy-text, we have used the results of collation with
Laski's edited texts to make some emendations and to supply some variant
readings. No one who has examined the typescripts can feel confident that they
correctly reproduce the original manuscripts in all details; however, comparing
Laski's texts with their manuscript sources (and with the typescripts when both
exist) produces even more scepticism. So it is compatible not only with standard
editing practice but also with informed judgment to choose the typescripts rather
than the published versions as copy-text.
3. The Diary. Here again there is no choice, only the printed version being
available.
WHILE our attempt has been to give a close approximation to what can be
determined about Mill's intentions, and so to intervene lightly, we are convinced
that Mill, like us, would see no point in leaving obscure what can be made plain,
and would have been made plain by him in print, especially in revised print. We
have not used "[sic]," although some may think the signal appropriate for odd or
mistaken accents in the French texts, where we are preserving the record of Mill's
learning, as we are in leaving the accentuation inconsistent. _7 The original
spelling is retained, even when there are competing forms such as "chuse" and
"choose" or "stile" and "style". Similarly we have not in No. 3 altered "S6ance"
to the more common "l__on" in the headings of the notes of the 22nd and 23rd
lectures. When what is extant is merely a series of notes (as in No. 13) we have
made no attempt to provide continuity, and there are few editorial alterations of
_TWbere the benefit of the doubt is available, it has been awarded; Mill, like the rest of humankind,
may have intentionally left the question open by using vertical strokes for both acute and grave accents.
Many will be troubled by "_t" (and similar forms) but we have followed the correcting hands in
rrmkitlgno recorded complaint.
Textual Introduction lxv
uniformly; unusual or mistaken place names are retained, but the correct (or
normal) versions are given in notes. Also in the French Journal the form of the
datelines has been standarized. In the French Notebook Mill commonly in the
margin repeated the date of the entry and gave place names; these have been
omitted.
VARIANT NOTES
Tat SYSTEM of recording variant readings used throughout this edition is based on
superscript letters in the text; these appear in pairs around words or phrases, or
singly centred between words or between a word and punctuation. In these
volumes, the variant notes at the bottom of the page record different kinds of
substantive readings. In the French Journal and Notebook (No. 1), they indicate
passages corrected by George Bentham, and give Mill's original reading: for
example, at 67 appears "aon fait paitre le b&ail a'', while the note reads
"a'aGB] JSM le b_tail trouve sa vie"; the interpretation is that the words
following "JSM" are Mill's, and that for these were substituted those in the text.
When Bentham proposed an additional word or words, the variant note, as at 69,
reads simply "+GB". In a few places Bentham made a suggestion that was not
adopted, as at 70; here the note reads "JSM] [GB proposed in margin:", followed
by the words of Bentham's suggestion and a closing square bracket. Any further
information is given in italics within square brackets. In the Trait6 de logique (No.
2), we preserve in the text Mill's wording, but give in the variant notes the
corrections (signalled by "CH" for "correcting hand") made in an unknown
French hand, all of which were accepted by Mill, except that at 153dd. The same
procedure is used in the Lecture Notes on Logic (No. 3), except that here (a)
additions axe signalled, as at 191h, by a single superscript letter in the text between
"nier" and "de", and the note reads "hCH soit", indicating that Mill's tutor
proposed that addition; and (b) deletions are indicated in notes, as at 192 k'k by
,,_-k_CH,,"
In the debating speeches, variant notes are used when there is a Fabian Society
transcript and a version edited by H.J. Laski, but no manuscript, to record
differences between the typescripts and Laski's version. In such cases the
typescripts serve as copy-text, and substantive differences are recorded only when
the wording of the latter has been preferred. See, e.g., 257 _-a, where the text reads
""understanding a'' and the note, "_aL] TS understandings"; the interpretation is
that L[aski] has the accepted "understanding" while the T[ype]S[cript] has
"understandings". Some anomalies are also indicated, as at 257 b, where the note,
beginning "bTS (not)", concludes with the explanation that that reading, not here
accepted, was added in ink to the typescript. (Cf. the instances at 296ff and g.) In
one case, part of a speech was later used by Mill in a published essay in 1835; here
Textual Introduction lxvii
the variant notes give the later readings, as at 376 c'c, a.a, and h: in the first, the text
reads "by Cjustand c equal laws", while the note reads ...... 35", indicating that
"just and" was removed from the version of 1835, leaving "by equal laws"; in
the second, the text reads "dthesed", the note "a-d35 those", indicating that
"those" replaced "these" in the later version; and in the third, the note, which reads
"h35 Would you, because you are the majority, allow no class to be represented
except yourselves?", indicates that in 1835 that sentence appeared in the text at h.
In No. 23, exceptionally, variant 400 °-a explains why the reading of a printed text
is needed, and 400 _b and _-cgive passages that may be cancelled. (Cf. 410 a'° and
b-b, 421 _-° and 423 c-_, and 441 _'a, where readings are problematic.) Finally, in
this category, the variants in No. 28 give readings from a partial draft of the
speech.
The walking tours (Nos. 29-33) and the diary (No. 34) have no variant
readings.
APPENDICES
ABBREVIATIONS
THEFOLLOWING SHORT
FORMSare used, mainly in the variant notes, the headnotes,
and in Appendix C.
Bull. = Bulletin
CH = correcting hand in manuscripts
CW = Collected Works of J.S. Mill
GB = George Bentham
JSM = John Smart Mill
L = a debating speech edited by Harold J. Laski
RV = rejected version in manuscript
SC = Mill's library in Somerville College, Oxford
"IS = Fabian Society typescript of a debating speech
lxviii Textual Introduction
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
taste for reason is matched by her eye for nonsense; and the Editorial Assistant,
Rea Wilmshurst, without whom consistency would be but a dream. The junior
members, Jonathan Cutmore, Michele Green, Margaret Paternek, Jannifer
Smith-Rubenzahl, Elizabeth King, Marion Halmos, John Huxley, and John Sipos,
all contributed materially and cheerfully to the work.
My greatest scholarly debt is to a great editor who is no longer with us, Anna J.
Mill: she collaborated with me for many long years, demonstrating the
extraordinary care, wisdom, and correcting wit that made her reputation as a
mediaeval scholar and as an always informative and stimulating student of Mill
(only, she would say, a colitteral relative). I have used extensively and
unblushingly her editorial work on the Journal and Notebook (the latter of which
she herself purchased, and willed to the St. Andrews University Library), and her
preliminary work on both text and notes of the walking-tour journals (two of which
she was instrumental in finding homes for in Mt. Holyoke College, where she
pursued her academic career, and in St. Andrews, her alma mater), and on the
Lecture Notes on Logic. She was to have been a co-editor of these volumes, and to
her warm and vibrant memory they are dedicated.
FRANCE
182o-21
_eauvals
Paris
NeE
Limoges
Pompl_an
0 50 redes
,Toulouse I . .. I
Route to
Sprin! 1820
1. Journal and Notebook of a Year in France
MAY1820TOJULY1821
MSS, British Library, Add. MSS 31909 (Journal) and St. Andrews University Library,
MS 37865 (Notebook). The text below combines the two manuscripts: the Journal is used as
the primary text; parallel entries in the Notebook, when they exist, provide a secondary text,
given in smaller type immediately after the Journal entry; for the periods not covered in the
Journal, the Notebook is elevated to primary text. Portions from the Journal are signalled by
"[J]"; from the Notebook, by "IN]". The covering letters to James Mill in the Journal are
treated as part of the text; other letters in the Journal are given in footnotes to the passages
where they occur. Entries in the Notebook for the period 20 August to l0 September and 19
to 25 September were corrected by George Bentham. His corrections, when accepted by
Mill, are included in the text, indicated by variant markers; Mill's original wording is given
in the variant notes. Materials in the Journal and the Notebook ancillary to the dated entries
are given in Appendix B. As the Journal and Notebook were not published in Mill's
lifetime, they are not listed in his bibliography.
**1 **
May 15
[J] When we set off there was no body in the coach except an old lady who was
going to Boughton near Canterbury. At the Elephant and Castle on the Kent Road
an officer in the army joined us. When we reached Dartford we were asked if we
chose to breakfast; but we did not. After Dartford the country becomes very
pleasant, and we have many pretty views of the river Thames. We passed through
Gravesend: at Gad's hill near Rochester the officer left us. At Canterbury the
coachman begged us to ride outside, as four ladies had come as far as Canterbury in
another coach, and if we would ride outside we might all go in one coach. We
consented, and he returned us the difference of the fare. I had 16 shillings to pay for
luggage. From Canterbury to Dover the country is extremely hilly. We did not, as
we expected, pass through Margate. Dover is a very dirty place. At the King's
Head we sat down with a very good appetite to a beef steak, having eaten nothing
all day. We had a very good pair of beds.
4 Journals and Speeches No. 1
IN] Rose early, prepared every thing for journey, walked with my father to the coach
office, met there Mr. Ensor, 1set off with him for France in a Dover coach professing to pass
through Margate, Ramsgate, and Deal. There was an old lady in the coach, going to
Boughton near Canterbury. At the Elephant and Castle on the Kent road a gentleman in the
army joined us. The road is not at all pretty as far as Darfford; there we come to the banks of
the Thames, and it begins to be extremely pretty. We passed through Gravesend, the officer
got out at Gad's hill near Rochester. We went on to Canterbury, a large town, very pretty.
Here the coachman begged us to ride outside, because the whole inside of the coach was
taken: we did so accordingly, and he returned us the difference of the fare. From Canterbury
to Dover the country is very hilly. We did not, as I expected, pass through Margate,
Ramsgate nor Deal; I suppose because there were no passengers for any of those places. We
arrived at Dover about six o'clock; it is a considerable town, but dirty and ill built. At the
King's Head we ate a beef steak with great appetite; the beds were excellent.
May 16
[J] After having breakfasted and discharged a very high bill, we set off for
Calais in the Trafalgar packet. The instant I set my foot on board, I began to feel a
little sick: I therefore immediately went into a birth, lay down, and shut my eyes. I
thus avoided sea-sickness: though indeed I felt a little sick at stomach during the
latter part of our voyage: for our passage was so rough that even Mr. Ensor was
sick, which he has not been for 25 years. The rolling of the ship was so great that at
one time half the deck was 3 feet under water. We accomplished our passage in 3
hours, and set foot on French ground at 3 o'clock precisely. We were immediately
called upon for our passport: this we produced, after which my sac de nuit was
searched by one of the gens d'armes, but nothing was taken. We went to a very
good hotel, that of Detant, au Grand Cerf, Rue Royale, Calais, where we dined,
and our trunks were taken to the Custom House, but as every thing was exactly in
the condition you put it, after the officers sent it back, I do not think they searched
it. No one offered to search our pockets. The town has a very large open market
place: The city walls are a pleasant promenade. The room was furnished, chiefly,
more in the English than in the French manner. Melle Detant spoke very good
English.
IN] After breakfast, having discharged an enormous bill, we set out for Calais in the
Trafalgar packet. We accomplished the passage in three hours; it was an exceedingly rough
passage; so much so that even Mr. Ensor, who has not been sea sick for 25 years, was so this
time. I escaped by lying down directly in a birth and shutting my eyes. But during the latter
part of the passage, I was a little sick at stomach; the rolling of the ship being so great that the
deck was in some parts three feet under water every time the vessel roiled. Set foot on
French ground, May 16, 1820, at 3 o'clock exactly. We were instantly made to produce our
passport which was examined by two gens d'armes; we then had to pay 2 francs for another.
My sac de nuit was searched, but nothing taken. We went to the Hotel du Grand Ceff,
Detant, Rue Royale, Calais, where we dined, and our trunks were taken to the Custom
House, but nothing seized; I think they did no more than open the trunks, for every thing was
1George Ensor (1769-1843), a popular radical writer, friend of James Mill, who had
enm_sted his son to Ensor for the initial part of the journey.
May 1820 French Journal and Notebook 5
in the same order as before. Went out to see the town. It is not very large, the streets are neat,
and many of them have paved foot paths. The promenade of the town is the wall which
surrounds it, and which commands a distant prospect, though not a very delightful one. We
had two closets opening into our room at the inn. Each contained a bed. The room was
furnished more in the English than in the French manner. Mademoiselle Detant spoke very
good English. The population of Calais is 7,000 inhabitants.
May 17
[J] We set off at 10 o'clock by the diligence: a coach supported on two wheels:
divided by a partition into two apartments each of which contains six much better
than an English stage coach holds four. We arrived at Paris in about 32 hours. The
country near Calais is very flat and unpleasant, but towards Boulogne it becomes
more hilly as it continues for the rest of the way. At Boulogne we dined at the table
d'h6te, which is far the cheapest way: during dinner a woman played on the
Spanish guitar and sung. Boulogne consists of two towns: the Haute Ville, and the
lower. A magnificent street called Rue Grande connects them. We next arrived at
Montreuil, a large town on a very steep hill, which we could hardly climb on foot,
the streets were so steep. Our company was all English except one gentleman. We
supped at Abbeville.
IN] Set off at 10 o'clock by the diligence for Paris. It is much more than twice as long,
and considerably broader, than an English stage coach: yet it is supported on two wheels
only. It is divided crosswise into two apartments having no communication with each other
except by a little window; each apartment contains six people much better than a common
English stage coach holds four. The country which we first pass through is extremely fiat
and unpleasant, but it becomes more hilly, as we proceed. We passed through the little
village of Marquise in the bottom of a valley, and arrived at Boulogne, where we dined at
the table d'h6te, paying a certain fixed sum; we were entertained with French songs on the
guitar by a woman, during dinner. Boulogne is at the mouth of the little river lane, 2 it is a
trading town, the chef lieu of an arrondissement, population 13,000 inhabitants; it consists
of two separate towns, the Haute Ville and the Basse Ville; the former is surrounded by a
high wall. They are connected by a magnificent street called Rue Grande. Here as at Calais
there are as many inscriptions in English as in French.--On leaving Boulogne, the country
presents nothing remarkable as far as Montreuil. This town is built on a very steep hill,
which makes it extremely difficult to mount, even on foot, as we did. It is situate on the right
bank of the Canche, the only river of consequence north of the Somme. The town itself is
dirty, and far from presenting the pleasing appearance of Calais or Boulogne; it is however a
large town though it contains only 3,500 inhabitants. On leaving Montreuil we crossed the
fiver Canche and proceeded to Abbeville, skirting a great number of forests, in particular
that of Cressy, celebrated in English and in French history. 3It was dark before we arrived at
Abbeville, where we supped.-
rathe department of the Pas-de-Calais is larger than the greater part of the departments,
as it contains 328 square leagues. It is also one of the best peopled, being exceeded in
population only by the dcpartmcns of the Nord, the Seine, and the Gironde. The Canche and
the Aa are the only rivers of note which it contains, though the Lys has its rising there.--
--Abbeville is situated on the Somme; it is celebrated for its cloth manufacture. The tide
comes up as far as this town. It has 18,000 inhabitants. There are two roads from Abbeville
to Paris; the one by Amiens and the other by Beauvais, that which we took is the Beauvais
mad. We travelled all night, passing through Airaines. Poix, and Grandvilliers.
May 18
[J] After travelling all night we arrived at Beauvais to breakfast: as I could not
eat any thing, I walked about the town. We entered Paris about 6 P.M. by the
Batri6re de St. Denis: the custom house officer opened the trunks on the coach top.
We stopped at the Messageries Royales, Rue Notre Dame des Victoires, whence
we took a f'_acre to the Hotel Vivienne, Rue Vivienne, where we dined and slept.
As I slept on a temporary bed, I escaped being infested with bugs, a misfortune to
which Mr. Ensor was subjected to such a degree that he could not sleep till 3
o'clock, and in the morning the bed was covered with blood in some places.
[N] Arrived at Bcauvais to breakfast; but not being able to eat any thing, I walked about
the town, which is considerable: Beanvais, chef lieu of the department of the Oise, is
celebrated forhaving been besieged by the Duke of Burgundy in 1472, and defended against
him by the women, under the command of Jeanne Hachette; who at last forced him to raise
the siege. 4 Having never been taken, though often besieged, it is called la Pucelle. It is
situated on the little river Th6rain; and is a manufacturing town. The number of inhabitants
is 13,000. About one o'clock we arrived at Beaumont on the left bank of the Oise, a
considerable town. We passed then through a country very well cultivated, seeing
sometimes some vineyards; we entered Paris by the barrierof St. Denis, having first passed
through the village or small town of that name. The customhouse officer went to the coach
top, but I do not know whether he searched the trunks. We stopped at the Messageries
Royales. Rue Notre Dame des Victoires, whence we took a fiacre to the Hotel Vivienne,
Rue Vivienne, where we dined and slept; as I slept on a temporary bed, I escaped the
misfortune, to which Mr. Ensor was subjected, of being infested with bugs.
May 19
[J] In the morning we walked to the Palais Royal and breakfasted at one of the
Caf6's there. This immense building belonged to the profligate Duc D'Orleans (in
the time of Louis XVI) who, having mined himself by debauchery, resolved to let
the arcades of his palace to various tradesmen: 5 whose shops make a beautiful
appearance. The upper rooms are appropriated to gaming, and all species of vice.
We went after breakfast to M. Say, who occupies the upper part of Rue du
Faubourg St. Martin, No. 92. 6 He was at home: he read your letter, and asked me
to stay with him, which I did. His family consists of himself, Mdme Say, their
eldest son, M. Horace Say, who is a merchant, and goes every day to business,
and one of his daughters. He has another daughter, who I believe is married; and
Alfred, his younger son, is at a Pension, but lives at his father's house every
Sunday and Monday. None of them except himself and his eldest son can speak a
word of English. M. Say said it was 2 months since Mr. Bentham had written to
him to say I was coming. Mdme Say told me of a young German who had come to
their house from England two days before the departure of R. Doane,7 who said he
was acquainted with me: I forget what she said was his name: I do not know who he
can be. I walked out with her on the Boulevards: we went to the Palais and the
Jardin des Thuilleries: the garden is nothing comparable to Kensington Gardens,
but the palace is much finer than any in London. We rettmled to dinner.
IN] In the morning, walked with Mr. Ensor to the Palais Royal and breakfasted at one of
the Caf6's there. As Mr. Ensor had many places to go to, he hired a laquais de place, and by
those means saved me the expense of a cabriolet. We went first to the Rue du Faubourg St.
Martin, No. 92, the upper part of which house is occupied by M. Say and his family. Found
him at home; sent in my father's letter of introduction, saw him and Mine Say who does not
understand English, so that I was obliged to speak always French to her, and commonly also
to M. Say. They were very kind to me, and begged me to stay at their house; I accepted the
offer, Mr. Ensor returning to the Hotel. M. Say said that Mr. Bentham had written two
months ago to tell him that I was coming, but that he thought I had passed without calling on
him. Mine Say told me that a young German had come to their house from England two days
before the departure of Richard Doane, that he said he was acquainted with me; I did not
know him by name. Walked out with Madame Say and Mademoiselle Octavie; saw the
palace and garden of the Thuilleries, the palace much finer than any I have seen in England,
the gardens not so pretty as Kensington, Kew, or Hampton Court. Returned, dined with M.
Say, Mine Say, M. Horace and Melle Octavie. The floors are sometimes of tiles and
sometimes of polished wood, without any carpet.
May 20
[J] After breakfast, I went out with M. Say to the Louvre: the beauty of the
architecture struck me very much: we inspected the Museum of Antique Statues
etc. The statue which pleased me most was that called the Fighting Gladiator: I saw
t'Thevisit to Jean Baptiste Say (1767-1832), the leading French economist, had, as Mill
indicates, been arranged in advance by Jeremy Bentham ( 1748-1832), the Utilitarian law
reformer and philosopher, friend of James Mill. Say had met James Mill and Jeremy
Bentham in December 1814 during a visit to England. His family, as Mill also indicates,
was made up of his wife Julie (n6e Gourdel-Deloche, d. 1830 ), their elder son Horace Emile
(1794-1860), their younger daughter, Octavie (1804-65), then unmarried, their elder
daughter Andrienne (1795-1857), married to Charles Comte, and their youngest child,
Alfred (b. ca. 1807).
7Richard Doane (1805-48), an amanuensis of Bentham, who had sent him to France.
8 Journals and Speeches No. 1
[N] In the morning after breakfast went out with M. Say to the Louvre. The architecture is
very fine; we saw the Museum of ancient Statues, mosaic pavements, etc. Struck with the
beauty of the statue of the Fighting Gladiator, as it is called. Called on Dr. Swediaur,
delivered my father's letter, the Doctor said he would write an answer tomorrow, that a
Spanish gentleman had come lately from Montauban and that I had better see him; and that
Sir Samuel Bentham and his family 13were going to Madrid in winter: Saw, at his house,
Mr. Kinloch, who was at Paris under the name of Mr. George Smith; he gave me his card
and begged me to call on him.--We went next to the Cathedral of Notre Dame, which has a
finer organ than that of Westminster Abbey with which in other respects it is much upon a
aThe Fighting Gladiator, also known as the Borghese Warrior because it had been in the
Villa Borgbese in Rome from 1613, was purchased by Napoleon in 1807 and displayed in
the Louvre from 1811. The Apollo Belvedere, in the Vatican from 1509, ceded to France in
1797, was displayed in the Louvre from 1800 to 1815, but was returned to Rome in 1816 by
I.x_s XVlll.
9Francois Xavier Schwedianer (1748-1824), an Austrian physician and chemist, had
practised in Paris since 1789.
t°Probably Tom_ Rodriguez Bur6n, a man of letters and member of the Madrid
Academy, and interested in natural science, exiled for political activities, had given George
Bentham (see hi3 below) Spanish lessons in Montanban.
11George Kinloch (1775-1833), radical Laird of Kinloch, had fled to France in 1819
when an inflammatory speech at Dundee had led to his being indicted for sedition and
pronounced an outlaw by the High Court at Edinburgh.
t2Flavius Claudius Julianus (331-63 A.D. ), called Julian the Apostate, Roman Emperor
355-63, who had his headquarters here during his campaigns in Gaul 356-9.
13Mill was to stay in the south of France with Sir Samuel Bentham (1757-1831),
Jeremy's brother, who had the title of Brigadier-General from his service to the Empress of
Russia, and his wife, Maria Sophia (rff_ Fordyce) (1765-1858). Their family was
composed of George ( 1800-84 ), who became a celebrated botanist, Clara (1802-29), and
Sarah Jane (1804-64). The eldest daughter, Mary Louisa (1797-1865), had married the
marquis de Chesnel in 1819, but was deserted by him in 1820, and so became again part of
the family group.
May 1820 French Journal and Notebook 9
par. We saw also the Palais des Thermes, that is, the remains of the emperor Julian's palace;
thebathispretty entire; thereisunderneath a rangeofcaverns whichwe traversed; M. Say
thinks it probable that there may have been treasure concealed in those caverns. Saw l'Halle
au BI_, a large building in the form of a rotunda, the diameter greater than that of the
Pantheon at Rome. Saw l'Eeole des Medecins; the students sit in an amphitheatre;
dissection was taking place when we were there. Returned to M. Say's house.
May 22
[J] Went with Dr. Swediaur to call on the Spanish gentleman (M. Buron) he was
not at home. We went to the public library, but it was shut on account of the
Pentecost. Among the books belonging to the Librarian who has the care of the
Oriental Manuscripts, he shewed me your history beautifully bound. 16 As it was
very hot, I staid at home till the evening, when I went with Alfred as far as his
Pension, and saw the Chateau d'Eau, a beautiful fountain in the Boulevards.
[N] With Dr. Swediaur to call on M. Buron, who was not at home; Dr. S. left a note.
Went with him to see the public library, but as it was Pentecost, the library was closed; the
guardian of the Oriental manuscripts has a considerable number of books, chiefly relating to
Oriental nations; he showed me among them my father's history beautifully bound.
Returned home to M. Say's house and did not go out again.
May 23
[J] I breakfasted with Mr. Ensor, who sent for my passport: I called on Mr.
Kinloch, who gave me a packet for Don Austin de Argueillas from Major
CartwrightlT--Mr. Ensor added to it his Population and his Answer to the
Quarterly Reviewers, 18and promised to send them to Dr. Swediaur who would
give them to M. Buron to take with him to Spain--Mr. Kinloch desired me to
thank you for the interest you had taken in his affair. The man who was sent for the
passport returned with word that the passport could not be obtained without Mr.
Ensor's going in person. Mr. E. introduced me to Col. Young. _91 went with Mr.
E. Col. Y. and three ladies to see the Luxembourg: the garden was very pretty as
well as the gallery of paintings; the paintings which pleased me most were, a
picture byDavid, of Leonidas and the Spartans at Thermopylae; 2° and another of
the Queen of France giving liberty to slaves, so delicately done as to resemble a
miniature. 2_I returned home to dinner. After dinner M. Buron called: he said that
Sir S. Bentham and Miss Clara were at Montpellier and that the whole family was
going to Madrid in winter--I went with M. Say to Rue Salle au Comte and
executed the commission of Miss Brown: he then shewed me the Halle aux
Innocens, an immense market, or rather a suite of markets, much like Covent
Garden and Billingsgate joined into one: Even in the evening, when I saw it, I can
safely say it was the most dirty, noisy, and crowded place in Pads--In one part of
it is the Fontaine des Innocens, a very handsome fountain--I saw the street where
Henri Quatre was stabbed by Ravaillac.22 We then took my place in the Diligence
for Saturday next.
[N] Breakfasted with Mr. Eusor, who sent for my passport; called on Mr. Kinloch, who
gaveme a packet from Major Cartwright to Don Austin de Argueillas, which I left with Mr.
Ensor, who added to it his book on population and his answer to the Quarterly Reviewers,
and promised to send it to Dr. Swediaur for M. Buron. Could not obtain passport without
Mr. Ensor's going to procure it. With Mr. Ensor, Col. Young, and three ladies to see the
Luxembourg; the palace and gardens are exceedingly pretty; the gallery of pictures was
magnificent; I admired chiefly a painting by David of Leonidas and the Spartans at
Thermopylae, and another, I forget by whom, in the miniature stile, of the queen of France
giving liberty to slaves. Returned home to dinner; after dinner M. Buron called, and said
that Sir Samuel Bentham and Miss Clara were at Montpellier, but the remaining part of the
family at Pompignan, 23 and that it was intended that they should all go to Madrid in
winter.--Went with M. Say to the Rue Salle au Comte, and discharged Miss Brown's
commission; saw the Fontaine des Innocens, and the Halle of the same name, which can
only be compared to Covent Garden and Billingsgate joined together. Saw the street where
Henry IV was killed. Took place in the diligence for Grizolles for the 27th.--With M.
Say to make a call, saw M. Destutt-Tracy author of the Id_ologte. 24
May 24
[J] I wrote to Lady Bentham to tell her when to expect me--After breakfast I
went into a cabriolet to Arcueil, and delivered Mr. Bentham's paper to Count
Betthollet. 25 1 saw Madame BertholletZ6--she shewed me her garden, which was
very beautiful--They begged me to call on them at my return, and (as I have since
learned) I am to meet La Place at their house. 27 In coming from Arcueil I called on
Mr. Ensor, who was not at home. In returning I digested the matter for the first part
of a second dialogue as a sequel to yours; and after returning home, I wrote a few
pages. 2s
[N] Wrote to Lady Bentham to tell her when she might expect me. After breakfast went in
a cabriolet to Arcueii--M. and Mme Berthollet were very kind to me, and shewed me their
pleasure grounds, which are very pretty. Left Mr. Bentham's paper on the preservation of
grain with M. Berthollet; they begged me to go to see them on my return.--Called on Mr.
Ensor who was not at home. Returned to M. Say's house. Began to write the skeleton of a
dialogue in continuation of my father's dialogue on government.
23Sir Samuel, Clara, and George had gone on an excursion m April, leaving Lady
Bentham with Mine de Chesnel at Pompignan; the purpose was in part to find a suitable
place to purchase, and they entered into preliminary negotiations about the estate of
Restincli_res.
_El_ments d'idg,ologie, 5 pts. in 4 vols. (Paris: Didot l'a_n_, et al., and Courcier,
1801-15), by Antoine Louis Claude, comte Destutt de Tracy ( 1754-1836).
z_Claude Louis, comte Berthollet (1749-1822), founder with Laplace of the Soci_t6
d'Arcueil, and author of many major works on theoretical and applied chemistry.
Bentham's paper (on the preservation of grain) has not been found.
26Marguerite Berthollet, n_e Baur (d. 1828).
27PierreSimon de Laplace ( 1749-1827), associate of Berthollet, famed as a mathemati-
cian and astronomer.
_See App. B for a draft of the plan of this essay, which was designed as a sequel to James
Mill's "Government" (1820), written for the Encyclopaedia Britannica and republished in
Essays (London: printed Innes, n.d. [ 1825]).
12 Journals and Speeches No. 1
May 25
[J] Mr. Ensor sent my passport. I could not go out on account of the rain: but I
set about my dialogue in good earnest, and brought the subject to a conclusion: but
I think several additions will be required. In the evening I went out to tea with M.
Say and Madame Say.
[N ] Mr. Ensor sent my passport: Could not go out on account of the rain. M. Horace and
Melle Octavie dined out; M. and Mrne Say and myself went to the sameplace to tea. This
day, finished outline of dialogue.
May 26
[J] It rained in the morning: I afterwards called on Mr. Ensor, but he was from
home: I went to the public library, which is immense; and any one may read any
book he pleases while he remains in the house, or, if known there, he may take it
home with him. There are two immense globes. I also saw a large orrery, and a
piece of rock, on which was cut out a facsimile of the pyramids of Egypt and the
country round. In a Cabinet adjoining are several curiosities, but that which
pleased me most was a suit of ancient armour. From the Library I went to the Jardin
des Plantes where I saw the Cabinet d'Histoire Naturelle, a complete collection of
shells, fossils, minerals, stuffed beasts, birds, fishes, insects, serpents, etc. of all
descriptions. In the Jardin is also a Menagerie of wild beasts, which I saw, and also
of tame ones, which I did not see. From this place I went to the Rue d'Enfer, where
I received the paper which I had left with M. Berthollet, and a letter of Mine B. to
Lady Bentham. I saw also the Pantheon, as much as possible, but as the Guardien
was not there, I could not see much of the building: I saw however the stile of the
architecture. I returned home in a cabriolet.
IN] Rain in the morning;went to Mr. Ensor's;he was from home; saw the immense
public library. Besides the numberof books, there were several other things worthy of
notice: particularly, two globes of such a size as to require two storiesto contain them; an
orrery;apetra as it was calledof the pyramids of Egypt, which seems to be amodel in rock
of the country round; and a cabinet, where among other curiosities there was a suit of
ancient armour.--To the Jardin des Plantes: saw the Cabinet de l'Histoire Naturelle;
animals of all descriptions, fossils, minerals, and shells, without number. Saw the
M_nageriedes AnimauxFeroees;--to the Pantheon, saw the architecture, the style is noble
and lightmto the Rue d'Enfer, received back Mr. Bentham's paper from Monsieur and
MadameBerthollet with a letter from the latter to Lady Bentham; returned home in a
cabriolet.
May 27
[J] In the morning, I packed up--I went after breakfast to Mr. Ensor and took
my leave of him. Afterwards I saw M. Buron, who gave me a packet for Mme
Buron at Montauban. I had an early dinner and set off at 2 P.M. in the cabriolet of
May 1820 French Journal and Notebook 13
the diligence. 29 We had chosen the cabriolet, thinking the interior would be too
hot: but I had reason to repent of my choice on account of the inferiority of the
company. We passed through Longjumeau, the place where one of the mock
treaties with the Hugenots was signed. 3° I observed that the country south of Paris
was inclosed in many parts, which Picardy is not. We supped at Etampes. After
travelling all night, in the morning of [continues in the entry for 28 May]
[N] Packed up; to Mr. Ensor's to take leave of him; saw M. Buron and received from him
a letter to his wife at Montauban. Set off in the cabriolet of the diligence at two o'clock in the
afternoon.
--Paris is situated on the banks of the Seine, a little below the junction of that fiver with
the Marne. It is built on no regular plan, many of the principal streets are both narrow and
dirty. In the heart of the city lie the two islands of Notre Dame and of St. Louis, the former of
which formed the ancient Lutetia. The city is surrounded by a large street, with footpaths,
and rows of trees on both sides, which forms the great promenade of the city. On the west
side, however, this street is interrupted by the Jardin des Thuilleries. This street is called the
Boulevards; in one part of it is a beautiful fountain called le Chateau d'Ean. Without this
street lies that part of the town called the Faubourg's, (though in truth all south of the river is
also Faubourgs). The whole is surrounded by the Nouvelle Enceinte, in which there is a gate
or barri_re corresponding, I believe, to each faubourg. The faubourgs are by much the
pleasantest and cleanest part of the town. There are in the Boulevards some triumphal
arches, called Portes, mostly in honour of the victories of Louis XIV.31--With the
exception of the Bridges, the Quais, and the Boulevards, there are few streets which possess
a separate footpath. This renders walking in the streets as well dangerous as dirty. The
principal streets are the Rue St. Honot_ and the Rue St. Antoine, which form a continued
line east and west, the Rue St. Denis and the street which continues it, north and south.
Parallel to the two last runs the Rue St. Martin and its continuation the Rue St. Jacques. M.
Say's house stands in a passage from that part of the former which passes through the
Faubourg St. Martin. The most centrical street for almost all which is worth seeing at Paris
is the Rue de Richelieu parallel to the Rue Vivienne where Mr. Ensor lodges. There are
many arcades in the city, but chiefly in the Palals Royal. That which bears the greatest
resemblance to Burlington Arcade is the Passage des Panoramas. The Places are either
squares or triangles, or indeed of any shape whatever. The two prettiest are the Place
Vend6me, where there is a pillar descriptive of Napoleon's victories, 32 and the Place de
Louis XV, between the Jardin des Thuilleries and the Champs Elis6es, where the statue of
29Normally (and probably in the entries for 26 May) "cabriolet" refers to a light carriage
drawn by a single horse, but some diligences had an outside, uncomfortable compartment
known by that name.
3°The Peace of Longjumeau, 23 March, 1568, in the reign of Charles IX, brought only a
brief respite in the religious wars.
31The victories of Louis XIV (1638-1715) in Flanders and Franche-Comt_ (1667 and
1668) and again in Franche-Comt6 (1674) were commemorated respectively in the Porte
Saint-Denis and the Porte Saint-Martin.
32Thetriumphant campaign of 1805 by Napoleon I ( 1768-1821 ) was commemorated by
the Colomae Vend6me (or Colonne de laGrande Arrn6e), covered with the bronze of 1200
cannon captured from the enemy.
14 Journals and Speeches No. 1
Napoleon is pulled down, and they are now replacing that of Louis XV.aa--Attempts have
been made to light the streets with gas, but on account of the dearness of coals compared
with oil, and the difficulty of finding a market for coke, this project has failed. The streets
are now lighted with oil; each lamp has large metal reflectors, and is suspended over the
street; when they wish to light it they let it down by ropes. The French number the houses of
their streets differently from us; the even numbers are all on one side and the odd numbers on
the other, so that we can directly know on which side to find the number we seek. The post
horses are wretched and halfstarved: the private ones seem generally good. The hackney
carriages are of two kinds; the fiacre, which resembles the English hackney coach and the
cabriolet, which is a clumsy gig with a cover. This last, as it is less expensive than the
former, having but one horse, and the vehicle itself being less costly, is very convenient for
a single person. The drivers pay every day a fLied sum to the owners of the vehicle; all the
surplus belongs to themselves.
--It is commonly said that the French are an idle people; this I do not think true, as I have
never seen' the labouring people sauntering about in time of work (though it is true I have
seen plenty of beggars. ) They only make themselves merry, and danse, on the jours de f_te,
which are pretty numerous in this country; and they do not work for so many hours a day as
English labourers.--There is a severe censure on the daily press; 34 so that truth can come
before the public only through the speeches of the deputies. M. Say has shewn me a plan of
the chamber of deputies, in which is pointed out the place habitually occupied by each
member. The liberals are to the left, the ultras to the right, the ministerialists in the middle,
and the trimmers and waverers in the intermediate spaces. The charter granted by Louis on
his restoration 35 is daily violated; at present a question is on the carpet with respect to the
electoral suffrage. 36 At present every one is entitled to a vote who pays 300 francs per
annum of direct taxes: the ministers wish to make some alteration in the law; the import of
the proposed law I do not yet know, but it is for the advantage of the rich; the ultras quarrel
with the ministers for making too small an alteration; the liberals, for making any alteration
33The statue of Louis XV ( 1710-74) was in the Place Louis XV, now called the Place de
la Concorde.
_Loi sur la r_pression des crimes et d_lits commis par la voie de la presse, ou par tout
antre moyen de publication, Bull. 278, No. 6A.A. A.(17 May, 1819), Bulletin des lois du
royaume de France, 7th ser., VIII, 465-71; LOi relative _tla poursuite et au jugement des
crimes et dtlits commis par la voie de la presse, on par tout antre moyen de publication,
Bull. 280, No. 6515 (26 May, 1819), ibid., pp. 513-20; Loi relative h la publication des
journanx ou 6crits l_riodiques, Bull. 284, No. 6648 (9 June, 1819), ibid., pp. 601-4; and
Loi sur la publication des jonmaux et 6crits l_riodiques, Bull, 356, No. 8494 (31 Mar.,
1820), ibid., X, 385-7.
35Louis XVIII ( 1755-1824), on his restoration in 1814 after the first defeat of Napolton I
by the allied forces, signed the Charte constitutionnelle, Bull. 17, No. 133 (4 June, 1814),
ibid., 5th ser., I, 197-207.
_Article 40 of the Charte (p. 203) gave the vote to those who paid 300 francs in direct
taxes. The Charte also required that a specific law describing the electoral colleges be
passed; this was complied with in Loi sur les 61eetions, Bull. 137, No. 1694 (5 Feb., 1817),
ibid., 7th ser., IV, 113-18, of which Article I continued the 300-franc qualification. Under
debate was the proposed LOi sur les 61ections, Bull. 379, No. 8910 (29 June, 1820), ibid.,
X, 1001-6, which provided in Article 2 that one-quarter of the most heavily taxed, who
already had the choice of deputies for the arrondissements, would elect another group of
deputies in newly created departmental colleges. The measure was thus known as the "law
of the double vote."
May 1820 French Journal and Notebook 15
at all.raThe institutions for education are all essentially in the power of government; for
although the pensions or boarding schools are individual establishments, yet the
government has the watch over them and can prevent any thing from being taught there
more than they please. 37
--We left Paris by the barri_re d'Enfer, and drove over a spacious plain without any thing
very remarkable. We passed through Longjumeau, leaving Arcueil to the left, and in the
evening arrived at Etampes, a pretty town, not very large, population 7,000 inhabitants.
The country south of Paris is much more inclosed than in the north. As far as Orleans, the
road is paved. (N.B. This diligence, unlike the former, has four wheels. ) We supped at
Etarnpes, and travelled all night.
May 28
[J] we arrived at Orleans. Here I saw the statue of Joan of Arques. 38 A marchand
de boeuf, with the largest belly I ever saw in my life, who was continually smoking
tobacco, got here into the cabriolet: you may imagine how I was annoyed. We had
a dejeuner, that is to say, a dinner, at Noan, 39 a little place beyond Orleans. At
Massay we got out for the night, and had an excellent supper, that is, another
dinner still more sumptuous than the first, and excellent beds, very cheap.
[N] In the morning we arrived at Orleans, but did not breakfast there; I walked a little
about the town. Orleans, chef lieu of the Loiret, is one of the largest towns in France; it is
well built, and situate on the right bank of the Loire. A statue of Jeanne d'Arques has been
erected in the great market place. It is a manufacturing town, and contains 42,000
inhabitants. On leaving Orleans we pass over a very pretty bridge on the Loire. A
troublesome fat marchand de boeuf, who was perpetually smoking tobacco, mounted the
diligence here, and as he sat in the cabriolet. I was not a little incommoded by his
smoking.mHereafter if I travel in a diligence I will always go inside on account of the
superiority of the company. We crossed the little river Loiret, which though a very small
stream, gives nevertheless its name to the department; we crossed also, 1 believe, the
Cossan4° at la Fertd Senneterre, the road presents nothing remarkable; we crossed the
Beuvron at la Motte-Beuvron, and arrived at the village of Nouan-le-Fuselier, where we had
a dejefiuer _ la fourchette, and walked on for some distance before the diligence. We passed
the Sandre near Salbris, and arrived at Vierzon. This town situate on the Cher, a
considerable river, which, like those I have mentioned, throws itself into the Loire, is
chiefly remarkable for the great number of islands and bridges which we are obliged to cross
in passing through it. We proceeded to Massay, a little village where we got out for the
night. The company inside the diligence was excellent, particularly M. Longayrou, a very
agreeable young gentleman who speaks English very passably. There were besides four
gentlemen, one of them with his daughter. We supped at Massay, and had excellent beds.
May 29
[J ] We set off at 2 in the morning, and breakfasted at Chateauroux on coffee and
toast: those who pleased had chocolate. We dined at a little place called
Beaumondai. The country has nothing remarkable in these parts; it is said to be
among the most unpleasant in France. We travelled all night.
[N] Set off at two in the morning, and arrived about eight at Chfiteauroux, chef lieu of the
Indre, and situate on the river of that name. The population is 8,000 inhabitants. The town
did not app6ar to me very pretty; I saw it however to little advantage, the morning being
rainy. We breakfasted here more _tl'Anglaise than/t la Franqaise, as we had nothing but
very good coffee, and very bad toast. Passed through an uninteresting country, full of
woods and ponds, to Argenton on the Creuse. We dined at a place called Beaumondai, but I
cannot find this place in the ltineraire. 41 Argenton is prettier than Ch_teauroux; it is a
considerable town. We passed the Creuse, and travelled all night, crossing the river
Gartempe at Bessines.
May 30
[J] I breakfasted at Limoges with a good natured gentleman from the interior of
the carriage: the marchand de boeufhaving left us; although but two places were
vacant, these were speedily filled by a lady, with a boy, a dog, and a very dirty
fille, having an eruption in her face, which you may suppose did not smell the most
agreeably in the world--Some time after I walked 2½leagues before the diligence.
We supped at Uzerches, and travelled all night.
IN] Arrived in the morning at Limoges, chef lieu of the Haute Vienne, and situate on the
river Vienne from which the department takes its name. Limoges is a very dirty town, and
by no means pretty; it is very large, and contains no fewer than 21,000 inhabitants. I
breakfasted here with a very good-natured gentleman from the interior of the diligence. The
marchand de boeufdescended here for good and all, but the two places did not remain long
vacant, being filled immediately by a lady, with a c_'tyfille, a boy, and a dog; the fille had
an eruption on her face, which made my place none of the pleasantest, particularly on
account of the smell. Passed through a country extremely mountainous, producing scarcely
any thing except chestnuts. On account of the hilliness, the road takes many windings, so
much so that the length is at least tripled, and I am fu'mly of opinion that Richard Doane was
fight when he said that the distance from Paris to Toulouse is 600 miles. This part of France
is not very populous. I walked once during the day two leagues and a half before the
diligence. Late in the evening we arrived at Uzerche, a town situate on a rock close to the
fiver Vezere, which we crossed. Here we supped; and after supper we mounted an
extremely steep hill. We travelled all night.
May 31
[J] I breakfasted with the same gentleman as before at Brives la Gaillard. The
country here is very pleasant. At Cresansac, a young attorney leaving the
diligence, I took my place in the interior, as it was my right, because I had the first
place in the cabriolet. But I found this lady claimed the place, and the conducteur,
who took her part, wanted to force me to quit my seat in the inside, but without
effect, as I maintained my fight and was supported by the gentlemen in the coach.
They at last referred the business to the maire, who decided it in my favour, the
young avocat pleading my cause. The company in the diligence was very pleasant,
particularly M. Longayrou, an agreeable young man, who speaks English by no
means badly. The country from Limoges to Cahors produces scarcely any thing
but chestnuts; it is so mountainous that the road is forced to turn and wind so much
to avoid the hills, that its length, I think, is at least tripled. After passing Souillac,
the diligence was ferried over the fiver Dordogne and proceeded to Peyrac, where
we slept.
June 1
[J] Having set off at 2 o'clock, we arrived at Cahors to a dejeuner _ la fourchette
at 11. Cahors is a very pretty place. We crossed the river Lot; the country here
becomes very fertile and pleasant: tobacco is grown near Cahors. We passed
18 Journals and Speeches No. 1
through Caussade, crossed the river Aveiron, and arrived at Montauban about 8
o'clock. I went immediately to Mme Buron's, where I supped. She gave me a
packet for Sir S.B. I arrived at Pompignan about 2 in the morning w[here M.]
George and the servants were waiting [for me. ]
N.B. Do not write till you hear from me again, because we leave Pompignan in a
few day[s]. I have no room to write more. I remain
Your affectionate Son
John Mill
[N] Rose at two m the morning and set off by the diligence, passed through very
mountainous country, making as before continual circuits round hills. The morning was
very fine. We arrived at Cahors, chef lieu of the Lot, celebrated for its wines; it is a very
large town, containing 11,000 inhabitants; it has a pretty promenade, and is on the whole a
very pretty town. Near it are many Roman antiquities. In the neighbourhood tobacco is
grown with considerable success, though very liable to be destroyed by the frequent
hail-storms of this neighbourhood. Tobacco is not permitted to be grown everywhere, and
the police-generale have made but an indifferent choice of ground for permitting it, since, if
they had chosen the Haut-Languedoc instead of Qnercy, the crops would not have been so
frequently destroyed by hail. It is not permitted for an unauthorized individual to have in his
garden more than three tobacco plants of each species.--We breakfasted at Cahors, and in
leaving that town, we passed the Lot by a very pretty bridge. The country becomes here
much less mountainous, and extremely fertile. Vines are cultivated with very good success,
and it is fertile also in com. About two in the afternoon we arrived at Caussade, a pretty little
town; soon after we crossed the Av6iron at Roussels; and about 8 o'clock arrived at
Montauhan, chef lieu of the Tam et Gamnne, a handsome town and very large, much better
paved than the greater part of the towns I have seen since leaving Paris; it has a great
co_ by vessels which, sailing down the Tam, descend the Garonne to the Atlantic, or
ascend it as far as Toulouse, and then proceed by the Canal of Languedoc to the
Mediterranean, or vice-versd. The river Tam, on which it is situate, has its waters
sometimes almost as red as blood, from the red clay which constitutes the banks, and the
bottom. The population of Montauban is 23,436 inhabitants. I supped with Mine Buron, to
whom I delivered the packet. On leaving the town we crossed the river and turning to the left
we passed through the Faubourg Villebourbon and skirted the river to some distance. Here
we entered the spacious and beautiful plain of the Garonne, for its fertility and the variety of
cultivation, said to be one of the fmest in Europe. We passed through Canals, a pretty
village, and Grizolles, but as it was late at night I could see very little. Found Mr. George
and the servants waiting at Pompignan. Took leave of M. Longayrou, who promised to
write to me; found all the family at the Chateau; went to bed immediately on my arrival.
**2**
agreed upon with regard to some estate in the South, and till Madame de Chesnel is
in a condition to be removed to such a distance, l Sir Samuel and Lady Bentham,
Madame de Chesnel, and Miss Clara, leave Pompignan next Monday: the rest of
us remain for a few days longer. I hope my mother, James and my sisters are very
well, as well as my grandmother, etc. and that the scholars all make good
progress. 2 You will see the journal I have kept, which is a continuation of that of
my journey.
June 2
[J] Breakfasted with the family--delivered the things I had for them--Took a
pleasant walk with Sir S. and Lady Bentham. After dinner wrote to my
father--Drank tea with Mr. George and the young ladies--Finished letter.
June 3
[J] Before breakfast went with Mr. George to Toulouse in a sort of sledge to see
the procession of the F_te Dieu which is tomorrowwBreakfasted with Dr.
Russell, an English gentleman living at Toulouse3--Walked a great deal about the
town with Mr. G. who had a great many bills to paywCalled on Mr. Du Camp, 4
professor of Rhetoric (I believe) or some such thing, in an Ecole--Called on a
very good dancing master, but he was not at home--Dined at Dr. Russell's house.
Went to the theatreS--I understood a good deal--Slept at the Hotel des Princes.
June 4
[J] Went to the Cathedral and saw it, but were too early for the Messe Militaire.
Breakfasted with Gen. Partineaux, general of the division. 6 Saw the procession
pass three times--It consists of the military bands, many little children dressed as
angels, a great many Abbts with about 300 boys and very young men who were
IShewas pregnant.
2Harriet Mill (nte Burrow) (ca. 1782-1854), Mill's mother, whose family then
consisted of James Bentham (1814-62), Wilhelmina Forbes (1808-61), Clara Esther
(1810-86), Harriet Isabella (1812-97), and Jane Stuart (ca. 1816-83). Harriet Burrow
was his maternal grandmother.
3William Thomas Russell (b. 1776), an Irishman who, after marrying in 1802 a
Frenchwoman (identified in Burke's Irish Family Records as the comtesse Letellier),
settledin Toulouseand raised a large family, three of the sons entering the East India Co.
service. Russell, in George Bentham's estimation, was unequalled "in extracting
somethingworth knowing from any person hecame in contact with" (MS, Autobiography,
Kew).
4Not further identified.
5George Bentham's Diary (MS, Kew) identifies the play as L'estourdy, ou Les
contretemps(1653) (Paris: Quinet, 1663), by Jean Baptiste Poquelin Moli_re (1622-73).
t'Louis, comte Partouneaux( 1770-1835), a loyal friend ofthe Benthams', had been one
of Napoleon's generalsin the Russian campaign.
20 Journals and Speeches No. 1
intended for priests--The hoste as usual carried in procession under a canopy, and
all the civil and military authorities of the town. It was very amusing. The crowd
was immense. The bands were very pretty. We dined with Dr. Russell where we
continued till it was time to return to our Hotel for the night.
June 5
[J] Returned to Pompignan and breakfasted with the family. Completed with
Mr. George the catalogue of books. Began, by his advice, to read Millot. 7 After
dinner saw the Marquis and Madame de PompignanS--Walked out with Sir S.B.
Lady B. Mr. G. and the young ladies in the park.
June 6
[J] Got,up early, went into the library, read some of Lucian, 9 of Millot, which
Mr. George advised me to read--learnt a French fable by rotem--Packed up the
books, with Mr. G.
June 7
[J] Learnt a very long fable--Wrote over again with many improvements, my
Dialogue, part 1. Mr. G. and Sir S.B. went to Toulouse, and did not return till 8
o'clock.
June fl
[J] Arranged with Mr. G. the books of M. de Pompignan. Wrote some of
Dialogue--learnt a very long Fable by heart--Resolved some problems of
West I J--did French exercises.
June 9
[J] Breakfasted early and went with Sir S.B. and Mr. G. in the carriage to
Montauban, took a volume of Racine in my pocket, and read two plays_2--Called
on a gentleman called M. Rousse, (I believe)--Paid a visit to M. Cambronaro, an
emigrant Spaniard, 13with whom I conversed a great deal --Returned home, and
read a comedy of Voltaire. 14
June 10
[J] Before breakfast, learnt another Fable and read some of VirgillS--After
breakfast, wrote some of my dialogue, and some French exercises--Wrote some
of the Differential Calculus--Read a tragedy of Corneille. _6 Called on Mme de
Pompignan.
June 11
[J] Learnt another Fable--Finished my Dialogue. If good for nothing beside, it
is good as an exercise to my reasoning powers as well as to my invention: both
which it has tried extremely. Wrote some French exercises. Began to learn an
extremely long Fable. Read a comedy of Moli6re, and after dinner a tragedy of
Voltaire--Took a short walk by myself out of the pleasure grounds.
June 12
[J] Rose very early: Sir S.B. and Mr. G. went in the carriage to Toulouse.
Before breakfast, I wrote some French exercises; read some of Lucian's
"Hermotimus"lT--Revised part of my dialogue--After breakfast went with the
domestique Piertot to see his Metairie and his little piece of land and help him to
gather cherries--He expresses great fondness for Richard, as indeed there is no
one in the house who does not. He insisted on my eating something, which I was
compelled at last to do, and I assure you it pleased him greatly. After returning, I
finished learning the long Fable. (You have, I dare say, observed that I have not
applied myself much to Mathematics as yet: in this you will say I am right when I
tell you that the greater part of Sir S.B. 's books, indeed all except two or three, are
packed up, not to be unpacked till we arrive at the house near Montpellier, if any
such be taken: and as this may not be, perhaps, for two or three months, I thought it
better to apply myself more to French reading for the short time we shall be here,
while I have the use of M. de Pompigfian's books.) Read another tragedy of
Racine. Took a walk by myself after dinner.
June 14
[J] Could not get into the library, before breakfast, the door being locked--
Walked about in the pleasure grounds. After breakfast went with Mr. G. and Miss
Sarah to the kitchen-garden, and thence, we walked about the pleasure
grounds--Came in and wrote French exercises; began to learn the departments of
France, read Lucian.
June 15
[J] Got up early, wrote a great many French exercises, began to write my Livre
Statistique, consisting of the Departments of France with their chefs lieux, the
rivers with the departments through which they flow, and the population of each
department, etc. etc. Learnt by heart the departments with their capital towns. In
consequence of a conversation with Lady B. she recommended to me to read such
parts as she should point out of the Code Napoleon. Is Accordingly I read some
part, taking notes carefully. Compared the arrangement of M. de Pompignan's
books with the catalogue. Dr. Russell, Mrs. Russell, and one of their sons, (about
Clara's age, or between her's and Willie's) came to dinner. I walked about the
grounds with young Russell, before and after dinner. Wrote a note to M. Say in
French, as a parcel was going.
June 16
[J] Rose early, walked out, read a tragedy of Voltaire. There has been a mad dog
in the neighbourhood, who bit a great number of persons: This morning a poor old
man, of the age of 97 years, came for a remedy for the bite: Dr. R. cautorized well
the wound. This day Mr. G. was absent at Toulouse. After breakfast, took a little
walk with young Mr. Russell: who left Pompignan with his father and mother at 12
o'clock. Went to the library: read something more of the Code Napoleon: wrote the
laBull. 154bis, No. 2653 b/s (3 Sept., 1807), Bulletin, 4th ser., Num6ros bis.
June 1820 French Journal and Notebook 23
fLrst page and the concluding part of this letter. Read some of Virgil; wrote French
exercises: 19
POLITICS
I suppose you know as much about the present state of French politics. The chief political
question which has been lately considered is that of the Law of Elections .20 Formerly there
was but one single election at the chef lieu of each department, and all were allowed to vote
who paid 300 francs of direct taxes. Now after many continued and most furious
discussions, a new law has been carried by the ministry which makes the elections to take
place at the chefs lieux of the separate arrondissemens of each department, and which gives
persons of a much greater estimated income, I do not know the exact number of francs, a
vote, I believe, still at the chef lieu of the department in some manner so that they are insured
of having the choice of one fourth of the chamber of deputies. This law has passed, I fancy,
by a compromise of some sort, for when a preliminary question was put to the vote, all the
members except four being present, the numbers were exactly equal, when as the sentence
of the assembly was about to be decided by the casting vote of the president, 21 M.
Chauvelin, 22 (who was sick) was carried into the house, and turned the balance on the side
of the Liberaux. From this result every one expected that, not only the law would be
rejected, hut there would be a partial change of ministry: the law was nevertheless passed by
a majority of more than 150, as I believe. M. Chauvelin is since dead.
This discussion has been probably of use to the people, as, on account of the severe
censure on the daily press, the speeches of the deputies are the only mediums by which the
people can get a glimpse of the truth.
The event of this affair has produced great riots at Paris, 23and the gendarmerie was ca]led
out. One life has certainly been lost: and more, as I have been told. On account of some
symptoms of the same design at Toulouse, horse patroles were placed in the streets at night.
All this was magnified by a courier who passed through Pompignan on the 13th, who said
that a dozen deputies had been asassinated and that the people were all in alarm atToulouse,
the gates were shut, and two regiments of infantry with one of horse artillery were placed
under arms in the Place du Capitol, the grand square of the town. All this we found on Dr.
Russell's arrival to be perfectly false.
Election, as well as vote in the chambre des deput6s, is b), ballot. 24
I suppose you know that Louvel is condemned to death/'_ From all that appears on the
trial the act seems to be what it has appeared from the beginning, an insulated act of political
19Therest of the page is blank; the text resumes at the top of the next.
2°For the debate, see Moniteur, 12 May-3 June and 6-12 June, 1820, pp. 652-828
passim; for the law, see letter 1, n36 above.
21Auguste Simon Hubert Marie Ravez (1770-1849), Deputy from the Gironde. The
incident occurred on 30 May, on a motion that the liberal amendment should have pnority;
the amendment was lost on 1 June by ten votes.
22Bernard Franfois, marquis de Chauvelin ( 1766-1832), did not, as Mill asserts below,
die at that time.
23On 9 and 10 June.
24Election is covered by Article 6 of the new Loi sur les 61eetions (29 June, 1820), voting
by Article 32 of the R/:glement pour la chambre des d6put6s (25 June, 1814), Moniteur, 28
June, 1814, p. 711.
25Louis Pierre Louvel (1783-1820), a saddler, in an attempt to exterminate the
Bourbons, on 13 February, 1820, stabbed to death Charles Ferdinand de Bourbon, duc de
24 Journals and Speeches No. 1
fanaticism, no other persons having the slightest connexion with the affair. Perhaps you are
not acquainted with an anecdote which serves to shew the bigotry of the priests.26 When the
duc de Berri was stabbed, the cur6 was sent for to give him extreme unction: hut he refused
to do so, thinking it irreligious to go to so unhallowed a place as a theatre for such a sacred
purpose. Another cur6 had the same scruples of conscience: upon which the king sent
himself to the archbishop begging him to authorise the cur6 to perform this function in the
theatre. This he for a long time refused to do, but at last consented on condition that there
should never be again performance in that theatre: which accordingly there has not been
since that time.
You are, I dare say, aware of the circumstances which attended the execution of Sand, the
assassin of Kotzehue. e7He was, it seems, compelled to promise that he would not address
the people: and when about to do so, he was put in mind of his promise, and desisted. This
was, I daresay, in the English papers.
The local authorities in a provincial town, as in Toulouse, are very numerous. The civil
ones are chiefly the maire, who superintends the local affairs of the town, and the pr6fet,
who superintends those of the department. The maire also determines all petty disputes
between the inhabitants. Besides these there are the courts of justice. At Toulouse, the
military authorities are, the general of the division with his aid-de-camp, the general of the
department, with his aid-de-camp, the colonels of five regiments (among whom the
Marquis de Chesnel is one) 2s and several others whom I know nothing of.
EDUCATION
Much on this subject I have not yet been able to learn: what I know is only that all, or
almost all, the institutions for education, are under the controul of government: for even in
the individual establishments nothing can be taught which displeases government.
POPULATION STATISTICS
France seems upon the whole much less populous than England. Near Toulouse the
population is greater than I have seen it elsewhere: the number of villages is much greater
than is common in some parts of France. On account of the law of inheritance in France,_
which compels every one to divide his land, with the exception of a certain portion, among
his children, is the cause why the division of landed property is carried very far here: each
peasant has his piece of land: Pierrotou the don_stique has his piece, as well as his
neighbours: he has likewise a metairie belonging to M. de Pompiguan. The peasants have
Berry (1778-1820), younger son of the duc d'Artois (later Charles X). Louvel was
executed for the crime on 7 June. His trial was reported in the Moniteur, 4, 6, and 7 June,
pp. 771,782-4, and 787-8.
261"histale seems apochryphal: the last rites were administered by Jean Baptiste Marie
Anne Antoine, duc de Latil ( 1761-1839 ), Bishop of Chartres, who was then aumfnier of
the duc d'Artois. The Archbishop, Alexandre Ang61ique de Talleyrand-P_rigord (1736-
1821), well known in other offices, appears to have had no part in the events.
27Karl Ludwig Sand (1795-1820), a university student, on 23 March, 1819, in Mann-
heim, stabbed to death August Friedrich Ferdinand yon Kotzebue (1761-1819), the anti-
liberal dramatist and librettist. Sand was executed on 20 May, but again Mill's details
(which agree with one of three German accounts in the Exam/her, 4 June, 1820, p. 355) are
_ntly mistaken.
_Louis Pierre Franfois Adolphe Chesnel de la Charbonnelaye (1791-1862), the
husband of the eldest Bentham daughter.
29By the Code civil des Franfais (Paris: Imprimerie de la r_publique, 1804), Livre Ill,
Titre I, Chap. iii, Art. 745, and Titre I1, Chap. iii, Arts. 913-19.
June 1820 French Journal and Notebook 25
neither knowledge; nor capital sufficient to introduce any good system of cultivation.
Notwithstanding the number of small proprietors, there is a gentleman in Languedoc near
MontpeUier who has 35,000 francs per annum by apples alone: besides what he may have by
anything else.
Every departernent is divided into arrondissements, and every arrondissement into
communes. We are here in the Departement de Tam et Gamnne, arrondissement de
Castel-Sarrazin, and commune de Pompignan. For each commune there is a sort of police
officer, called the Garde Chamt_tre.
As yet, this is all I have learnt. 3°
**3**
Pompignan, June 24th, 1820
My dear Father,
You see we are still here, but you will see from the journal that we shall not now
be here long. All the observations I have made since my last letter you will find
interspersed in the journal. In my last letter I told you where to direct your letters; I
shall be expecting one almost as soon as I arrive, since it is now more than a month
since I left England, and I dare say something must have happened worthy of
notice. We hear a great deal here of the Queen of England;_ I suppose if she is tried
3°[Here in the Journal appears the following letter to Richard Doane: ] A Richard Doane. /
Mon cher Richard, / Vous voyez que je vous ecns de letlres Fran_aises, comme en
Angleterre. / J'ai trouv6 toute la famille de Pompignan en sant_. Mademoiselle Clarisse,
plus meme que les autres, m'a fait beancoup de questions touchant vous. Madame Bentham
m'a dit que vous avez oubli6 une commission de celles que vous aviez r_ues: car vous
n'avez pas fait des questions comment M. son mari puisse obtenir les ouvrages qu'a publi_s
l'Institution Royale. Madelle Sarah vous remercie bien pour sa cochle. / J'ai des
compliments tt vous donner, de ce grand seigneur Monsieur Pierre Pradine [the servant,
Pierrotou, later referred to as the Marquis de Rich], qui retient avec beaucoup de soin cette
piece de monnaie Anglaise que vous lui avez donn_e lorsque vous avez parti pour
Angleterre: I1dit qu'il ne le changera jamais: il demontre beaucoup de amiti_ pour vous, et il
re'assure que s'il n'etait pas mari_, il lui donnerait bien de plaisir que de aller en Angleterre
pour vous voir encor. Je ne trois pas qu'il _st tant b_te que vous me l'avez dit. II rappel[le ]
tr_s bien ces mots-l[_t de l'An]glaise que vous lui avez enseign_s [et je he] pouvais pas
m'emp_her de fire q[uand il] avait dit que bread veut dire le Bon Die[u vous b_n]ie. [For
Doane's response, see App. B. ]
ICamliue ( 1768-1821 ), wife of the Prince Consort, but separated from him since 1813,
had returned to England after the death of George III in January 1820 had made her husband
King. Received with popular acclaim when she landed on 5 June, she proceeded to London,
causing George IV much consternation. At his prompting, the House of Lords considered
"A Bill to Deprive Her Majesty Caroline Amelia Elizabeth of the Title, Prerogatives,
Rights, Privileges, and Exemptions of Queen Consort of This Realm; and to Dissolve the
Marriage between His Majesty and the Said Caroline Amelia Elizabeth," 1 George IV
(7 July, 1820 ), Sessional Papers of the House of Lords, 1820, CXIV, 293-4. In November
the bill was dropped, and Caroline died the next year.
26 Journals and Speeches No. 1
there will be as much disturbance as we have had about the Election law. Give my
love to my mother, James, my sisters, my grandmother, aunts, uncles etc. when
you see them.2
June 17
[J] Lay in bed late, not knowing the hour. After breakfast went into the library,
wrote French exercises. Mr. George as usual was occupied in packing. Madame de
Chesnel had shewn me last night Legendre's Geometry: 3 1 began this morning to
read a portion with the intention of learning the French mathematical terms. Read
some of Lucian. Performed an investigation of the Differential Calculus. Took a
short walk out of the grounds. After returning dined. Then read a tragedy of
Corneille.
June 18
[J] Rose early: wrote French exercises, read part of a tragedy of Voltaire,
walked out in the pleasure grounds. Today being the last Sunday we remain here, it
was a f_te for the peasants, who danced in the pleasure grounds before the house.
After breakfast, finished exercises: walked out in the grounds with Mr. G. and
Miss Sarah, as Sir S. and Lady B. with Miss Clara, had gone to Castelnau, a little
village on the road to Toulouse. Received from Mr. George a lesson of botany.
Wrote out fairly my accounts, which I may as well send you at present. Mr. Ensor
is a sufficient witness as to the mode of disbursing the money until we arrived at
Paris: I have therefore only kept account of what succeeded my arrival there. You
will see the amazing cheapness of provisions in the South of France by reading my
accounts, especially when I tell you the suppers, being at the table d'h6te, were
most sumptuous.
francs centimes
Advance of money for place in the
diligence, 35 00
Cabriolet to and from Arcneil, 4 75
Cabriolet from the Rue de Voltaire
to the Porte St. Martin, 2 00
To fille de chambre at M. Say's
house, 3 50
Extraordinary at Paris, 0 20
Remainingfor place to Grizolles, 34 60
Paid for baggage, 32 60
Fiaere to the Messageries Royales, 1 80
To two porters, 1 70
SupperatEtampes, 3 50
Dinner at Noah, 2 15
Postillions to Massay, 1 25
Supper and bed at Massay, 3 70
Breakfast at Chateauroux, 1 20
Postillions to Beaumondai. 0 75
128 70
Dinner at Beaumondai, 3 20
Breakfast at Limoges, 2 20
Supper at Uzerches, 3 10
Breakfast at Brives la Gaillard, 0 75
Ferry over the river Dordogn¢, 0 10
Supper and bed at Peyrac, 3 65
Postillions to Peyrac, 0 50
Breakfast at Cahors, 2 50
Conducteur. 5 75
19 75
128 70
148 45
Reed of Mr. Ensor 166 90
Remain 18 45
After dinner, saw the peasants' dance, which was nothing except each man and
each woman dancing backwards and forwards, with steps of their own composing.
Madame de Pompignan, with her son 4 and the cur_, came in the evening and
remained some time. Her husband the Marquis we have not seen, as he is at Paris,
very indisposed.
June 19
[J] Rose early: Mr. George went to Toulouse, with an intention however of
returning in the evening. Before breakfast finished the "Hermotimus" of Lucian;
also finished the tragedy I had yesterday begun; wrote French exercises. After
breakfast, assisted Miss Sarah and Sir S.B. in moving their things and putting them
in the vehicles. Sir S.B. Lady B. Madame de Chesnel and Miss Clara set off for
good and all to Toulouse, leaving the house without any inhabitants except myself,
Miss Sarah and Mr. George, who did not return till the evening; together with
some of the servants. I went, by the desire of Lady Bentham, in the carriage with
Miss Clara for a small portion of the way, until the other passengers mounted. I
then walked home and found the doors locked, which put me at my shifts to get in:
at last, however, I found the means of opening a window of the dining room,
which, though fastened on the inside, had been left a little ajar. Went to the library;
read another Tragedy of Voltaire. Dined with Miss Sarah; after dinner Mdme de
Pompignan and her son came, and took Miss Sarah home with them. I was thus
wholly alone: it rained and I could not go out: I read part of an articlein theAnnales
de Chimie.
June 20
[J] Breakfasted early, packed up my trunk, assisted as much as I could Mr.
George and Miss Sarah, read a comedy of Voltaire. Mme de Pompignan came in
the morning, and looked over the windows of the house with Mr. George. After
dinner Mr. G. and Miss Sarah went to call on Mdme de Pompignan and did not
return till late. I learnt that instead of departing on the 21 st we could not go till the
23rd, on which I resolved to unpack some of my books.
June 21
[J] Learntthis morning that my trunk must go today, and that therefore I must
take out my sac de nuit, which happened to be at the very bottom of my trunk; so
that I was obliged to unpack every thing and to pack over again. Took out however
the French dictionary. The confusion at present in the house is very great, the
pieces of furniture piled over each other; nothing is going forward except packing
and sending off. There can be no regularity at present in any thing.--Read a
comedy by Regnard,5 and several other things--indeed I was reading French
almost all day, as it was raining most of the time, and my books were all packed up.
After all my trunk did not go today as Mr. George thought it best to send f'wstall
those packages which were not to be opened at Toulouse, and which therefore are
not to go tothe Apartement, Rue St. Anne, but to a Magazin. I understandhowever
that it would certainly be sent tomorrow. In the evening I removed every thing of
mine out of the library, as I was told it was to be locked up. Miss Sarah was
employed in the evening about rubbing the library floor with a sort of mixture
consisting of ochre and wax dissolved in some kind of liquid consisting of ashes
and some ingredients which I know not: Mr. George was employed in packing and
sending off the packages: as for me I was always either assisting him or walking
out.
[J] Slept till after nine o'clock,--I do not know for what reason, for I usually
wake very early: Breakfasted, walked a little, learntthat my trunk was not to go till
tomorrow morning early, no one can tell when we ourselves shall go; the stay here
begins now to be very tiresome to me, on account of the confusion of my being
obliged to pack up my books so early, thinking we were to set offthe very next day,
etc. especially now, when I am excluded from the library. Madame de Pompignan
5JeanFrancoisRegnard(1655-1709).
June 1820 French Journal and Notebook 29
is there at this instant looking over the books with Mr. George. Upon learning that
my trunk is not to set off as yet, I have taken out my exercise book and written a
considerable portion of French exercises.--We have received several notes from
Lady Bentham and Miss Clara at Toulouse, and I understand they are very well
satisfied with the Apartement though they would have liked it better in the
country.--Made some additions to my Livre statistique et geographique de
France. I am already much improved in the geography of France by learning the
departments with their chefs lieux by heart so as to be able to repeat them without
hesitation, and in an order which designates at the same time their geographical
situation, so that there is no considerable town of which I do not know the position
or at least in what part of France it is situated: I am now applying myself more to the
course of the rivers and to the number, names, and situation, of all considerable
streams which the great ones receive. All these are things of which I have great
occasion, for before I had only a general knowledge of the geography of France; I
knew little of the particular situation of the greater part of the larger towns or the
particular course of the rivers. This, however, is only my occupation when I have
nothing else to do. Walked about a little. Read several dialogues of Lucian. Began
the B_ov 7rpa_r_c;.6 After dinner Miss Sarah went to Madame de Pompignan's.
Mr. G. was wholly employed in packing up things. Drank tea and went early to
bed, leaving no one up except some of the servants and Miss Sarah who was
colouring some of the floors: Pierrotou the domestique fell asleep in my bedroom,
and waked at about 1 o'clock in the morning.
June 23
[J] Rose at 3 o'clock in the morning as did Mr. George: finished packing, locked
my trunk; at 5 o'clock went for a walk; walked towards Fronton, a considerable
town to the east of Pompignan: skirted a large forest, and nearly reached it, but had
not time to go quite up to it. Saw very high mountains to the east; turned to one
side, skirted another very great wood, (the Bois de Fronton) and returned home by
Gxizolles. The walk was extremely pleasant, extremely long, and very sultry
notwithstanding the earliness of the hour. The diversity of the cultivation is
amazing: wheat is very much cultivated, in particular the bearded sort: barley and
rye are also in great plenty, and oats are grown. Peas, and beans of every sort,
thrive very well, though the greater part of the early peas were destroyed by the
severe winter of last year, as they are here sown as early as September and
October. Maize, by the natives called millet, grows in great perfection; as it is a
plant which you have possibly never seen, I tell you at present that it grows very
much like a rush, and indeed appears to be of that genus. I have eaten maize bread:
it is very solid and cloying. The vineyards look very beautiful although about here
the vines are never suffered to grow above two or three feet in height. Several other
sorts of plants are here cultivated as food for horses and for poultry: but I do not
think I have seen a single grass field (though I have seen commons) notwithstand-
ing which the horses eat hay. Sir Samuel Bentham buys his hay atCastelnau (in the
Patois language corresponding to Chateauneuf or Neufchatel) a little village on the
road to Toulouse, where (though I do not recollect having observed it) there is, I
am told, a very pretty meadow. The Spanish broom grows wild here on the
commons to much greater height, strength and beauty, than I have ever seen it. The
scabious is very fine here. Nothing is more common in the corn fields than Venus'
looking glass, and I have seen larkspurs and lupins growing in the same
manner.--From the top of the high hills behind the Chateau we have a very fine
view of the plain of the Garronne, which Arthur Young thought, in point of
cultivation, the finest in the world. 7 We see the mountains of Gascony in the
distance, aridthe Garronnerunning through the middle of the plain, wherever there
is an opening in the trees which cover its banks. We likewise see the beautiful town
of Grenade standing on the opposite bank.--I perceive I shall have walking
enough to-day; for at breakfast Miss Sarah has invited me to go this evening to the
banks of the Garronne which she says are remarkably beautiful. I understand that
my trunkis not to go till evening. As all my books are locked up in the trunk, all Sir
Samuel's also packed up, and all M. de Pompignan's locked up in the library, I am
afraidI shall be a little troubled with ennui to-day but I must do my best to avoid
it.--The weather has altogether changed: from one of the dullest summers ever
known here it is changing into fine clear hot weather. This makes me very glad that
we shall most likely go to Toulouse in the evening, rather than the morning of
tomorrow.--Wrote another small portion of Livre Stat. et Geog. Had a
conversation with two workmen, who seem to be very intelligent; it appears from
what I have heard them say that they are well acquainted with modern history, and
they tell me that they are able to read an English book though they cannot speak
English; they speak Spanish. This is an instance of the evil effects of the law which
compels every father to divide far the greater part of his property equally among his
children. There are four of these workmen who are brothers; their father, it appears
from their own account, had given them as good an education as it was in his
power: but for this law two, or one at least, might have been placed in a situation to
gain his living without cultivating the ground.--After dinner, I took a walk to the
village of [Sades?] on the Garronne and walked on the banks. This is very far up
the course of the river; it has neither received the Tam nor the Gers, though it has
the Am_ge. It is nevertheless a large fiver, but of very unequal breadth. In some
places it is, I think, wider than the Thames at Richmond: in other places, it is not
much more than half that breadth; in these last spots it flows with extreme rapidity.
The opposite bank is covered with woods.mThis river runs very deep in its banks,
7ArthurYoung (1741-1820), Travels during the Years 1787, 1788, and 1789 (1792,
1794), 2nd ed., 2 vols. (London and Bury St. Edmunds: Richardson, 1794), Vol. I, pp.
348-51, and Vol. II, p. 66. (Mill is exaggerating slightly.)
June 1820 French Journal and Notebook 31
so that in most places I think it is not very deep unless after unusual rains. I can
however readily suppose that near the mouth it must be extremely wide and deep.
As its course is very winding, it must be about 300 miles from Grenade to the sea.
In this interval it receives the rivers Tam, Gers, Lot and Dordogne, besides many
smaller rivers. The Tam at Montauban is as wide, though not so deep, as the
Thames at Richmond. After passing Montauban it receives the Aveiron, which is
atleast as wide, Ibelieve much wider than the Thames atStaines. The Lot is a very
large river at Cahors, 70 or 80 miles before it joins the Garronne; and in particular,
I have seen at Souillac the great river Dordogne, at least 200 miles before it joins
the Garrorme,and when it has not yet received the Corr_ze; even there it is as wide
as the Thames at Staines. Indeed when this river joins the Garronne it becomes an
armof the sea, and is called the Gironde.--I wished to have reached Grenade, but
could not find a ferry. After my return, Miss Sarah called on Madme de
Pompignan, who returned to tea with her; as did the Comte de Pompignan, son of
the Marquis. This evening being the veille de St. Jean, the fires lighted up in the
neighbourhood made a very pretty appearance.
June 24
[J] Lay in bed purposely late, having nothing to do. At breakfast M. le Comte de
Pompignan came in; he very politely offered me the key of the library, which I
accepted thankfully; he looked over with me a book of prints of all the pretty views
in the prettiest gardens and parks in France. I afterwards read a tragedy of Voltaire.
As we shall certainly set off for Toulouse tonight and as my sheet is finished, I
think it best to send you this letter from Grizolles, and so save you the extra
postage.8
P.S. I have learnt since finishing this letter that we shall not go to Toulouse till
tomorrow morning, as there will not be time t[onigh]t to set off sufficiently early.
**4**
Toulouse / 4_me Juillet, 1820
Mon cher P_re,
Je vous aurais 6crit, comme auparavant, en Anglais, si M. George ne m'avait
pas dit qu'il vaut mieux 6:rire toujours Franqais. J'al pourtant _'rit le journal en
Amglais, et vous le verrez ci-apr_s. Peut 8tre vous n'avez pas requ ma lettre du
vingt quatfi_me de Juin si t6t que vous aurez pu l'attendre: c'est parceque le courier
ne part pas tousles jours et la lettre a du attendre quelque terns _tToulouse. Dans
cette lettre-ci, vous trouverez quelques nouvelles sur rues occupations pr_sentes.
--J'ai attendu une lettre depuis quelque terns, mais je n'en ai point re_u. J'_spere
que ma m_re, rues soeurs, et mon fr_re se portent bien: et ma grand'm_re aussi, et
tous nos amis. Tout le monde ici se porte tout4t-fait bien.
June 24
[J] After having learnt as I have told you in my last letter that we should not set
offtill to-morrow morning, we dined: after dinner the young Comte de Pompignan
came in, and finished looking over the house. After dinner the Marquise came
also, and we all walked together in the grounds; they staid to tea. This being St.
John's day, we saw again fires lighted up, but not so many as last night.
June 25
[J] Rose at about half after 2 o'clock, dressed, packed up sac de nuit, the Comte
came at 4 o'clock, to see Miss Sarah safe off: I walked along with them, a little way
on the high road, till the charaban overtook us. This vehicle is rather a strange one;
open, very light, and going upon four wheels; the company in it consisted of Miss
Sarah, Mademoiselle Julie her maid, and myself: besides Mr. George who rode on
horseback. We set off at about half after 5 o'clock: Miss Sarah drove as far as
Castelnau, not quite a quarter of the way: she drives very well, and, by her own
account, is very fond of driving. At a little beyond Castelnan, I commenced being
initiated in the art of driving; and I drove the rest of the way. We are now at Rue St.
Anne, Numero deux, in a very good Apartement, though rather small compared
with the Chateau de Pornpignan; this you will believe when I tell you that my
bedroom is about two thirds of the size of the dressing room at Queen Squarel and
the bed occupies about half of this roomy apartment, so that with my enormous
trunk and a set of portable shelves which Madame de Chesnel has lent me, I have
not, you may suppose, much space for myself and my poor chair, though I cannot
say there is not room for me to turn round. As the room will not hold a table, I am
now writing in Mr. G.' s room (about half as large again as mine ) not on his table,
for that is occupied, but on a little box which I have placed on his bed for that
purpose. After having breakfasted, I went into my spacious little hole, and finished
Lucian's B_ov _rpatrrg, I likewise arranged my books on this little set of shelves;
read some of Thomson's Chemistry.2
June 26
[J] Rose early, read a portion of a collection of select passages of French authors
which belongs to Mr. George; read a treatise on the use of the Subjunctive Mood,
in a very elaborate grammar; 3 after breakfast wrote French exercises; read two
Eclogues of Virgil; 4 and the "Alectryon" of Lucian. 5 I found, that, studying as
much French as was thought necessary I had not time to read Latin and Greek and
study Mathematics every day, I therefore resolved to set apart a day for
Mathematics and a day for Latin and Greek. This day I likewise learned another
French fable.
June 27
[J] Rose early, went with Mr. George in the charaban to Dr. Russell's, and with
him and three of his sons 6we went to bathe in the Garronne a little above the town.
The current however was too strong for a learner: I could hardly stand up in it. I
believe it is intended that we should go every morning. Returned, wrote French
exercises. Mr. George contrived to place a table in my little room, to enable me to
write there. Read a portion of Legendre's Geometry. This book, as far as I have
read, appears to me to contain the best system of Geometry I have ever known of:
the Axioms are but five, 7 and all follow so perfectly and so immediately from the
definitions that nothing can more plainly confirm the proposition of Hobbes that
definitions are the sole principles; s the definition of a straight line in particular
much excels that of Euclid, 9 being simply that a straight line is the shortest which
can be drawn between two points; this is not only a much more intelligible
definition than that of a line which lies evenly between its extreme points; but it
reduces to nothing the demonstration that two sides of a triangle are greater than
the third side; for this is an immediate conclusion from the definition. Most of the
elementary theorems, which I have read, of Legendre, are founded by him in a
very simple and easy manner upon the last mentioned theorem; assisted sometimes
by two or three others; but this theorem is the foundation of them. Learnt a very
long fable by heart; tried two propositions in West's App'x. Solved one of them,
which I have tried over for several years and have never been able to solve: found
the other too difficult, but hope to solve it to-morrow. Had not time to read to day
any of Lacroix. 1° Mr. George engaged for me the best dancing master in
Toulouse, 11 who gives 20 lessons for 12 francs (dear for this country), which,
when the exchange is at par, is exactly sixpence a lesson; after dinner, went to his
house and took the fast lesson.
June 28
[J] Went again to the river with Mr. George, Dr. Russell and his sons. After my
return, read two Eclogues of Virgil; and also part of a Treatise on indefinite
Pronouns in the Grammar I have told you of. 12Read some more of Legendre: I
perceive that almost all his demonstrations are more simple than those of Euclid,
and often even than those of West--studied Mr. Bentham's Chrestomatic Tables,
inclutfing the great Table of the divisions of Human knowledge, or of
Eudaemonics:13 began the "Vocalium Judicium" of Lucian. 14Took the second
dancing lesson.
June 29
[J] Went again to the river, walked a considerable way up the course to find a
better place, but found none--ln coming back, went to the Post Office, but found
no letters. Were much later than usual in our return. Read an Eclogue of Virgil,
finished the "Vocalium Judicium," wrote a great quantity of French exercises,
read some of Boilean's little pieces. 15 I have not at present any regular French
book to read, but this defect will be soon remedied as Dr. Russell has promised to
lend me any part I please of Voltaire's works,--Consulted Mr. George on the
possibility of procuring a Praxis on the higher branches of the Mathematics, as I
have performed over and over all the problems in Lacroix's Differential
Calculus.--Tried some more problems and theorems in West's Appx, and
resolved three, including that which I could not resolve on the 27th. The Comte de
Pompignan came in the forenoon, but returned before dinner.--After dinner,
June 30
[J] Went to General Partouneaux's house with Mr. George, in order to take with
us M. Tonin to the river; but after waiting about half an hour at the door we
received his excuse, and accordingly went to the river without him. Breakfasted on
our return; after breakfast, read 2 Eclogues of Virgil, finished the "Cataplus," read
more of Legendre: found a demonstration of his incomplete; wrote French
exercises; read some of Sanderson's Logic; 18 read Thomson's Chemistry; a
gentleman came in who, I understand, is a lecturer on Astronomy; _9 he
recommended to me Cagnioli's Trigonometry, z° which is therefore to be procured
for me, by Lady Bentham's directions. After dinner, read again Thomson; took my
dancing lesson asusual.
July 1
[J] Did not go to the river, as Mr. George was obliged to set out at half after 3 in
the morning to go to Pompignan, for the purpose of sending off some things which
remained there. Before breakfast, read the remainder of the treatise on Indefinite
Pronouns; read also some of Sanderson. After breakfast, began to read Lucian's
"Necyomantia"; 2_ wrote French exercises; finished the f'wst book of Legendre;
read Thomson's Chemistry. The young ladies had a singing master to-day: on the
3rd he is to come again, and to give me lessons in singing and in the Principles of
Music. After dinner, read again Thomson; took my dancing lesson.mExpect a
letter every day. --The weather has been since we came to Toulouse very hot even
for this climate, whereas before it was the coldest summer almost ever known. For
two or three days, now, it has been a little less hot.
July 2
[J] Rose early: Mr. George was so tired after his yesterday's fatigue that we
could not go to bathe. Read 99 lines of the Georgics of Virgil;z2 read also another
portion of the "Necyomantia" of Lucian. After breakfast, read Thomson's
Chemistry. Was at a great loss for linen; for the washing of the dirty linen is not
very frequent, mine being now gone for the second time since I have been in
France: at last, Mr. George lent me a pair of his pantaloons, which were shortened
a little in the legs, and fitted me very well. Even the peasants here have a great
quantity of linen; the poorest have two or three dozen shirts. Mr. G. intends
ordering me new waistcoats and trowzers; the more so as my waistcoats are much
too long, and my trowzers too short, for the French fashion. Wrote Livre
geographique et statistique. Dined; went after dinner in the carriage with Sir S.B.
Mr. George and the young ladies to a temporary amphitheatre erected here for the
exhibition of horsemanship by a company of which the leader is M. Franconi.23
Here we saw very extraordinary horsemanship, though inferior to some that I have
seen at Astley's. 24The sagacity, however, of some of the horses, is the greatest I
have ever seen, though not greater than that of some of Mr. Astley's 616ves; in
particular, a horse was exhibited, who, among his other exploits, fired off a pistol;
walked to a considerable distance on two legs; and having mounted on a table, beat
time, with all his feet, to music. Some of the most extraordinary horsemanship was
by young ladies; one of them apparently not older than Willie. A youth of less than
my age performed various movements of fencing with great dexterity; and
another, habilld en Chinois, showed the greatest agility I have ever yet seen. A
grand Equestrian Ballet was also introduced:--On our return found Dr. and Mrs.
Russell in the house waiting for us; conversed with them for some time; it seems
that affairs are in great confusion in England about the Queen; it appears to be the
general topic of conversation here.--Dr. Russell told us of a very strangemeasure
of government, if it is true, which Lady Bentham thinks it is not: that the gens
d'armes have paid domiciliary visits through the department of the Sarthe for the
purpose of seizing all letters written from the deputies to their constituents; this, if
true, is a proceeding very extraordinary, and very arbitrary. Learnt also to night
that by the purportof the election law, each arrondissement is to send a deputy, and
besides this, a number of deputies equal to one fourth of the whole is chosen by the
superior college of electors but that the members of this superior college have also
a vote for the deputies of the several arrondissemens.25--M, de Campe came in;
and Mr. George requested of him to give me a few lessons in French, but he is too
much occupied. Nevertheless he will endeavour to find me a French master.
July 3
[J] Went to the river, found the water very turbid; in returning the charaban lost
a wheel, but Mr. G. contrived to put it on again.--Went out with Mr. G, bought a
stiffner _ la Fran_aise, was measured for a short waistcoat and a long pair of
trowzers also _ la Fran_aise. Returned, breakfasted, read Sanderson, wrote livre:
Geographique, etc. wrote French exercises, began to learn a very long fable. As
there had been some talk of my going, with some part of the family (what part I
know not) to some sort of a Serenade, to which the young ladies had been invited; I
was again put to my shifts for linen; I had expected my clean linen home today, but
as it did not come, sent some down stairs to be washed out--Took my In'st lesson
in Solfeges et Principes de Musiqae: hurried over dinner, dressed, went in the
carnage again to Franconi's, understanding that it was to be the last day--The
performances were still more extraordinary than yesterday: besides the horse
Ph6nix whom I told you of, who performed his various exercises, those of firing a
pistol, walking on two legs, dancing, picking up a piece of silver, beating time to
music, etc. we had the horse called le R6gent, a beautiful black horse from the king
of England's stables, whom no one could break in before Franconi; at present he is
perfectly tame and seems to understand every word which his master speaks. The
horsemanship was also superior; a young man jumped through a hoop of about 3
feet in diameter lifted up to a great height, and alighted with one foot on the horse's
back: he also performed a variety of astonishing exercises with a little hoop in his
hand, which he jumped through three times in the air previous to alighting on the
horse's back. It is not to be closed until after one more night's exhibition, to which
we are going.--Lady Bentham had given leave to the domestique Pierretou and
his mother, with two of the maids to go to night; it has astonished them a good deal,
and we have been much amused by the remarks of Pierretou's mother. In returning
called on Gen. Partouneaux but none of the family were at home. On our return,
the Serenade project was given up; we drank tea, and are now preparing to go to
bed. This letter will be dated tomorrow morning. 26
_5_
July 4
[J] Rose at 5 o'clock, went to the river at half after five: found the water much
clearer than yesterday. Borrowed Voltaire's Essai sur les Moeurs etc. _ of Dr.
Russell; returned home at ½after 7. Finished my letter dated this day; sent it off: at 8
o'clock M. Layrieu the dancing master came as usual to give a lesson to the young
ladies but as Miss Clara had not yet risen, I took a lesson in her stead. Breakfasted
at ¼before 9: at half past nine, began to read Voltaire from the place where I had
left off in England. Read six chapters, which occupied me two hours. Read 47
lines of Virgil's Georgics: at a quarter after twelve began to read a treatise on the
Use of various Adverbs, in the French grammar I have already mentioned. 2At half
after one, began the second book of Legendre; read the definitions and five
propositions. Miscellaneous employments till 3 o'clock; then took my second
lesson of Principes de Musique.--Dined; Sir S.B. Mr. George, and the young
ladies went again to see Franconi, but I did not, on account of my dancing lesson.
Wrote French exercises, etc. practised Music; went to M. Layrieu's but he was
gone to Franconi's, and as, after I had waited about an hour, I was told he would
not return before half an hour more was elapsed, I came away.--Found two of the
Messr's Courtois, great bankers of Toulouse, at the house, they did not stay
long.3--ps, to this day's journal.--My new waistcoat came home last night.
IEssais sur les moeurs et l'esprit des nations, et sur les principaux faits de l'histoire,
depuis Charlemagnejusqu'a Louis XIII (1756), in Oeuvres completes, 66 vols. (Paris:
Renouard, 1819-25), Vols. XIII-XVI.
_3irault-Duvivier,Grammaire, Vol. U, pp. 58-98.
._he banking house was founded by Isaac Courtois (1743-1819); the two callers were
undoubtedly two of his sons, Auguste (1783-1847), Henri (1786-1848), and F_lix
July 1820 French Journal and Notebook 39
July 5
[J] Rose at 5 o'clock, it rained very hard and we could not, therefore, go to the
river. Read 5 chapters of Voltaire; at half after seven, Mr. G. began to correct my
exercises for some time back; this occupied us till half after 8, when my Sotfeges
master 4 came, and gave me a lesson. At a quarter after nine began to write my
exercises; continued them till half after 10, with the interval of breakfast, and of
making myself black lines to write by. At half after 10 the washerwoman brought
back my clean linen, I put my room in order, etc. At a quarter after eleven took out
Lucian, and finished the "Necyomantia"; then read five propositions of Legendre.
I have never read a book of geometry which I like so well as l_gendre; I find it
extremely superior to Euclid, not only in the additional matter, but in the
arrangement so as to deduce the demonstration of a theorem from the most proper
sources for the purpose of rendering the proof simple, short and distinct. All the
propositions of the 2 fast books are Theorems. Practised my lesson of Principes de
Musique--Looked out my dirty linen and gave it to the washerwoman. At a
quarter past one, began to read Thomson; made out various chemical tables etc.
continued till a quarter after three.--Was then occupied about half an hour in
trying to resolve several propositions in West's Appendix No. III, of which I
resolved two that I have never been able before to resolve, though I have frequently
tried them. Began then to make out a table of 58 rivers, the principal in France,
classified and arranged; with the whole of their course, that is to say, what
departments each passes through and what are the chief towns on their banks. At
four o'clock, dined; afterwards, finished my table, and went to my dancing lesson;
returned and supped. My new pair of trowzers have come home this afternoon.
N.B. I have neglected to insert in its proper place that Lady Bentham has engaged
me a music mistress,5 at whose house I am to practise as there is music here almost
all day; the young ladies having every day a harp and a guitar master as well as a
maitre de solfeges; and Mr. George having also a violin master.
July 6
[J] Rose at 6 o'clock, rained in the morning; could not go to the river. Read five
chapters of Voltaire;mat a quarter after 9, tried for a quarter of an hour some
problems in West' s App'x. Till nine took my lesson of Principes de Musique; tried
again some problems, breakfasted, tried again problems till a quarter after 10;
wrote French exercises till 11; began to correct my Dialogue, was occupied till 12_
about; was called in a hurry to dress for going out with Mr. G. and Sir S.B.
Dressed; went with them to call on M. Daubuisson the astronomer I have spoken of
in my last letter; he was not at home; called on M. Decampe, who has found me a
(1790-1865), all of whom were bankers; the eldest, Louis (1775-1837), according to
Ge4_geBentham, never went out.
ot identified.
5Identifiedbelow as Mine Boulet.
40 Journals and Speeches No. 1
French master, 6 and Mr. G. is going to settle tomorrow morning with this
master;--returned at about 1t; copied and corrected Dialogue till 3¼; read
Thomson till four; dined; read again Thomson till six; Mr. G. then corrected my
exercises of yesterday, and part of to day's; went to M. Larrieu's, but he did not
give lessons, as Sunday and Thursday are the days when masters do not generally
give them in this country. Returned; read Thomson till 8; repeated several fables to
Mr. G; miscellaneous affairs; supped. N.B. I always write my journal just before
going to bed.
July 7
[J] Rose at 5]; till 7, read five chapters of Voltaire; till 7½,46 lines of Virgil; till
8, commenced Lucian's "Jupiter Confutatus.-7 Went then to M. Larrieu's to tell
him not to come this morning to give lessons to the young ladies, for fear of
disturbing Madame de Chesnel, who is very unwell; found him already set out;
returned home; and till nine o'clock took my lesson of Principes de Musique. Till
half after nine, continued Lucian; breakfasted; finished "Jupiter Confutatus" at
10L A short time after, M. Daubuisson the astronomer whom I have told you of,
came in, which obliged me to dress, but I was not called into the drawing room.
Till 11½,read Thomson, made Chemical Tables; from 11] to a quarter after twelve
read seven propositions of Legendre. This author has put very confusedly in his
second book, propositions relating to ratio, without having ever defined ratio; he
even takes for granted one of the most important propositions of the whole theory,
namely the doctrine of ex aequali proportion, which he makes use of without
attempting to prove it--this takes away a good deal of my opinion of the merit of
the book as an elementary work. Till 1½wrote exercises, and various miscellanies:
till 2¼,read another portion of the treatise on the Use of Adverbs in the Grammaire
des Grammaires: till 3¼, read again Thomson. Wrote my Livre Geographique
etc.--miscellanies till 5 o'clock, when, by Mr. G's advice, I took something to
eat, not knowing when we should dine, on account of Mme de Chesnel's
indisposition:--at half after five went to receive a music lesson, from Mine
Boulet, a lady who has once been in very good circumstances, but was deprived of
almost all she had during the Revolution, and has since lived by her musical
talents--She is employed by the first people in Toulouse, and it was a great favour
to obtain her consent to teach me--She settled with me that I was to practise every
day from 11 till 12 o'clock at her house, and take a lesson every evening; dined on
my return. During my absence the accouchement of Madme de Chesnel took
place: she is doing well; I have not yet seen Mademoiselle de Chesnel, s but I
suppose I shall see her bye and bye.--Went immediately after dinner to M.
6Identifiedbelowas M. Sauvage.
7"ZeusCatechized," inLucian, Vol. II, pp. 50-86.
SThenewborngirl, MarieTh6r6seLouise Adelaidede Chesnel (1820-44).
July 1820 French Journal and Notebook 41
July 89
[J] Rose at five o'clock; read five chapters of Voltaire; at 6_, began to read
another portion of the Treatise on the Use of the Adverbs; Mr. G. went to call on
M. Sauvage, and engaged him to give me lessons in French. At 73 commenced
reading the "Prometheus''_° of Lucian: from 8½till 9, took my first lesson of
solfeges, with the principes de musique; continued the "Prometheus" till 9½,when
we breakfasted. From 10_ to 10_ was employed miscellaneously; went then to
Madame Boulet's to practise my music; she has bought me some pieces of music.
Returned at 12½,read 10 propositions of Legendre. It must be allowed that if any
thing could palliate the fault I have noticed of introducing the ratios and the
measures of angles before the right place, it is the facility which this method gives
to the demonstration of the subsequent propositions. This however cannot excuse
so palpable a logical error as that of making use of an unproved and scarcely
explained proposition as the foundation of others, when there are demonstrations
in Euclid of the same propositions, following with the greatest exactness all the
rules of correct reasoning.--For the rest, Legendre's Problems are resolved much
more simply than those of Euclid, in as much as he had a choice of almost all the
theorems contained in the first and third books of Euclid, together with several
others for the formation of his demonstrations! This convinces me of the advantage
of placing the theorems first in an elementary book.--Mr. G. intends to procure
for me Cagnioli's Trigonometry, the book recommended by M. Daubuisson: He
does not know what can be done with regard to the Praxis on the Higher Branches
of the Mathematics; the next time I see M. Daubuisson, I intend to ask him if there
is any good work of that kind. Wrote Livre Geographique etc. dressed, went with
Sir S.B. and Mr. G. to dine with Dr. Russell. While there heard that M. Berard the
great chemist from Montpellier I l was come as expected to call on Sir Samuel; this
called away Sir S.B. and Mr. G. but I remained till some time after; Sir S. came
back, and staid a short time, after which we both returned home together. M.
Berard has written a short time ago to Sir S. telling him that the estates at
Restincli_-es which Sir S. had thoughts of buying would not be procurable, in all
probability, at any moderate price, the proprietor 12 having gained a law suit in
which he was engaged, and being no longer in want of money. I know not whether
he has now confm'ned this intelligence. I wait till tomorrow to inform you. I have
seen the little Mademoiselle de Chesnel; her name is Marie-Therese-Louise-
Adelaide, a fine name enough, but that is no wonder, as there are scarce any even
of the female servants who do not call themselves by the name of Julie, Victoire,
Louise, or some such name.
July 9
[J] Set off about 4 o'clock to Dr. Russell' s and with him before 5 to the forest of
Bouconne, about 3 leagues from Toulouse, on the Bayonne road for the purpose of
collecting plants and insects--Mr. G. and I went in the charaban and Dr. Russell
with 3 of his sons went in their cabriolet. The road is not much worn, because it is
hilly as far as Tarbes, and almost all the carriages go by another road.--The
cultivation is of the same kind as in the other parts of the Hant Languedoc which I
have seen. The rye harvest is chiefly over; the oats are [almost?] ready for reaping;
We passed over the little river Touch, and through a little village, near the banks,
called St. Martin du Touch: we passed through Coulomni6res and Leguevin, and a
little after this last village we turned off through a very little, and extremely bad,
road, to the house of the Garde Generale, who is guardian of all the Forests in the
Arrondissement of Toulouse and that of Villefranche. He was very civil to us,
allowed us to put up our horses, and asked us to breakfast at his house, but we
chose rather to eat what we had brought in the forest. After hunting insects for a
considerable time, we ate our breakfast under a large oak, near a ruisseau as the
Garde called it, but it was dry--Water was the only thing we wanted to make our
breakfast very agreeable. The Garde accompanied us--After hunting insects for a
long time with very good success, Mr. George collecting also plants with very
little success, we were invited to the Garde's house, where we arrived about 2
o'clock. Mr. G. and the Russell's had caught a great number of insects, chiefly
butterflies; I had made my coup d'essai by no more than about 10 worth keeping.
The garde gave us a good luncheon at his house, and wanted to give us a dinner;
but indeed we only ate because without eating it was very unsafe to drink water in
such a hot condition as that in which we were. After dinner, caught a few more
insects, and returned home, the Russells leaving by mistake a great number of their
freest insects at the Garde' s House. At our return after 6 o'clock found M. Berard
at the house. He has confmned the intelligence that the proprietor of Restincli6res
has gained his lawsuit, but says that as he does not gain any money by it, he will be
obliged to sell his house in a few months. Before dinner, I was sent to Dr. Russell's
to tell him that Sir S.B. would be glad to speak to him in the evening; returned,
dressed, dined, read a little of Thomson, saw M. Berard, who did not stay long;
Madame Partouneaux called; some time after saw again M. Berard, who had
returned; Dr. and Mrs. Russell came also in the evening; after they went away we
drank tea, along with M. Berard, and then I went to bed. I write this the next
morning, having been too tired the same night.
July 10
[J] Rose less early than usual, on account of yesterday's fatigue. Did not go to
the river; readone chapter of Voltaire; at half-past seven, went with Mr. George to
the house of the French master, M. Sauvage. He did very little this morning except
to make me read French aloud to him for the pronunciation, and set me lessons to
learn to-day, which, though, as you will soon see, they have occupied all my spare
time to-day, have notwithstanding been not a little useful to me in many ways,
besides the language. Returned; breakfasted, translated the first ode of Horace into
French; 13M. Daubuisson came, took with him Sir S.B.M. Berard, Mr. G. and
myself to his house, and showed us many astronomical instruments, in particular a
lunene paralectique for observing the stars in the day time, and a very elegant
portable barometer for observation on the tops of mountains, with an English
sextant made by Troughton,14 by which he explained the way of finding the
latitude at sea. Thence we went to the house of his brother, a great mineralogist, _5
and staid there some time. At our return, it was almost 2 o'clock. I finished in the
following order the lessons given me by M. Sauvage: 1. Wrote a French critique
on a passage of Mascaron's Oraison Fun_bre de Turenne. 162. Learnt half that
passage by heart. 3. Studied some passages which he had marked out for me in a
French Grammar. 4. Began to learn by heart part of Boileau Despr6aux's epistle to
Lamoignon but had not time to finish it. 17
Took my lesson of solfeges and principes de musique; dined; M. Berard was
with us; went to Mine Boulet's and took my music lesson; returned home; was sent
to Dr. Russell's to ask him and Mrs. Russell to come this evening; found him from
home; after staying some time with the young gentlemen, went to M. Larrieu's,
took my dancing lesson; returned to Dr. Russell's, he was not returned; staid some
13Horace( 65-8 B.C. ), Carmina (Odes), in The Odes and Epodes (Latin and English),
trans.C.E. Bennett (London: Heinemama;Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UniversityPress,
1964),pp. 1-347.
14EdwardTroughton (1753-1835), F.R.S. and F.R.S.E., scientific instrument maker.
15JeanFranf.oisd'Aubuisson de Voisins( 1769-1841 ), mining engineer and author.
16JulesMascaron (1634-1703), Oraisonfun_bre du tr_s-haut et tr_s-puissantPrince
Henri de la Tour-d'Auvergne, viscomte de Turenne (1676), in Recueil des oraisons
fundbresprononc_es par Messire Jules Mascaron (Paris: Du PrOs, 1704), pp. 303-412.
Masearon'seulogies, of whichthis is his masterpiece, were muchfavouredby Louis XIV,
whose great generalwas Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, vicomte de Turerme (1611-75).
17"EpistreVI, _tLamoignon" (1683), in Oeuvres, new ed., 2 vols. (The Hague:Gosse
and Neaulme, 1729), Vol. I, 357-70, addressed to Franqois Cb_r_tiende Lamoignon
(1644-1709), eloquentlawyer, and friend to the literati.
44 Journals and Speeches No. 1
time, and returnedhome: drank tea, M. Berard not being there. Dr. Russell did not
come, though I left wordwIf for no other reason, my situation is better than the
generality of situations because the whole family, without ill humour, constantly,
if I do anything amiss, tell me of it immediately, and explain to me in all respects
how I ought to act. I have received from them many cautions and directions,
without which I should stand some chance of meeting with a reception not very
good in France; forthis, as well as for all their other kindnesses you will agree that I
ought to be very thankful.
July 11
[J] Went early to bathe, found the water very pleasant, went to M. Sauvage,
received my lesson, that is, he corrected my Critique and my translation, and gave
me new things to do: besides laying down a plan for every morning's work.
Returned, breakfasted, received your letter of July 4th, to which I cannot reply at
any better time than the present. I am rather surprised at your having received only
two letters, as this is the 6th is I have written since arriving at Pompignan. I am very
glad that Lady B. has written a good account of me, as from the very first day of my
arrival it has been my most earnest endeavour to please not only her, but the whole
family; and nothing can give me pleasure more sincere than to learn that I have in
part succeeded. That you are all in good health I need not say I am glad. That Willie
and Clara make progress in History I am very much pleased to hear, as, with
Geography and Arithmetic, it is the most necessary of all studies for young people
of both sexes. In Geography, at least modern, and in Arithmetic they had made
considerable progress when I left London: and I hope, when I return, to see them
mistresses of Historical knowledge also. The thing most necessary is to interrogate
both, but Clara in particular, on what they have some time finished, as they are
extremely apt to forget: and this I have found the chief difficulty in teaching them
Arithmetic. If Dr. Thomson 19 is still with you, I wish you would have the
goodness to present my compliments by his means to Miss Colquhoun, 2° and to
make my apology for not having written.--But in telling me of Dr. Thomson you
have told me nothing of Mr. John Wallace, 2_who has doubtless been at your house
during part of the vacation--I wish he would write to me. He was I dare say a little
surprised to see your family consisting of one less than usual. I shall write at the
first opportunity to Mr. Ensor, and to Mrs. Austin, 22who I hope is well. I should
be much obliged to you to tell her that I am very grateful to her for the instructions
she has given me in French. I should also be very glad if the next time you write to
Mr. Ensor you would thank him in my name for his kindness, and tell him to expect
a letter. His address I believe is Ardriss, Loughgall, Ireland. I am glad that Mrs.
Hume is better; 23in your next letter I wish you would give me an account of Mrs.
Stoker's health. 241 shall be glad to see your work at my return, in an octavo form,
and I have no doubt it will soon be sold off. 25 Your Article on Government is no
doubt very instructive, and I shall read it on my return with great attention. 26As to
the Dialogue I have tried, I shall certainly take the first opportunity of sending it. I
have taken great pains with the expression as well as with the reasoning, and I hope
you will be pleased with it. As to Greek, Latin, and Mathematics; when you
receive my last letter and the present you will see that I have applied myself much
more than before to the two former, and to the Geometrical branch, at least, of the
latter. For the Algebraical branch I have only waited for the possibility of obtaining
a book of problems to resolve, but as I have not yet obtained any such book, I do
not intend to forget what I have learned of Lacroix, though the different lessons I
receive, with my French exercises, are likely, as long as I remain at Toulouse, to
occupy almost my whole time. In this letter, I have divided my day according to
the number of hours employed on each particular study, to shew you that I do not
throw away my time. As to books of amusement, if I wanted them I could not get
them here, as all Sir Samuel's books of that kind are packed up, not to be unpacked
till we arrive at our final destination. I have learned fables by Lady Bentham's
advice, for besides that the pronunciation is much improved by repeating them
aloud, the fables of Lafontaine and some others are expressed in language so
remarkably pure and appropriate that nothing can more contribute to fix in my
memory the rules of construction, as [well as] the French words in their proper
acceptation.
**6**
23MariaHume (n6e Bumley), daughter of an East India proprietor and wife of Joseph
Hume (1777-1855), a former schoolmate of James Mill's and a Radical M.P
24ElizahethStoker, a widow, housekeeper to Jeremy Bentham until pensioned in 1822.
25I.e.,the 2rided. of hisHistory of British India, 6 vols. (London: Baldwinetal., 1820).
26John Mill of course knew his father had written the article for the Encyclopaedia
Britannica;his own "Dialogue," mentioned in the next sentence, was promptedby it (see
the entries for 24 and 25 May above, and App. B below).
46 Journals and Speeches No. 1
Mine Bentham 6crit presque toutes les semaines _tM. son beau-fr_re. Cependant
ma m_re et rues soeurs trouveront darts ce journal-ci de quoi s'amuser. Ayez la
bont6 d'observer que cette lettre-ci porte le numero sept,1 c'_st-_t-dire qu'elle _st la
septi_me que je vous ai envoy6 depuis mon arrival en France. La lettre numero six
_st celle qui _st dat6e du quatri_me de Juillet. J'esp_re que vous m'6crirez bient6t
tree seconde lettre; et que vous vous portez bien, ainsi que tous nos amis. Adieu.
July 11
[J] Continuation. 2 I have shewn to Lady Bentham that part of your letter in
which you speak of the questions asked about me by Lady B: accordingly she has
informed me that a fencing master shall be sought out for me as soon as possible. It
will probably be more difficult for me to obtain riding lessons here than lessons in
fencing, but of this I shall be better able to tell you hereafter. With regard to
Political Economy and Logic I shall certainly follow your directions. The best
exercise in both these branches of knowledge would perhaps be to write treatises
on particular subjects appertaining to both. This I have not yet commenced doing,
but I shall certainly do so.--You tell me you have had a week of very hot weather;
we had at fast very cold weather for the climate, but ever since three days before
we left Pompignan, we have had weather intensely hot every day except two or
three, there is great danger in exposing ourselves to the heat of the sun; two or three
people have been lately killed by coups de soleil. I am obliged, and shall be still
more so, on account of my different lessons, to go out a good deal in the middle of
the day, but this is only dangerous to those who are bareheaded.
I now continue my journal. After having breakfasted and read your letter, I
wrote the remainder of the letter No. 6. And then went to Mme Boulet to practise.
Afterwards I returned home, and performed two of my French lessons, viz,
retranslated the fast Ode of Horace, and wrote observations in French on the same.
Took my solfeges lesson; dined; finished my French lesson by learning by heart the
remainder of Mascaron's "Mort de Turenne," and of Laharpe's Parallel of
Corneille and Racine. 3 Went to take my lesson at Madame Boulet's; called at Dr.
Russell's, and took my dancing lesson. Returned home.
July 12
[J] Went to the river, found the water extremely pleasant--Went to M. Sanvage
who examined what I had done and gave me a lesson on the various pronunciations
July 13
[J] Every one told us the water would be extremely high and cold this morning
on account of the rain; but we found it very agreeable--Went to M. Sauvage but a
gentleman who was coming out sent me away, telling me that M. Sauvage did not
teachon Thursdays; this surprised me a little as he had promised Mr. G. to give me
lessons on Thursdays. Returned to breakfast; wrote a small portion of a Treatise on
Value in French; Sir S. says that M. Say's book shall be borrowed for me if
possible. 7 Learnt by heart the remainder of Labruy6re's parallel--read more of
Lucian's "Icaromenippus'--resolved a proposition of West--practised music at
Madame Boulet's. We are not likely to stay long here; as soon as Mme de Chesnel
is sufficiently recovered, we shall probably set out on our tour to the Pyrenees,
perhapsnot to return to Toulouse--I must therefore pay particular attention to the
lessons I take from masters--Latin, Greek, Mathematics, etc. will be better done
hereafter. After dinner, Mr. G. resolved several propositions in West's App'x and
I resolved one that I have never been able to resolve before though I have often
tried it--Went to a fencing lesson with Mr. G. Read part of a review of a work
called Programme du Cours du Droit public d la facultd de droit d Paris; in a
July 14
[J] Went again to the river, found the water colder than yesterday; went to M.
Sauvage, read with him some pages of a treatise on the French pronunciation, 1oa _
small portion of a treatise on construction; _1 he examined what I had done of _
French exercises, and gave me new ones--returned and took a short lesson of
solf_ges; breakfasted, Mr. G. found out a riding school and engaged for me, and
for himself, to take lessons--performed my French exercises, that is, to make an
Analyse, as M. Sauvage called it, of Juno's soliloquy--and to learn by heart ?
perfectly the whole of Labruy_re's parallel. Wrote Livre Geographique, tried i.
problems of West; went to Madme Boulet's, received lesson, practised, returned '_
to dinner, went to riding lesson, with Mr. G. then to fencing lesson, then to be
measured for a pair of leather pantaloons, which the riding master says are '2
necessary, and for which Mr. G. is also measured. Went to dancing lesson,
returned, supped. My time is now divided as follows. I rise at 5, to the river till 8,
French lesson till 9_, breakfast till 10, solf'eges till 10_, from 10_ till 2 my French _
exercises, Greek, Latin, mathematics, logic and political economy, i.e. as many
of the latter as possible, from 2 till 4 music lesson and practise at Mme Boulet's,
from 4 till 5 dinner, riding till 6, fencing till 7, dancing till 8½,tea till 9. In the time I ":
have set down for each of these occupations, I include the time spent in going to the
respective schools, and, if necessary, that spent also in returning. N.B. I have
forgotten to mention having resolved today 3 theorems in West's Appx. _i
July 15
[J] To the river in the morning, found the water cold; to M. Sauvage, who _°
examined my yesterday's exercises, etc. Home to a short lesson of solf_ges, _.
breakfasted very late, performed French exercises, 1. the commencement of a
translation into French of the speech of Catiline to his accomplices, in Sallust; 12
2
2. began to learn by heart Henault's parallel of the reign of Augustus and that of
Louis XIV. 13 To Mme Boulet, returned to dinner, riding, fencing, dancing;
home to supper. I have received directions from M. Sauvage to go in future to his
house at noon, by which arrangement I shall be occupied with masters from noon
till 9 at night, exclusive of about 20 minutes for dinner.
July 16
[J] Set off very early with Mr. George, Dr. Russell and his sons for another
entomotheric expedition to the forest of Ramette south of Toulouse and in a
different direction from that of Bouconne. It is not so far from Toulouse as
Bouconne. We passed through a pretty enough straggling village and then
proceeded to another village called Tournefeuille where we left the horses and
carriages at a little public house, and walked to the forest at a small distance. We
forded the Touch, almost dryshod, and entering the forest chased insects with very
good success. This forest is not so large as that of Bouconne; it is however much
prettier: and as last night's storm has cooled the air, we found our journey very
pleasant, as well as our gipsey breakfast, tho, as at Bouconne, we were without
water. After some time William Russell, the eldest son of Dr. Russell, and myself,
were separated from the rest having staid too long behind sitting on the grass. After
walking about sometime, we went out of the forest, to the river Touch, and having
drank considerably of very indifferent water, we bathed ourselves there, which we
found very agreeable; the water felt warmer than the air. We then returned into the
wood, and formed a plan of co-operation for the purpose of discovering where our
companions had gone; having pursued this plan for some time ineffectually, we
asked a man who was passing if he had seen them; he told us that they were by the
river side at some distance. On pursuing this road, we at last descried them on the
opposite side of the river at some distance; having gone up opposite to the spot, we
found the river much deeper there than where we had formerly crossed it; however,
there was only one alternative; that of stripping and fording it, carrying over our
clothes, nets etc. in our hands, which we did, and we found that our companions
also had pursued that plan. After leaving our clothes on the other side, we returned
into the middle of the water, and bathed very agreeably, being only annoyed by the
gnats, who bit every part of our bodies which was out of the water.--The Touch is
a little wider than the New River; at the place where we bathed it was at least twice
as wide, but for more than half the breadth its depth is so inconsiderable as not to
merit the name of river. On one side, the slope is very gradual; on the other it is
Vol.I, pp. 34-8. Catiline (Lucius Sergius Catilina) (ca. 108-62 B.C. ), an impoverished
Roman patrician, having failed to be elected Consul for 63 B.C., appealed to the
disaffected,and thenembarkedona conspiracyto assassinateCiceroandtakeoverthe city.
Hewas defeatedandkilled in Etruria.
13CharlesJean Francois H6nault (1685-1770), Nouvel abr(g( chronologique de
r histoirede France (Paris:Praultlt_re, 1744), pp.416-17, where he comparesLouisXVI
toAugustus(GaiusJulius CaesarOctavianus)(63 B.C.-14 A.D. ).
50 Journals and Speeches No. 1
extremely abrupt. Thus the deep part of the river is very near one side. Every where
except in the deep part, (which is so thick with mud at the bottom that I sank in it up
to the ancle), the bottom is large stones like that of the Garonne at our daily bathing
place. One of the circumstances which the most surprised me, is that in the same
spot the water is extremely warm on the one side and cold on the other, so that I lay
several times with my feet in warm water and my head in cold, or vice versa. After
remaining for a considerable time in the water we dressed and walked back to
Tournefeuille, where we finished our provisions (not forgetting about fifty glasses
of water that we drank among us at the inn) and set off to return to Toulouse, which
journey we accomplished in about _ of an hour, and made our triumphal entry into
Toulouse, this Sunday evening, in a car, I assure you, not such as carried Julius
Caesar in,his triumph over the Gauls. 14My butterflies etc. being chiefly in the
boxes of the young Russells, I left them there for the present. Returned home,
dressed, dined; began to write a letter to Mr. Ensor, studied classification of
Insects, arranged the small number that I had left of my insects, etc. etc. drank tea,
etc.--
mI may as well now tell you of a circumstance which it is higlaly probable you
are unacquainted with. I have only been told of it lately or I would have let you
know it at the time it occurred. While at Pompignan, immediately after the passing
of the Election Law, we heard that all the artillery of the town of Toulouse, with
two regiments of soldiers, had been called out to quell the riots which the people
had raised. We knew that such reports, though seldom strictly true, yet were rarely
without some foundation; accordingly we did not know what to believe. This
however was cleared up in the following manner. Two officers of a regiment
newly arrived in town brought word in a great hurry to the Capitole that they had
seen 50 or 60 armed men enter into a house. (N.B. This was at midnight.) Upon
hearing this, the troops were called out for the purpose of surrounding the house,
and (I believe) two other officers were sent with the first two to reconnoitre, and
confirm the intelligence. But when conducted to the place mentioned, they were
surprised to see that these poor officers had mistaken another cross street for the
entry into a house, and as there happened to be some soldiers among the passengers
who were entering into that street, the officers' imagination soon set itself to work,
and out of a few quiet passengers passing through the street, they soon made 50 or
60 armed men dropping one by one into a house.
July 17
[J] Did not go to the river; before breakfast, finished the translation of Catiline's
_4GaiusJulius Caesar (100-44 B.C.). The reference involves irony: during Caesar's
splendidtriumph,the axle of his chariotbroke, and he was nearly thrownout; however, he
mountedthe Capitolby torchlight, flanked by fortyelephants. See "'TheDeified Julius," in
Suetonius(Latin and English), trans. J.C. Rolfe, 2 vols. (London: Heinemann;New York:
Macmillan,1914), Vol. I, p. 51 (I, xxxvii).
July 1820 French Journal and Notebook 51
speech into French, learnt by heart more of Henault's comparison, took lesson of
solfeges. After breakfast, finished letter to Mr. Ensor, read the "Jupiter
Tragoedus" of Lucian; _5to M. Sauvage, then to Mine Boulet's, returned to dinner;
after dinner, riding, fencing, dancing, returned to supper. People are heavy and
relaxed by the Vent d'Autan which is a milder species of Sirocco.
July 18
[J] Bathed in the morning. Near the place where we bathe is the place where the
vidanges of the necessaries are dried for sale as manure; this stuff called poudrene,
which is as aromatic as you may well suppose, is exported, I hear, to America. The
undertaker of this agreeable trade is a lady, who probably thinks the money
sweetens the smell. She pays 30,000 francs a year to government for the privilege;
but I believe she is undertaker for several other towns besides Toulouse. After
bathing, returned home, took Solf_ges lesson, translated into French the ode of
Horace which commences Sic te diva potens Cypri, 16to M. S auvage, then to Mme
Boulet, took music lesson and practised; home to dinner, then riding, fencing,
dancing lessons. I may as well add here, for your satisfaction, the prices of all the
lessons I receive, reduced to English money at par.
M. Larrieu, the best dancing master as well as the dearest m Toulouse,
per lesson 6d
French master, M. Sauvage remarkably good teacher. 2s.
Fencinglessons, each 4d
Riding lessons, 1s. 3d
Mine Boulet, the best music mistress in Toulouse, for whomthere is such
competition that never till now the Misses Bentharn have been able to
obtain her, to give them lessons, ls.3d
Solfeges, Is.
making in all, 6s.4d per day for all the lessons I take, exclusive of Sunday when I
have no masters, and Thursdays, where I have only the worth of 2s.4d for M.
Sauvage and my fencing master, M. Daure. I tell you this by Lady Bentham's
advice, for fear lest that you should be frightened at hearing that I take so many
lessons.
July 19
[J] To the river in the morning; in passing out of the town gates the charaban
broke down, containing in it myself, Mr. G. and William Russell. We were not
however turned out, nor anywise hurt, as when we were overset in the charaban;
though I cannot say we were much the worse for our fall even that time. The only
inconvenience we suffered today was that W.R. and myself were obliged to walk
on to the bathing place, carrying botanical books, butterfly nets, insect box etc.
and Mr. G. was obliged to ride the horse (a large clumsy coach horse, by the way)
without either saddle or stirrup (to the no small detriment at least in respect to
colour and to cleanness of his white pantaloons,) and using a little leather strap for
a whip. In this elegant condition he rode on to the bathing place. After bathing, we
(the three above mentioned) botanized a little; and for our return, William and
myself mounted behind the cabriolet of Dr. Russell, and Mr. G. rode as before, till
we arrived at the gate of the town, where Mr. G. descended from his generous
steed, as did William and myself from ourplace de laquais, and leaving the horse
andthe broken charaban to the care of the people atthe customhouse or bureau de
l'octroi, we walked home, Mr. G. with about a quarter of the surface of his
pantaloons tolerably clean. When amved home, I became, by Lady Bentham's
desire, a spectator of the dancing lesson which the young ladies took, as she
considers It of great use that I should see dancing; breakfasted, took solf'eges
lesson, made an Analyse of Horace's Ode "Sic te diva" etc. To M. Sanvage an
hour sooner than usual, as my two last lessons had been rather short; to Mme
Boulet, practised music, took lesson, returned home, tried ineffectually some
problems and theorems in West's Appx. Finished the "Icaromenippus" of
Luci[an. Ihave read many] of his dialogues with great attention, and with extreme
admiration: in particular the "Hermotimus," which is a masterpiece of ingenious
reasoning, and two or three exquisitely witty dialogues, in the "Vitarum Auctio,"
the "Cataplus," "Jupiter Tragoedus," three which can scarcely be equalled, and,
though in a less degree, the "Necyomantia," the "Vocalium Judicium," and some
others. The four first mentioned, it is impossible not to admire.--Dined; to riding,
fencing, and dancing lessons. 17
17[Herein the Join'hal appear the following letters to his mother and to his sisters
Wilhelminaand Clara:] To my Mother. / My dear mother/ I make answer at present to the
enquiriesyou have made by Richard respecting my progress in music and dancing. For the
latter, I expect soon to go on pretty well: for music, you cannot suppose that I have as yet
mademuchprogressin the practice, but I have in the principles,sufficientlyto be able to see
the necessity of permitting Willie and Clara to forget all their music till my return, [as] the
badhabitsI had acquiredpreviously to coming here are the chief obstacles I have to combat
with. My dear Mother, I remain / Your affectionate Son / John Stuart Mill.
JohannescarissimisSororibusWilliaminae atqueClarae salutem. / Credo vos laetaturas
epistolae conspectu: Latin_ scribo, pro vobis in ea lingufi exercendis. Gaudeo _ patre
audiisse vos in historifi Graec_ vosmetipsas instruere; studium enim illud maxim_ est
necessariumomnibus, seu juvenibus seu puellis. Henriettam atque Jacobum idem facere
spero. Mihi condonetisquaeso si quem errorem in Latin_ scribendo feci, quippe semper in
tmmenGallicum incido, cure quaeram Latinum. Ricardo Doaneo dicatis me non locurn in
litteris his habuisse, ut illi scriberem; itaque mihi non irascatur. Scribatis mihi precor, si
possitis, Latin_; sin minus, Anglici_.Fort_ hanc epistolam difficilem ad legendum, et
tradueendum,inv[enistis] sed vos exercebit. Valeatis. / XIII Kal. Aug. 1820 vesperi hora
undecim[_i]
July 1820 French Journal and Notebook 53
**7**
July 20
[J] Went to bathe in the morning with Dr. R. and his sons; Mr. George was gone
with Sir S.B. in the charaban to Montauban, so that I was obliged to walk to the
town gate with William Russell and then we mounted behind the cabriolet and
proceeded in rather a jolting manner, to the bathing place. The water was
extremely agreeable. William forded the river, though the current is extremely
strong in the middle. There is here a large island which divides the Garronne into
two branches. This island is covered with trees, and presents a very pretty
appearance from the opposite bank. We returned home by the same vehicle as
before, descending at the gate of the town, at which time I may remark that each of
us experienced a good tumble in getting down from behind the cabriolet. We went
to the post office where I sent off my letter dated July 19th, no. 7, _and franked it as
far as Calais, a thing we are always obliged to do, or we should receive the letters
back from Paris, as no unpaid letters go off to England. Returned home after
calling at Dr. Russell's to receive the insects I caught at La Ramette. Arranged
these insects; breakfasted. This being Thursday, I take fewer lessons than usual.
Performed French exercises, namely, learnt by heart another part of Henault's
parallel, and rewrote the translation of the fast part of Catiline's speech in Sallust,
according to M. Sauvage's remarks on my former translation. To my lesson at M.
Sauvage's, I was obliged to wait about an hour before he came; to fencing lesson;
read some of Lucian's short dialogues; dined; to Dr. Russell's; walked with him
and his sons up the right bank of the Garonne beyond the island on an entomotheric
expedition but had very indifferent success; returned home, read again the
"Cataplus" of Lucian, one of my favourite dialogues; drank tea, had a
conversation on miscellaneous subjects with Lady Bentham and Miss Clara. I have
not told you that I went this morning to the principal church in the town to see the
ceremony of the premier communion, but could not see much.
1ActuallyNo. 6.
54 Journals and Speeches No. 1
July 21
[J] Mr. G. not being returned from Montauban, I was obliged to go to the
bathing place in the same manner as yesterday morning. The water, though, I
think, wanner than the air, felt cold on first going in, but extremely pleasant
afterwards. Returned home, took lesson of solf_ges, breakfasted, translated into
French a piece of Latin which M. Sauvage had given me, wrote part of the rough
sketch of a dialogue on a subject proposed to me by Lady Bentham, namely, the
question whether great landed estates and great establishments in commerce and
manufactures, or small ones, are the most conducive to the general happiness? To
M. Sauvage, then to Madame Boulet; came home, found Mr. George returned.
Pierrotou the servant is discovered, contrary to expectation, to be a thief; he is sent
away to his metairie at Pompignan.--Read part of Lucian's "Deorum Concil-
ium."2 Dined; riding, fencing, dancing lessons. Went to bed supperless.
July 22
[J] To the fiver in the morning, home, breakfasted, took solf'eges lesson,
rewrote the translation of Latin into French, 3 learnt by heart the remainder of
Henault's parallel, went to M. Sauvage, but he was not at home, and had left a note
informing me that he was too fatigued to give me a lesson today, and begging me to
come in the morning to receive the deficient lesson; took lesson and practised at
Mme Boulet's; afterdinner to riding lesson; riding master settled that we should go
in future at 8 in the morning. Fencing and dancing lessons.--Occupied almost all
the intervals of time during the day, with chemical classification tables after a new
and improved plan. a Very much fatigued tonight.
July 23
[J] A complete change of weather, much rain in the morning, no bathing, lay in
bed late, being fatigued; rose, made chemical classification tables, to M. Sauvage,
read with him--more of the treatise on pronunciation; he examined my exercises;
returned to breakfast, after breakfast translated another piece of Latin into French;
began, by Lady Bentham's advice, to write a treatise on the definition of political
economy.--Dressed--Some talk about my attending the three remaining lectures
of a course on the Greek language, as well for the benefit of the French as to know
how the subject is treated--Continued chemical classification tables; the son of
M. Rous of Montauban came to dinner; after dinner went with him and Mr. George
to Olivier's spectacle.5--Olivier conducts a theatre at Paris known by the name of
Theatre de la Nouveautt, and is famous for ingenious feats of legerdemain, and for
all sorts of pieces of mechanism; his exhibition was very amusing, as he performed
several very ingenious tricks; in particular he passed a handkerchief from an
apparently close vase into another, he seemed to join together a lady's sash after it
had been cut into a dozen pieces, etc. etc. After some very comic scenes of
ventriloquy, the whole concluded with a very fine Phantasmagoria, representing,
among other things, a furious thunderstorm, with various spectres, all seeming
first to approach and then to recede. Returned to supper. This evening there was a
procession in the street, on account I suppose of some F_te--we fell into the
middle of it in going to Olivier's.
July 24
[J] Went to bathe, but the water was very cold; staid in a very short time; went
very late to the mantge because the servant had not called us early, thinking we
should certainly not go to the river such a cold moming.--Took riding lesson,
home to solfbges lesson, breakfasted alone, all the family having breakfasted,
learnt by heart part of Thomas's literary character of Bossuet6--to M. Sauvage,
thence to Mme Boulet; home to dinner, wrote chemical classification tables;
fencing and dancing lessons.
July 25
[J] Did not go to the river, Mr. George having a headach--to the man_ge
without him; having suffered very much during the night from the toothach he
went to have a tooth drawn, and I took my riding lesson without him. Returned to
breakfast; took solfeges lesson--continued chemical tables; to M. Sauvage, who
looked over my exercises; read with him more of the Treatise on French
Pronunciation in the Grammaire des Grammaires*--to Mine Boulet, home to
dinner, wrote a translation of Latin into French; went to fencing and to dancing
lessons; at my dancing master's house, hurt the back of my head by a fall which
made me a little sick at stomach and prevented me from writing this day's journal
till the following day.
July 26
[J] To the river; found the water very low and very pleasant, but did not remain
long in it, having still the remains of last night's indisposition; it rained very hard
before we returned home, so that we were not a little wet; the unfortunate charaban
lost a fore wheel, but Mr. G. with some difficulty, restored it to its place. The
number of accidents which we are doomed to encounter in our poor vehicle seems
to be unlimited; we can already count 1 overturn, 1 breaking down, and twice the
loss of a wheel. To the man_ge; took lesson of sol_ges, breakfasted, learnt by
heart another portion of the character of Bossuet but better; continued chemical
classification tables; to M. Sauvage, who read with me another portion of the
treatise on pronunciation as also of the treatise on construction in the Dictionaire
des Difficultds; he corrected my Analyse of the Ode "Sic te diva potens Cypri"; he
gave me also other exercises to perform. To Mine Boulet's; home to dinner, con-
tinued chemical tables, to fencing and dancing lessons; home to tea--I had the
happiness of eating to night some pain bdni.
July 27
[J] To the river; very low and very pleasant; Dr. R. his sons, and Mr. G. forded
the river to the island. While there, Dr. R. slipped down in mounting his horse, in
consequence of a sudden start, and hurt his arm; the horse ran away, forded the
fiver, and after two ineffectual attempts of Dr. R's sons to lead him over again, he
got finally loose, and escaped into the high road, where after galloping a
considerable time, he was caught and brought back. This retarded our return home;
breakfasted, wrote chemical classification tables, translated a piece of Latin into
French; to Mr. Ellison's at eleven o'clock, went with him to the college to see the
public library;it contains many fine editions of the Greek and Latin classics, many
of Stephens's and some Glasgow;7--we saw a copy of Aeschylus which had
belonged to Racine; 8 it came afterwards to this library through the medium of the
Marquis de Pompignan who bought Racine's library. To M. Sauvage--but being
occupied, he gave me no lesson; back to the college to the lecture on Greek.--Met
there a young man, apparently an Abb_, who talked to me a great deal about
Richard Doane, and said Richard had studied French at his house; he promised to
give me a letter, which I might give to Richard on my return.--The lecture to-day
was (besides Homer) a brief view of the state of the modern Greek literature.
Those, says the professor, wrong the modern Greek language who call it
barbarous; it comes much nearer to the ancient Greek than the Italian to the Latin.
He gave some account of the modern pronunciation; he says that the 0 is
pronounced like the English th (though he pronounced it more like si) it appears
that the vis sometimes a vowel, sometimes a consonant, and avAo¢ is pronounced
as a_Aog. The vowels and diphthongs L, v, 77,oL,at, eL,are pronounced all in the
same way; like the English broad e. In regard to the literature, he mentioned many
books in all branches of knowledge, of which there are translations into modern
Greek; I recollect in particular the Aeneid translated into verse, 9 Lalande's
Astronomy, ]° Fontenelle' s Plurality of Worlds, _l and Fourcroy' s Chemistry. 12
Besides these he mentioned original works, in particular on Mathematics and on
Natural History: After leaving the lecture room; returned; made chemical tables;
took music lesson, dined, dressed, as there was to be a concert; (the company
wholly of English, or of French able to speak English) Mr. Rous of Montauban and
his son came, but went away almost as soon as the company came. The only
persons present whom I knew previously were Dr. and Mrs. Russell and Mr.
Fitzsimmons. The singing, by some English young ladies resident at Toulouse,
was excellent; and the music of Mr. George, Miss Sarah, and Miss Clara,
sustained extremely well its reputation.*
Something said today of its being desirable for various reasons that I should stay
here longer than was expected, but of this, more hereafter.
July 28
[J] Did not go to the river on account of Dr. Russell's hurt, lay in bed late,
riding, solf_ges, breakfasted, began to translate into French some Latin poetry of
Lebeau; ]3 to M. Sauvage, who looked at my exercises, etc.; to Mme Boulet; home
to dinner at 3 o'clock, as Sir S.B. Mr. G. Miss Clara and Lady B. were going out
after dinner to pay a visit in the country--Began copying my journal from July 20,
as it will be useful for reference. I hope you have kept the letters I have sent you as
they will be of use on my return. Dancing and fencing lessons.--The plague is
raging in the island of Majorca: precautionary measures have been taken to prevent
its coming into France, but as in many parts of the coast of Roussillon a fishing
9possibly Aeneidis Publii Virgillii Maronis libri XII graeco carmini heroico expressi
(Latin and Greek), trans. Eugenius Bulgaris, 3 vols. (St. Petersburg: In Academia Scien-
tiarum, 1791-92).
1°JosephJ_Sr6meLe Franqais de Lalande ( 1732-1807), Astronomie (1764); it appeared
as l_rt_'o/_-//&o-rom,o/_ia_;,trans. D.D. Philippides, 2 vols. (Vienna; Bentotay, 1803).
1iBernardle Bovier de Fontenelle ( 1657-1757), Entretiens sur lapluralit_ des mondes
(1686); it appearedas Ol_tkict_&epl &h'00/,o,;K6o-/zto_, (Vienna: Bentotay, 1794).
12AntoineFrancois de Fourcroy (1755-1809), Philosophie de chiraie (1792); it
ap[_earedas X'op.th"//_btkoo'o&_,trans. Theodore M. Iliadou (Vienna: Tazi, 1802).
'(This has been writtenby mistake in the f'u'stpage, but youwill not he deceived,as I have
crossed it out.) [Here in the manuscript this note appears, with reference to the text from
"mentioned originalworks" to "its reputation," which also appears cancelled at the top of
the fast pageof the letter to his father, where it is followed by the uncancellednote" (written
here by mistake)."]
]3CharlesLebean(1701-78), Opera latina (1782-85), 2nd ed., 2 vols. (Paris: Delalain,
1816);the verses in imitation ofLa Fontaine (see below) are in Vol. II, pp. 287-95.
58 Journals and Speeches No. 1
boat can land from Majorca, there is reasonable ground of fear, and Lady Bentham
is resolved that in our tour we shall not pass by the Perpignan Pyren6es.--We have
received most excellent news of the revolutions in Italy; a constitution is
establishing in the kingdom of Naples, and all Italy, Rome inclusive, is
revolutionized--the Pope's temporal power is done away with: (a most fortunate
circumstance;) and all Europe seems to be following the example so successfully
set by Spain. 14
July 29
[J] To the river, forded the left branch to the island and had a pleasant bathe in
the other branch: Forded it almost up to my neck. Returned in the same way. To the
man_ge, returned, breakfasted, took solf_ges lesson, rewrote my Latin and French
exercise;_o M. Sauvage; to the Greek lecture, which was translating the parable of
the Prodigal Son 15 and comparing it with the modem Greek. The roots of the
ancient Greek language seem to be almost all preserved in the modern; as also great
part of the inflexions and forms of construction. N.B. There is no dative case; nor
is there an infinitive mood, its place being supplied by the particle Ta that,
corresponding to _va 0eAto 7_ e_Tr_ofor 0_Ato e_zr_v. The preposition c_¢ro
governs the accusative. These are the principal differences I have observed
between the ancient and modern language, excepting that many of the irregular
inflexions are regularized, thus _'p_Xtotakes rpe_:to in the future of the indicative.
Some words are also substituted for others formerly in more common use, as
_Ke_po_in general for all verbs signifying to go. Took piano lesson; home to
dinner; finished Lucian's "Deorum Concilium"; to fencing and dancing lessons.
July 30
[J] At four o'clock with Dr. Russell and his sons, and Mr. George, to the forest
of Buzet on the Alby road, on an entomological expedition. The road is very
beautiful; after crossing the canal, we passed through a very fine long avenue of
trees, and through the village ofLa croix Daurade, after which we crossed the river
Ers, andpassing several hills and pretty vallies, we passed through the villages of
Castel-Moron, Garidec, and G-emil.--On this road, in order to obtain afine lake
and island, a round hole has been dug in a garden and heaped up in the middle; a
bridge has been thrown across, but the poor people seem never to have thought of
14Inearly July revolts had broken out in two of the papal states (Pontecorvo and
Benevento)within Naples' territory; in spite of rumoursof a plot, there was no actual
revolutionin Rome against the temporalauthorityof Pius VII (1742-1823), Pope since
1800.(For Mill's realization that the revolution wasmerelyrumoured,see the entry for6
Septemberbelow. ) Constituzionepolitica del Regno della Due Sicilii (Naples:Matarazzo,
1821), modelled on the Spanish constitution of 1812 (see The Spanish Constitution
[London:Bcnbow, 1820]), hadbeenswornto by FerdinandIV of Naples ( 1751-1825), as
a resultof a militaryrevolt.
1SinLuke, 15:11-32.
July 1820 French Journal and Notebook 59
finding water for their ditch, and accordingly it remains dry, except in rainy
weather, when it is a little puddle. However it is still an elegant lake. We left the
horses at Gemil and walked on to the forest of Buzet where we had a chase of
insects for some hours. The wood is very pretty. The heat of the day brought out
many butterflies, and my collection is neither small nor trivial, as it contains some
very rare kinds. We breakfasted as at Bouconne and La Ramette with this
exception that as there is a little stream through this forest, we found a little water,
though for its clearness, it is true, much cannot he said. There is a little broken
bridge over the rivulet.mSometime after breakfast, myself, William and Francis
Russell lost the trace of the rest of the party. We walked on for a long time in the
direction which we imagined they had taken, till at last we found ourselves at the
bridge; where, after holding a consultation, the result was a determination to
search for them in various directions, establishing among ourselves a system of
communication by halloos. After searching thus for a considerable time, being led
astray more than once by the voices of two boys which we mistook for the voice of
Richard Russell, we united ourselves once more and returned to the bridge, where
(after resting ourselves) a second consultation was held in due form, the result of
which was to find our way as soon as possible out of the forest which we
accomplished without difficulty, and returned immediately to the inn at Gemil.
Here we remained for some time, and at last, finding no one appear, Francis and
myself, leaving William at the inn, walked back into the wood, forming all the way
projects for insect-boxes. After no small number, I assure you, of dissertations on
the state of the wind, on the likelihood of being heard, of hearing, etcetera, it was
agreed to call out, as loud as possible; by which means after a few halloos, we had
the satisfaction of hearing an answer, and we rencountered our companions at the
entryof the thick partof the forest. We returnedto the inn, and setting out, returned
home and made our entry into Toulouse at the time when the greater number of
people were out, in no very good condition, I assure you, not to speak of our
triumphal car. On returning, dressed; saw M. Caumbette Comon,16 the gentleman
to whose country house Sir S. and Lady Bentham went a few nights ago, dined and
supped. Letter from Mr. Lowe 17to SirS.B. begging him to take care of my health,
asfour years ago two children died at Bordeaux and two at Turin, informing him
also very kindly of the price of corn and several other particulars at Caen, to the no
small amusement of us all.
July 31
[J] To our new bathing place; forded as before; my shirt got a soaking, and I was
obliged to return without one; riding lesson, breakfast, solf'eges, translated the
August 1
[J] Mr. George was so occupied in packing that he could not go to bathe nor to
riding lesson; I wrote still more of the division of France and began the Statistical
part of my Cahier. To the man_ge; solf_ges, did not breakfast; informed that we
were to set off on our tour the 3rd of August; received my clean linen, and gave the
dirty to be cleaned; began to write out the account of my journey from London;
rewrote the translation of Lebeau, learnt by heart part of a French fable; to M.
Sauvage; read with him part of the Treatises on Construction and on Pronuncia-
tion; music lesson, dined, continued account of journey, fencing and dancing
lessons. I understand we shall not be able to set off before the 4th.
August 2
[J] Mr. George being obliged to have another tooth drawn, we did not go to
bathe. Took my riding lesson; breakfasted, solf'eges, finished learning fable,
continued account of journey; to M. Sauvage, read with him part of the treatise on
Pronunciation; fencing and music lessons, ordered a new pair of shoes; dined,
fimshed account of journey with descriptions of the towns I passed through, etc. If
I had taken the precaution of keeping copies of the letters I have written to you,
since the first (for of that I had already an abstract) my journal would be complete
from my arrival in France. In your next letter I would be much obliged to you to let
me know if you have all the letters safe, since if you have them not I will endeavour
to recollect as well as I can what took place from June 2 to July 20. The things of
importance I certainly recollect; the only thing which will not be easy will be to
make out a precise journal of each day. This will be a good deal by guess, for it can
be no otherwise.--To fencing and dancing lessons; returned home. We shall not
be able to set off before the 5th of the month.
This letter is number 8. ms
10 Ao_t 1
[N] Nous quitrAmes Toulouse _tsix beures du matin, et suivimes d'abord la route
que nous avions pris pour aller a la for_t de Bouconne. Nous passames par les
villages de St. Martin sur Touch, de Colomi_res, et de Leguevin. Ce dernier 6st
ville de poste, mais le seul h6tel, celui de l'Ancienne Poste, n'aurait pas pu nous
loger la nuit. Ce pays n'6st pas fort agr6able. Le bl_ 6st tout moissonn_, et comme
on coupe le chaume presqu'aussit6t qu'on ait rentr6 le b16, les champs ont route
l'apparence d'etre en jach_re. Le chemin n'6st pas aussi bon que celui de
Paris.wApr_s avoir quitt_ Leguevin, nous montames une longue colline, et
passames par le village de Paujandran. Ici le pays change de face; on entre dans une
vall6e fort agr6able (de la Save); elle 6st vari6e par des collines isol6es entre les
deux chaines. Pour eviter ces collines, la route fait beaucoup de jolis d6tours. Nous
pass_mes par une belle avenue et arriv_nes _tla ville de l'Ille-en-Jourdain, o/a nous
trouvames a l'h6tel du Lion d'Or, M. Bentham et le reste de sa famille
deje0ner.--Apr_s diner nous flames nous promener dans la ville, qui 6st assez
jolie; on la renouvelle darts le style moderne; la Halle 6st fort grande, l'Eglise 6st
moderne, mais fort real proportionn6e: le bitiment 6st grand et lourd, le clocher
n'6st que une petite tour ronde. L'interieur 6st splendide, pour une si petite ville.2
mThereare no entries in the Journal until 26 August; the Notebook, which resumes here,
on 10 August, provides the only account for this period.
2jAn earlier entry for this date, headed "festina lentO" ("make haste slowly," the Latin
version of Augustus' Greek motto, from Suetonius' "Divus Augustus," found in C.
Suetonius Tranquillus, et in eum commentarius exhibienti Joanne Schildio [Leyden and
Rotterdam: Ex officina Hackiana, 1667], p. 188n), reads:] Je partis de Toulouse/t cinq
heures du matin dans le charaban avec Julie; M. George et Mile Sarah nous accompagn6rent
cheval. Nous poursuivimes d'abord la route d6j/_ d6crite, qui conduit :_ la for_t de
Bouconne; nous passames par les villages de St. Martin sur Touch, de Colomi6res et de
Leguevin. Le pays n'6st pas fort agrb.able jusqu'_t ce que l'on 6st sorti du departement de la
Haute-Garonne. Tout le b16 6st moissonn6, et l'on coupe le chaume presqu'aussit6t que le
bi6 soit rentr_, surtout lorsque la paille se vend, comme a present, h haut prix. Par
cons6quont les champs ont toute l'apparence d'6tre en jach6re. Le chemin n'_st pas
ordinairement aussi bon que celui de Paris a Toulouse. J'ai pourtant vu one fois un
Cantonnier. Al_s etre sorti de Leguevin, nous montames une fort longue colline et
entrfunes darts le Departement du Gets. Nous pass_nes par le village de Pajaudran. Ici on
voit deux grandes chaines de collines, dont on a pass6 l'une, et l'on doit passer l'autre; entre
ces deux chalnes s'elevent d'autres collines couvertes de bois; pour eviter ces derni6res la
route fait beaueoup de d6tours. Apr_s avoir pass_ par une longue avenue, nous arrivames
la ville de l'llle en Jourdain, qui ne parait pas si belle de pros que de loin.--Apr_s diner nous
nous prome_s clansla ville, qui _st petite, mais assez jolie; on la renouvelle darts un style
tout _tfait modem. La Halle _st fort grande, et extr_mernent belle.
[The following notes, which relate to events on 14 October, appear here:] Distillerie.
Deux fabriques distillent 4050 veltes de vin par jour pendant la moiti_ de l'ann6e. Le vin
vient d'un coffre en haut o0 il i_stmont6 par une passage et il n'y a pas comme dans les autres
62 Journals and Speeches No. 1
11 Aofit
[N] Nous partimes de bon matin, travers_nes la Save, qui n'6st ici qu'une tr6s
petite rivi6re, et puis passfimes par un pays agr6able, plein de collines. On voit, de
quelques endroits de la route, les Pyrenees couvertes de neige. Les rangs d'arbres
qu'on voit souvent du c6t_ de la route lui donnent beaucoup d'agr_ment. Ce sont
ordinairementdes mfiriers; quelquefois des ormes et des peupliers. II y avait aussi
quelques prairies; bref, le ma'is (le seul grain qui n'6st pas encore coup_) et les
mfuiers 6talent les seules choses qui nous fesaient voir que nous n'6tions pas en
Angleterre. A 9 ou 10 heures nous arriv_nes _ Gimont, ville considerable,
consistante en une seule rue fort longue; les maisons sont bfities en brique mel6e de
pierre; la Halle 6st au milieu de la rue, et nous y pass_xnes dessous en voiture. Nous
dejeQn_mesde bon appetit _ l'Auberge de la Truffe, et partimes _tquatre heures du
soir.--Le pays 6st plein de collines pendant quatre lieues apr_sGimont, il doit 6tre
Peyrehorade / _. _.
Tarlx.s
Oloron %
SPAIN "
joli au printemps, mais dans cette saison-ci, l'apparence du pays ne seraient point
agr6able, sans les prairies et les petits bois. D'ailleurs, l'eau manque _tce paysage.
La verdure des prairies, dont on commence/t voir beaucoup, fait bien voir qu'on
les arrose par irrigation; cependant il manque la vue de l'eau. Apr_s avoir travers6
une longue colline, nous mont_mes une autre; au sommet se trouve le village
d'Aubiet, relai de poste, mais fort real b_iti, ayant des restes de fortification. Nous
travers_nes le ruisseau appell6 les Rats, et apr6s deux ou trois mont6es et
descentes, la route descend sans interruption pendant deux lieues. Notre route
s'unit _ celle de Montauban/t trois lieues d'Aubiet. Apr6s avoir pass6 par une
longue avenue de jolis arbres, nous travers_nes le Gers, et arriv_'nes hAuch, chef
lieu du d6partement qui porte ce nom, et auparavant capitale de la Gascogne; 6st
bitie sur le c6teau du Gers, les maisons sont fort propres et fort jolies, elles sont
bhties en pierre. Nous nous arr_t_'nes chez Alexandre, le seul bon h6tel dans la
ville.
12 Aofit
IN] Apr6s dejeOner nous f0mes voir la Cathedrale, remarquable surtout des
vitraux, qu'on cite comme les plus beaux de la France. Au reste, l'6glise 6st assez
jolie. On dit que l'orgue 6st fort belle, mais nous ne rest_nes pas assez longtems
pour l'entendre. Auch, cheflieu etc vide supra--Nous sortimes d'Auch _ cinq
heures du soir et suivimes d'abord le cours du Gers. Le chemin passe entre la
rivi6re et le c6teau, qui 6st couvert d'arbres, et fort joli. Au bout de quelque terns,
nous laiss_nes le Gers _tgauche ainsi que le chemin de Bagn6res de Bigorre; et
FRANCE
0 20 mil_
64 Journals and Speeches No. 1
suivimes le Soulom, petite rivi_re qui se j_te dans le Gers. Les arbres et les prairies
qui enrichissent les bords de ces deux rivi_res rendent la route pendant deux ou
trois lieues beaucoup plus agr6able qu'auparavant, et en passant par la vall6e du
Soulom nous evit_nes les grandes collines. Enfin nous quitt_mes le Soulom et
commen_ames _t monter par un chemin serpentin une colline fort longue. Au
sommet se trouve le hameau de Vignau qui ne consiste qu'en une auberge, un r61ai
de poste, et deux ou trois petites maisons. La pente de la colline 6st fort rapide du
c6t6 oh nous descendimes. Un peu plus loin, nous travers_mes la rivi_re appell6e
la Baise de devant. Ici nous remarqu_rnes tousles signes de l'approche d'un orage;
des nuages, le vent qui commen_ait _ souffler; des 6clairs, quoiqu'ils ne fussent
point accompagn6s de tonnerre. I1commen_ait aussi _ faire nuit, car nous 6tions
partis d'Auch trop tard pour arriver de jour h notre couch6e. Nous mont_nes
ensuite une longue colline, et descendimes par une pente tr_s rapide: apr_s avoir
pass6 par une longue avenue, nous travers_nes la Baise par un beau pont et
arrivfimes _ Mirande. Nous nous arr_t_nes _ la premiere maison de la ville, savoir
l'hftel du Grand Soleil, o0 nous soup,_mes.--Un orage pendant la nuit.
13 Ao_t
[N] Nous partimes de bonne heure; notre chemin fut d'abord _ttravers la ville,
qui 6st assez bien bfitie sur une colline. Le pays devient ici plus divis6 par des
haies, et, clans plusieurs endroits, resemble beaucoup aux champs de l'Angleterre.
Nous mont_nes une c6te fort longue dont la descente fut tr_s rapide, et nous nous
arr_tAmes _tMielan pour y dejeQner et y rester jusqu'au soir. Notre voyage de ce
matin fut tr_s agr6able, en ce que les nuages emp6chaient qu'il ne fit aussi chaud
que ces derniers jours.--Apr_s _tre rest6 _tMielan jusqu'_ 4 heures du soir, nous
partimes pour continuer notre voyage. En sortant de Mielan, nous descendimes
une colline tr_s escarp6e, travers_nes une petite rivi_re, puis monthmes une autre
colline fort haute. La ,me du sommet de cette colline fut des plus agr6ables et des
plus _tendues dont j'ai joui de ma vie, et, en descendant, nous entrirnes tout d'un
coup dans un pays fort pittoresque. Les bois qui couvraient les vallons, la verdure
des prairies, les detours que fait le chemin, et dont la plupart 6taient cach6s par les
Ix)cages de la colline, la vue des Pyren6es dans le lointain _tgauche, tout 6tait uni
pour nous faire jouir de cette belle vue. Nous descendimes par un chemin serpentin
tr_s escarp6 dans quelques endroits, et travers_mes le charmant petit village de
Villecontal, joliment situ6 darts la vall6e du Larros, et le melange des arbres et des
jardins parmi les maisons produisait un effet fort agr6able. Nous travers_-_aes
ensuite une antre colline, et arriv_-nes _t Rabastens, petite ville _ l'entr6e de la
plaine de Tarbes: Elle ne consiste gu_re qu'en une grande place. L'air y 6st fort
frais et agr6able. H6tel l'Ancierme Poste: Nous y fflmes fort bien.
14 Ao_t
[N] Nous partirnes de Rabastens de bon matin et nous toum_nes _ gauche pour
August 1820 French Journal and Notebook 65
suivre le chemin de Tarbes, qui 6st parfaitement droit. 3 Notre route traversait la
plaine; cependant il n'6st pas d6sagr6able/t cause d'une longue rang6e de collines
gauche, et des Pyren6es, nous voyions les Pyren6es devant nous, plus distincte-
ment _tchaque moment, PrOsde Tarbes on distingue facilement les montagnes qui
s'61_vent, l'une au dessus de l'autre; et l'on voit toute la chaine des Hautes
Pyren6es, avec une grande partie de celle des Basses Pyren6es h droite, et de la
Haute-Garonne _ gauche. Les ruisseaux d'eau pure qui arrosent les prairies, le
b6tail qu'on y voit paitre, donnent de la vie/l cette campagne, vari6e en m_me tems
par des bois, et par des vignes soutenus sur de longs piquets, ou marius aux
cerisiers. Nous arriv_mes enfin /l Tarbes, ville considerable, chef lieu des
Hautes-Pyren6es, autrefois capitale de la Bigorre, b_tie sur la rive gauche de
l'Adour. Cette rivi_re a un lit fort large, mais dans cette saison-ci, il n'y a que fort
peu d'eau. La ville 6st fort longue, et assez bien bhtie; elle a deux places immenses.
Chaque rue 6st arros6e par le moyen de ruisseaux qui coulent des deux c6t6s; ces
ruisseaux, sans doute, tirent leur eau de l'Adour; ils donnent aux rues une
apparence fort propre. Apr_s avoir pass6 la matin6e _ Tarbes, nous en sortimes
trois heures, et entrhmes, peu apr_s, dans la premiere vall6e des Pyren6es. Ici le
pays devient tr_s agr6able. La route 6st comprise entre deux grandes chaines de
coUines; la rivi_re d'Adour coule _ peu de distance _t gauche; les prairies qui la
bordent sont arros6es par de nombreux ruisseaux. Dans les champs on voit croitre
le mais, le petit millet, et le seigle vert. Nous travershmes sept villages, dont
quelques-uns sont tr_s considerables; nous longe_nes deux autres. Toutes les
maisons de ces villages ont l'air fort propre, 6tant bhties en pierres rondes, tr6s
reguli_rement arrang_es dans le mortier. Le devant de presque toutes 6st tourn6 de
c6t6. Nous arriv_.nes enfin _ Bagn_res-de-Bigorre, ot_ sont situ6es les eaux de la
France les plus frequent6es par les malades. C'6st une ville assez considerable,
situ6e _ l'entr6e d'une vall6e des Pyren6es. Elle n'6st pas immediatement entour6e
de hautes montagnes, mais elle n'en 6st pas loin. Aucun des h6tels de la ville
n'ayant pu nous loger pour la nuit, M. George nous laissa _ l'h6tel d'Espagne, et
fut chercher, par toute la ville, un apartement o_ nous logerions tout le terns que
nous resterions _ Bagn_res. Au bout de quelque tems, il en trouva un, et nous y
fumes tous; nous y soup_nes, et Mine Bentham nous annonqa le plan qu'on avait
fait pour notre s6jour darts les Hautes-Pyren6es:--Bagn_res dut _tre notre quartier
general, et nous d_mes faire beaucoup de petits voyages pour voir tout ce qu'il y a
de remarquable dans les Hautes-Pyren6es. Je dus 6tre quelquefois de la pattie,
quelquefois non.
15 Ao_t
[N] Apr_s dejefiner je ills me promener avec M. George. Nous primes un
chemin fort agr_able, qui nous conduisit un peu hors de la ville, pros des
montagnes. Alors nous monthraes une petite montagne toute couverte de bruy_re
et de foug_re, entremel_es de gros quartiers de rocher. Apr_s que M. George efit
ramass_ des plantes et des insectes pour ses collections nous traversfimes un
vallon, et commen_nes _t monter une autre montagne beaucoup plus haute,
appell6e le Mont-N& Elle consiste presqu'enti_rement en un rocher dur. Comme
je me s_parai ici de mes compagnons, je ne puis plus parler que de moi.
Quelquefois je fus oblig6 de grimper sur des rochers perpendiculaires, en
m'appuyant sur les buissons qui croissent en grand nombre dans les trous;
quelquefois je marchai parmi de gros quartiers nSpanduspartout. Je n'eus pas le
terns de parvenir au sommet; mais la vue dont je jouis doit 6tre magnifique sous un
ciel clair. S'il n'y avait point eu de brouillard, je ne doute pas qu'on n'efit pu
appercevoir, du sommet de la montagne, tousles environs de Tarbes,jusqu'h Pau,
ou m_me au delh; mais je ne pus voir qu'une partie de la plaine de Tarbes. Je
descendis, quelquefois pardes sentiers, soit naturels, soit artificiels, que je trouvai
dans la montagne, quelquefois le mieux que je pouvais, en m'aidant, aux endroits
escarp_s, des plantes qui s'offraient h mes mains. J'amvai enfin h la ville; apr_s
diner M. George cut la bont6 de me donner une leqon de botanique.
16 Aoflt
[N] Je m'occupai, pendant la journ_e, _ 6crire mes notes sur la premiere lemon
de Botanique, _tcontinuer la partie Statistique de mon Cahier sur la division de la
France, _ r6soudre des probl_mes de G6ometrie. Apr_s diner je fus me promener
dans la ville, qui 6st fort jolie. Les rues, comme _tTarbes, sont arros6es par des
canaux qui tirent leur eau de l'Adour, et qui parcourent la plus grande pattie de la
ville. Les toits sont en ardoise, ce qui fait que la ville semble fort jolie du sommet
d'une montagne. Dans le centre de la ville sont la place et la promenade des
Coustous, oh l'on vend une sorte d'6toffes de laine, qu'on ne fait que dans ce
pays-ci. Bagn_res 6st tr_s-frequent_ pendant la saison des eaux, mais ce doit _tre
un d_sert tout l'hiver et le printemps. Le terns y _st souvent mauvais.--A mon
r_tour, M. George me donna une autre leqon de Botanique.
17 Ao_tt
[N] M. George fut de bon matin au Pic de Lhieris pour y herboriser. Pour moi, je
fus avec MeUe Sarah aux bains de Salut, mais je m'y baignai pas, parcequ'il n'y
avait point de place. L' avenue qui y conduit _st tr_s belle, et l'on y jouit d'une belle
vue dans la valise. Apr_s deje(iner je re_us une lettre de mon pc3re,j'6crivis rues
notes sur la lemon de Botanique, et je continuai ma Statistique. Alors je me
promenai avec M. et Mine Bentham darts les environs de la ville. Mme me
conseilla de s_her les plantes qui ne sont pas communes en Angleterre, et que je
trouvai ici; j'en cherchai, j'en trouvai quelques-unes, et les rapportai_ la maison.
Apr_s diner M. George, qui _tait revenu, arrangea ses plantes, et m'en donna
August 1820 French Journal and Notebook 67
quelques-unes.--Les bains de Salut sont remplis de l'eau chaude qui sort d'un
rocher _tcet endroit; la situation en dst bien jolie; mais les bains ne rdpondent pas
la beautd du lieu. La maison a l'air fort mal-propre, et mdme la promenade de
devant dst si sale qu'on ne peut gu_re y marcher sans incommoditd. Les chardons
et les orties en remplissent les environs.--L'agriculture des environs de Bagn_res
n'dst que m&liocre. On ne coupe le bid que quand il 6st si mfir qu'on perd
quelquefois plus de la moitid de ce qu'on aurait pu recueillir. Cette faute dst bien
commune dans tous ces environs. L'irrigation des prairies dst fort soignde. I1n'y a
gu_re de autre grain que le mais. I1 y a pourtant eu du bid, mais fort peu.
18 Aofit
[N] Je pris une lemonde Botanique, j'en _crivis mes notes, je mis dess_.chermes
plantes, et me fis un filet pour attraper des insectes. Le terns etait mauvais.
19 Aoflt
[N] Je pris des leqons de Botanique, j'arrangeai ruesplantes, je me fis une table
du prix des denrdes aux endroits oOj'ai passd, je continuai ma Statistique. Le terns
etait fort mauvais.
20 Aoftt
[N] Apr_s avoir dejefin_ de bonne heure, je fis une excursion _ pied pour
ramasser des plantes et des insectes. Je pris le chemin de Campan, et longeai
d'abord l'Adour. Cette rivi_re est remarquable par la largeur de son lit. Au bout
d'un quart de lieue, le chemin s'dcarte un peu de la rivi_re, en laissant une
intervalle de quelques prairies. Je laissai _ gauche les villages de Gerde et d'Astd,
de l'autre c6t_ de la rivi_re; un peu plus loin je passai par le village de Beauddan.
Les rues de ce village comme celles de Bagn_res, sont arrosdes par des ruisseaux
mais cela n'emp&_he pas qu'elles ne soient fort real propres au moins apr_s une
pluie comme celle d'hier et d'avant hier. Ce chemin dst bordd par des hales, les
champs le sont aussi. Chaque cabane a son morceau de terrain, environnd par une
haie, et l'on cultive le ma'is, et le bid ou le seigle dans une partie de chaque
morceau; darts l'autre "on fait paJtre le b_tail a. Je rencontrai plus d'une fois des
moutons, des chevaux, et des hnes, allant an marchd de Bagn_res. Ayant pass_ le
torrent appelld l'Adour de Bauddan, je m'dcartai un peu de la route pour gravir une
montagne _ droite, mais je n'eus pas hie tems de monter bien haut b. Ici pour la
premiere lois je vis des moutons en p_turage. Je descendai et, poursuivant mon
tours, arrivai h Campan, petite ville, ayant, comme Bagn_res, son ruisseau et ses
toits d'ardoise; elle dst assez jolie, quoique les maisons n'y aient pas Fair aussi
propre quqt Bagn_res. Ici, scion l'arrangement qu'on avait fait, je rencontrai M. et
Mme Bentham, les demoiselles, et M. George, qui allaient h Grip, sur la route de
Bar_ges, pour voir les cascades de l'Adour, lls poursuivirent leur cours; et moi le
mien, par la m6me route, mais non avec eux, car ils 6taient Ctous c h cheval, ou
darts le charaban.--Apr_s Campan, aj'avais h ma droite des montagnes d, toutes
couvertes de verdure jusqu'au sommet; j'appris d'un paysan avec qui je
m'entretins, qu'on arrose par irrigation les prairies qui donnent h ces montagnes
tant de beaut6, eLes vallons qui s'y trouvaient laissaient voir par derriere e de
hautes montagnes noires. /L'Adour coulait f h gma g gauche, et plus loin,
hs'elevaienth d'immenses rochers blancs.--La vall6e de Campan, jusqu'h
Sainte-Marie, n'6st qu'un village continuel. Chaque cabane a son morceau de
terrain, et des ruisseaux d'eau claire coulent h c6t6 de la route. Le b16 n'6st pas tout
coup_, quoique pros de Toulouse il le soit depuis plus d'un mois. Le chemin 6st
mauvais._Je poursuivis mon cours jusqu'h Sainte-Marie, village peu conside-
rable, h deux ou trois lieues de distance de Bagn_res; alors je me retournai parce-
que les nuages qui s'approchaient de l'endroit ofa j'6tais 'semblaient annoncer
l'approche d' 'un orage.--JAyant attrap_J un fort beau papillon devant la maison
d'un paysan, il sortit avec ses enfans, et m'ayant demand6 quel 6tait l'usage de
mon filet, pourquoi je ramassais des plantes, etc. I1 me pria d'entrer et de regarder
les paysans qui s'amusaient _ danser sous un joli arbre; j'acceptai l'invitation, et
les regardai. Ils dansaient beaucoup mieux que les paysans pr6s de Pompignan; ils
avaient quelqu' kid6e k des figures, et m6me des pas. Ce ne fut pas la seule fois que
pendant la journ_e je m'entretins avec les paysans. On me demanda tr_s souvent si
mon p_re 6tait apothicaire; car on ne put comprendre qu'une plante pfit _tre utile
pour autre chose que pour rem6de. Mon filet aussi causa tde 1' t6tonnement m_m
ces bonnes gens; et comme je m'6cartais quelquefois de la route pour suivre la
rivi_re, on me demanda plus d'une fois si j'avais attrap_ beaucoup de truites.
(L'Adour 6st remarquable par ses truites. ) Quand je "fus revenu jusqu' "au pont, je
me d6tournai du chemin pour suivre le cours de l'Adour de Baud6an; ce que je fis
jusqu'_t °sa jonction avec ° l'Adour proprement dit. Plci les p deux torrents
pr_sentaient une vue fort pittoresque. J'6tais sur un promontoire couvert d'arbres
¢-C+GB
a-dGB] JSM j'eus des montagnes_tdroite
e-eGB] JSM Derriere les montagnes vertes se montraient par les vallons
f-fGB] JSM J'eusl'Adour
s-S+GB
h-h+GB
_-'GB] JSM commen_aient_ menacer
J-JGB] JSM I1m'_tant arriv6 d'attraper
t-tGB] JSM entendement
/-IGB] JSM assezd'
"-'GB] JSM parmi
"-"GB] JSM me trouvai encore
°-"GB] JSM ee qu'il se jotgnit
P-PGB] JSM Lajonctiondeces
August 1820 French Journal and Notebook 69
21 Aotit
[N] Je sortis avec M. et Mme Bentham et Mademoiselle Sarah; nous
commenq_nes _ gravir le Mont-Olivet, mais la pluie survint, et nous empc3chade
parvenir au sommet. En bas de cette montagne il y a un Ecole module
d'enseignement mutuel. J'en ai vu un autre h Rabastens: J'achevai de lire un livre
appel6 Guide des Voyageurs fi Bagndres; 4 et je commenqai h lire une Description
des Hautes Pyrenees.5
22 Aoi_t
[N] Je partis clans le charaban avec Mademoiselle Clarisse pour aller voir les
cascades de Grip; celles que M. et Mme Bentham ont 6t6 voir avant-hier. Nous
pass_nes par Sainte-Marie. J'ai d6j_ d6crit la vall6e jusqu'h ce dernier village, et
je n'ai plus rien _ dire stir ce sujet. A Sainte Marie la vall6e se divise en deux
branches; dont chacune a une route; celle du c6t6 gauche conduit h Arreau et celle
de droite _ Bar_ges-les-Bains; nous suivimes cette demi_re. Peu de terns apr_s les
montagnes des deux c6t6s commencent _ 'se rapprocher les unes des' autres, et
celles du c6t_ gauche sont couvertes de sapins. Nous arriv_nes enfin (par un
chemin fort mauvais) _tGrip, hameau consistant en trois ou quatre maisons; nous
nous arr_t_nes h une assez bonne auberge, et laissant lh la voiture et le cheval,
nous suivirnes h pied la route de Bar_ges (inond6e dans quelques endroits par des
ruisseaux) et commen_maes _ monter le Mont qui porte le nora du Tourmalet. A
peu de distance apr6s, cette route se divise en deux sentiers, oO l'on ne peut aller
qu'_ cheval ou _ pied. Le sentier du c6t6 droit conduit _ Bar6ges; nous primes celui
du gauche, qui nous conduisit, toujours en montant, aux cabanes d'Artigu6s,
situ6es sur une sorte de plateau _sur la pente ude la montagne. Ces cabanes font la
demeure de quelques bergers pendant 1'6t6, mais elles sont couvertes de neige tout
l'hiver. Ici deux torrents s'unissent pour fformer celui _ de l'Adour. Nous les
travers_-nes WsurWdes ponts de planches, et puis monffanes Xjusqu'_ ce que nous
arriv_nes _ une cascade d'Yenviron y 60 pieds de hauteur, faite par la branche
gauche de l'Adour, qui tombe, h cet endroit, du haut d'un roeher. Cette cascade 6st
fort belle, quoique la rivi6re n'y soit pas bien largex. Nous y mangefiraes ce que
nous avions port_ avec nous, et puis je montai ZsurZ un plfiteau beaucoup plus
_elev6 a que la cascade, betb immediatement au-dessous des sapins. Sur cette
pattie de la montagne je trouvai deux ou trois Cplantes rares c. Du plfiteau j 'eus une
belle vue du Pie du Midi, la plus hante de toutes les montagnes qui se trouvent en
avant de la chalne, et longtems regard6e comme la plus haute des Pyren6es. Ce pic
dparaissait a 6tre tout pr6s de nous, cependant il y eavait e un intervalle de deux ou
trois lieues. En retoumant, nous passfimes _ une autre cascade d'environ dix pieds
de hauteur, fau dessous def la jonction des rivi6res, j'y descendai par un sentier
escarp6, jusqu'_ un tother qui s'6tend presque de l'un _ l'autre bord de la rivi6re, et
qui gforme g la cascade. Je fis cela clans hl'espoirh d'y trouver des plantes, mais je
n'en trouvai pas. II y a une troisi6me cascade clans l'autre branche de la rivi6re,
mais elle ne vaut pas,/i ce qu'on dit, la peine d'y aller. 'Nous dinames _ l'auberge
sur d'exeellentes truites de l'Adour', et nous retourn_'nes Jensuite j _ Bagn6res.--
Dans eette excursion je ramassai un assez grand hombre d'insectes et de plantes.
23 Ao_t
[N] J'6crivis des observations sur ce pays-ci; j'achevai de life la description des
Hautes-Pyren6es. M. B6rard, le chimiste cel6bre de Montpellier, dina avec nous.
"-"GB] JSM dausl'ascente
_-_GB] JSM faire le plus grand torrent
_-"GB] JSM par
_-xJSM] [GB proposed in margin:] jusqu'h l'endroit ou la branche gauche de l'Adour en
tombant du haut d'un rocher d'environ 60 pieds d'elevation forme une cascade assez belle quoiqu'il
n'y ait pas beaucoup d'eau
Y-YGB] JSM _tpeu pros
:-rGB] JSM plus haut, et parvins _t
'*-aGB] JSM haut
b-b+G B
C-_GB] JSM rares sortes de plantes
d-dGB] JSM semble
e-tGB] JSM a
/-/GB] JSM plus basque
#-aGB] JSM fait
S-bGB] JSM l'esp6rance
'-_JSM] [GB proposed in margin: ] On nous donna d'excellentes truites pour diner _ l'auberge
J-JGB] JSM alors
August 1820 French Journal and Notebook 71
24 Aolit
[N] Je commenqai _ me faire des tables Logiques. M. B6rard vint apr6s diner.
Le terns 6tait mauvais.
25 Aoiit
[N] M. George revint _tmidi, et nous dit qu'il s'6tait beaucoup amus6 pendant
son excursion; qu'il avait trouv6 la chute du Gave fort belle; qu'il avait gravi
plusieurs montagnes; il rapporta avec lui beaucoup de plantes rares, dont il eut la
bont6 de me donner quelques 6chantillons.--Aujourdui f6te de Saint-Louis, la
ville donna un _3eauk bal, et les rues tfurentt illumin6es; je fus voir l'illumination,
mais melle ne consistait que de quelques m chandelles, ou tout au plus, nquelques
lampions n remplis d'huile et d'eau.
**9**
26 Ao_t
[J] A Bagn_res de Bigorre. J'arrangeai mes plantes et mes insectes; je f'mis la
lettre _tmon l_re. Je fus me promener darts la ville avec M. George; c'6tait un jour
IThe mention of brothers signals the arrival of Henry Mill (1820-40). the latest born.
2[Herein the Journal appears the following letter to Richard Doane:] A RichardDoane /
Mon eher Richard, / Me voici darts les Pyren6es, initi6 aux deux m6tiers de botaniste et
d'entomologiste. C'6tait dommage de perdre l'occasion, qui ne s'offrira peut _tre plus.
J'esp&e que vous vous trouvez encore dans un aussi bon 6tat de sant_ que quandj'ai eu le
plaisirde vous voir. M. Benthamjouit sans doute de sa sant_ ordinaire.
k-tGB] JSM fort grand
t-lGB] JSM sont
"-'GB] JSM ce n'_tait que des
_-_GB] JSM des lampes tout all plus, fares de verres
72 Journals and Speeches No. 1
de foire. I1 y eut beaucoup de laine darts le march_, et surtout des faux. Nous vimes
aussi des 6toffes de laine, de la manufacture de ce pays-ci, de l'avoine, du fruit, du
from,age, etc. J'6crivis, avec l'aide de M. George, les noms des plantes de mon
herbier, pendant le reste de la joum6e. Apr_s diner, je fus au spectacle avec M.
George; les pi_ces qu'on joua furent principalement des operas; on chanta
extr_mement bien, et l'on joua passablement. I1 y eut un Concerto de Cor, jou6 par
tm musicien cel_bre; 3 et, tout 6tait beaucoup mieux que nous n'attendions darts une
vifie si petite. La sadie de spectacle 6st fort petite; elle 6tait presque pleine.
Chaque'anr_, le 13 Juin, les jurats des sept communaut6s Espagnoles de Boncal, et sept
jurats de Barretons avec un notaire, se rendent, chacun de leur c6t_, sur le sommet des
Pyr_n6es, an lieu nomm_ Area; lieu qui s6pare le B6arn de l'Espagne. Tous sont arm6s de
piques, et les d_put6s s'arr_tent, chacun sur leur territoire; les Espagnols proposent aux
B6arnais de renouveler la paix; les B6arnais y consentent, et posent leurs piques sur la ligne
de d6marcation. Les Espagnols placent leurs piques en croix sur celles des B6arnais, et le fer
6st tourn6 vers le B6arn. Ensuite, Boncalais et B6arnais tous mettent la main sur la croix
form6e par les piques. Le notaire lit une formule de serment, et les d_put6s de part et d'autre
r61_tent einq lois Pats _ bant, Paix _ l'avenir. Apr_s ce serment, les d6put6s se m61ent
ensemble, et se patient comme amis. Cependant on voit so_r des bois trente hommes de
Barretons, partag6s en trois bandes, conduisant trois vaches exactement pareilles; ils se
placent tour h tour sur les limites, la moiti6 du corps en Espagne, et l'autre en B6arn; les
d6put6s de Boncal les examinent et les re_oivent. Trente habitans de Boncal viennent les
prendre. S'ils les laissent 6chapper, elles sont perdues pour eux, et les B6arnais ne sont pas
tenus de les rendre. Apr_s cette ceremonie, les Espagnols traitent les B6arnais en pain, vin,
et jambon; et la f6te 6st termin6e par un march6 de b_tail qui se tient dans le temtoire de
B6am. (Essais Historiques sur le Bdarn.) 4
L'origine de cet usage singulier n'6tait autre chose qu'une querelle entre les
bergers Franqais et Espagnols pour une fontaine ou pour un p_turage, je ne sais
lequel des deux.
Les jurats 6taient des magistrats perpetuels que les B6amais cr6_rent en 1220.
Repr6sentans de la nation, ils jugeaient, sans appel, toutes les affaires en rnati_re civile qui
survenaient entre les habitans du pays, ou entre le prince et ses sujets. (ltineraire
Topographique et Descriptive des Hautes-Pyren_es.)5
La diversit_ des langues dont on se sert dans les Pyren6es 6st fort grande. Dans la
plaine de Tarbes ort parle une esl_ce de patois; en B6arn on parle B6arnais, en
3Named by George Bentham in his manuscript Diary as M. Tiran, but not otherwise
identified.
4jean Jacques Faget de Baure (1755-1817), Essais historiques sur le B_arn (Paris:
Denugon and Eymery, 1818), pp. 182-3; quoted in Abadie, Itin_raire, pp. 102-3.
5Abadie, p. 102n.
August 1820 French Journal and Notebook 73
Roussillon une sorte de Catalan, et darts le pays des Basques, ainsi que dans la
pattie montagneuse de la Bigorre, on ne s'entend gu_re d'un village _ un antre.
Les paysans de la vall6e de Campan et surtout les femmes sont les plus
malhonn_tes que j'aie jamais vus, m_me envers les dames.--Aussi sont-ils les
plus laids. Non seulement ont-ils l'apparence generale du visage la moins belle
peut-&re de tousles paysans que j'aie jamais vus, mais un grand nombre en ont le
goitre si commune dans quelques endroits des Alpes.
[N] Je me promenaiclansla ville avec M. George; c'6tait un jour de foire; il y °avait°
beaucoupde laine true, et Psurtout des fauxP; nous vimes aussi des 6toffes de laine de ce
pays-ci; de l'avoine, du fruit, du fromage, etc. Apr_s diner je fus qau spectacle avec M.
Georgeq; on joua le Ddpit Amoureux,6et deux operas, L'lrato et Le Bouffe et le Tailleur:7
on joua passablement, et ron"chanta tr_s bien.
27 Aoflt
[J] J'arrangeai mes plantes, j'achevai de les nommer; j'6crivis des notes sur ce
pays-ci, j'essayai deux pmbl_mes de G6ometrie, je vous envoyai deux lettres,
dat6es le 24 et le 26 Aoflt. M. B6rard dina avec nous.
[N] J'essayai deux pmbl6mes de G6om6trie, j'envoyai deux lettres _ mon p6re. M.
B_rarddina avec nous.
28 Aoiit
[J] Je partis h 7 heures du matin, pour faire une autre excursion _ pied. Je suivis
la route de Campan jusqu'au pont de l'Adour de Baud6an; a/ors je me tournai/l
droite, pour suivre la vall6e de cette rivi6re, appell6e la vall6e de Lesponne, ou
quelquefois m_me la vall6e de Bagn_res, quoique celle proprement de Bagn6res
finit au pont. La mute 6st fort mauvaise.--Toute la vall6e ne semble _tre qu'un
seul village, sous les trois noms diverses de Viellette, de Lesponne, et de
Traouessarou. Le plus grand, appell6 Lesponne 6st situ6 entre les deux autres. Au
d61_ du village de Traouessarou, le chemin n'6st plus assez large pour que les
voitures puissent y passer. I1 se tourne, toujours en montant, au c6t6 d'une
montagne; a/ors on parvient _ quelques cabanes; au d61_des derni6res cabanes, ce
n'6st plus qu'un sentier o0 l'on ne peut passer qu'/l pied. La vall6e 6st termin6e par
de hantes montagnes couvertes de sapins. Un vallon, oil coule l'Adour de
Baud6an, se tourne h droite; j'y montai pendant quelque tems, dans l'espoir d'y
[N] Je partis _ sept heures du matin, 'pour faire" une autre excursion _ pied. Je suivis la
route de Campan jusqu'au pont de l'Adour de Bauddan; puis me toumai _ droite, pour suivre
la valise de cette rivi_re, appellc_e la vall6e de Lesponne, et quelquefois m_me la vall6e de
Bagn_.res. La route 6st fort mauvaise. Toute la vall6e ne semble _tre qu'un seul village, qui
porte les,trois noms tde' Viellette, de Lesponne et de Traouessarou. Apr_s ce dernier village
le therein n'6st plus assez large pour aucune voiture: I1 "serpente _ en montant, Vtoujours sur
lev eot_ d'une montagne; puis on parvient _ quelques cabanes; au deltt des demi_res cabanes
ee n'_st plus qu'un sentier oi_ l'on ne peut passer qu'_t pied. La valise dst termin6e par de
hautes montagnes couvertes de sapins. Un vallon, o_ coule l'Adour de Baud6an, se trouve
droite; j'y montai pendant quelque tems, mais ne trouvant aucune communication avec la
vali6e de Loussouet, je pris le '_parti _ de retourner par le m_me ehemin que _j'avais pris en
venant _. PrOs du pont, en retoumant, je trouvai un sentier qui me conduisit pros de l'Eglise
de Baudean, et derrii_re le village; il se joignit plus loin _tla grande route.wJe ramassai,
Ypendant eette journ6¢ y des papillons rares, et deux ou trois plantes.
29 Ao_t
[J] Je partis _t midi, avec M. George et Mile Sarah, pour faire une autre
excursion dans le charaban. Nous primes d'abord la route de Lesponne, mais avant
d'6tre arrivd h ce village nous renvoy_'nes le charaban _ Bagn_res, et gravimes une
haute montagne _ droite. La premiere rdgion de cette montagne dtait couverte de
foug_re, la seconde d'un bois de chaumes, qui dans la troisi_me 6taient
entremelees de sapins, et vers le sommet dtaient presque remplac6es par ces
demiers. Dans un endroit pros du plus haut point, on avait coup6 une tr_s grande
quantitd d'arbres; nous y trouv_aes beaucoup de fraises sauvages. Quand nous
6tions au sommet, nous attendimes _jouir d'une tr_s belle vue; mais des nuages qui
couvraient toute la plalne avaient mont_ darts les vall6es, et nous ne virnes rien.
Quelquefois cependant les nuages, en laissant entr'elles un peu de distance, nous
permirent _ concevoir de quelle vue nous aurions pu jouir si le tems n'avait pas dt6
si mauvais. Nous descendimes h travers beaucoup de bruy_re, les pieds glissant
chaque moment. Le ciel devint alors plus clair, et avant que nous ffissions en bas,
le terns fiat devenu le plus beau possible. L'endroit oil nous descendimes dans la
vall6e tilt bien au dessus de celui oh nous avions mont6. Nous passfimes par les
villages de Lesponne, de Viellette, et de Baud6an. Aussit6t que nous ffimes hors
de ce dernier, nous vimes des 6clairs, tout/t fait inattendus; car l'apparence du ciel
ne les cut point promis. Nous commenqfirnes sur le champ h marcher le plus vite
que nous pouvions, mais sans effet. Longtems avant que nous pfissions arriver/_
Bagn6res, une nuage 6paisse 6tait au dessus de nous. Bient6t le vent commenga/t
souffler, pr6sage in6vitable d'une tr6s grande pluie et dans deux ou trois minutes il
souffla si fort que nous fumes presque renvers6s; M. George perdit sa casquette, et
je pus h peine conserver la mienne. Si nous avions 6t6 dans le charaban, nous
aurions assul'6ment 6t6 renvers6s et probablement nous serions tomb6 darts
l'Adour. Avec beaucoup de difficult6 nous parvinmes h Bagn6res et trouv_tmes un
grand nombre de peupliers abattus par l'orage. Nous avions trouv6, pendant la
journ_e, beaucoup de plantes, surtout des foug6res.
IN ] Je partis/t midi Zpourfaire zune excursion dans le charaban, avec M. George et Mile
Sarah. Nous primes d'abord la route de Lesponne; mais avant d'6tre arriv6 _ ce village nous
renvoyfimes le charaban _tBagn6res, et gravimes une haute montagne _ droite appell6e Pic
de Montaigu. La premi6re region de cette montagne 6tait couverte de foug6re; et la seconde
de bois; principalement de acharmes a, qui darts la troisi6me bregion b etaient entremel6es de
sapins, et vers le sommet, 6taient presque remplac6es par ces demiers. Dans un endroit pros
du plus haut point, on avait coup_ un tr6s grand nombre d'arbres; nous y trouvfimes
beaucoup de fraises sauvages. Quand nous 6tions au sommet, nous Cnousc attendimes
jouir d'nne tr_s belle vue; mais des nuages qui couvraient ad'abordd la plaine, 'etaient e
mont6s dans les vall6es, et nous ne vimes den. Quelquefois, il 6st vrai, fils separaient assez
pour nous donner une id6e de ce que nous aurions vu s'il avait fait beauf. Cette montagne a
un autre pic plus 61_v6 que celui o0 nous 6tions parvenu.--Nous descendimes h travers des
bruy6res, en glissam h chaque Spas s. Avant d'etre harriv6s hen bas, 'le ciel s'eclaircit de
nouveau, nous nous trouvfimes bient6t 'dans la vall6e bien au-delh de l'endroit 2d'lofa nous
tetions k mont_, et nous primes le chemin de Bagn6res. Mais avant d'y arriver, un orage
nous surprit; le vent souffla si fort que nous fumes presque renvers6s, M. George perdit sa
casquette, et nous amvames, non sans difficultY, _ Bagn6res.-- tPendant la joum6e nous
avions trouv6 t beaucoup de plantes, surtout des foug6res.
31 Aofit
[J] Nous quires Tarbes de bon matin, et traversfimes la plalne: les Pyrenees
6taient i_notre gauche; j'en trouvai la vue beancoup plus magnifique de loin que de
pr_s. La plaine de Tarbes 6st fort bien cultiv6e. Ensuite nous montfimes une longue
colline, et entrames darts une lande inculte, couverte seulement de bruy_re et de
foug_re. Au bout de cette lande, nous entrfimes darts un pays plus cultiv6. I1 n'y a
gu_re d'autres arbres dans ce pays-ci que des ch6nes et des chataniers, quelquefois
en bois ou en bosquets, quelquefois en longs rangs aux cbt6s de la route. Les
chines 6taient couvertes de la plus grande quantit6 de glands que j'aie jamais vus
ailleurs. Nous descendimes par une jolie avenue, et arrivames h Bordes, petit
village, immediatement entour_ d'un pays assez agr6able. On 6tait malade _ la
meilleure auberge, et l'on nous renvoya a une autre, ob tout _tait si sale que
Madme Bentham aima mieux manger sous un arbre. Pour nous, M. Bentham et les
autres, nous y dejefinhmes de bon appetit, nonobstant la malpropret6 de tout, hors
le linge, qui 6tait fort propre et fort fin. Nous partimes aussit6t que les chevaux
s'6taient assez repos6s, et travers_mes un pays consistant presque seiilement en
landes mcultes et en bois, ou en rangs de chines et de chataniers, dont les tiges
_taient COUl_San milieu. M. Bentham r6marqua qu'il n'avait jamais vu croitre tant
de glands sur les chines que dans ce pays-ci. Les landes _taient souvent divis6es
par des hales et l'on avait commenc6 _tcouper la foug_re, probablement pour la
brOler.--Nous avons appris que la cause pourquoi la grande lande de l'autre c6t6
de Bordes _st laiss6e ineulte, _st que les bergers des montagnes ont le droit d'y
faire paltre leurs troupeaux pendant l'hiver; ils ont ce droit pareequ'ils en ont joui
du terns immemorial, et par les loix de la France celui qui a joui d'un droit sans
interruption pendant soixante ans en jouit pour jamais.8--Enfin nous arriv_-nes _t
_he Code civil, Livre _I, Titre XX, Arts. 2262 and 2281, actuallygives thirtyyears, not
sixty, as the limit.
"-"GB] JSM du soir, latssant lk seulement
"-"GB] JSM eut
September 1820 French Journal and Notebook 77
Pau, chef lieu des Basses-Pyrenees, et autrefois capitale du B6arn, ville grande,
dont les rues _taient fort larges et fort air6es. Nous nous arr_t_mes h l'H6tel du
Grand Cerf, autrement appell6 l'H6tel de la Poste. Avant de diner, je me promenai
avec M. George dans la ville, qui n'6st pas fort peupl_e; on peut bien le voir, car
l'herbe croit darts presque toutes les rues. Un vallon profond traverse la ville; il y a
plus d'un pont sur ce vallon, et des ma_sons sont baties en bas, ainsi qu'en haut. Le
Gave (rividre) de Pau coule h c8t6 de la ville; au d61_ 6st le c6teau de Juran_on,
cel_bre par ses vins. Le chateau ou Henri quatre passa son enfance 6st situ6 h Pau,
presque hors de la ville.
[N] Nous quires Tarbes de bon matin, et travers_aes la plaine; les Pyren6es etaient _t
notre gauche, °et se trouvant un peu eloign0,es, la vue n'en 6tait que plus belle o. La pla_ne de
Tarbes 6st fort bien cultiv6e. Ensuite nous mont_nes une longue colline, et enWames dans
une lande inculte, couverte de bruy_re et de foug_re. Au bout de cette lande, nous entr_nes
dans un pays plus cultiv6. I1n'y a gu_re d'antres arbres que des ch6nes et des Pch_itaigners p,
hi, darts cette saison-ci, d'autre grain que le mai's. Nous descendimes une jolie avenue, et
arriv_nes _ Borde, petit village, immediatement entour6 d'un pays assez agr6able. On 6tait
malade _, la meilleure auberge, et l'on nous renvoya _ une autre, oi_ tout 6tait si sale que
Mme Bentham aima mieux manger sous un arbre. Pour nous, M. Bentham et les autres,
nous y deje_s de bon appetit, nonobstant la malpropret_ de tout, qexcept_ q le linge,
qui 6tait "blanc et r fin. Nous part3mes aussitSt que les chevaux Sse fussent s assez reposes, et
traverskmes un pays consistant presque /entierement ten landes et en bois, ou en rangs de
"chataigners _ et de chines, dont les tiges _taient coup_s au milieu. Sur les chines
cro_ssaient le plus grand nombre de glands que j'aie vus de ma vie. Les landes _taient bien
souvent divis6es par des haies, et l'on avait commenc6 _ couper la foug_re, probablement
pour la brfiler. Enfin nous arriv_aes _tPau, chef lieu des Basses Pyren6es, et autrefots
capitale du B6arn ". Cette ville est grande, les rues sont _ fort larges et fort air6es. Nous nous
arr_t_imes _tl'hStel du Grand Cerf, autrement appell6 H6tel de la Poste._Avant dLner,je
me promenai darts la ville avec M. George. _On peut tr_s bien voir que cette ville n'6st pas
bien peupl6e puisque l'herbe croit clans presque toutes les rues. Un vallon profond traverse
la ville; des maisons sont baties _dans le whas, aussi bien qu'en haut. Le Gave (rivi_re) de
Pau coule au dessous de la ville; an-d_l_t se trouve le c6teau de Juran_on, cel_bre par ses
vins. Le chateau of1 Henri quatre passa son enfance 6st situ6 _tPau presque hors de la ville.
1 Septembre
[J] Nous ft_mes tous voir le chateau d'Henri IV, un batiment tr_s fort, d'une
forme irreguli_re, dans une fort belle situation; il domine le c6teau de Juranqon, le
Gave de Pau et ses nombreux ilets, et beaucoup de champs tr_s cultiv6s. On se sert
d'une des tours pour prison. Ce chateau se racommode pour loger un Gouvemeur.
°-°GB] JSM dont la vue 6tait beaucoup plus magnif_lue de Iota que de pros
P-PGB] JSM ch_t_iers
*-*GB] JSM hors
"-rGB] JSM fort propre et fort
"-*GB] JSM s'_aiem
t-tGB] JSM seulement
"GB] JSM cl_tanie_
_-_GB] JSM ,uneville grande, dontlesrues_taient
w-"GB] JSM en
78 Journals and Speeches No. 1
Nous y vimes le berceau d'Henri IV, qui n'6st autre chose qu'une 6caille de tortue.
Pendant la r_volution, on eut le dessein de la bnaler; mais un habitant de Pau
s'entendit avec le Garde du Chateau pour y substituer une autre 6caille fort
semblable, qu'il avait dans son cabinet; et cette 6caille fut brOl6e, au lieu de
l'autre, dans le march6 public.9--Nous vimes aussi les fourchettes solides,
autrefois dor6es, dont Henri se servit. De l_tnous ffimes au Parc qui appartient au
chateau, et qui, en c6toyant le Gave, domine une tr_s belle vue. Je m'occupai
pendant le reste de la joum6e h 6crire cette lettre. Apr_s diner je fus chercher un
encrier de poche, mais je ne pus pas en trouver un tel que je voulais.
[N] Nous f-tames tous voir le Chateau d'Henri quatre b_timent tr_s fort, XdeXforme
irreguli_re, darts une tr_s belle situation; il domine le c6teau de Juran_on, le Gave de Pau et
ses nombreux ilets, et beaucoup de champs rbienr cultiv6s. On se sert d'une des tours pour
prison: zOn repare ce chateau z pour loger un Gouvemeur. Nous y rimes le berceau d'Henri
IV, qui n'6st autre chose qu'une _aille de tortue: pendant la r6volution, on %oulait" la
bruler; mais un habitant de Pau s'entendit avec le Garde du Chateau pour y substituer une
bpareille _caille b qu'il avait dans son cabinet, et Ccelle-ci c fut brOl6e au lieu de l'autre. Nous
vimes aussi les fourcbettes solides, aetd autrefois dor6es, dont Henri se servit. Nous ffunes
"ensuite • au Parc fqui appartient au chateau et d'ou l'on jouit d'fune belle vue Ssur la vall6e
du Gave s. Je m'occupai pendant le reste de la journ6e h 6crire _ mon p_re. Apr_s diner je fus
acheter un encrier de poche, mais je ne pus pas en trouver un tel que je voulais.
2 Septembre
[J] Nous partimes de Pau/_ 7 heures du matin, et travershraes par un beau pont le
Gave de Pau, rivi6re grande, divis6e en canaux par de nombreux ilets. Alors nous
entrames darts un vallon du c6teau de Juranqon, et travers_mes un pays charmant,
bien bois6, fort semblable dans quelques endroits _tl'Angleterre. Les arbres 6taient
principalement des ch6nes et des peupliers: les c6teaux couverts de prairies et de
cultivation donn6rent au pays une apparence fort jolie. Nous travers_mes la petite
ville de Gall; quelques-unes des maisons furent tr6s propres, mais toutes
d6pourvues de vitre, n'ayant que des trous carr6s dans le muraille, et des
contrevents qu'on ferme en cas de besoin. I1en 6st de m6me presque par tous ces
environs. A Gala la route se divise en deux fourches, celle du c6t6 gauche conduit
aux Eaux bonnes et aux Eaux chaudes, 6tablissemens thermaux ainsi appell6s.
Nous primes celle de droite. De Gan h Belair nous n'efimes gubre que de hautes
collines _t traverser; le pays 6tait fort pittoresque; nous jouimes de la vue des
Pyren6es, dont nous nous approchfirnes de plus en plus. La chaine des Basses
Pyren6es me semble beaucoup moins 616v6e que celle des Hautes-Pyren6es. A
Belair, petit hameau darts une fort belle situation, nous nous arr6t,-imespour y
dejeiiner. L'auberge fut infmiment meilleure qu'/_Bordes, quoiqu'en effet elle ne
pot passe vanter de grande chose. Ce qui nous amusa fort, c'6tait un assez grand
morceau d'un miroir cass6, ins6r6 fort soigneusement dans le muraille, afin de
remplir la place d'un second miroir, car la chambre en eut un autre, mais il y eut
deux lits, et c'6tait juste que chacun eQtson miroir. II n'y eut ni fruit ni lait, ensorte
que M. Bentham, qui ne mange pas de la viande/_ dejefiner, n'aurait pas fait un
r6pas tr_s agr6able, si par hasard on n'eut pas vu passer un troupeau de ch_vres, et
que le ch_vrier n'eut pas 6t6 assez obligeant pour nous vendre un peu de
lait.--Ayant rest6 pendant trois heures h Belair, nous continu_.rnes notre voyage
par un pays/t peu pros comme celui que j'ai tant6t d6crit. La verdure des prairies,
quoique dans une situation of1l'irrigation est impossible, fait assez bien voir que le
climat de ce pays 6st fort humide. Nous arriv_,aes h Ol6ron vers trois heures du
soir. Apr_s diner M. le sous-pr_fet de cette ville _° vint nous voir; il cut la bont6 de
nous conduire par la ville, qui 6st bfitie darts un endroit fort in6gal. Sous les deux
noms d'Ol6ron et de Sainte-Marie, elle s'6tend sur beaucoup plus d'espace que la
ville de Pau. Elle 6st pourtant tr_s peu peupl6e; M. le sous-prefet nous fit voir des
maisons fort grandes habit6es seulement par deux personnes,--par trois tout au
plus: La ville 6st bhtie _ la jonction des deux Gaves d'Ossau et d'Aspe, qui
prennent alors le nom de Gave d'Ol6ron. Nous vimes une tr_s grande fabrique de
drap, oh l'on fait subir _tla laine toutes les op6rations n6cessaires pour la tourner en
drap, par le moyen de machines tourn6es par de l'eau. Apr_s notre r6tour, M. le
sous-pr6fet s'entretint beaucoup avec nous. Comme un grand nombre des choses
qu'il nous raconta sur les usages et les habitudes de ce pays-ci sont fort curieuses,
et qu'elles ne se trouvent clans aucun livre que Mme B. a vu, je ne vous
importunerai peut-_tre pas si j'en raconte ici le sommaire.
L'int6rieur des maisormettes habit6es par les paysans 6st fort propre, quoique les
fen6tres ne soient pas vitr6es. Les lits sont compos6s d'une paillasse et de deux lits
de plume: on touche pendant l'hiver entre les deux lits de plume, dans 1'6t6 on les
met l'tm sur l'autre, avec une couverture par dessus, et l'on touche sous la
couverturc.uDepuis la r6volution ils jouissent d'un luxe dont ils n'auraient
jamais auparavant eu l'id6e. Une f'dle qui porte un dot de 4 ou 5000 francs
trouverait fort manvais que son marl ne lui achefftt pas un collier du prix de 300
francs: elle ne se contenterait pas d'un simple anneau de mariage, il lui faut une
pierre pr6cieuse. Son trousseau se composerait au moins de 4 douzaines de
chemises, 12 douz. de serviettes, 15 ou 20 paires de bas, etc. (N.B. Je ne vous ai
pas dit que c'6st l'usage en France que le p_re ou les parens d'une fille qui vase
marier lui donnent tout le linge qui lui 6st n_cessaire, et que son mari lui fournisse
tout le reste. Ce que lui donne son p6re s'appelle son trousseau. )
Les paysans de ce c6t6-ci sont tr_s insolens; mais c'6st l'insolence de la fiert6, au
lieu qu'h Campan c'6st celle de l'effronterie. Traitez les B6amais comme 6gaux,
ils vous feront avec empressement toute service; mais si vous laissez 6chapper le
moindre mot, le moindre r6gard, qui para_t indiquer la sup6riorit6, ils vous feront
voir, par mille insolences, qu'ils se croient au moins aussi hauts que vous.--Ils
sont tr_s hospitaliers. Si vous entrez dans leurs maisons, ils s'empressent autour de
vous, pour vous servir; si vous demandez une tasse de car6, ils vous la donneront.
On danse fort bien ici, m_me les contredanses; quoiqu'ils n'aient eu d'autres
leqons qu'en voyant danser les femmes de chambre, qui h leur tour imitent leurs
mattresses.
Lorsqu'un paysan meurt, c'6st l'usage que les plus proches parens du d6funt
donnent un grand r6pas h tous ceux qui ont assist6 aux funerailles, et qu'ils en
fassent eux mfimes les honneurs. Un autre usage assez singulier 6st celui de louer
des femmes pour pleurer, pour s'arracher les cheveux, et pour faire para_tre tous
les signes de la plus grande douleur: _tles voir et _tles entendre on croirait qu'elles
plaignaient leur p_re ou leurs enfans, ou quelqu'un de tr_s regrett6: mais aussit6t
qu'elles ont jou6 leur r61e, vous les verrez, aussi gais que jamais, venir demander
"mon argent .... rues dix sous."--
C'6st aussi l'usage que quand une fille se marie, ses amies pleurent beaucoup
lorsqu'ils voient venir le cortege qui doit enlever l'6pouse de la maison paternelle.
Une lois que M. le sous-pr6fet 6tait _ une noce de village, il fut 6tonn6 de voir que
les Idles, qui venaient de denser et de rire, se mirent _ pleurer aussit6t qu'on devait
enlever leur amie; il demanda _tune de ces filles pourquoi elle pleurait: alors elle
s'essuya les yeux, et diten souriant, "Monsieur, c'6st l'usage;" puis se remit
pleurer de toute sa force.
Dans la vall6e d'Ossau, comme darts plusieurs nations de l'Orient, les hommes
s'occupent seulement _t tricoter et _ faire paitre les moutons, pendant que les
femmes ont tout le travail de cultiver la terre, et de porter au march6, quelquefois _t
la distance de cinq ou six lieues, les produits du sol et des troupeaux.
La difference que fait la loealit_ 6st quelquefois fort marqu6e. Les deux vall6es
d'Ossau et d'Aspe s'6tendent d'Ol6ron jusqu'aux frontiers d'Espagne; elles ne
sont separ_s l'une de rautre que par une seule rang_e de montagnes; cependant
les caract_res des habitans de l'tm et de l'autre different beaucoup plus que ne
different quelquefois ceux des grandes nations. Les habitans de la valise d'Ossau
sont bons comme de bons moutons: ils sont hospitaliers, tr_s respectueux, mais ils
September 1820 French Journal and Notebook 81
ont darts leur caract_re un peu de bettise; ceux de la vall6e d'Aspe, tout au
contraire, sont tr_s bien instruits, ils parlent tr_s bien Franqais, ils ont plus d'esprit
qu'on ne pourrait croire dans les hommes de leur classe; quand M. le sous pr6fet
6tait h Osse, village dans cette vall6e, on le harangua de mani_re qu'il se trouvait
presqu'embarass6 pour y r_pondre, de peur qu'il ne fit usage de quelqu'expression
qu'on pfit trouver mauvaise: l'orateur se servit des mots et des expressions les plus
appropri6es: et quand il demanda qui put 6tre cet orateur; c'6tait le charpentier de la
commune! Et ce n'6tait rien de singulier, car la plupart des habitans de ce village
aurait pu faire autant.--Avec cela, les Aspais ont dans leur caract_re beaucoup de
finesse et de duplicit6. On peut observer que presque tousles habitans de la
commune d'Osse sont des Protestans, et c'6st le seul endroit de ce pays ci oO ont
rest_ beaucoup de Protestans depuis les guerres de r61igion. 11
[N] Nous partimes de Pau h 7 heures du matin, et traversarnes hie Gave de Pau sur un
beau pont. Cette rivi_re est grande et se divise hen plusieurs canaux par de nombreux ilets.
Nous entr_nes 'ensuite' clans un vallon Jdu I c6teau de Juranqon, et travers_imes un pays
charmant bien bois6, et fort semblable darts quelques endroits _ l'Angleterre. Les arbres
6taient principalement des chc3nes et des peupliers: les c6teaux couverts de prairies et de
lchamps cultiv6s donnaient t au pays une apparence bien johe. Nous travers_rnes la petite
ville de Gan; quelques-unes des maisons "etaient mtr_s propres, mais toutes d6pourvues de
nerois6es n n'ayant gu_re que des trous carr6s dans le muraille, et des contrevents qu'on
ferme en cas de besoin. I1en 6st de m6me °darts presque ° tous ces environs. A Gan la route
se divise en deux fourches; celle Pdep gauche conduit aux qetablissemens thermaux
nomm6s les q Eaux bonnes et qes _ Eaux chaudes. Nous primes celle de droite. De Gan
Belair nous n'efimes guSre que de hautes collines _ monter et _ descendre; le pays 6tait
toujours pittoresque; nous _jouissions _ de la vue des Pyren6es, dont nous nous tappro-
chions ' enfin _de _ bien prSs. La chaine des Basses Pyren6es 6st beaucoup moins 616v6eque
celle des Hautes Pyr_n6es. A Belair, petit hameau 'fort bien situ6 ", nous nous arr6t,_es
pour dejeQner. WL'auberge etait infiniment meilleure qu'_ Bordes, quoiqu'en effet elle ne
pQtwpas se vanter de grand' chose. Ce qui nous amusait fort, 6tait un assez grand morceau
HHere in the Journal appears a letter from Lady Bentham to James Mill, printed in
App. B.
_-hGB] JSM par un beau pont le Gave de Pau, nvi_re grandedivls6e
'-'+GB
J-JGB] JSM dansle
k-q3B] JSM de
t-tGB] JSM cultwationdonn_rent
"-"GB] JSM furent
n-'qGB] JSM vltres
°-°GB] JSM presquepar
P-PGB] JSM du
q-q+GB
"-_GB] JSM aux
"-SGB] JSM jouimes
'-tGB] JSM approchhmes
"-'+GB
_-_GB] JSM clansune fort belle situation
"-'JSM] IGB proposed in margin:] L'auberge quoiqu'infmiment meilleureque celle de Bordes
ne peut
82 Journals and Speeches No. 1
Xde_miroir cass_, ins_r_ fort soigneusement clans la muraille, afin de Yremplacer run
second miroir, ce Zn'_st pas z que la chambre an'en eut un autre a, mais comme il y avait
deux lits, c'_tuit fort juste bque chactm b eQt CsonmiroirC.--II n'y avait ni fruit ni lait; par
eons&luent M. Bentham, qui ne mange "_oint ded viande a deje_ner, aurait fait un n6pas
assez desagr_able, si enous n'avions vu passer par hasard e un troupeau de eh_vres, et que
par un autre hasard, le ch_vrier n'eut 6t_ assez obfigeant pour nous vendre un peu de
lait.mAyant rest_ ici pendant quelque terns nous continu_-nes notre voyage _ travers un
pays _tpeu pros eomn_ eelui que j'_ tantft d_Tit. La verdure des prairies, fdans les endroits
oi_elles ne sont pas susceptibl_s d firrigation, fait voir que le climat de ce pays-ei 6st fort
hurnide. Nous arriv_mes vers trois heures _tOl_ron, oi_nous d_es. M. le sous-pr6fet de
l'arrondissement vint nous voir, et eut la bonte de nous Saceompagner pour nous faire voir
la ville. Elle est 8 b_tie clans un endroit fort in,gal, h la jonction des deux Gaves d'Ossau et
d'Aspe, qui prennent alors le nora de Gave d'Ol6ron. Sous les deux noms d'Ol_ron et de
Sainte-Marie, cette ville heouvreh beaucoup plus 'de terrain' que ne fait celle de Pau: elle
_st pourtant, mai peupl6e; ehaque rn_nage a toujours sa maison; et quelques-unes des plus
grandes maisons Jne sont habitues que j par une ou deux personnes.--Apr_s notre r_tour,
M. le sous-pr_fet s'entretint avec M. et Mine B. etj'eus l'occasion d'aequ_rir beaucoup kde
renseignemens k sur les habitudes de ce pays-ei. En voici le sommaire.
L'int_rieur des maisonnettes habith,es par les paysans 6st fort propre, quoique les fen_tres
:ne soient pas vitr_s t. Les lits sont compos_s d'une paillasse, et de deux lits de plumes; on
touche pendant l'hiver entre les mdeux lits m; dam l'6t_, on hies n met l'un sur l'autre, avec
une eouverture °par° dessus, et t'l'Pon eouehe sous la couverture.--Les paysans de ee
eSt_-ei sont tr_s insolens, mais e'est l'insolence de la fiert_, au lieu qu'_ Carnpan c'_st celle
de la grossi_ret_ et de l'ignorance. Traitez les B_arnais comme _gaux et ils vous feront avec
empressement toute sorte de services, mais si vous laissez _chapper le moindre signe de qles
regarder eomme inf_rieurs q, ils vous feront voir par mille insolences qu'ils se croient au
moins aussi hauts que vous._Ils sont tr_s hospitaiiers. Si vous entrez darts leurs maisons ils
s'empressent autour de vous pour vous servir; si vous demandez une tasse de car6, ils vous
la donneront; car depuis la r_volution, ils jouissent "d'un luxe dont ils n'auraient jamais eu
l'id(_e auparavant _. Une fille qui porte un dot de 4 ou 5000 francs Sprendra fort mal _que son
"-_GB] JSM d'un
Y-_GB] JSM remplir la place d'
:-'GB] JSM ne rut point
*-"GB] JSM n'eut pas d'autre
_-bGB] JSM qu'ily
C-CGB] JSM un miroir h chactm
a-'_GB] JSM pas de la
_-_GB] JSM par hasard nous n'avions pas vu passer
f-/GB] JSM quoiqueclansun endroit oi_l'on ne peut pas les arroser par
S-SGB] JSM guider par ia ville qui _st
n-'_B] JSM remplit
'-_B] JSM d'espace
_-_GB] JSM sont habituesseulement
t-q3B] JSM d'information
t-tGB] JSM soient d6pourvuesde vitres
"-'GB] JSM lits de plume
"-"+GB
°-°GB] JSM au
_-_+GB
q-qJSM] [GB proposed:] votre Sul_riorit_
"-'GB] JSM de iuxes qu'ils n'ont jamais auparavant cru n_eessaires
"-'JSM] [GB proposed:] trouvemit fort mauvais
September 1820 French Journal and Notebook 83
mari ne lui achet_t pas un collier 'du prix de 300 francs'; elle ne se contenterait pas "d'un
simple _ anneau de mariage; vii lui faut vune pierre pr_cieuse. Elle Wapporte'_pour son
Xtrousseauau moinsx quatre douzaines de chemises, 12 douzaines de serviettes, 15 ou 20
paires de bas, etc. Les Fran_ais ont l'usage que le l_re ou les patens d'une fille qui vase
marierlui donnent tout le linge Yquilui 6st necessaire y, et que son marl lui ffoumisse _tout
le reste. Le linge que lui donne son p_re s'appeUe trousseau. Les habitans de ce pays-ci sont
vifs et d_gourdis; ceux de la valise de Campan sont au contraire lourds et °lents _.
On danse fort bien bici b, m_me les contredanses; quoiqu'ils n'aient eu d'autres lemons
Cqu'en voyant c danser les femmes de chambre, dqui _ leur tour imitent a leurs mm_esses.
q_.orsq'unpaysan meurt e, c'_st l'usage que fles plus proches parens donnent un grand
r_pas, a tous ceux qui ont assist_ aux funerailles et qu'ils en fassent eux m_mes les
honneursf. On loue gaussi 8 des femmes pour pleurer, pour s'arracher les cheveux, et pour
faire paraitre tous les signes de la plus grande douleur: _ les voir ou _ les entendre on croirait
qu'elles plaignaient leur p_re ou leurs enfans ou quelqu'un hqu'ils tenaient fort cherh:
'mais' aussit6t qu'elles Jontj jou_ leur r61e, vous les verrez aussi gais kqu'auparavantk,
_venirl demander "mon argent," "'ruesdix sous."--C'6st encore l'usage que quand une
fille se marie, ses amies pleurent beaucoup aussit6t qu' melles '_ voient arriver le cortege
qui doit enlever l'_pouse de la maison paternelle. Une lois que M. le sous-pr_fet _tait _ une
noce de village, il tilt _tonn_ de voir "pleurer si fort les filles, qui venaient de danser et de
rile _;il demanda _ une d'elles la cause de sa lamentation: l_-dessus elle s'essuya les yeux, et
dit en souriant, "Monsieur c'_st l'usage"; puis se remit _ pleurer de plus belle.
Darts la vall_e d'Ossau, comme darts plusieurs nations de l'Orient, les hommes
s'occupent _ faire palate les moutons et _ tricoter pendant que les femmes °font° tousles
travaux Ples plus laborieux: ce sont elles qui cultivent p la terre, et qqui portentq au march_,
quelquefois _ la distance de 5 ou 6 lieues, les produits du sol et des troupeaux.
La difference que fair la localit_ _st quelquefois tr_s marquee. Les deux rail.s d'Ossau
et d'Aspe se joignent _ Oleron; ladistance des parties les plus _loign_es de l'une et de l'autre
6st fort petite; cependant la diff6rence qu'il y a darts le caract_re des habitans est
rpresqu'incroyable r. Les habitans de la vall6e d'Ossau sont bons comme de bons moutons;
ils sont hospitaliers, et tr_s respectueux, mais ils ont un peu de b6tise darts leur caract_re:
ceux de la vall6e d'Aspe ont plus d'esprit que Stous les" autres paysans tdes environs'; ils
sont tr_s instruits, ils parlent fort bien _le_ Fran_ais. Quand M. le sous-prgfet 6tait _ Osse,
village darts cette vall6e, Yonle harangua Wdemani_re ale surprendre w; l'orateur se servit
des expressions les plus appropri6es; M. le sous-pr6fet ne sut pas y r6pondre, de peur qu'on
ne trouvat que ce qu'il dirait 6tait des sottises: v il demanda qui 6tait cet orateur; c'6tait le
charpentier de la commune! Avec cela, les habitans de la vall6e d'Aspe ont dans leur
caract_re beaucoup de finesse et de duplicitC--N.B. Les habitans de la commune d'Osse
sont presque tous Protestans; et c'6st le seul endroit de ce pays-ci oh Xil en est rest6
beaucoup x depuis les guerres de r_ligion.
**10"*
3 Septembre
[J] A Ol6ron. Je fus avec M. et Mme Bentham voir la m_ture de la marine,
c.Ld. un grand dep6t de mats qu'on apporte des montagnes; on les y examine, et
ceux qui sont jug6s propres pour la marine sont flott6s dans la rivi6re jusqu'_
Bayonne. Nous en vimes de bien grands: M. Bentham en mesura un de sa canne, et
le trouva de 80 _ 90 pieds de longueur. Del_ nous retoum_nes _ l'h6tel; nous y
dejefm_rnes, et partimes. Nous mont_mes une rue tr_s escarp6e; puis nous
pass_'nes par un fort joli pays, semblable h quelques parties de Somersetshire.
Nous nous d6toumfimes du chemin, h une lieue de distance d'O16ron, pour faire
visite h M. Lamotte, 2 une connaissance de M. Bentham. Nous passfimes au village
de Moumour, dont les habitans sont presque tous cardeurs de laine: cependant
chacun a sa maisonnette et son jardin. M. Lamotte nous requt avec beaucoup de
politesse; il nous fit voir son jardin, qui 6st fort joli. Nous poursuivimes ensuite
notre cours, par un pays fort bien cultiv6: on y soutient les vignes sur des treilles,
comme on fait ordinairement dans les pays humides, pour empc3cher que les raisins
ne se g_tent avant de m0rir. Les villages sont tr_s nombreux. Nous pass_nes
aujourd'hui _ttravers ofa tout pros de 24 villages. Les Pyren6es, que nous laissLmes
*The coveting letter for this section appears at its conclusion, after the entry for 12
September.
_Jean Denis Lamotte d'Incamps (b. 1760), owner of the chfiteau de Moumour.
"-_GB] JSM si grand qu'on ne pourrait gu_re le croire
"-SGB] JSM n'ontaucuns
'-tGB] JSM de ce voisinage
"-"+GB
_-*JSM] [GB proposed:] il fut tout 6tonn6de la mani_redont on le harangua,de la justesse et de
l'aptitude des expressions dont on se servit[;] il etait m_me embarrass6 pour sa reponse craignant
qu'on n'y trouvAtquelque terme deplac_.
W-'GB] JSM d'une mani_re qui le surprit
_'-_'GB] JSM beaucoup de Protestans ont rest_
September 1820 French Journal and Notebook 85
derriere nous, pr_sentaient une apparence fort belle, quoiqu'elles ne fussent pas
aussi 61ev6es que dans le voisinage de Bagn_res. Nous arrivimes enfin
Navarreins, petite ville fortifi6e; nous fGmes oblig6s, pour y parvenir, de quitter la
grande mute, et de traverser le Gave d'Ol6ron sur un pont de brique. Apr_s diner je
me promenai sur le rempart. Cette ville a une garnison: elle 6st fort petite, n'ayant
que 600 habitans.
IN] Je ills avec M. et Mme Bentham voir la miture de la marine, c.h.d, le grand dep6t des
Ym_tsy qu'on apporte des montagnes; on les y examine, et ceux qui sont jug,s propres pour
la marine sont flott6s darts la rivi_re jusqu'_ Bayonne. Nous :en= vimes de bien grands; M.
Bentham en mesura un de sa canne, et le trouva de 80 _ 90 pieds de longueur. De la nous
retourn_aaes _ l'h6tel; nous y dejeQn_tmes et partimes. Nous mont,qmes une rue tr_s
escarp6e; puis nous pass_nes par un fort joli pays, semblable /i quelques parties de
Somersetshire. Nous nous d6toum_anes du chemin/i une heue de distance d'Ol6ron, pour
faire visite _t M. Lamotte connaissance de M. Bentham. Nous pass_rnes au village de
Moumour, dont les habitans sont presque tous cardeurs de laine: cependant chacun a sa
maisonnette et son jardin. M. Lamotte nous rebut avec beaucoup de politesse; il nous fit voir
son jardin, qui _st fort joli. Nous poursuivlmes notre cours, par un pays fort cultiv6; on y
soutient les vignes sur des '_treilles a comme on fait ordinairement dans les pays humides,
pour eml_her que les raisins ne se ghtent avant que de mftrir. Les villages sont tr_s
nombreux. Nous pass&-nes aujourd'hui, ou _t travers ou tout pros de 24 villages. Les
Pyrenbes, que nous laissLmes derriere nous, presentaient une apparence fort noble,
quoiqu'elles ne fussent pas aussi (_lev6es que dans le voisinage de Bagn_res. Nous
arriv_anesenfm h Navarreins, petite ville fortifi6e: nous ffimes oblig6s, pour y parvenir, de
quitter la grande route et de traverser le Gave d'Ol6ron bsurb un pont de briques.--En
entrant, les soldats nous demand_rent nos noms et oia nous allions: ayant 6t6 inform(_sur ces
deux sujets, un d'eux (un officier, ce me semble) dit d'un air d'importance "Apportez
l'encrier:" la r_ponse fut un peu mortifiante "I1 n'y en a pas."--Mais en continuant notre
mute nous virnes une feuille de papier qu'on apportait pour y 6crire le nomet domicile etc.
de M. Bentham: il semblait que ce fGt le seul r_gistre.--Apr_s diner je me promenai sur le
rempart. Cette ville a une gamison: elle 6st fort petite, n'ayant que 600 habitans.
4 Septembre
[J] Nous partimes de Navarreins de bon matin. On nous avait dit beaucoup de
choses contradictoires sur les routes. En suivant celle que nous conseilla un
officier demeurant _ Navarreins, et de la connaissance de M. Bentham, nous
quinines la ville par la m6me porte o/J nous y 6tions entr6s, et continu_nes
suivre la grande route d6partementale que nous avions suivi depuis Pau. Nous
entrames clans une esl:n3ce de plaine 6troite, toujours en longeant le Gave d'Ol6ron.
La gr_le, qui tombe quelquefois plus grande que les oeufs de pigeon, emp_che
qu'il n'y croisse beaucoup de b16: on cultive principalement le mais, qui fait la
principale nourriture des habitans. Quoique le pays ne fGt pas aussi pittoresque
qu'entre Pau et O16ron, cependant la vue de la rivi6re _ droite, et des collines de
Y-YGB] JSM mas
_-_GB] JSM y
a-aGB] JSM trailes
t'-_3B] JSM par
86 Journals and Speeches No. 1
chaque c6te, jointe aux nombreux villages dont on compte 34 entre Navarreins et
Escos, sur la route ou a peu de distance, rendirent le voyage tres agr_able. Le
chemin 6st bon. Nous laiss_nes _tdroite la ville de Sanveterre, au dela du Gave
d'Ol_ron; et pass_nes peu apr6s en bacq la rivi_re de Soison, autrement appell6e
Gave de Maul6on, rivi_re consid6rable, qui se joint, un peu au dessous, au Gave
d'Ol6ron. Ensuite, ayant pass_ par le hameau de Haute Vieille, nous continu_nes
notre route jusqu'a Escos, village assez grand, o0 il y avait une auberge passable.
Apr_s dejeiiner je me promenai dans le jardin, puis m'occupai a _crire. En quittant
Escos, nous laiss_anes la grande route, qui conduit _tLabastide eta Came: nous y
ffnnes oblig6s de prendre un guide, pour nous montrer le chemin qu'il fallait
suivre. C'6tait une petite traverse, fort mauvaise, qui s'embranchait de tems en
tems. Quelquefois la voiture put a peine y passer: c'6tait comme les petites
traverses de Somersetshire. Cependant cette route nous donna plus d'amusement
que la grande route ne l'eut fait. Au bout de quelque terns nous arrivfimes
Hauterive, ofl nous travers_nes en bacq le Gave d'Ol6ron. Ici le chemin devient un
peu meilleur. Nous quires la route que nous suivions (celle de Sali_s) et
toujours en longeant le Gave, qui 6st ici une grande rivi_re, travers_unes les
villages de Caresse et de Cassab_. Un peu au d61_tde ce dernier, un orage nous
surprit, et nous emp_cha de beaucoup voir. Quelques-uns des 6clairs tomb_rent
tout pros de nous: je ne les vis pas, mais les coups de tonnerre qui les suivirent
firent bien savoir qu'ils n'6taient pas loin de nous. PrOs du village de Cassab_ nous
retrouv_aes des rochers blancs. Nous travers_'nes une lande, et arriv_nes a la
petite ville de Sordes, appell6e ainsi avec raison: 3 car dans les faubourgs des deux
c6t_s, comme (au dire de Mme Bentham) darts les villages de Provence, les rues
servent de bassecour _ toutes les maisons: on peut doric concevoir la malpropret6
des rues: mais ce n'6tait pas tout: le pay6 6tait, non seulement mauvais, mais aussi
couvert de bruy_re et de paille qu'on y laissait pourrir, pour servir de fumier. La
ville 6tait antrefois fortifi6e, et conserve encore deux de ses portes. Ayant quitt6
Sordes, nous travers_tmes un pays bien cultiv6, et arriv_tmes _un autre bacq, o/_
nous travers_tmes le Gave de Pau. Ici cette dvi_re 6st fort grande. Ann quart de
lieue plus loin, nous arriv_mes _ la ville de Peyrehorade, domin_e par les ruines
d'un vieux b,qtiment au sommet d'une colline. Nous nous arr_tfimes pour rester la
nuit _t une bonne auberge, chez Labastie. Ayant fait anjourd'hui beaucoup de
chemin, nous arriv&nes tm peu tard _ notre couch6e.--Pendant la nuit il y eut un
autre orage, accompagn6 de gr_le.
[N] Nouspartimesde Navarteinsde bon matin. On nous *avaitCdit beaucoupde choses
dcontradictoiresasur les mutes; en suivant celle que nous conseilla un officier de la
connaissancede M. Bentham,demeurant a Navarreins, nous qui_mes la ville par la m6me
3Presumablya play of words on "sordid."
C-CGB] JSM cut
a-'aGB] JSM contraires
September 1820 French Journal and Notebook 87
porte ou nous y 6tions entr_s, et econtinuames _ suivre ela grande route departementale que
nous avions suivi depuis Pau. Nous entr_-nes dans une sorte de plaine 6troite, en longeant
toujours le Gave d'O16ron. La gr_le, qui tombe quelquefois plus grande que les oeufs de
pigeon, emp_che qu'il n'y air beaucoup de b16;c'6st principalement le ma'is, qui fait la plus
grande nourriture des habitans. Quoique le pays ne ffit pas faussi f pittoresque gque g celui
d'entre Pauet Ol6ron, cependant la vue de la rivi_re _ droite, et les nombreux villages, dont
on compte 34 entre Navarreins et Escos, ou hsurh la route ou _ peu de distance. 'rendirent le
voyage str_s agr6able. Le chemin 6st bon. Nous laissfiraes _ droite la ville de Sauveterre, au
del_ du Gave d'Ol6ron; et peu apr_s, nous passfimes en bacq la rivi_re de Soison, autrement
appell6e Gave de Maul6on, rivi_re consid6rable qui se joint, un peu au-dessous, au Gave
d'Ol6ron. Ensuite ayant pass_ par le hameau de Haute Vielle nous continu_mes notre route
jusqu'h Escos, village assez grand, oil il y _avaitJ une auberge passable.--Apr_s dejefinerje
me promenai darts la campagne, puis m'occupai _ 6crire.--En quittant Escos nous
laiss_nes la grande route, qui conduit h Labastide et _ Came; nous y ffimes oblig6s de
prendre un guide, pour nous montrer le chemin qu'il fallait suivre. C'6tait une petite
traverse, fort mauvaise, qui ks'embranchait k de tems en terns. Quelquefois la voiture put
peine y passer: c'_tait comme les petites traverses de Somersetshire. Cependant cette route
nous donna plus d'amusement que la grande route tne l'eut t fair. Au bout de quelque terns
nous arriv_tm_ b Hauterive, oil nous travers_-nes en bacq le Gave d'Ol6ron. Ici le chemin
devient un peu meilleur. Nous quitt_nes la route que nous suivions (celle de Sali_s) et en
longeant toujours le Gave, qui 6st ici une grande rivi/_re,nous travers_'nes les villages de
Caresse et de Cassab6. Un peu au d_l_ de ce dernier, un orage nous surprit, et nous emp_cha
de mbeaucoupvoir m. Quelques-uns des 6clairs tomb_rent tout pros de nous; je ne les vis pas,
mais les coups de tonnerre qui les suivirent me firent bien savoir qu'ils n'6taient pas loin.
PrOsdu village de Cassab_ il y navait_ des rochers blancs. Nous travers,unes une lande, et
arriv_nes _ la petite ville de Sordes, appell6e ainsi avec raison; car dans les faubourgs des
deux c6t_s, comme dans les villages de Provence, les rues servent de bassecour _ toutes les
maisons, °on peut donc concevoir ° la maipropret6 des rues: mais ce n'6tait pas tout; le pav_
6tait non seulement mauvais, mais aussi couvert de bruy_re et de paille qu'on y laissait
pourrir,pour servir de fumier. La viUe 6tait autrefois fortifi6e, et conserve encore deux "de
ses portes _. Ayant quitt_ Sordes nous trave_es un pays bien cultiv6, et arriv_nes _ un
autrebacq oil nous travers_mes le Gave de Pau. Ici cette rivi_re 6st fort grande. A un quart
de lieue plus loin, nous arriv_nes _ la ville de Peyrehorade, domin6e par qles ruinesq d'un
vieux b_timent au sommet d'une colline. Nous nous arr_t_nes pour rester la nuit _tun bon
h6tel, chez Labastie.--Ayant fait aujourd'hui beaucoup de chemin, nous arrivfimes un peu
tard :_notre couch6e. Pendant la nuit il y eut un autre orage, accompagn6 de gr_le.
5 Septembre
[J] Nous dejei_nfirnes _ Peyrehorade; _ cause d'un troisi6me orage qui nous
emp&_ha de partir. Aussit6t que le tems se fiat un peu r6tabli, nous continufimes
notre voyage. Peyrehorade consiste presqu'enti6rement en une seule longue rue: le
pay6 n'6st pas fort bon: les maisons sont plus hautes qu'elles ne sont ordinairement
dans cette partie du midi de la France. Peyrehorade 6tait autrefois une ville
fortifi6e: il ne reste des fortifications qu'une porte et une petite partie des murs. En
quittant Peyrehorade, nous traversfirnes un pays fort cultiv6 et plein de collines,
quoique clans le d6partement des Landes. Ce departement, le plus 6tendu de tous,
except_ peut _tre celui de l'Aveiron, 6st pourtant des moins peupl6s. La cause de
cette circonstance 6st qu'il consiste presqu'enti6rement en f6r_ts, et en plaines
sablonneu_s, couvertes de bruy6re. Darts la par'tie du Nord-Ouest il n'y a presque
point de villages, encore moins de villes. Quoiqu'un grand nombre de d6parte-
mens, d'une 6tendue beaucoup plus petite, aient cinq ou six sous-pr6fectures,
celle-ci n'en a que trois, et toutes se trouvent clans la partie m6ridionale. Entre
Mont de Marsan et Dax, telle 6st la profondeur des sables, qu'il faut deux ou trois
paires de boeufs pour en tirer les voitures publiques. Un monsieur de la
connaissance de M. Bentham traversa une fois les landes dans un petit cabriolet
fort 16ger, tir6 par trois chevaux: cependant ils ne purent flier qu'au petit pas. Ce
n'6tait pas comme cela dans la route que nous primes: cependant eUe 6tait
mauvaise; tant6t cahotante, tant6t assez sablonneuse pour la rendre fatiguant aux
chevaux. Les landes que nous traversfimes n'6taient ni en plaine ni marcageuses,
comme darts la partie septentrionale du d6partement: elles 6taient, au contraire,
ordinairement sur les hauteurs, et l'on en voit beaucoup de semblables dans
quelques endroits de l'Angleterre. Nous retrouv_aes, au Pont de Lanne, notre
aneien ami l'Adour, qui, d'un petit torrent, 6tait devenu une grande rivi6re. I1se
joint, un peu au dessous du bacq, au Gave de Pau, qui a re,u, peu auparavant, les
eaux du Gave d'Ol6ron. Nous travers_mes l'Adour, et, au bout de quelque tems,
nous arr_t_tmes au hameau de Biaudos, pour faire r6poser les chevaux. Puis nous
mont_aes nne colline un peu haute. On dit que du somn_t la mer 6st visible; mais
le mauvais terns nous emp_ha de la voir. Un orage nous surprit peu apr_s, et nous
ne pumes voir que ce qui nous entoura imm6diatement. Nous arrivfimes enfin ii
Bayonne, oft nous soupfimes, et y restfimes la nuit.
IN] Nous deje_s _ Peyrehorade, _tcause d'un troisi6meorage, qui nous emp_cha de
partir.Aussit6t rque le tems se f0t un peu retabtir, nous continu_mes notre voyage.
Peyrehoradeeonsiste presqu'enti6rementen une seule longuerue; le pay6n'6st pasfort bon;
les maisonssont hautes.PeyrehoradeSetait_autrefoisfortifi6e,il ne restedesfortifications
qu'tuneportetet une petitepartiedes murs.En quittantPeyrehoradenous travers_tmes un
pays fort cultiv6 et plein de collines, quoique clans le d6partementdes Landes. Ce
d£'partement, le plus 6tendu de tous, except6 peut-_tre celui de l'Aveiron, 6st pourtant des
rnoins peupl6s. "Car il n'y en a _ presque Vpasv d'une 6tendue seulement mediocre qui ne
Wpuissew se ranter d'une population plus nombreuse que XceluiXdes Landes. La cause de
cette circonstance 6st Yqu'il y consiste presqu'enti_rement en f6r6ts, et en plaines
sablonneuses, couvertes de bruy_re. Darts la pattie du Nord-Ouest il n'y a gu_re de villages,
encore moins de villes; quoiqu'un grand hombre de d_partemens d'une 6tendue beaucoup
plus petite aient cinq ou six sous prefectures, celle-ci n'en a que trois et toutes trozs se
trouvent clansla partie n_ridionale. Entre Mont de Marsan et Dax, telle 6st la profondeur
des sables, qu'il faut deux ou trois paires de boeufs pour en tirer les voitures publiques. Un
monsieur de la connaissance de M. Bentham traversa une fois les landes dans un petit
cabriolet fort leg_r, tir6 par trois chevaux; ils ne purent pourtant aller qu'au petit pas. Ce ne
rut pas comme eela darts la route que nous primes; cependant elle 6tait mauvaise, tant6t
cahotante Ztant& assez sablonneuse pour la rendre fatiguant aux zchevaux. Les landes que
nous 'hravers_aes a n'6taient bpoint en b plaine; Cni marecageuses ¢ comme dans la pattie
septentrionale du D6partement; c'6tait seulement du terrain din6gald inculte, couvert de
bruy_re, comme Con le e voit tr_s souvent darts quelques endroits de l'Angleterre. Nous
travers_nes en bacq, au Pont de Lanne notre ancien ami l'Adour, qui 6st ici une grande
rivi_re, s'6tant beaueoup accru en Waversant les deux d6partemens du Gers et des Landes. I1
se joint, un peu au dessous du bacq, au Gave de Pau, qui a requ, un peu auparavant les eaux
du Gave d'Ol_ron. Nous nous arr_t_nes au hameau de Biaudos, pour fake r6poser Oes f
chevaux. On dit que du sommet d'une colline au del_t de Biaudos lamer 6st visible; mais
nous ne la rimes point, _ cause du mauvais terns. Un orage nous surprit peu apr_s, et nous
emp_ha de rien voir except_ ce qui nous entourait immediatement. Nous arriv_mes enfm
Bayonne, oil nous soup_tmes.
6 Septembre
[J] Un cinqui_me orage avait eu lieu pendant la nuit, et le tems ne s'6tait pas
encore assez r6tabli pour que nous pussions faire une longue excursion. Nous
vimes M. Blaqui_re, Anglais, je crois, de votre connaissance: 4 il vient d'Espagne,
et doit rester quelques jours encore _tBayonne. Nous f_mes voir la ville avec lui.
Elle 6st b_tie _ la jonction de l'Adour avec la Nive: l'eau de lamer vient jusqu'_
Bayonne, et l'on compte ordinairement cette ville comme un port de mer. Les rues
sont pav6es de pierres plates; et le pay6 6st beaucoup meilleur que ne le sont
7 Septembre
[J] Nous part_mes tous aprts deje_ner pour faire une excursion _ pied. Le tems
6tait fort favorable. Aprts avoir long6 rAdour pendant quelque tems, nous
travers_tmes des marais, et parvlnmes aux sables. Ici nous travers_nes une longue
chalne de collines sablonneuses, couvertes de pins. Puis nous arriv_tmes au phare
de l'embouchure. Del_ nous fQmes bient6t aux bords de la baye de Biscaye, ofa
nous nous amus_nes en ramassant des coquilles et des plantes marines, et en
laissant passer les riots sur nos pieds. A l'embouchure de l'Adour il y a un longue
rangte de rochers, qui produisent beaucoup de riots fort grands. Je me baignal trts
agrtablement dans un petit lac d'eau salte. Nous observ_aaes les progrts de
l'tclipse qui devalt arriver aujourd'hui: h peu prts trois quarts de la face du soleil
furent obscurcis. (Je vous prie de me faire savoir, par votre prochaine lettre, si
vous avez eu un terns favorable pour voir l'tclipse.) La diminution de la lumitre
6tait fort apparente, quoiqu'il y ei_t beancoup de sables blanches qui fesaient
s-g+GB
h-'_B] JSM quede
'-'GB] JSM trouve tm peu de
September 1820 French Journal and Notebook 91
rejaillir les rayons du soleil. Nous times un petit r6pas fort agr_ble, et puis
retournfirnes h Bayonne par un autre sentier sur les collines sablonneuses.--Cette
journ6e nous procura un assez grand nombre de plantes.
[N] Nous partimes tous apr_s dejefiner pour faire une excursion _tpied. Apl'_S avoir long6
l'Adour pendant quelque terns, nous traversfimes quelques marais; et parvinmes aux sables.
Ici nous pass_nes _ travels une longue chaine de collines, toutes compos6es de sable, et
couvertes de pins. Puis nous arrivhmes au phare de l'embouchure. Deltt nous ffimes bient6t
aux bords de la baye de Biscaye, o0 nous nous amus_maes en ramassant des coquilles et des
planes marines, et en laissant passer les riots sur nos pieds. Je me baignai tr_s agr6ablement
clans _un petit lac d'_eau sal6e. Nous observfimes les progr_s de l'6clipse qui devait arriver
aujourd'hui; _ peu pl_s trois quarts de la face du ksoleil _ furent obscurcis. Nous retoum&--nes
Bayonne en suivant un autre sentier sur les collines sablonneuses.--Cette journ6e nous
procura un assez grand hombre de plantes.
8 Septembre
[J] Nous partlmes de Bayonne _ midi, et suivimes la route de Peyrehorade. Je
n'ai plus rien h dire sur cette route, l'ayant d6j_ d6crite. Nous nous arr_t_mes un
peu pour faire rfposer les chevaux au hameau de Biaudos; et nous arriv_nes
Peyrehorade avant la nuit. Nous y couch_'nes.
[N] Nous partimes de Bayonne _ midi, et suivimes la route de Peyrehorade. Je n'ai plus
trien t _ dire sur cette route, l'ayant d_j_ d6crite. Nous nous arr_t_nes un peu pour faire
r6poser les chevaux au hameau de Biaudos, et nous arrivfimes _tPeyrehorade avant qu'il fit
nuit. Nous y couchfirnes.
9 Septembre
[J] N'ayant pas un long voyage _ faire aujourd'hui, nous dejeiinfirnes
Peyrehorade; puis partimes et traversfimes un pays fort semblable _ celui de l'autre
c6t6 de cette ville, except6 qu'il n'y avait point de landes, et que la route 6tait
beaucoup meilleure. On n'y cultive gu6re que le ma'fs. Apr_s avoir travers6
beaucoup de collines, nous arrivfirnes _ Orth6s, ville consid6rable, chef lieu
d'arrondissement. Je m'y promenai avec M. et Mme Bentham. Les environs de la
ville sont tr_s jolis. Le chateau 6st un vieux b_timent en mines, situ6 au sommet
d'une colline; il a dO 6tre tr6s fort avant l'invention de la poudre h canon. Dans son
enceinte il y a un puits fort profond.--L'auberge _ Orth6s 6st tr_s bonne.
[N] N'ayant pas un long voyage _tfaire aujourd'hui, nous dejefinfirnes _ Peyrehorade-
puis partimes et traversfimes un pays fort semblable _ celui de l'autre c6t6 de Peyrehorade,
_'except_ mqu'il n'y avait point de landes, et que la route 6tait beaucoup meilleure. On n'y
cultive gu6re que du mais. Ayant travers6 beaucoup de collines nous arrivfimes h Orth6s,
10 Septembre
[J] Nous partlmes de bon matin, et, apr_s avoir travers6 une petite colline,
entr'_es dans la plaine de Pan. Les Pyren6es, qui avaient 6t6 cach6es depuis
quelque tems par des collines, commenc_rent a se montrer de nouveau.
L'agriculture n'6st pas fort soign6e: le ma'is 6st plein de mauvaises herbes. Nous
deje0n_aes au village d'Artix. Il n'y a pas beaucoup de hameaux ni de villages sur
cette route; mais il ne manque pas de maisons isol6es. Nous laiss_nes a gauche la
ville de Lescar, et entrfimes Pan, du c6t6 du chateau. Nous rest_mes la nuit a cette
ville.
[N] Nous partimes de bon matin et Uapr6s avoir u travers6 une petite colline, nous
entrarnes dans la plaine de Pau. Les Pyren6es "commenc6rent _tse montrer encore; eUes
avaient auparavant 6t6 cach6es par des collines v. _L'agriculture wn'6st pas fort soign6e: le
mais 6st plein de mauvaises herbes. Nous dejefm_mes au village d'Artix. II n'y a pas
beaucoup de villages sur cette route, mais il ne manque pas de malsons isol6es. Nous
laiss_nes _ gauche la ville de Lescar, et entr_es a Pau Xdu c6t6 du x chateau. Nous
rest_nes la nuit _ cette ville.
11 Septembre
[J] Nous partimes apr_s dejefiner, et suivimes une vall6e du c6teau de Juran_on,
toujours en longeant le Gave de Pan. A quelque distance de la ville, les c6teaux
commencent a s'6carter l'un de l'autre de mani_re que cette vall6e devient plaine.
Les Pyr6n6es, dont nous nous approchions directernent, se pr6sentaient a nos yeux
dans un point de vue tout antre que celui oii nous les avions vues en nous
approchant de Bagn_res. Le Pic du Midi d'Ossau, moins haut, il 6st vrai, que celui
de Bigorre, domine pourtant toutes les montagnes du voisinage. Apr_s avoir
travers6 neuf villages, nous laiss_nes a droite la ville de Nai, fort joliment situ6e
sur la rive gauche du Gave, et arrivfimes a Coarraze, grand village sur l'autre rive.
Ici nous travers_'nes le Gave sur un pont en pierre. Cette rivi_re quoique
considerable dans cet endroit-ci, Est bien loin d'y 6tre aussi grande qu'h l'endroit
oil nous l'avons traversEe en bacq. La vue derriere nous, sur le village de Coarraze,
le pont, et le chiteau, Est fort jolie. Nous arrivfimes peu apr_s ALestelle, grand
village oil nous arr_t_rnes pour faire rEposer les chevaux. Un peu plus loin, et dans
une situation fort pittoresque aux pieds des montagnes, se trouve l'6glise cel_bre de
Notre Dame de BEtharram, ofa les p61erinages sont tr_s fr6quentes. Une colline
imm&liatement au dessus de l'Eglise Est toute couverte de petites chapelles. On
vend _tla porte de l'Eglise une assez grande quantitE de chapelettes et de cantiques
en patois. I1 y a aussi un s_minaire, ofaune centaine d'abb6s Etudient tousles ans.
La route fait ici un detour charmant; elle traverse le Gave, et entre ensuite dans la
vall_ de Lourdes, qui n'Est pas, comme celle de Campan, faite par deux chaines
de hautes montagnes: celle-ci avait de l'un c6tE la chaine immense des Pyren6es, et
de l'autre une rang6e de collines, qui, ainsi que la vall6e, Etaient couvertes de
p_turage: le Gave coulait au fond de la vall6e, le rocher blanc qui constituait les
montagnes se laissait voir de tems en tems _ travers la verdure, et tout conspirait
rendre cette vall6e des plus charmantes que j'aie jamais vues. Nous traversfimes
ensuite la ville de Saint PE, et vlmes, peu apr_s, le chfiteau de Lourdes, qui sert de
prison d'Etat, il se trouve sur un rocher qui parait inaccessible. C'Est ici la
dEbouchure de la vall6e de Luz et d'Argelez, qui s'Etend jusqu'aux frontiers
d'Espagne. Nous limes ensuite une descente tr_s escarp6e et en_es dans la ville
de Lottrdes qui ne r6pond point _ la beaut_ de ses alentours; les rues sont Etroites,
les maisons mal bfities. Nous montLmes par une rue escarp6e, et nous arr_tfimes
l'h6tel de la poste, le meilleur de la ville. Nous n'y fQmes pourtant pas tr_s bien
accomodEs.
[N] Nous parttmes apr_s dejeflner et suivimes une vall6e du c6teau de Juran_on, en
longeant,comn_ auparavant,le Gave de Pau. A quelque distance de Pau. les c6teaux se
s_'parentde plus en plus, l'un de l'autre, et cette vall6e devient plaine. Les Pyrenees, dont
nousnous approehionsdirectement, se present,rent dartsun point de vue tout autre qu'en
s'approehantde Bagr_res. Le Pic du Midi d'Ossau, moins haut, il 6st vrai, que celui de
Bigorre dornine Ixmrtant toutes les montagnes du voisinage. Nous travers_aes neuf
villages; puis laiss_nes _ droite la viUede Nai, fort joliment situ6e sur la rive gauche du
Gave, et arriv_aes _ Coarraze, grand village sur l'autre rive. Nous traversimes leGave sur
unpont de pierre. I1s'en faut de beaucoup que cette rivi_re ne soit aussi grande a Coarraze
qu'_trendroit oil nous l'avions travers_ en bacq. Apr_s avoir pass_ par un pays des plus
jolis, nousarriv_tmes_ Lestelle, grand villageoil nous nous arr_thn_s pour fairr_poser les
chevaux.Cependant,je gravis unecolline avec M. George, mais nous n'y trouv_mespoint
deplantes. Un peu plus loin, au pied des montagnes, se trouve l'6glise de Notre Dame de
Betharram,et un s_minaire oil une centaine d'abb_s _tudient tousles ans. La colline 6st
cenverte de petites chapelles. A la porte de l'6glise, on vend des chapelets et des cantiques
en patois. Nousnous_s _tgauche,repass_mes le Gave, et entrfimesdartsune vall6e
fortpittoresque,entreles Pyren6es _ droite, et une rang6ede c6teauxitgauche. LeGave qui
eoulait_notre droite, ses bords eouverts de verdure, les montagnesmutescompos_s d'un
rocher blanc,et couvertes d'abord de l_tturagepuis hues, conspiraient_trendre cette valise
leplusbelendroit peut-_treClUenousavons vu damsce voyage. Noustravels ensuite la
vinede Saint-l_, et rimes, peu apr,, le chiteau de Lourdes, situ_ surun rocher: ce ch_tteau
94 Journals and Speeches No. 1
sert de prison d'_tat. C'_st ici l'ouverture de la valise de Luz et d'Argelez, qui s'6tend
jusqu'aux frontiers m6me d'Espagne. Nous times ensuite une descente fort rapide et
entr-g'nesLourdes, ville considerable, qui parait plus jolie de loin que de pr_s. Etant mont6
par une rue fort escarp6enous nous arr_t_tmes_ l'h6tel de la poste, le meilleur de la ville,
mais nous n'y ftimes pas tropbien.
12 Septembre
[J] Nous quitt_nes Lourdes de bon matin et traversgrnes une vaU6e couverte de
verdure. On y cultive le lin, le mais, le petit millet, et le b16;ce demier 6st tout
COUld.Le magnifique spectacle des Pyren6es/t notre droite, fn'ent que ce chemin
ffit tr6s agr6able. Nous mon_mes deux longues collines: la route serpente
beaucoup en descendant la demi6re. Pr6s du village de Montgaillard elle se
joignait _ la route de Tarbes. Nous traversimes les villages de Tr6bons et de
Pouzac, et arriv_nes ensuite/t Bagn6res, ot_nous trouv_mes Mme de Chesnel en
bonne sant6.
[N] Nous quires Lourdes de bon matin, et travers_znes une vall6e couverte de
verdure, oh l'on cultive le lin, le ma'is, et le petst millet. On y avait aussi cultiv6 du bl_,
mais on l'avait tout coup6. Les Pyren6es 6taient _tnotre droite. Nous mont_mes une colline
fort lougue; la route serpente beancoup en descendant. Tout pr6s du village de
Montgaillard, cette route se joint _t celle qui conduit de Tarbes _t Bagneres. NOUs
travers_aes les villages de Tr6bonset de Pouzac, et arrivkmes ensuite hBagn6res, oi_nous
retrouvL,nes Mme de Chesnel en bonne sant6.--Je m'occupai pendant le reste de lajoum6e
6crire mon journal, _ s6cher les plantes que j'apportais avec moi, et arranger celles que
j'avais laiss6es.
_[Here in the journal appears the following letterto Richard Doane:] A R. Doane. Mon
cher Richard, j'esp6re que l'6tat de votre sant_ 6st aussi bon qu'il 6tait quand je vous ai
laiss6.--Mon voyage dam les Pyren6es m'a 6t_ tr6s agr_able. J'esp6re que vous avez lu
toutes rues lettres, qui vous decriront ce que vous n'avez pas eu l'occasion de voir
vous-tr_me.
September 1820 French Journal and Notebook 95
**11"*
13 Septembre1
[J] Je m'occupai _ faire un itineraire des routes que nous devrons suivre en
quittant Bagn_res, et _tfaire catalogue des plantes qui croissent sur le Pic du Midi,
etc. A trois heures du soir je partis avec M. George et les demoiselles pour faire une
excursion _ ladite montagne. Nous arriv_nes /l Grip avant la nuit, nous y
soup_aes, et nous couch_nes aussit6t, afin de pouvoir partir de meilleure heure le
lendemain matin.
[N] Je m'occupai _fairecatalogue desplantes qui croissent surle Pic duMidi, :_me faire
unitinerairedesroutesque nous devronssuivreen quittant Bagn_res,etc. Atrois heures du
soirje partisavec M. Georgeet les demoiselles pour faireuneexcursion au Pic du Midi de
Bigorrc.Nous arriv_aes _tGripavant qu'il fit nuit; nous y soup_nes, et nous couch_nes
aussit6t,afro de pouvoirpartirde meilleure heure le lendemain matin.
14 Septembre
[J] Nous quittLrnes Grip _t cheval _t4½ heures, avant le jour. Nous suivimes
d'abord la route de Bar_ges, en montant le Tourmalet. Nous laiss_'nes _ gauche les
cabanes d'Artigues, et les deux premieres cascades de Grip; et toujours en
montant, par un sentier oh les chevaux peuvent h peine aller, arriv_rnes h la
troisi_me cascade, qui n'admet point de comparaison avec les autres. Nous
suivimes la branche principale de l'Adour jusqu'aux cabanes de Tramesalgues,
peu pros semblables _tcelles d'Artigues. Ici nous quitt_rnes la route, ou plut6t le
sentier de Bar_ges, qui traverse l'Adour, et serpente en montant le Tourmalet
proprement dit. Nous nous tourn_mes _ droite, montftrnes par un sentier tr6s
escarp6, puis entr'ames dans un petit vallon entre deux hautes montagnes, appell6
le Goulet de Campan. Au bout de ce vallon, nous descendimes un peu, jusqu'h un
petit plateau ofasont situ6es les cabanes appell6es du Pied du Pic. Ces cabanes qui
font la demeure de quelques bergers pendant 1'6t6 (en hiver ils descendent
Bagn6res) sont de petits trous, _tmoiti6 remplis par une esp_ce de lit en paille oh
couchent l_le m_le sept ou huit personnes. Ce qui reste d'espace 6st remplie par
ane sorte de banc pour s'asseoir dessus. Les cabanes sont b_ties en pierres
entass6es sans mortier, et sans la moindre symmetrie, de mani6re qu'elles
ressemblent beaucoup _t une masse de mines. La terre nue, qui 6st la seule
planch_e, leur sen anssi de foyer, et le m6me trou leur tient lieu de chemin6e, de
fen_tre, et de porte. Mais tout cela n'6st rien par rapport _tce que M. George dit
avoir vu sur le Mont Marbor6. Un creux, dit-il, dans le rocher, y sertde demeure
deux Espagnols. Ils y couchent ensemble avec leur troupeau de moutons, dont le
ITbe covering letter for this section appears at its conclusion, after the entry for 17
September.
96 Journals and Speeches No. 1
fumier, convert de branches d'arbres, leur sert de lit. Le reste de leur meuble se
compose d'un pot en cuivre et d'une culi_re en bois. Voil_ les charmes de la vie
pastorale!--La nourriture des bergers qui habitent les Cabanes de Pied du Pic
consiste principalement en lait, dont ils portent tons les matins une grande quantit6
Bagn_res. Leurs vaches paissent sur le plateau et dans les vallons des montagnes:
ils en ont un fort grand hombre, ainsi que des moutons: ces derniers trouvent leur
nourriture sur les montagnes m6mes. Nous en avons vu sur une tr_s elev6e, qui
6tait toute couverte de "sheep-walks". J'ai vu aussi un troupeau de ch_vres sur les
bas p_turages. Les bergers gardent leur lait dans une esp_e de cabinets baties de la
m_me mani_re que les cabanes: des ruisseaux d'eau tr_s fraiche, qui coulent sur
ces cabinets emp6che que le lait ne se gate. PrOs des cabanes se trouve un grand
pieu garni de chevils; chacun de ces derniers 6st couronn6 d'un pot en
cuivre.--Les bergers 6taient tr_s honn_tes; un d'eux nous fit entrer dans sa
cabane, et alluma du feu pour nous 6chauffer; car le soleil ne s'6tait encore lev6 que
sur les sommets des montagnes et l'air 6tait tr_s froid. Le Pic du Midi de Bigorre
l_ve sa t6te gigantesque au bout du plateau.--Nous laissfimes paitre nos chevaux,
et commen_fimes, environ 7 heures, _t gravir le Pic. Les demoiselles avaient
chacune leur guide, (pris _ Grip) pour les aider en montant. Apr_s un quart d'heure
de marche, nous arriv_aes _ une fontaine, o_a nous limes un petit r6pas fort
agr6able. Apr_s avoir suivi un sentier serpentin sur le c6teau pendant quelque
terns, nous entr_nes darts une vall6e alpine, tr_s escarpEe entre le Pic du Midi
proprement dit, et une vaste rang6e de rochers perpendiculaires, haute au moins de
deux _ttrois cents pieds. Ce vallon 6tait tout convert de gros quartiers de rocher,
dont quelques-uns firent voir par leur couleur qu'ils 6taient ferrugineux: ils 6taient
principalement compos6s de granit et de schiste, le dernier souvent micac6. (Mme
B. m'a expliqu6 la signification de ces mots.) A l'entnSe de cette vall6e nous
attendimes pendant une heure M. George, qui avait grimp6 sur un rocher pour
chercher une plante; et cependant je cherchais aussi des plantes sur les rochers
gauche. Nous continu_nes Amonter et enfin, au bout du vallon, nous arriv_nes
un plateau tr_s 61ev6. Ici nous vimes au dessous de nous, dans un vallon de la
montagne, le lac d'Oncet, dont, au dire des guides, on n'a jamais pu trouver le
fond: darts la saison o3 la neige se fond, un torrent appell6 couret d'Oncet* se
pr6cipite de ce lac, probablement dans la vall6e de Bar_ges. Au dessus du lac, sur
le c6te oppose, 6tait un tr_s grand glacier, d'une pente presque perpendiculaire: au
dessous, le chemin pour monter au Pic du c6t6 de Bar_ges. La hauteur de la
position de cette ville fait que la mont6e soit beaucoup plus courte de ce c6t6-1a, et
l'on peut monter a cheval jusqu'au plateau o/i nous 6tions. Nous y vlmes, en effet,
les chevaux de quelques dames, qui 6taient mont6es au Pic. Nous nous tourn_nes
ici h droite, et mont_nes pendant une heure, par un sentier couvert d'berbe, et tr_s
escarp. A dire vrai, l'on ne peut point l'appeler un sentier: c'6tait plut6t un
escalier. Enfin nous ardv_xnes/t un glacier qui se fondait: nous primes l'occasion
pour faire un petit r6pas; l'eau 6tait fort bonne. Puis nous continu_'nes notre route
travers une quantit6 immense de cailloux (shingle) qui marque sans doute le cours
printanier de quelque torrent, et qui fit que la marche f0t tr_s fatiguante, car nous
gliss_tmes par ces cailloux de mani_re de ne faire qu'un demi-pas avec toute
l'exertion de faire un pas tout complet. Apr_s une autre heure de marche, nous
arriv_nes au Pic environ 1½heures du soir. Le sommet o0 nous 6tions 6st d'environ
10 pieds carr6s, et de tousles c6t6s except6 celui o0 nous y f0mes mont6s, il 6st
entoun5 de rochers presque perpendiculaires. Sa hauteur au dessus du niveau de la
mer 6st d'un peu plus de 1500 toises, _tpeu pros 9000 pieds. Delh nous jouimes
d'une vue la plus belle qu'on peut imaginer. Au nord, la vall6e de Lesponne, le Pic
de Montaigu, et deux ou trois autres montagnes qui paraissaient incomparable-
ment petites: au delh, les deux plaines immenses de Tarbes et de Pau, qui ne
semblaient faire qu'une seule plaine, car les collines qui les s6paraient 6taient/t
peine visibles de la hauteur immense oh nous 6tions. Quand le soleil se l_ve, on
voit, disent les guides, jusqu'/t Toulouse m6me. I1y avait un peu de brouillard sur
l'horizon: cependant nous vimes fort clairement la ville de Tarbes et deux ou trois
autres: Pau 6tait probablement de ce nombre: plus loin, les guides nous firent voir
la position de la ville de Vic Bigorre, sur la plaine de Tarbes, mais je ne pus pas la
distinguer. Les chemins de Tarbes et de Saint-Gaudens paraissaient comme deux
petits sentiers, visibles _tpeine, _ travers la plalne. En tournant nos regards vers
l'orient, nous apper_umes au dessous de nous la vall6e de Campan, couverte de
verdure; au dell, le Pic de Lhieris, qui, nonobstant sa grande hauteur, ne semblait
gu_re qu'tme petite colline par rapport aux montagnes que nous appercevions de
presque tousles c6t6s; les villages de Gerde et d'Ast6/_ ses pieds, et une partie de la
ville de Bagn_res, l'autre 6tant cach6e par la montagne de Baudean. La vue de ce
c6t6 l_tse trouvait bom6e par les vastes chaines qui font les vall6es de la Garonne et
de la Pique. A l'ouest, la plaine de Pau presqu'_ Bayonne; les montagnes et le lac
de Lourdes, que nous voyions tr_s distinctement; la vall6e riante de Luz et
d'Argelez. Mais jamais je n'oublierai la vue du c6t6 meridional. D'abord, les
montagnes de la vall6e de Barrages, qui nous emp6chaient de voir cette vall6e: plus
loin, toute la chaine centrale des Pyrenn6es, de la vall6e de Luchon, jusques au
del_ de la vall6e d'Aspe. Pour d6crire particuli_rement ce spectacle magnifique, il
n'y aurait pas assez d'une volume. Je me bornerai h vous nommer, les plus hautes
montagnes de l'est _ l'ouest, dont les guides nous ont dit les noms. La Maladetta
en Aragon, cit6e comme le Mont Blanc* des Pyren6es, mais dont le droit 6st
t[This note appearsat the endof the letter:] Cette expressionest prise de M. R6bouls, de
quoi ci-apr_s. [Henri Paul Ir6n_.eReboul (1763-1839), "Nivellement des principaux
sommets de la chaine des Pyr6n6es," Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 2nd ser., VI
(1817), 345-60. Mill probably encountered this in the Preface to Lapeyrouse's Suppi_-
ment, pp. ix-xii. ]
98 Journals and Speeches No. 1
disput6 par deux ou trois autres; le Port d'Oo, passage en Espagne sur le sommet
d'une montagne compt6e parmi les plus hautes; ensuite le Port de Vieille; plus/l
l'ouest, deux hautes montagnes appel6es les Montagnes Noires, que cette couleur
soit due au rocher qui les compose, ou bien aux f6r6ts qui les couvrent. Plus loin
l'occident, le Mont Pimend: du sommet de cette montagne, dit-on, les deux plaines
de Tarbes et de Saragossa sont visibles: le Pimen_ a la m6me hauteur h peu pros que
le Pic de Midi. Derriere lui on voit la vaste montagne du Marbor_, cel_bre par ses
rochers perpendiculaires dispos6s en forme d'amphith6_tre, que les paysans
appellent la Houle (marmite) du Marbor_; par l'immense cascade de Gavarni6 qui
tombe de ces rochers, par ses sommets appell6s le Cylindre et les Tours du
Marbor_. DemUre lui encore le Mont Perdu compt_ ordinairement comme la plus
haute des Pyren6es: mais on commence _croire que la Maladetta lui 6st sup6rieure.
La forme de son pic, couvert de neige, a quelque resemblance _ un pain de sucre.
Je parle de cette montagne seulement sur la foi des guides et des d6scriptions, carje
n'ai pas pu la distinguer des halites montagues qui l'entouraient. A l'ouest de ces
monts majestueux nous apperqumes la fameuse br_che de Roland, une montagne
tr_s haute, dont le sommet ressemble parfaitement _tune muraille, o6 il y a une
porte aussi juste et aussi bien marqu6e que si elle avait 6tait faite par la main des
hommes: selon les romans, cette br/_che fut faite par l'6p6e de Roland, quand il
traversa les Pyren6es en sautant. 2 M. George y a 6t6 dessus quand il 6tait
Gavarni6, mais malheureusement les nuages l'ont emp_ch6 de rien voir. En
suivant la chalne de l'est h l'ouest, nous vimes la Fausse Br_che, ouverture darts le
rocher un peu semblable _ la vraie brahe; le Pic du Daillon, et le Vignemale, sans
dispute la plus haute des Pyren6es Fran_aises, et inf6rieure seulement de 40 toises
au Mont Perdu. Sur cette montagne il y avait alors une parfaite couronne de neige.
La demi_re haute montagne de la chaine 6st le Pic du Midi d'Ossau, montagne au
fond de la vall6e d'Ossau, peu inf6rieur en hauteur au Pic du Midi de Bigorre. Plus
loin nous apper_umes les montagnes, beaucoup moins 61evges, darts la direction
des vall6es d'Aspe et de Baretons.mApr_s 6tre rest6 au Pic pendant une
demi-heure, nous baisfunes le rocher avec beaucoup de d6votion, et times ensuite
la descente, qui nous occupa pendant trois heures. Nous bfimes de fort bon lait aux
cabanes, et retournfimes _ Grip par la m6me route que nous avions pris en venant.
Les guides menaient les chevaux.
[N] Nous quittamesGrip _ cheval_ 4t heures dumatin,avant le commencementdujour.
Nous suivimesd'abord la route de Bar_ges, en montant le Tourmalet. Nous laissfimes _t
gaucheles cabanes d'Artigues, et les deux premieres cascades de Grip, et toujours en
mentant, arrivames a la troisi_me cascade, qui n'admet point de eomparaison avec les
autres. Nous suivlmesle eours de la branche principalede rAdour jusqu'aux cabanesde
Trarnesaigues,a peu pros semblables a celles d'Artigues. Iei nous quittames la route de
Bar_gesqui traverse rAdour, et serpentebeaueoup,en montant le Tourmalet proprement
_rhe legendabout the hero of the tenth-century Chanson de Roland, connected with the
pilgrimageto St. James of Compostella, is told by Abadie, Itindraire, p. 140.
September 1820 French Journal and Notebook 99
dit. Nous nous tournkmes _ droite, et apr6s 6tre mont6s par un sentier tr6sescarI_, entrkmes
dartsan petit vallon appell6 le Goulet de Campan. Au bout de ce vallon, nous descendimes
tmpetit plateau oil se trouvent les eabanes appell6es de Pied du Pic. Ces cabanes, qui font la
demeure de quelques bergers pendant l'6t_ (en hiver ils descendent h Bagn_res) sont de
petits trous, _tmoiti_ remplis par une sorte de lit en paille oil couchent p_lem_le sept ou huit
personues. Ce qui reste d'espaee 6st remplie par une sorte de banc pour s'asseoir dessus. Les
cabanes sont baties en pierres entass6es sans mortier; la terre nue, qui 6st la seule planch_e,
leur sert aussi de foyer, et le n_me trou tient lieu de chemin6e, de fen_tre, et de porte.--La
nourriture de ces bergers eonsiste principalement en lait, dont ils portent tousles matins une
grande quantit_ a Bagn_res. Leuls vaehes paissent clans le plateau et dans les vallons; ils en
ont un fort grand hombre, ainsi que des moutons; ces demiers trouvent leur nourriture dans
les l_turages des montagnes. Nous en avons vu sur une montagne tr_s elev6e, toute
couverte des sentiers que font les moutons. J'ai vu aussi un troupeau de cl_vres tout pros des
cabanes. Les bergers gardent leur lait dam une sorte de cabinet bati en pierres rondes; des
ruisseaux d'eau tr_s fraiche, qui eoulent sous ces cabinets, emp&he que le lait ne se gate.
PrOs des eabanes se trouve tm grand pieu gami de chevils; chacun de ces derniers pone, au
lieu de eourorme, un pot en cuivre.--Les bergers 6taient tr_s honn6tes, un d'eux nous fit
entrer dartssa cabane, et alluma du feu pour nous _chauffer; ear le soleil ne s'6tait encore
lev6 que sur les sommets des montagnes, et l'air 6tait tr_s froid. Le Pic du Midi de Bigorre
l_ve sa t_te gigantesque au bout de ce plateau. Nous lalssfimes paitre nos chevaux et
commen_ames environ 7 heures _tgravir le Pic. Les demoiselles avaient chacune leur guide
pour les aider en montant. Apr_s un quart d'heure de marche nous parvinmes _ une fontaine,
oil nous times un petit r_pas fort agr6able. Un peu plus loin M. George grimpa sur un rocher
pour cueillir une plante: nous poursuivimes, comme toujours, notre cours, croyant qu'il put
facilement nous retrouver. Nous en_s, peu apr_s, dans un vallon fort escarp_, couvert
de gros quartiers de rocher, dont quelques-uns firent voir par leur couleur qu'ils 6taient
ferrugineux; d'ailleurs ils consistaient principalemem en granit et en schiste, la derni_re
quelquefois micac_e. Le vallon s6parait le Pic du Midi d'un rocher perpendiculaire haut
d'environ 200 pieds. Ici nous attendimes M. George pendant plus d'une heure; et darts
l'intervalle je grimpais parmi les rochers pour cherclier des plantes. Enfin, ne voyant nulle
part M. George, et croyant le trouver au sommet, nous continu_mes _ monter jusqu'_ un
pl_,eau la_s _lev_. Nous vimes au dessous de nous, dans un vallon de la montagne, le lac
d'Oncet, dont, au dire des guides, on n'a jamais pu trouver le fond: dans la saison humide,
un torrent se pr6cipite de ce lac probablement clansla vall6e de Bar_ges. Au dessus du lac
_'taitune fort grande glaci_re: au dessous, le chemin, pour monter au Pic, du c6t_ de
Bar_ges. La hauteurde la position de cette ville fait que la mont_e soit beaucoup plus courte
de ee e6t_-la, et l'on peut monter _tcheval jusqu'au plateau oil nous _tions. Nous y vimes les
chevaux de quelques dames qui 6taient mont_es au Pic. Nous nous toumames ici _tdroite et
montames pendant une heure par un sentier couvert d'herbe, et tr_s escarl_. Ce chemin
aurait _t_ tr_s dang_reux, s'il n'avait _t_ fait eomme un escalier. Enfm nous parvinmes a une
glaei&re qui se fondait: nous primes l'oecasion pour faire un petit r_pas: l'ean _tait fort
bonne. Puis nous continuames notre route i_travels une quantit_ immense de cailloux
(shingle) qui marque sans doute le eours printanier de quelque torrent, et qui fit que la route
flit tr_s fatigant. Nous arrivames au Pic environ 1½heures du soir. Le sommet oil nous 6tions
_st d'environ dix pieds carrY, et de tousles c6t_s exeept_ celui oil nous y f-times months, il
_st environn_ de roehers presque perpendieulaires. La hauteur du Pie au dessus du niveau de
lamer 6st de 1500 mires, _tpeu pros 9000 pieds. De l_tnous jouimes d'une vue ia plus belle
qu'on peut coneevoir. Au nord, la vall6e de Lesponne, le Pie du Mont Aigu, et deux ou trois
montagnes qui paraissaient incomparablement petites; au dela les deux plaiues immenses de
Tatbes et de Pau, qui ne semblaient faire qu'une seule plaine, car les collines qui les
100 Journals and Speeches No. 1
s6paraiem n'_taient gu_re visibles de la hauteur immense oil nous _tions. Quand le soleil se
l_ve, on voit, jusqu'/t Toulouse m_me (si l'on peut croire aux guides). I1 y avait un peu de
brouillard sur la plaine: cependant nous vlmes fort clairement la ville de Tarbes et deux ou
trois autres; Pau 6tait probablement de ce hombre: plus loin le guide nous fit voir la position
de la ville de Vic Bigorre, mais je ne pouvais pas la distinguer. Les chemins de Tarbes et de
Saint-Gaudens semblaient _tre deux petits sentiers _ttravers les plaines. En tournant nos
r6gards vers l'est, nous apper_umes l'immense chaine de montagnes qui fait les vall6es de la
Garorme et de la Neste de Luchon; la vall6e de Campan couverte de verdure; le Pic de
Lhieris, qui, nonobstant sa hauteur, ne semblait gu_re qu'une petite colline par rapport aux
montagnes que nous voyions de tousles c6t6s; les villages de Gerde et d'Ast6 _ ses pieds, et
une pattie de la ville de Bagn_res, l'autre 6tant cach6e par la montagne de Baud6an. A
l'ouest, la plaine de Pau presqu'_ Bayonne; la vall_e riante de Luz et d'Argelez; les
montagnes et le lac de Lourdes, que nous voyions tr6s distinctement. Mais la vue du c6t6 du
sud 6tait la plus belle de toutes. D'abord les montagnes de la vall6e d'Aure qui nous
emp&:haie_atde voir cette vall6e; plus loin toute la chaine centrale et occidentale des
Pyr6n6es. Le guide nous nomma les plus hautes montagnes, de l'orient h l'occident. La
Maladetta en Aragon, cit6e comme le Mont Blanc des Pyr6n6es, mais dont le droit _st
disput6 par deux ou trois autres; le Port d'Oo, passage en Espagne sur le sommet d'une
montagne compt6e parmi les plus hautes; ensuite le Port de Vieille, plus h l'ouest, deux
hautes montagnes appell6es les Montagnes Noires, que cette couleur soit due au rocher qui
les compose, ou bien aux for_ts qui les couvrent. Plus loin _tl'occident, le Mont Pimen6; du
sommet de cette montague on peut voir les deux plaines de Tarbes et de Saragossa; demure
lui, la vaste montagne du Marbor6, cel_bre par ses rocbers perpendiculaires dispos6es en
forme d'amphith_atre par l'immense cascade de Gavarnie qui tombe de ces rochers, par son
Cylindre et par ses tours, couronn6s d'une neige 6temelle. Derriere, le Mont Perdu en
Aragon, compt6 gen6ralement comme la plus haute montagne de la chaine: la forme de son
pie, couvert de neige, 6st fort semblable _ un pain de sucre: le sommet en 6st si escarp6 que
personne n'y _st jamais parvenu. Je parle de cette montagne sur la foi des guides, carje n'ai
pas pu la distinguer des hautes montagnes qui l'entouraient. A l'ouest de ces monts
majestueux se trouve la fameuse brb.che de Roland, consistant en deux grandes masses de
rocher, parfaiternent semblables /tune muraille, et s6par6es l'une de l'autre par une
intervalle aussi bien marqu6 que s'il avait 6t¢5fait par les mains des hommes; scion les
romans cette br6che fut faite par l'_p6e de Roland, quand il traversa les Pyren6es en sautant.
M. George y a 6t6 dessus quand il 6tait _tGavarnie, mais maiheureusement les nuages ont
emt_,eh_ qu'il n'ait rien vu. En suivant la chahae de l'est _ l'ouest nous apper_fimes la
Fausse Br6.che, une ouverture darts le rocher un peu semblable _ la vraie br6che; le Pic du
Daillon; et le Vignemale, sans dispute la plus haute des Pyren6es Fran_aises, mf6rieur
seulement de 40 toises au Mont Perdu. Sur cette montagne il y avait une parfaite couronne
de neige. La derni_re haute montagne de la chaine 6st le Pic du Midi d'Ossau, autrement
appell_ Pie de Midi de Pau, situ_ au fond de la vail6e d'Ossau, peu inf_rieur, je crois, au Pic
du Midi de Bigorre. Au del/t, nous apper_umes les montagnes, beaucoup moins _lev6es, du
B6arn et de la Basse Navarre.m Apr_s avoir rest6 plus d'une demi-heure sur le Pic, nous
baisgmes le rocher avec beaucoup de d_votion, et f'tmes ensuite la descente qui nous
occupait trois heures. Nous trouv_mes M. George en has. I1avait perdu le chemin, et n'avait
pas pu parvenir au sommet. Nous bfimes de fort bon lait aux cabanes, et retoumgnaes _ Grip
par hi m_me route oil nous fOmes venu. Les guides menaient les chevaux.
15 Septembre
[J] En retoumant _ Bagn6res, nous nous arr6t_nes _ la Capucini6re de Medous,
vieux b[itiment _ l'entr6e de la vall6e de Campan. Dans le jardin nous vimes un
September 1820 French Journal and Notebook 101
16 Septembre
[J] Je m'occupai/t &:fire mon journal, _ arranger mes plantes, et _ aider M.
George, qui arrangeait tout pour partir.
IN] Je m'occupai la plupartde la journ6e/t 6criremon journal, harrangerruesplantes,
aiderM. George, qui arrangeaittout pour partirde Bagn6res.
17 Septembre
[J] Nous qui_mes Bagn6res/l 7 ou 7½heures du matin, et travers_mes l'Adour
par un pont en bois. I1nous fallut ensuite monter une colline, pendant 20 minutes.
Notre cours 6tait rnalntenant de l'ouest h l'est, par cons6quent nous 6tions oblig6s
(comme Mme B. r6marqua) de traverser les chaines lat6rales qui s'embranchent
des Pyren6es. Nous mimes 20 minutes pour arriver au sommet de la chaine
commen_ante de la vallee de Campan. Del/t nous jouimes d'une belle vue sur la
ville de Bagn6res et les montagnes derri6re elle. Nous laiss&nes _ gauche la route
de Tournay, et descendimes peu h peu dans une vall6e fort profonde, par un
chemin le plus serpentin que personne de nous n'avait vu auparavant. La route
traverse un bois tr6s 6tendu, et hant6 par des voleurs. Un paysan avec qui je
m'entretins dit qu'il y a quelquefois des asassinats sur cette route, et qu'il 6st
dang6reux d'y passer dans la nuit. Au fond de la vall6e se trouve l'ancien couvent
de r Escaladieu, qui a l'apparence d'un chateau nouvellement r6fait. Je ne sais s'il
6st habit_. La rivi6re de Larros coule par cette vall6e. I1prend sa source dans les
f6r_ts du Pic de Lhieris, et se joint/t l'Adour dans le d6partement du Gers. Nous
l'avions travers6 dans la prieure pattie de notre voyage, _ Villecontal, entre Mielan
et Rabastens. Voyez ma lettre du 14 Aoflt. Nous montkrnes ensuite l'autre c6teau
102 Journals and Speeches No. 1
du Larros, ce qui nous occupa au moins pendant une heure et demie. Au sommet se
trouve le village et le vieux chateau ruin6 de Mauvesin. Un peu plus loin, nous
travers&'nes le grand village de Capvern. PrOs d'ici sont situ6es des eaux
minerales, qui attirent tousles ans (dit une description) _ sept _ huit cents 6trangers.
Delh nous descendimes darts un petit vallon, _ oh nous travershmes la Baise, la
rivi_re de Mirande qui prend sa source pr6s d'ici, maintenant il n'y a gu_re de
l'eau. (Voy. AoQt 14) Nous mont_aaes ensuite, et travershmes une grande lande.
La route passe ici entre deux rang6es d'arbres. Au bout de cette lande, nous
arriv_mes h la petite ville de Lannemezan, oh nous dejeQn_rnes h une auberge tr_s
propre, le dejefmer 6tait bon, il y a trois ou quatre auberges dans la ville.--Nous
partlmes de Lanemezan _ 3 heures du soir: la route passait presque toujours par de
belles avenues. Nous jouimes d'une belle vue sur les Pyren6es. Nous arriv_aaes
vers le coiacher du soleil h Montr6jau sur la Garonne. Cette ville 6st consid6rable.
L'auberge oO nous nous arr6t_nes n'6tait pas 6gale/l celle de Lanemezan: il n'y en
a pas de meilleure dans la ville.
)[At the end of the letter this note appears:] [Abadie,] ltineraire Topographique et
Ddscriptif des Hautes Pyrendes [p. 173].
l[At the end of the letter this note (without an indicator) appears: ] J'ai oubli6 de dire, que
notre route se joignit darts ce vallon/_ celle de Tarbes [/t] Toulouse par Saint-Gaudens.
September 1820 French Journal and Notebook 103
** 12"*
18 Septembre _
[J] En sortant de Monr6jau nous descendimes le c6teau et travers_nes la
Garonne sur un pont de bois. Cette rivi6re n'6st pas ici un simple torrent: son lit 6st
large et profond. Notre chemin nous conduisait droit aux Pyren6es. Nous
pass_es par le village de Polignan,/l peu de distance de Monr6jau, traversant une
petite plaine, mais plus loin, les c6teaux commenc6rent h s'61ever, et la plaine se
retrecit en vall6e. Apr6s quelques petites mont6es et descentes jusqu'au village de
Labroqu6re, nous descendimes une pente rapide jusqu'h la Garonne, que nous
repass_'nes sur un pont en pierre, beaucoup plus joli celui de Monr6jau, qui n'6st
qu'en bois. Ici nous laiss_mes/l droite la ville de Saint-Bertrand-de-Cominges,
sans pourtant la voir. Les c6teaux peu apr6s s'6cartent l'un de l'autre, et laissent
entr'eux une petite plaine, que nous travers_mes, et entr_mes ensuite dans la vall6e
de la Garonne. Cette vall6e, comme celle de Campan, 6st une pla/ne 6troite. Nous
traversfirnes cinq villages, dont Bertren 6tait le seul qui eut quelque chose de
r6marquable: le dehors de l'auberge de ce village a plut6t l'apparence des h6tels
d'une grande ville que d'un petit village. Cette circonstance doit s'attribuer au
grand nombre de voyageurs qui s'y arr6tent en allant ou en revenant de
Bagn/_res-de-Luchon. Nous d6jefin_tmes _ Cierp, grand village situ6 pr6s de la
jonction de la Garonne avec la Pique, et _ l'entr6e de la vall6e de Luchon. I1 y a
deux h6tels, celui de France et de la Clef d'Or. Le dehors de tous deux, et surtout
de celui de France (ofa nous trouv_-nes un bon d6jefmer) 6tait plus soign6 et avait
plus d'apparence qu'on n'aurait cru dans un village. Del_ nous suivimes la vall6e
de la Pique, ou de Luchon, qui n'6st point, comme celle de Campan et de la
ITbe covering letter for this section appears at its conclusion, after the entry for 30
September.
104 Journals and Speeches No. I
Garonne, une petite plaine: ici les montagnes d'un c6t6 commencent/l s'61ever des
pieds m6mes de celles du c8t6 oppos6, ne laissant entr'elles d'intervalle que ce qui
6st occul_ par le lit de la rivi_re. Le chemin suit par cons6quent le c6t_ de la
montagne. Cette vall6e 6st dite _tre plus pittoresque que celle de Campan, et je ne
puis nier que cette opinion ne me semble fort bien fond_e. On rencontre ici
chaque pas des rochers hardis et perpendiculaires, dont on ne voit presque point
dans la vall6e de Campan. J'en ai remarqu6e un de tr_s 61ev6, imm6diatement au
dessus de la rivi_re: il fesait le principal ornament de la sc/_ne. On fair sans cesse,
de petites mont6es et descentes. Apr_s Cierp nous passfimes par cinq villages. Peu
apr_s, la vall6e s'ouvre, et forme une petite plaine, entour6e de tous c6tes de hautes
montagnes, et n'ayant que trois ouvertures, celle de la vall6e de Luchon au nord et
au midi,--et d'Oo _ l'ouest. Dans un coin de cette plaine, _ l'entr6e de la vall6e
d'Oo, et 'aux pieds d'une montagne tr_s 61ev6e, 6st la ville de Bagn_res-de-
Luchon. Nous y arriv_nes vers le soir. Nous dinfimes _ l'h6tel de France: del_
nous ffimes coucher _ un Apartement qu'on avait trouv_: c'6tait un tr_s bon
logement, chez Mme Ferras.
[N ] En sot'rantde Monr6jaunous descendimes le c6teau et traversfimes laGaronne sur un
pont de bois. Cette rivi_re 6st ici plus qu'un torrent des montagnes. Notre chemin nous
conduisait tout droit vers les Pyren6es. Nous pass_'nes par le village de Polignan,/l peu de
distance de Monr6jau. De 1_ notre route 6tait pendant quelque tems _ travers une petite
plaine, mais bientSt les c6teaux commenc_rent _ s'_lever et la plaine devenait vall6e. Nous
fimes deu× ou trois petites mont6es et descentes jusqu'au village de Labroqu_re, sur une
colline. Nous descendimes ensuite par une pente rapide jusqu'/_ la Garonne que nous
travers_nes sur un pont en pierre, beaucoup plus joli que le pont de Monr6jau. Ici nous
laiss_nes _ gauche le chemin de Saint Bertrandde Cominges, les c6teaux s'6cartent l'un de
l'autre et laissent une petite plaine au milieu. Nous travers_mes cette plaine puis entr_aes
dans la vall6e de la Garonne, entre deux rang6es de montagnes. Les Pyren6es ne s'61event
pas de la plaine aussi directement de ce c6t6-ci que de celui de Bagn_res. L_, presqu'avant
que on ne sent qu'on 6st dans les montagnes, on se trouve entour_ du Pic de Midi, du
Montaigu, du Pic de Lhieris. Ici on longe pendant quelques heures deux chaines qui
s'61event peu _ peu, de mani_re que quand enfin on arrive aux hautes montagnes, elles ne
frappent pas autant. La vall_e de la Garonne 6st d'abord, comme celle de Campan une
plaine 6troite; mais plus loin, les c6teaux se rapprochent les uns des autreset le chemin suit
n_essair_ment le c6t6 de la montagne. Nous travers_nes 5 villages dont Bertren 6tait le
seul qui avait quelque chose de r6marquable. L¢ dehors de l'auberge de ce village avait
plut6t l'apparence des h6tels d'une grande ville que de celles d'un si petit village. PrOsde
Cierp, la vall6e se divise en deux fourches, la vall6e de la Pique et celle de la Garonne. Nous
nous arr_t_nes pour dejefiner _ Cierp, village plus grand que Bertren, et dont les auberges
avaient la m6me apparence. Nous nous arr_t_nes _ rh6tel de France, of_nous 6tions tr_s
bien. De 1_ nous suivimes la vall6e de la Pique ou de Luchon. Cette vall6e 6st compt6e
comme plus pittoresque que ceUe de Campan: je ne puis pas nier que cette opinion ne me
semble bien fond6e. I_s rochers perpendiculaires dont on ne voit presque point darts la
vall_ de Campan se trouvent ici en abondance. J'en ai remarqu6e, une de grande hauteur
qui s'61evait audessus de la rivi_re et fesait le principal ornament de la sc/_ne. On fait sans
cesse de petites months et descentes. A la d_houchure de la vall6e d'Oo celle de Luchon
s'ouvrit et fair une petite plaine. Ici, imm6diatement audessous d'une montagne tr_s haute,
_st la vine de Bagn_res de Luchon. Ici nous din_mes _ un tr_s hon h6tel, de France, et y
September 1820 French Journal and Notebook 105
rest_nes jusqu'_ ce qu'on cut trouv6 un apartement--chez Mme Ferras, il 6tait fort
agr_ablemNous y fflmes tous et y couch_mes. 2
19 Septembre
[J] Le mauvais tems nous emp_cha de sortir. Je m'occupai a copier mon journal
eta prendre une leqon de Botanique.
[N] Le mauvais tems nous emp_cha de sortir. Je m'occupai _ copier mon journal et
prendre Yuner lemonde Botanique.
20 Septembre
[J] Je sortis apr_s d6jeflner pour ramasser des plantes, avec M. George et un
guide qui 6st un peu botaniste.--II y a deux routes de Bagn_res-de-Luchon
Bagn_res-de-Bigorre: celle pour les voitures, par oil nous sommes venus, passe
par Monr_jan: l'autre, o_ l'on ne peut aUer qu'_ cheval, prend la direction de la
vall6e d'Oo, et passe par la ville d'Arreau dans la vall6e d'Aure, par Sainte-Marie
et Campan. (Voyez plus haut.) Nous primes celle-ci pour la direction de notre
excursion, et longe_nes la rivi_re d'Oo, qui se pr6cipite _ travers les pierres au
fond de la vall6e, souvent _tla base d'immenses rochers perpendiculaires. Nous la
pass_trnes et repass_nes deux ou trois fois: le premier pont 6tait en bois, les autres
en pierre. Nous arriv_nes enfin au dessous du village de Tr6bons, sur le penchant
de la montagne h droite. Nous quires alors la route, et grimp_nes la montagne
jusqu'anx mines d'une ancienne tour, situ6e sur le sommet d'une rang6e de
2[This revised version of the account is interlined with an earlier one, which reads: ] Nous
partimes de Monr_jau de borme heure et travers_mes la Garonne sur un pont de bols: nous
repass_nes peu apr_s par un pont en pierre _ cette distance de sa source. Nous le repasshmes
par un pont en pierre, et entr_nes peu apr_s clans une vall6e des Pyren6es. Cette vall6e (la
vallc_ede la Garonne) 6st d'abord une plaine 6troite; plus loin les c6teaux s'approchent l'un
de l'autre, et le ehemin suit n6cessairement le c6t6 des montagnes, ce qui fait qu'il soit plein
de mont_es et de descentes. Nous travershmes le joli petit village de Bertren. dont les
auherges ressemblent plus en leur dehors h celles d'une grande ville que d'un village. Nous
dejeftn_s _ Cierp, village considerable situ_ _tla confluence de la Garonne avec la Neste
de Luchon. Nous suivimes ensuite le cours de ce dernier torrent. La vall_e de Luchon, que
nous travers_nes, 6st beaucoup plus pittoresque que la vall6e de Carnpan; surtout les
rochers perpendiculaires y sont plus nombreux: un d'eux qui 6st fort haut et la rivi_re, qui
coule au dessous de lui font une vue charmante. Au reste, cette vall6e n'_st pas aussi bien
peupl_e que celle de Campan. On y voit pourtant les montagnes cultiv_es aux sommets
m_me, darts les endroits susceptibles de cultivation: en sorte qu'elles pr6sentent une
n_lange bizarre de cultivation et de rocher nu. On cultive principalement le ble Sarazin dont
les fleurs blanches font une apparence tr_s helle. Nous arriv_-nes enfin _ Bagn_res-de-
Luchon, ville reno_ par ses bains situ_e darts un endroit o0 la vall_e s'_large un peu.
Cette ville 6st _atement entour_ de hautes montagnes. Nous din_nes _tun tr_s bon
hotel et y rest_nes jusqu'_t ce qu'on pat trouver un Appartement. Quand on en cut trouv6 un,
nous y f_mes tous, et y couch_mes.
Y-Y+GB
106 Journals and Speeches No. 1
rochers inclints. Ce vieux bAtiment, entour6 d'un bouquet d'arbres, fait un fort joli
effet. Nous descend/rues ensuite par un sentier tortueux, traversant le village de
Cazaril de las Pennes, (Cazaril des Rochers) qui fut brul6 il y a quelque tems, et
qu'on rebAtit maintenant. Nous descendlmes dans la vallte de Luchon pros du petit
village de Barcugnas, et del_ retoum_nes _t Bagntres.--Cette petite excursion
nous procura trois ou quatre nouvelles esl_es de plantes, dont deux 6taient fort
rares.--M. George fut voir M. Paul Boileau, Maire de la ville, et savant
Botaniste, qui a fait une belle collection des plantes du voisinage. 3
IN] Je sortis apr_sdejefiner avec M. George: nous primes la route d'Arreau, celle qu'on
prend ordinairementpour aller de Bagn_res-de-Luchona Bagn_res-de-Bigorre.Ce ehemin
longe la rivi_,red'Oo, Zseprecipite a travers les pierres at]fondd'une vallte, etz souvent ttla
base d'immenses rochers perpendiculaires. Nous nous detourn_mesdu chemin tout pros du
village de Trtbons situ6 =sur le penchant" d'une montagne. Nous grimp_rnes cette
montagnejus_u'aux mines d'un vieux batiment au sommet d'un rocher: puis descendimes
par un sentier °tortueuxb, en traversant le villagede Cazaril de las Pennes, ce village qui fut
bruit il y a quelquetems. Cette excursion nous proem trois ou quatre nouvelles esl_es de
plantes;dont deux etaient tr_s rares.
21 Septembre
[J] Apr_s avoir dejeiin6 de bonne heure, M. Bentham, M. George, et les
demoiselles partirent pour faire une excursion dans les montagnes, et me permirent
de les accompagner. M. George et le guide 6taient a pied; les autres _tcheval. Nous
travers_nes le village de Saint Mamet sur la pla/ne, puis suiv_mes la vallte de
Luchon, qui devient peu a peu moins large, jusqu'a l'ancienne tour de Castelviel,
at] sommet d'un petit rocher isol_ darts la vallte. Ici nous laissArnes _t droite le
sentier qui conduit _ la vallte de Lys, et nous toum_mes _ gauche pour monter la
Gorge de Burbe. PrOsd'ici nous rencontr_es deux soldats fesant partie du cordon
6tabli pour emp&:her la communication entre la France et l'Espague, _ cause de la
peste darts File de Majorque. Ils nous dirent que la maladie 6tait parvenu
Barcelonne en Catalogne (ce qu'on a trouv6 depuis 6tre faux) et que si nous
suivions notre projet de descendre h la vallte d'Aran, on ne nous permettraitpas de
revenir sans faire quarantaine. Nous montgtmescependant la gorge qui 6st couverte
de bois, except6 stir un plateau _ moiti6 chemin du sommet. Ce plateau 6st un beau
pAturage, couvert d'une immense quantit6 de bttail. Au haut de cette gorge 6st le
Portillon, passage de la vallte de Luchon darts celle d'Aran. On a pris pour le
limite de la France et de l'Espagne, la cime de la chaine principale, et l'on a donn6
le nom de Port h tous les passages d'un versant _tl'autre. Mais la vallte d'Aran (ofJ
la Garonne pleiad sa source) fait une exception _ la r_gle, 6tant en Espagne,
[N] Apr_s avoir dejefln6 de bonne heure, M. Bentham, M. George, et les demoiselles
partirent pour faire une excursion darts les montagnes: ils me permirent de les accompagner.
M. George et le guide 6talent _ pied: les autres _tcheval. Nous traverskmes le village de
[Saint Mamet] 4 et suivimes la valise de Luchon, qui devient peu _ peu moins large, jusqu'h
l'ancienne tour de Castelviel. PrOs de cet endroit nous trouvames deux soldats fesant partie
du d6tachement pour emp_cher la communication entre la France et l'Espague, h cause de la
peste qui, est parvenue (_ ce que l'on dit) de l'ile de Majorque h Barcelonne en Catalogne.
On en a mis de pareils darts tout le frontier. Ces soldats nous pr6vinrent que si nous Csuivions
notre projet de descendre c darts la vall6e d'Aran (qui fait partie de l'Espagne,) on ne nous
permettrait pas de revenir sans faire quarantaine. Nous dne montimes donc que lusqu _ la
gorge de Burb, et a au Portillon, c.O.d, au Petit Port, passage de la vall6e de Luchon clans
celle d'Aran. (On a donn6 le nom de Port _ tousles passages equi communiquent d'un
versant _ l'autre des montagnes e. ) Puis nous retournfimes _tBagn_res-de-Luchon. 5
22 Septembre
[J] Le mauvais tems nous emp_cha de faire des excursions. Je m'occupai
6crire mon journal, h faire catalogue des plantes qui croissent dans ces environs,
etc. Je n'avais presque point de livres pour continuer mes 6tudes. ni m6me des
livres Fran_ais que je n'avais d6j[t lus deux ou trois fois. 6
23 Septembre
[J] J'accompagnai M. George et le guide clans une excursion botanique _ la
montagne d'Esquierry, une des plus riches de la chaine en plantes rares. Nous
suivimes, comme nous avions fait dans notre premi6re excursion, la route
d'Arreau et de Bagn6res-de-Bigorre, le long de la vall6e d'Oo, qui se divise, pr6s
s'_lever presque des _ieds de celles kdu c6t_ oppos6 k, tne laissant entr'elles d'intervalle que
ce qui est occup_ par le lit de la rivi6re. Nous travershmes les villages de Saint-Aventin et
de [Castillon] 7puis laissames _tdroite le chemin d'Arreau et suivimes un autre sentier oil les
voitures ne peuvent pas passer. Nous passames par le village d'Oo, puis nous toum_nes
gauche, et suiv_maesune gorge appell_ Astos d'Oo. Peu apr_s, nous laissames nos chevaux
_tune cabane, et gravimes la montagne d'Esquierry, _ droite de la gorge. Nous y trouvames
beaucoup de plantes en gratne, tr_s peu en fleur, except6 les aconits, et deux ou trois
saxifrages. Nous retournames _tBagn6res, en suivant, jusqu'au village d'Oo, un sentier
msurml'autre bord de la rivi_re.
24 Septembre
[J] J'accompagnai M. Bentham, les demoiselles, M. George, et le guide, darts
une autre excursion _tcheval, pour voir les lacs et la cascade d'Oo. Notre route 6tait
la m_me que celle d'hier: mais, au lieu de monter l'Esquierry, nous continu_mes
suivre la gorge jusqu'aux pieds de la montagne qui la termine. Ici nous
commen_rnes _tmonter par un sentier mauvais et tortueux _ travers un bois, et au
bout d'une demi-heure nous arrivarnes h une esp_ce de plateau oh nous vimes
devant nous, dans un bassin enorme, le premier lac, appell6 Lac de S6cul6jo. Les
rochers qui fesaient les trois c6t6s de ce bassin formaient un amphith6_tre immense
de plus de mille pieds de hauteur: dans une pattie du cirque la rivi_re d'Oo, qui a
pris sa source dans un autre lac plus 61ev6, se pr6cipite d'un rocher fesant une
cascade de huit cents pieds de hauteur; elle se j_te dans le lac, et se pr6cipite delh
dans la gorge, _ travers les rochers couverts de hardis sapins. Cet amphith6htre fait
partie de la montagne des Crabioules et du Port d'Oo. Le Pic Quairat, une des plus
hautes sommit6s des Crabioules, paraissait derriere les rochers, et ajoutait
beaucoup _tla grandeur de la sc_ne. La cascade 6st appel6 Bond de S6cul6jo: le
second lac (que nous n'avions pas le tems d'aller voir) 6st le lac d'Espingon. Nous
retournfmaes _ Bagn_res, apr_s avoir assez joui de cette vue.
IN] Je partis avec M. Bentham, les demoiselles, M. George. et le guide, pour une autre
excursion. Nous suivimes jusqu'h Esquierry la m_me route qu'hier: puis montames par le
therein qui conduit au Port d'Oo, jusqu'_t un grand Lac, fait par 1'Oo, qui ayant pris sa
source _ un antre lac plus haut, tombe ensuite en cascade d'huit cents pieds, darts un lac fort
grand, d'ou il se pr_cipite par la gorge d'Astos d'Oo et par la vail6e de Larboust jusqu'_t sa
jouction avecla rivi_re de Pique, appell6e autrement Neste de Luchon. Nous ffimes trop
61oign6s de la cascade pour la voir darts toute sa grandeur. Nous retournames ensuite _t
Bagn_.res, n'ayant trouv6 qu'une seule plante qui valait la peine de s_cher.
25 Septembre
[J] On avait le dessein d'aller avec M. Paul Boileau au Port de B_nasque, mais il
6tait oblig6 d'aUer _tToulouse: d'ailleurs le terns se gita. Je m'occupai _tarranger
mes plantes, et it lire une d6scription du labyrinthe d'Egypte dans les Annales des
Voyages. 8 L'auteur semble avoir d6couvert le v6ritable plan de ce bittiment.
[N] On avait eu le dessein d'aller au Port de B_nasque avec le Maire de la ville, mais
comn_ il 6tait oblig_ d'aller _ Toulouse, il ne put pas y aller comme il nl'navait voulu.
D'ailleurs, le ternsse ghta. Je m'occupai _ arranger mes plantes; h _tudierla Botanique, et
lire une d_scriptiondu labyrinthed'Egypte clansles Annales des voyages. Cet auteursemble
avoir d_couvert le v6ritable plan de ce bhtiment.
26 Septembre
[J] On avait l'intention de partir aujourd'hui, mais le mauvais tems ne
permettait pas que ce projet eCltlieu. Je m'occupai comme le jour pr6c6dent.
[N] Le mauvaisterns nous emp_ha de sortir.
27 Septembre
[J] Nous quitt_'nes Bagn_res aussit6t que le tems nous permit. U 6tait tomb6, la
nuit pr6c&lente, une grande quantit6 de neige sur les sommets des montagnes; il en
etait tomb_, meme darts la ville, mais elle n'y avait point restS. Nous dejeQn_'nes it
Bertren; et qui_fimes la route de Monr6jau aux pieds des demi_res montagnes.
Nous travers_mes un grand pl,qteau entre la Garonne et les Pyren6es, jusqu'h la
petite ville de Valentine, oil nous travers_aes la rivi_re sur un pont, ou plut6t sur
deux ponts de bois; puis mont_nes le c6teau oppos6, et arrivfimes it Saint-
Gaudens, ville consid6rable, chef lieu d'arrondissement, et bien biti. L'hbtel (de
France) 6st nouvellement r6fait: c'6tait un des meilleurs que nous avons encore
rencontre.
[N] Nous qui_s Bagn_resaussitBtque le ternsnousle permit.Noussuivhnesd'abord
lam_meroute quenous avionspris pour y arriver. Nous dejetha_nes_ Bertren, et qui_s
la route de Monr6jau aux pieds des derni_res montagnes. Nous arrivhmes bientft
Valentine,oil nous trav_es la Garonne sur tm pont, ou plutft sur deux ponts de bois:
puisnousmont_mesune eolline et arriv_traes_tSaint Gaudens, chef lieu d'arrondissement,
oilil y a un hftel (Ace que l'on m'a dit) des plus grands du midi de la France. Nous y flhnes
tr_sbien accomod_s.
28 Septembre
[J] Nous quitt_aes Saint-Gaudens et suivimes pendant quelque tems les
c6teaux de la Garonne; il n'y a den de r_marquable sur cette route: elle n'6st point
agr_able darts la saison actuelle: mais la vue de la chalne des Pyren6es, couverte de
neige nouvellement tomb6e, fait bien compensation de ce manque d'agr_ment
dam tout le reste de la vue. Vers Saint-Martory nous rencontrames une chaine
29 Septembre
[J] Nous partimes de Nod de bon matin, et arrivg-nes en moins de deux heures/l
Muret, ville considdrable, chef lieu d'arrondissement. L'auberge y 6tait moins
bonne que celle de Nod, quoique la ville f0t beaucoup plus grande. On avait
pourtant le dessein d'y rester jusqu'/i ce qu'on pot aller _ Montpellier. Apr6s
d6jet_ner M. George fut _ Toulouse (h cinq lieues et demie de Muret)
poury faire ses affaires. Je me promenai dans la campagne prbs de la ville pour voir
les vindanges qui se fesaient partout.--La rivi6re 6st tr6s consid6rable _ Muret.
[N] 9 Nous pal'times de No_de bon matin et arriv_'nesen moins de deux heures _ Muret,
ville considerable, chef lieu d'arrondissement, o0 l'on avait le dessein de rester jusqu'_tce
qu'on ptRpartir pour aller _t Montpellier. L'auberge 6tait passable. Apr_s dejefiner M
Georgefut _tToulouse pour y faire ses affaires. Je me promenai dans la campagnepros de la
ville pour voir les vindanges qui se fesaient partout.
30 Septembre
[J ] M. George revint de bon matin, et je partis avec lui pour aller _Toulouse. Le
chemin 6st presque droit, fesant un seul d6tour _ l'embranchement de la route de
Pamiers et de Foix. C'6st tout pros de cette endroit que l'Ari6ge se joint h la Garonne,
et les c6teaux des deux rivi&es se r6unissent, pour ainsi dire, dans une seule
chaine, qui va, toujours en baissant jusques _ Toulouse. lo
*'13"*
10ctobre
[J]M. Decampe, dont je vous ai souvent parl6, avait bien voulu me prendre en
1°Theentry for this date continues in the next instalment of the Journal; we have put the
correspondingNotebook entry after the second part.
liThe Notebook also contains this cancelled entry: ] Suite du 30 Septembre. Arriv6s
Toulouse,nous f-timesd'abord _tl'h6tel, puis je fus prendre une leqon d'escrime chez mon
ancienram'tre,et fus ensuite voir les f'tlsde M. Russell. Nous dinames chez lui.
October 1820 French Journal and Notebook 113
pension pour le terns que nous resterions _ Toulouse, afin que ce tems ne fQt pas
perdu. M. George fut le voir au matin, et trouva que malheureusement cet
arrangement ne pouvait pas avoir lieu. Je pris une lemon d'armes, je d6fis ma
malle, je m'occupai d'ailleurs _ lire Lucien, et une ouvrage appell6e Les Annales
de la Bigorre. 2 M. et Mme B. arriv_rent de Muret. Aujourd'hui arriva la nouvelle
de la naissance du Duc de Bordeaux. 3 Le soir je fus au spectacle: 4 la parterre
demand_rent qu'on joufit les airs nationaux et les reqtarent avec beaucoup
d'applaudissemens.
[N] M. George vit M. Decampe, et trouva que malheureusement il ne pouvait pas me
prendre en pension, comme il avait bien voulu faire. Je pris deux lemons d'escrime, et
m'occupai aiUeurs _, life une ouvrage appell6e Annales de la Bigorre, et d'autres livres
surtout Lucien; _ ouvrir ma malle, _ examiner mes plantes, et les y mettre, etc. M. et Mme
B. vintent de Muret. Je ills au th6atre avec M. George et compris la plupart de ce qu'on y
disait.5
20ctobre
[J] La messe fiat celebr6e dans la grande all6e de la promenade, _tl'occasion de
la naissance du Duc de Bordeaux. Tousles soldats de la garnison y 6taient, ainsi
que l'6tat major de la ville. Un Te Deum fut chant6, et une oraison prononc6e sur
l'ev_nement qui 6tait arriv6: on tira ensuite 24 coups de canon. Apr_s la
cer6monie, les 16gions d6fil_rent devant l'6tat major. Le soir, il y eut spectacle
gratis. M. et Mme B. furent _ Montauban.
[N] Je m'occupai comme le jour pr6cedent. M. et Mme B. furent _tMontauban. 6
30ctobre
[J] Je m'occupai comme les jours pr6cedents: je pris une lemon de Franqais.
IN] Je ills chez M. Sauvage, quin'avait pas le tems de me donnerune legon. J'en pris
d'unjeune honunequi 6taitchez M. Sanvage.7
40ctobre
[J] Je pris deux leqons d'escrime. M. et Mme B. revinrent de Montauban.
[N] Je prisdeux lemonsd'escrime. M. et MineB. revinrentde Montauban.s
50ctobre
[J] Je pris deux lemons d'escrime et une de Franqais. M. et Mme B. furent
Muret.
[N] Je pris deux lex2onsd'escrime et une de Fran_ais.M. et Mme B. retourn_rent
Muret.9 ,
60ctobre
[J] Je pris trois leqons d'escrime, je fus chez M. Russell le soir.
IN] Je pris trois l_ons d'escrime; darts le soirje fus chez M. Russellpour examinerles
plantes de M. Guillaume,et en tronverles noms.
70ctobre
[J] le pris deux leqons d'escrime, et fus chez M. Sauvage, mais il 6tait sorti. Je
traduisis en fran_ais une pattie de l'oraison Milonienne de Ciceron: _Oj,envoyai ma
malle au magasin. M. Bentham arriva de Muret.--Ces derniers jours nous avons
din6 (M. George et moi) au restaurat. C'6st une mani6re tr6s agr6able de diner: car
on peut y avoir tout ce qu'on veut, et l'on ne paye que pour ce qu'on a mang6.
IN] Jeprisdeux lemonsd'escrime,j'examinai desplantes avec M. Gnillaume,je fus chez
M. Sauvage, maisil 6tait sorti,je traduisisen Fran_aisune pattie de l'oraisonMilonienne de
Ciceron:j'envoyai ma malle au magazin. M. Bentham vim de Muret.--Ces demiersjours
nous dinamesM. George etmoi, au restaurat.C'6st one mani6refortagr6ablede diner.On
peutavoirtout ce qu'on veut, et ne paye que pource qu'on a mang6.
80ctobre
Ill Nous parthnes de Toulouse par le faubourg Guillemery et pont sur le canal
royal. Apr6s deux ou trois petites mont6es, la route descend au village des Bordes.
Les arbres, soit isol6s, soit en bois, qui entourent ce petit endroit, fesaient un
contraste frappant avec les champs arides et couverts de chaume que nous venions
de traverser. En quittant les Bordes, on traverse une petite plaine, laissant _ gauche
le chemin de Cararnan et de Revel. Enfin on entre dans un pays tr6s vari_ par des
collines et par des vall6es. Au sommet de la premiere colline, se trouvent deux
grands chateaux. En montant la seconde, un orage nous attint, accompagn6 de
gr_le. L'auberge o0 nous rest_mes la nuit 6st sur le sommet au petit hameau de
Saussens: son dehors ne promettait pas beaucoup de commodit6, mais cependant
les lits 6taient propres, le souper bon, et nous y trouvames beaucoup d'honn6tet6.
[N] Nous quinines la ville par le faubourg et pont de Guillemery. Apr_s deux ou trois
petites mont6es, la route descend au village des Bordes. Les arbres, soit isol6s, soit en bois,
qui entouraient ce petit endroit, fesaient un contraste frappant avec les champs arides et
couverts de chaurne que nous venions de traverser. En quittant les Bordes, on traverse
d'abord une petite plalne, en laissant a droite la route de Caraman et de Revel. Enfin on entre
darts un pays tr6s vari6 par des collines et des vall6es. Au sommet de la premi6re haute
colline se trouvent deux grands chateaux. En montant la seconde, un orage nous attint,
aceompagn6 de gr_le. Le hameau de Sanssens, oi_nous nous arr_tames pour y rester la nuit,
6st au sommet de eette colline. Le dehors de l'auberge ne donnait pas a esp6rer beaucoup de
cornmodilk en dedans: cependant les lits 6taient propres, le souper bon, et nous y trouvames
beaucoup d'honn6tet_. II
90ctobre
[J] Le brouillard _tait trop _pais pour que nous p_ssions en partant jouir de la vue
sur le vallon. Apr6s avoir travers6 le plateau du sommet, nous commengarnes
descendre, en passant sur un grand nombre de chauss6es, dont quelques unes
6taient fort 61ev6es: faites sans doute _ grand frais, pour 6pargner aux voyageurs
les petites mont6es et descentes. Nous traversames ensuite une large vall6e: la
route y 6tait boueuse, et fatiguante pour les chevaux. Enfin le ciel s'6claircit; nous
arrivions alors au pied d'un c6teau: A la fin de la mont6e, (qui 6st vari6e par de
petites descentes) 6st la ville de Puy Laurens. La meilleure auberge (du Lion d'Or)
H[An earlier version of this Notebook entry reads: ] 80ctobre. Tout le monde arriva de
Muret, et nous partimes de Toulouse pour aller a Montpellier dans deux voitures, dout l'une
6tait nouvelle, de rinvention de M. Bentham, tr6s leg6re, et point cahotante, appell6e la
commode. Nous traversames le Canal du Midi et quittames la ville par le faubourg
Guillemery. Apr_s deux ou trois mont6es et descentes douces, nous descendimes jusqu'_t un
pl_,e,au _ se trouve le petit village appall6 les Bordes; les arbres, soit isol6s, soit en bois,
produisant un contraste tres frappant avec les champs at'ides et couverts de chaume qui
entouraient laville, fesaient le charme de ce petit endroit. Nous suivimes notre tours par une
petite plaine, laissant A droite le chemin de Caraman et d'Auriac. Puis nous montames et
descendin_s une colline fort longue: pr6s du sornmet se trouve un chateau fort grand. Nous
montan_s ensuite une autre lougue colline. Un orage, accompagn6 de grele, nous atteint en
route. Au sommet de la colline 6st Saussens, petit village de trois ou quatre maisons, oi_
nous nous arr_tames pour y passer la nuit, et trouvames de bons lits _tun prix m6diocre. 36
francs en tout.
116 Journals and Speeches No. 1
6st un peu au dessous de la grande mute: nous la trouv_nes meilleure que celle de
Saussens.
Le chemin pour descendre serpente sur le penchant de la montagne. On y jouit
d'une belle vue sur la plaine an pied de la chaine des Cevennes. Cette chaine
commence _ s'61ever pros de Sor_ze, _ peu de distance, et prend ensure le nom des
Montagnes Noires--On entre dans la plaine de l'Agout, rivi_re consid6rable qui
se joint au Tam _ la Pointe Saint-Sulpice. II y a deux beaux ponts pour traverser le
Sor et l'Agout: on longe cette demi_re rivi_re, et l'on arrive _ Castres. Cette ville,
jadis chef lieu du Tam, n'6st plus qu'une simple sous-pr6fecture. Les rues,
quoique petites, sont propres: les maisons sont b_ties en pierre: l'Agout parcourt le
milieu de la ville: il y a deux ponts pour le traverser. L'auberge, chez Alaux, 6st
bonne: ,l?our y arriver on traverse la ville.
[N] Le brouillard 6tait si 6pais que nous ne pouvions pas, en partant,jouir de la vue sur le
vallon au dessous de Saussens. Apr_s avoir traverse le pliteau du sonunet, nous
conunen_nes _ descendre, en passant sur un grand nombre de chauss6es, dont
quelques-unes 6taient tr_s 61ev6es; faites sans doute _ grands frais, pour _pargner aux
voyageurs les petites mont6es et descentes. Nous travers_nes ensuite une large vall6e: la
route y _tait boueuse, et fatiguante pour les chevanx. Enfm le ciel s'6claircit: nous arrivions
alors au pied d' un c6teau: A la fm de la mont6e (qui 6st vari6e par de petites descentes) _st la
ville de Puy-Laurens. La meilleure auberge, (celle du Lion rouge) 6st un peu au dessous de
la grande route. Nous la trouv_nes meilleure qu'_ Saussens.
Le chemin pour descendre serpente sur le penchant de la montagne. On y jouit d'une belle
vue stir la plaine au pied de la chaine des Cevennes, qui commence _ s'61ever pros de
Sor_ze, _ quelque distance sur la plaine, et prend, peu apr_s, le nom des Montagnes Nones.
On entre ensuite darts la plaine de l'Agout, rivi_re considerable qui se j_te dans le Tam _ la
Pointe St Sulpice. I1 y a deux beaux ponts sur cette route pour traverser le Sor et l'Agout: on
longe la demi_re, et l'on arrive _ Castres. Cette ville, jadis chef-lieu du Tam, n'6st plus
qu'une simple sous-pr_fecture. Les rues, quoique petites, sont pmpres: tes maisons sont
b_ies en pierre: l'Agout parcourt le milieu de la ville; il y a deux ponts sur cette rivi_re.
L'auberge, chez Alanx, 6st bonne: pour y parvenir on traverse la ville, t2
10 Octobre
[J] En quittant la ville on longe la promenade et l'on entre darts une petite valise.
Les ccSteaux sont couverts de vignes, qui commencent _ porter leur habit
12[An earlier version of this Notebook entry reads:] 90ctobre. Nous partimes de bon
matin darts un brouillard si 6pais que nous ne primes rien voir: ce que nous regrettions,
puisque la rue du haut de la colline sur le vallon de dessous dut _tre tr6s joli. Nous
travels pendant quelque terns le plateau du sommet; puis commenqirnes _ descendre.
Ici nous observ_nes le grand hombre de chauss6es, dont quelques-unes 6taient fort 61ev6es.
Elles ont 6t6 fares sans doute h grand frais, pour 6pargner aux voyageurs les petites mont6es
et descentes. Quand nous 6tions en bas nous travels une esp6ce de plateau, ne pouvant
presque rien voir. La mute 6tait boueuse, et fatigante pour les chevanx. Enfin ie ciel
s'6elaircit. C'_tait alors que notts mont_nes une longue colline; apr_s une petite descente,
nous en mont_aes tree autre, au haut de laquelle 6st la ville de Puy-Lanrens. Nous
longe,_nes les remparts pendant quelque terns, puis nous detourmimes de la route et
October 1820 French Journal and Notebook 117
d'automne mais darts le vallon on ne voit gu_re que du b16, et quelques petites
prairies, arros6es par la petite rivi_re de Resse. Les fleurs 61egantes du safran des
pros se montrent en tr_s grand nombre parmi le gazon. Un peu plus loin, la gauche
du chemin 6st bom6e pendant une demi-lieue par de beaux arbres, surtout des
peupliers: le c6teau de droite 6st couvert de bois: la lavande y cro_t en abondance:
darts le vallon on voit beaucoup de prairies aussi vertes que celles des Pyren6es.
Celles-ci tie servent pourtant qu'_ rendre plus frappante la laideur de la colline
pierreuse qu'on va bient6t monter. Le chemin ne parait pas l'ouvrage de l'homme:
de loin il semble qu'il n'y en a pas: de pros, on voit qu'il 6st _ peine trac6 sur un sol
de cailloux, oil l'on ne peut rien produire, et qu'on laisse par cette raison comme
chemin: ce qui fait que la route atteigne darts quelques endroits une largeur
extraordinaire. A peine, dans quelques endroits plus favoris6s, ce sol produit une
pauvre r6.colte de b16. Les montagnes qu'on voit tout autour portent le m6me
aspect. Mais on n'6st gu_re arriv6 _tla cime de la montagne, qu'on ne voie au
dessous de soi la vall6e riante du Thor6, qui, hormise la diff6rence de hauteur des
montagnes 6st l'image des vall_es des Pyren6es. Nous descendimes (par un
chemin quelquefois coup6 dans le rocher) dans cette premiere vall6e des
Cevennes; et travers_nes ensuite le Thor6 en bacq. Un si grand nombre de petites
rivi_res viennent de tousles c6t6s se joindre _ celle-ci, que sa grandeur re_oit une
augmentation extraordinaire darts fort peu d'espace, et j'6tais 6tonn_ de voir,
Samt-Amand, reduite _ un torrent des montagnes, cette rivi_re que j'avais vue
consid6rable pros de l'entr6e de la vall6.e, et qui se r6sout, pros de Rouairouze en de
petits ruisseaux.
C'6st _ Labastide St. Amand que les montagnes de cette vall6e, jusque lh tr_s
basses, commencent h s'61ever. Nous d6jeOn_nes h ce village, qui 6st situ6 sur la
rive gauche du Thor6: St. Arnand de Valhoret, autre village consid6rable, 6st sur le
c6t6 oppos6. Le premier a un Octroi et plusieurs auberges. Nous 6tions assez bien
la Croix Blanche: mais les voyageurs qui tiennent _ manger de bon beurre feront
descendimespar un petit chemin tr_s 6troitjusqu'_ la meilleure auberge, le Lion rouge, oia
nous dejeun_nes, et trouv_nes l'auberge tr_spassable. Prix 23 francs. Apr_s d6jeQnernous
remon_mes un peu. et parvinmes au sommet de la colline, oil nous nous rejoignimes _ la
grande route. Nous descendlmes ensuite par un chemin tr_s serpentin, d'oO nous jouimes
d'une tr_sbelle rue sur laplaine du pied de lachaine des Cevermes,qui commence hse lever
prosde ia petite ville de Sor_ze, _tquelque distance sur la platne, et prend, peu apr_s, le nom
des Montagnes Noires. Apr_s 6tre descendu, nous travers_tmes la charmante rivi_re
d'Agout, ( qui6st tr_ consid6rable,et sej_te dartsleTam _ Saint-Sulpicede la Pointe). PrOs
du pont se trouve une enceinte fortifi6e, je ne sais pour quelle raison. Puis, toujours en
longeantl'Agout, nous pass_mes par un plateau, et arriv_rnes_tCastres. Nous travers_mes
toute la ville pour parvenir _tl'auberge, qui 6tait tr_s bonne. Cette ville, jadis chef lieu du
d_artement du Tam, n'6st _ present qu'une simple sous-pr6fecture.Elle 6st tr_s grande,
b_tie en pierre, et des plus jolies que j'aie rues: l'Agout en parcourt le milieu, et il y a deux
beaux ponts sur eette rivi_re. Les rues ne sont pas tr_s larges. Prix 49 fr. 10 cent. 4 francs
chaeun pour le souper et pour les lits. On fait donner quelquefois 6 francs.
118 Journals and Speeches No. 1
bien d'en apporter avec eux de Castres. Je ne puis omettre la notice d'un pont
couvert de lierre, un peu au dessous de Saint-Amand, qui ressemhle beancoup
Ivybridge en Devonshire.
Peu au del_tde Saint-Amand, on fait une longue mont6e sur le penchant de la
montagne/t la rive gauche du torrent. On descend ensuite par une pente rapide
jusqu'_ un pas 6troit, et tr6s pittoresque le long du Thor6; _ notre droite il
s'61evaient de hauts rochers. On ne trouve plus ici la large vail6e de St. Amand: on
ne voit qu'un torrent qui se pr6cipite avec impemosit6 _ travers tm lit rocailleux
darts le fond d'une gorge 6troite et sauvage.--Le chernin, bon jusqu'ici, est
d6testable dans ce seul endroit.--On arrive bient6t au village de la Cabar_de: puis,
apr6squelques petites mont6es et descentes, on traverse la petite ville de Labastide
Rouairrouze, non loin des sources du Thor6: eUe conserve encore une grande et
anciermd pone.
Ici, quittant le Thor6, on monte une longue colline, et l'on arrive h la cime de la
chaine, d'otl les eaux coulent de l'un c6t6 pour se jeter dans l'Atlantique, et de
l'autre, dans la Mediterran6e. Les rivi6res qui ont leur source dans cette partie-ci
des Cevennes n'ont, il 6st vrai, rien de comparable _ celles de la partie haute, telle
que la Dordogne, le Tam, l'Aveiron, etc. Cependant elles ne sont point indignes
de la notice du g6ographe. De celles qui prennent leur source sur le versant
septentrional, les principales sont le Thor6, le Lain, qui se j6te dans le Thor6, et
l'Agout: le Jean, sur celui du midi.--Apr_s une descente longue et douce entre
deux beaux rangs de ch_taigniers, on monte une colline tr_s roide, et puis on
descend _ Saint-Pons de Thomi_re, ville au fond d'une gorge, (chef lieu de
sous-prgfecture du d6partement de l'H6rault,) sur la rivi_re de Jean pros de sa
source. La ville paraissait assez bien bfitie; mais il fesait trop obscur quand nous y
sommes arriv6s pour queje puisse la d6cdre. H6tel, la Croix Blanche, mais il n'6st
pas 6gal _t celui de Castres.
[N] Enpartantde Castreson longela promenade,et l'on entredartsunepetitevall6e. Sur
les c6teaux,qui commencentici/_ s'61ever,on cultiveprincipalementles vignes, dont les
feuillescommencent/_porterun habitd'autonme:maisdartsla vall6eil n'y a gu6reque du
hi6,et deuxou troisprairies,arros6esparla Resse, petite rivi6requi sej_te dartsl'Agout
pr6s de Castres. Les fleurs 61egantesdu Colchian autumnale(safran des prairies) se
montrenten abondanceparmile gazon. Un peu plus loin, la gauchedu chemin6st bom6e
pendantune demi-lieue parde beaux arbres,surtoutdes peupliers:un bois ou la lavande
croRen grandequantit6couvrele c6teau de droite,et le reste de la sc6ne6st remplipardes
prairiesverdantes.Celles-ci ne servontpourtantqu'_trendreplus frappantela laideurde la
collinepierreusequ'on commencebient6t/tmonter;par un cheminqu'onpeut6.crireen peu
de mots;c'6st un sol de caillouxdonton ne se sertpourcheminqueparcequ'il 6stimpossible
d'en fake autre chose: on ne voit gu_re aucun signe de la main de l'homme; en effet, la
natureparaRavoir tout fait. Ce sol produit a peine, darts quelques endroitsplus favoris6s,
une panvre r6coltede b16.Les montagnesqu'on voit tout autourpoRent un aspect aussi
triste.Maison n'6stgu6rearriv6/_la cime de cette montagne,qu'onne volt audessous de
sol la vall6edante du Thor6,qui r6unit( c'6st toutdire) la beaut6du vallonqu'on vient de
parcourir,auspectacle magnifiquedes montagnesquil'entonrent. Nons descend/n_s, par
an cheminquelquefois coup6 darts le rocher, darts cette premi6revall6e des Cevennes: et
October 1820 French Journal and Notebook 119
t3[The text breaks off here. An earlier version of the Notebook entry reads:] l0 Octobre.
Nous quitt_nes Castres du long de la promenade, et suivimes une fort bonne route, en
traversant un plateau entre deux rang6es de collines. Une petite rivi_re arrose ce vallon en
coulant pour se jeter dans l'Agout. Les prairies doivent _ ses eaux bienfaisantes cette
verdure charmante qui donne un tel soulagement _ l'ceil, las de regarder les champs
couverts de chaurae et la terre nouvellement remude par la charrue. Les fleurs 61egantes du
Colchicon autumnale se montrent en grande quantit6 parmi le gazon. La route 6st bord6e
pendant une demi lieue par de beaux arbres, principalement des chEnes et des peupliers: un
petit bois oil la lavande cro_ en abondance se trouve sur une colline immediatement au
dessns de la route. Apff:s avoir travers_ ce plateau, nous descendimes un peu. puis
mont_aes une colline qui pr6sente le contraste le plus frappant avec le vallon qu'on vient de
parcourir. La verdure de celui-ci, si agr_able aux yeux, r6st encore plus _ l'ami des humains
par l'id6e de l'utilit6 de ses productions: clans celle-l_, on ne voit que des cailloux produisant
120 Journals and Speeches No. I
11 Oetobre
[J] En quittant St. Pons on traverse le Jean et on longe une petite rivi_re qui s'y
joint _ peu de distance. Ce chemin 6st fort pittoresque. Its montagnes qui bornent
ce vallon s'61event _tune hauteur bien plus considerable que celle des montagnes
du versant septentrionah La route 6tait quelquefois imm_xtiatement au dessus de la
rivi_re. De terns en terns quelqu'immense rocher perpendiculaire semblait fermer
la gorge: il paraissait impossible d'aller plus loin: mais en nous approchant, nous
vimes s'ouvrir, h droite ou _ gauche, un nouveau vallon, renfermant de nouveaux
beant_s. Si par hasard, isol6 au milieu des rochers fertiles seulement en buis, s'y
trouvait le moindre petit morceau de terrain, la main du laboureur ne le negligeait
point. M_me l'ancierme route, large comme un sentier ordinaire, avait 6t_
cultiv6e. Quelques plantes, cueillies dans les rochers, nous f'trent voir quelle
av[ec] difficult6, darts deux ou trois endroits plus favoris_s que le reste, une pauv[re]
r(eolte de bl& Enfm on croirait quitter pour un desert aride le demeure favoris6 d'une
bienfaisante divinitY. On n'6st gu_re amv6 it la cime de cette montagne qu'on ne trouve it
quel d6gr_ on s'6st tromlxL Les sombres pens(es qu'inspirent la rue de la montagne se
dissipent comme une nuage par la vue de la vall(e du Thor_ dont on jouit au dessous de
[soi. ] Nous descendimes par une route coup(e quelquefois darts le rocher, et parvinmes
dans la vail(e. Au lieu de d6crire particuli_rement cette vail(e, je me bomerai it dire qu'eUe
r_unit tous les agr6mens du vailon que nous venions de parcourir, avec le beau spectacle des
montagnes de tous les c6t6s, et la [beaut6] des ch_taigniers, qui s'y trouvaient en
abondance. Nous traversfimes en bacq la rivi_re de Thor_. Nous traversions maintenant la
chalne des Cevennes, non certainement dans la plus haute partie mais assez haute pour
donner [MS torn] l'effet [MS torn] l_culier it ceux des pays montagneux. Elles n'6taient
que tr_s basses jusqu'au village de Labastide Saint-Amand, ofi elles commencaient un peu it
s'61ever. Nous nous arr_tfimes pour dejefiner it l'auberge de la Croix Blanche, o0 l'on nous
donna uu dejeSner itla fourchette pour 4 personnes avec du pain, du lait et du fruit pour sept;
les cinq chevaux et les deux domestiques y mang_rent aussi; nous pay_mes 19 francs. Les
environs de ce village sont fort jolis. Saint-Amand de [word missing] 6st situ_ de l'autre
c6t6 de la rivi_:re. Le village de Labastide a un Octroi, et 4 ou 5 h6tels; celui-ci 6st, je crois,
regard_ comme le meilleur.--I! ne fant pas omettre la notice d'un pont sur lequel nous
travers_anes la rivi6re it peu de distance de Saint-Amand. Ce pont 6tait tout couvert de lierre,
et, resemble parfaitement h Ivybridge en Devonshire, except6 dans la grandeur des rochers
qai l'entouraient. A peu de distance au delit de Saint-Amand, nous commenqames _ monter
ane montagne par un chemin tr6s serpentin: puis descendimes par une pente, un peu rapide.
Le vailon du Thor6 n'6st ici qu'un ravin entre deux hantes montagnes. Nous parvinmes _ un
pas tr6s 6troit entre la rivi6re et les rocbers. Le chernin, fort bon jusqu'ici, 6st d6testable
dans ce seul endroit. Nous times ensuite deux ou trois petites mont(es et descentes, et
arrives au village de Labastide Rouairrouze qui 6st assez grand; puis nous mont/tmes un
autre c6¢e, et arriv_aes _ la cime de la chaine, o0 les eaux coulent de Fun c6t6 clans
l'Aflantique et de l'antre clans la Mediterran(e. Nous times ensaite une descente tr6s
longue, et apr6s avoir travers6 une antre colline, descendimes jusquqt Saint-Pons, chef lieu
d'arrondissement; viUe consid6rable au fond d'tme gorge, et apparemment jolie: mais il
fesait nuit quand nous y sommes arriv6s. L'auberge 6tait bonne, mais elle n'6tait pas 6gale it
celle de Castres: prix 4 francs par t_te _ la Croix Blanche. En tout [text breaks off here].
October 1820 French Journal and Notebook 121
r6colte nous aurions pu fake si nous avions pass61'6t6 dans ces montagnes. Quand
on quitte le vallon, ce n'6st que pour traverser plusieurs hautes collines, et pour
descendre ensuite dans une large vall6e, entre deux rang6es de montagnes moins
hautes de beaucoup que les pr6c6dentes. On en traversa bient6t l'une, en passant
par le milieu d'une nuage: on descend entre deux rangs de ch_taigniers, jusques au
village de Pardailhan. PrOs d'ici se trouve un grand chateau et jardin. On monte,
peu apr_s, une autre montagne: du sommet on jouit d'une belle vue sur la plaine de
B6ziers: la met borne l'horizon, et l'on distingue tr_s facilement deux collines
rondes, toutes deux sur la c6te; l'une _tCette, et l'autre _tAgde. Cette montagne _st
appel6e la Montagne des S, parcequ'en descendant, la route serpente dans la forme
de cette lettre. On descend dans une large vall_e, au pied du versant m6ridional de
ces montagnes. Ici ron revoit les vignes, qu'on n'a pas rues depuis Castres: les
oliviers qu'on y voit pour la premiere fois font bien voir le changement de climat:
une belle esp_e de Daphne, croit en abondance depuis le sommet de la derni_re
montagne, quoique nous ne l'ayons point vu de l'autre c6t6. On suit la vall6e et
ron arrive _t Saint-Chinian, petite ville assez sale et mal bfitie: h6tel, le chat
vert:--Apr_s Saint-Chinian on monte le c6teau de droite; vers le sommet, le
chemin 6st coup6 dans le rocher solide h une profondeur consid6rable. On descend
ensuite dans la plaine, et on la traverse pendant cinq ou six lieues: On commence
voir beaucoup d'oliviers, et des amandiers en hale. Cette route s'unit enfin _ celle
de Toulouse _ Montpellier par Carcassonne et Narbonne. On traverse l'Orb par un
pont tr_s long et tr_s 6troit, et l'on arrive h B6ziers.
[N] En quittant Saint Pons on traverse le Jean et on longe unepetite rivi_re qui s'y j_te. Ce
chemin 6st fort pittoresque. Les montagnes qui boment la vall6e sont plus hautes de
beaucoup clue celles du versant septentrional. La route 6tait quelquefois imm6diatement au
dessus de la dvi_re. De terns en terns quelqu'immense rocher perpendiculaire semblait
fermer lagorge, en sorte qu'il ffitimpossible d'aller plus loin: mais en nous approchant nous
vimes s'ouvrir, _ droite ou _ gauche, un nouveau vallon, renfermant de nouveaux beaut_s.
On quitte enfin ce vallon, pour traverser plusieurs hautes collines: enfin on descend dans
une large vall_¢: les montagnes qui ia bornent sont plus basses que celles qu'on vient de
voir. Peu apr_s la route se tourne _ droite, et monte le c6teau: puis on descend entre deux
tangs de chfitaiguiersjusqu'au village de Pardailhan. PrOsd'ici se trouve un grand ch_tteauet
jardin. Peu apr_s on monte une autre colline: du sommet on jouit d'une belle vue sur la
plaine de Beziers, la met borne l'horizon: on distingue facilement deux collines rondes,
l'une _ Cetteet r autre_ Agde, routes deux sur la c6te. Cette montagne _st appell6e la M. des
S, parcequ'en descendant la route serpente dans la forme de cette lettre. On descend dans
une vall6e tr_s large, au pied du versant n_ridional de la chaine. Ici l'on revolt les vignes,
que nous n'avions pas rues depuis Castres: les oliviers qu'on y voit pour la premiere fois
clanscette vallde, firent voir un changement de climat: une belle esp_e de Daphne _tait en
abondance depuis le sornmet de la derni/._remontagne, que nous n'avions pas rue sur l'autre
versant. On suit la valise, et ron arrive _ Saint Chinian, petite ville assez sale et real b_tie:
nous d_jelkt&-nes au Chat Vert. Apr_s Saint Chinian on monte le c6teau de droite: au
sommet, le chemin _st coup_ h une grande profondeur clans le rocher. On descend ensuite
dartsla plaine; et la traverse pendant cinq ou six lieues: les oliviers y sont tr_s norabreux,
ainsi que les amandiers en haie. Enfin cette route se joint _tcelle de Toulouse _ Montpellier
122 Journals and Speeches No. 1
par Carcassonne et Narbonne. On traverse l'Orb par un pont tres long et tres 6troit, et l'on
arrive i Beziers.14
12 Octobre
[J] Beziers, chef lieu de sous-pr6fecture du d6partement de l'H6rault, 6st biti
sur une colline escarp6e pr6s de la rive gauche de l'Orb: dans les environs on
r6marque les neuf 6cluses sur le Canal du Midi. Le seul bon h6tel 6st celui du Nord,
14[Anearlier Notebook entry for this date reads: ] 11 Oct. Nous quittLmes Saint-Ports de
bon matin et suivimes le vallon d'une petite rivi6re qui joint ses eaux pr6s de Saint Pons,/_
eeUes de la dvi6re qui y coule appell6 Jean. Les montagnes qui bomaient cette vall6e
6[levaie]nt leurs t6tes majestueuses _t une hauteur bien au dessus des montagnes {du
v]ersant septentrional de la chaine. La rivi6re coulait au fond de la vall6e. La route _tait pour
quelque distance imm6diatement au dessus de la rivi6re, et extr6mement pittoresque. De
tems en tems nous apper_umes quelqu'immense rocher perpendiculaire qui s'61evait au
fond de la gorge et semblait bomer le champ de l'6minence hautaine sans flier plus loin:
mais en nous en approchant nous rimes s'ouvrir/t droite ou/t gauche, un nouveau vallon qui
renfermait de nouveaux beaut6s. Partout ofase trouvait le plus petit morceau de terrain isol6
au milieu des vastes rochers, fertiles seulement en buis, la main industrieuse du laboureur y
avait touch6. Quelques plantes, cueillies dans les rochers, nous flrent voir quelle r6colte
nous aurions pu faire si nous avions pass6 1'6t6 _ herboriser dans ces montagnes. I1 6st
regretter que cette chalne, si fertile en plantes rares, m6me dans les Pyr6n6es, n'ait 6t6
l'objet des recherches d'nn Toumefort, d'un Ramond, d'un Picot de Lapeyrouse. [Joseph
Pitton de Toumefort (1656-1708), like Picot de Lapeyrouse a celebrated botanist, and
Louis Frangois Elisabeth de Carbonni/:re, baron Ramond (1753-1827), geologist. ]
Apr6s avoir travers6 une longue colline, nous nous trouv_nes sortis des plus hautes
montagnes; nous longekmes pendant une demi heure une vall6e dante, puis travers_nes une
montagne 61ev6e. An has de cette montagne pros du village de Bardailhan, se trouve un
ctuiteau, ayant tm grand et beau jardin, et une petite maison au fond du jardin, dont je ne
pouvais pas comprendre l'usage. Elle semblait plut6t un pigonnier qu'une maison. Nous
travemtmes ensuite une haute montagne, appell6e la montagne des S, parceque la route
serpente dam la forme de cette lettre en descendant. Du sommet nous apper_f_mes la mer,
les collines de Cette et d'Agde, etc. Nous nous trouv_'nes ensuite au pied du versant
m_ridional de ces montagnes. Les productions v6getales 6taient parfaitement chang6es.
Nous vlmes des oliviers et enfin des amandiers la Daphne cnidia, &c. Nous arriv_nes _t
d_jeilner a Saint Chinian. 25 francs 5 cent.
[The following notes appear here:]
Plaine
Bezi6rs pont, colline, H du Nord, canal 6cluses, etc. promenade
Chemin d'Agde, d6truit par l'H6rault route provisoire bonne long du canal
_t d Villeneuve emb de l'orbe Vias Agde dirty place inhabitants
bridge of boats inn indifferent vintage not over hill volcanic products
chateau fort de Brescou seashore shells seaweeds oysters fishing-
boats road to Pezenas cut up by the Her. vue de Pezenas long de la riv pretty
great road inn La Paix Aloux [actually Alaux, the name of the inn-keepers]
market place M R6bouls le Parc, figs grapes, wood rivulet wall
ponds dry olives climate of Pezenas winepress ac. copper road to
Meze pretty, causeway cross the H_rault Montagnac very ugly rocks
Meze 6tang vue de Cette
October 1820 French Journal and Notebook 123
chez Alaux. Nous partimes tolls de bon matin (except6e Mme de Chesnel) pour
faire tree excursion _tAgde. La route longe le canal: on laisse h droite Villeneuve,
sur la rive oppos6e du canal, et la petite ville de Vias. Comme on s'approche
d'Agde, on voit beaucoup de chevaux, presque tous blancs. La route 6st un peu
coup6e par les d6bordemens de l'H6rault, mais il y a une bonne route provisoire. I1
y a un pont sur le canal, et peu apr_s un pont de bateaux sur l'H6rault: on y paie 20
sous pour traverser. Agde 6st situ_ sur cette rivi_re, non loin de ses deux
embouchures, l'une dans la mer, et l'autre dans un de ces nombreux 6tangs qui
s'6tendent sur la plus grande pattie de la c6te de Narbonne jusqu'au del_ de
Montpellier. Le canal se d6bouche ici darts l'H6rault: et c'6st l'endroit qu'on a
choisi pour le payement des droits. Delh les b[tteaux descendent l'H6rault jusqu'h
sa d6bouchure dans l'6tang, qu'ils traversent ensuite par un canal b_ti au milieu des
6tangs d'Agde _tMontpellier et plus loin encore. La ville d'Agde 6st tr_s sale: il y a
deux auberges, le Petit Versailles 6st le meilleur; on dit que le Cheval Blanc _st fort
sale.--Apr_s d6jeOner nous f_mes aux bords de lamer, en traversant la colline
ronde, qui consiste principalement en produits volcaniques. Du sommet nous
joulmes d'une vue magnifique sur lamer, sur le grand 6tang de Than, et les villes et
villages qui l'entourent: Marseillan, M_ze, jusqu'_ la montagne m_me de Cette.
D'un autre c6t_ nous vimes le Fort de Brescou sur un roc isol6 au milieu de lamer.
Au sommet de cette colline il y a un trou de la forme d'un cercueil, qu'on appelle le
tombeau de Jesus-Christ: on dit qu'il n'y a personne dont la taille peut lui convenir,
qu'on 6st toujours trop grand ou trop petit.--Nous descendSmes ensuite aux bords
de lamer: nous nous y baignames, (M. George et moi) et nous y trouvarnes
quelques plantes maritimes. Nous rimes des bateaux p_cheurs qui voulaient entrer
dans le port, mais qui ne le pouvaient pas, _ cause du vent, qui leur 6tait contraire;
il y avait aussi beaucoup de vaisseaux, mais _ une grande distance.--Nous
couch_nes _ Agde.
13 (ktobre
[J] La route d'Agde _ Pezenas 6st encore plus COUl_par l'H6rault que celle de
B6ziers _ Agde, et comme il n'y a point de route provisoire, elle 6st tr_s mauvaise
clans quelques endroits. On traverse d'abord le canal et l'on passe par la plaine de
l'H*rault: ensuite on monte une colline: la vue du sommet 6st tl_s belle. On
descend, on traverse le village de Nezignan, et _ 5 lieues d'Agde, cette route se
joint _ celle de B6ziers _ Pezenas. On arrive bient6t apr_s _tcette derni6re ville, qui
6st tr_s jolie quoique petite; le march6 surtout a plus de propret6 qu'_ l'ordinaire.
H6tel la Paix chez Alaux. Les fr_res sont tous maitres des premiers h6tels _t
B6ziers, _ Castles, et _tNarbonne, ACarcassorme, et _ Limerix. 15
IN] La routed'Agde _ Pezenas 6st aussi COUl_par l'H6rault. On traverse la plalne de
l'H6rault, puis l'on monte une colline, d'oi_la vue 6st bien belle. On descend ensure, on
traversele village de Nez_gnan,et ti5 heues d Agde, cette route sejoint au grand chemm de
Beziers _ Pezenas, olt l'on arrivebient6t. C'6st une jolie petite ville: le march6 surtout 6st
plus propreet plus agr_able qu'_ l'ordinaire. Mme de C. n'arrivade B6ziers qu'_ l'apr_s
midi. Nous rimes apr_s d6jefinerle savant M. Rebouls; ensure nous fiXmesau Parc, la
campagneprosde Pezenas qu'on avait propos_ de vendre AM. Bentham. C'6st une assez
grandecampagne;le cluiteau6st situ6clansun vallon, mais la campagne s'6tend aussi sur les
c6teaux.La terre6st entour_ du moins en partie,d'un mur. kes c6teaux sont couverts de
bois,dont on coupe la neuvi6mepattie chaque annie. IIy a un ruisseau dartsle vaUon,mais
la quantit_d'eau n'6st pas grandedarts cette saison-ci: il se perd dartsles sables, et reparait
peu apr_ (si ce n'6st pas une nouvelle source). I1y a aussi des 6tangs clansla partiehaute de
hicampagne;ils servent _retenirl'eau de la pluie, mais ils 6taientsecs quand nous y ffimes.
On an_ne des bestiaux clanscette partie-l_tpour les tuer, et nous y rimes par consequent
beaucoupd'os. I1y a un grandnombred'oliviers: lag61_ede l'hiver dernier,qui a tam fairde
realaux oliviers du midi de la France, en a fait beaucoup moins ici qu'ailleurs. En effet, on
m'a dit que le climat de Pezenas 6st des plus favoris_s en France: assez loin de lamer pour
n'_trepas affect_par les effets d6sagr_ablesdu vent marin, assez loin des montagnes pour
echapperau froid. N'ayant encore vu d'autres campagnes dans ces environs, je n'ai pas pu
sentiravecautantde force la beaut_du Parc: La vue cependantdont on jouit d'un endroitde
hi partie haute m'a paru tr_s belle.
*'14"*
14 O_tobre
IN] La vindange, quoiqu'achev_e depuis longtems dans les environs de
Toulouse, ne l'6tait pas ici. On exprimait avee beaneoup d'assiduit_ le jus des
raisins par un grand pressoir au milieu de la me, quand nous sommes parti. On se
sert des restes du fruit pour faire l'acetat de euivre: on bat le m6tal en de lammes de
peu d'_paisseur, et on les alteme ave¢ les restes.--Nous d_je_n_nes _ Pezenas et
partimes ensuite. Peu au del_ de Pezenas on s'approclae de l'H_ranlt: la route 6st
faite comme une chauss6e 61ev6e sur des arcs pour libre passage quand la riv se
d6borde, afro d'emp6cher la destruction de la route. On traverse ensuite l'H6rault,
on monte une petite colline, et l'on passe parle village de Montagnac. Plus loin on
se trouve au milieu des rochers arides et st6riles qui caract6risent les environs de
Montpellier. La route ne pr6sente plus de beaut6. En la poursuivant on arrive enfin
M_ze, petite ville sur les bords de l'6tang de Thau, _ peu pros vis-a-vis la
montagne de Cette. On avait eu le dessein d'aller voir deux campagnes entre
Pezenas et M6ze, mais le mauvais terns l'emp6chL Nous resumes _ Meze route la
soir6e.--Je fus voir une grande distillerie qui a 6t6 6tabli/l cette ville. En voici la
d6scription, suivant les explications que Mme B. a eu la bont6 de me donner.
D'abord le propri6taire s'6st servi d'une invention (que je crois de M. Chaptal)1
c'6st celle d'6conomiser la chaleur par employant la liquide _ distiller comme un
condenseur, en sorte que une partie de la chaleur qui serait autrement perdu en
6chauffant l'eau dont on se sert pour condenser la vapeur, 6st employ6e pour faire
entrer la liquide dans le chaudron _ une temperature d6j_ haute. Voil_ une
construction ameliorfe de l'appareil de distillation qui cependant n'6st pas
particuli_re _ celui-ci. Mais l'invention du propri6taire de cette fabrique 6st celle
de faire venir la liquide d'un r6servoir 61ev6 et de quelques pieds au dessus du
niveau de celui de la liquide condensante, afin par la pression 2
15 Octobre
[N] Nous d6je0n_nes/i M6ze. De IA_ Montpellier il y a beaucoup de garrigue.
On cultive les vignes et le b16, mais il n'y a pas du mais, il n'a pas 6t_ introduit
dans la culture de cette partie de la France, on ne veut pas en produire, car on dit
qu'il 6st tout de suite vo16. II y a un assez grand nombre de villages sur cette route.
D'un endroit on jouit d'une belle vue sur la mer.--Pr_s de Montpellier la route se
joint _ celle de Cette. Nous arrivfimesenfin _ la viUe. Nous couchfimes/_ l'h6tei du
Petit Paris.
16 Octobre
[N] Je m'occupai pendant toute la joum6e _ 6crire mon journal, _ arranger mes
plantes, et/_ lire l'oraison Milonienne de Ciceron.
17 Octobre
[N] Nous change_mes notre logement: du Petit Paris, dans une des petites rues
de la ville, au Palais Royal, h6tel garni avec 61egance et avec propret6, dans une
des rues principales, qui s6pare la ville m6me des Faubourgs: on l'appelle le
Boulevard, quoiqu'elle ne diff_re des autres rues qu'en ce qu'elle n'6st pas pav6e
au centre. La situation de cet h6tel 6st bien air6e et agr6able, et la vue dont on jouit
au dessus du toit 6st assez jolie. Je m'occupai pendant la joum6e h arranger mes
18 Octobre
[N] Je m'occupai _ 6crire une lettre _tmon p_re, queje lui envoyai de suite, et
lire les Memoires de Hunt.3
19 Octobre
[N] Je _ommen_ai _ 6cdre une autre lettre _ mon p_re, et _ M. Mills _ Dresde. 4
Je n'achevai cette demi_re que quelques jours apr_s; et l'envoyai _ l'adresse que
mon l_re m'avait donn6. Le soir je fus au Peyrou, promenade ainsi appel6e, au
bout de la rue oO se trouve l'h6tel du Palais Royal. La promenade 6st tout pros du
grand etbel aqueduc qui fournit l'eau _t la ville: un grand bassin en pierre reqoit
l'eau de l'Aqueduc: et une belle colonnade s'61eve au dessus de ce bassin. De la
promenade les environs de Montpellier couverts de chateaux se pr6sentent h la vue:
on voit la chaine des Cevennes dans le lointain, et plus pros le Pic St. Loup,
montagne presqu'isol6e, entre Montpellier et cette chaine. Quand le ciel 6st clair
on voit aussi de l'un c6t_ une partie de la chaine des Pyren6es Orientales, et, de
l'autre, la premiere montagne des Alpes.
20 Octobre
[N] J'arrangeai mes plantes, je fis une catalogue de celles qui croissent dans les
Pyren6es: C'6tait pris de l'ouvrage de Lapeyrouse sur les plantes de ces
montagnes.
21 Octobre
[N] Je lus une partie de l'oraison de Ciceron, je mis s_cher les plantes marines
que j'avais trouv6es _ Agde; le soir je fus avec M. George chez M. B6rard.
22 Octobre
IN] Apr_s d6jefmer je sortis pour faire une excursion botanique. Je fus d'abord
au Pont Juvenal sur la riv. de Lez, qui coule _ peu de distance de Montpellier. Ce
n'6st point une grande rivi_re; mais je crois qu'elle 6st assez profonde. Je suivis
3HenryHunt (1773-1835), the Radical orator, Memoirs of Henry Hunt, Esq.. Written
by Himself, in His Majesty's Jail at llchester, in the Countyof Somerset, later completed in
3 vols. (London:Dolby, 1820-22).
4ProbablyWilliamMills (1793-1834) of MagdalenCollege, Oxford,who badadmired
the youngMill's abilities at the Royal MilitaryCollege, Bagshot, in October1818.
October 1820 French Journal and Notebook 127
autant que possible le long de la rivi_re. I1y a deux 6cluses assez consid6rable oil
les bateaux qui remontent la rivi_re payent les droits. Je parvins enfin aux bords de
l'6tang sal6 de Maguelonne. J'y trouvai quelques plantes. Ici comme _ Agde la
plupart des chevaux sont blancs. On voit une de ces petites chaines lat6rales des
montagnes qui s'embranchent de la chaine principale des Cevennes et qui ne
s'abaissent que pros de lamer. Je retournai ensuite _ l'h6tel.
23 Octobre
[N] Je mis s6cher mes plantes, j'achevai lire l'Oraison de Ciceron, je fis
quelques exercices math6matiques.
24 Oetobre
[N] Je commen_ai h 6crire un court Trait6 de Logique, 5 je fis des exercices
math6matiques, j'arrangeai mes plantes, je lus un article des Annales des Voyages:
le soir je fus au Peyrou.
25 Octobre
[N] Je continuai mes exercices dans la logique et dans les Math6matiques, je lus
encore des Annales des Voyages; le soir je fus au Peyrou.
26 Octobre
[N] Le matin je fus chez M. B6rard: M. son ills 6 eut la bont6 de me prater des
Cahiers sur les Sections Coniques et le Calcul Diff6rentiel, que je commen_ai
ensuite _ 6tudier. (Remarquez que nous n'avions pas encore nos effets ni par
cons&luent nos livres. ) Je lus aussi aujourd'hui une partie d'un article dans les
Annales des Voyages.
27 Octobre
[N] Nous f_mes tous avec M. B_rard ills voir une campagne pros de
Montpellier, au village de Lav6rune. Sur la route il n'y avait qu'une m61ange de
garrigue et de cultivation, qui ne pr6sentait rien de remarquable. Les apartemens,
du Chateau, (ceux au moins que nous vimes) 6taient garnis avec beaucoup
d'61egance, les salles 6taient grandes et belles, il yen avait une, pav6e en pierres
plates, grande comme celle de Ford Abbey, peut 6tre plus grande. En r_tournant
nous fflmes chez M. Cambon, 7 propri6taire qui a defrich6 une grande quantit6 de
5Thisis presumablynot No. 2 below, which was basedon the series of lectures on logic
that had not yet begun; see n16 below.
6Jacques Etienne B6rard (1789-1869), the eldest of five sons, an industrial and
ex___ entalchemist. Nothing is known of the Cahiers he gave Mill.
Jean Cambon(b. ca. 1758), brother of Joseph (ca. 1754-1820 ); SamuelBentham had
rented a house in Toulouse belonging to this family in the winter of 1817-18.
128 Journals and Speeches No. 1
garrigue, qui produit maintenant des vignes d'une valeur consid6rable. J'6tudiai
les Cahiers.
28 Octobre
[N] Je fus chez M. B_rard, Mrs. ses fils 8 eurent la bont_ de me faire voir sa
fabrique chimique; je continuai/t 6crire ma lettre, que je vous envoyai peu de tems
apr_s.
29 Octobre
[N] Nous fflmes encore _ Lav6rune avec Messrs B6rard; nous v_mes le Parc: il y
a beaucoup de sources, et un bassin assez consid6rable d'eau: les poissons qui
habitent ce bassin aiment beaucoup le pain, et nous leur en donn_mes _ manger, ce
qui leur fit accourir en foule pour le d6vorer. Dans le Parc il y a: deux ou trois
grandes et belles Magnolia, un tulipier, quelques Cypresses distiques, et une
variet6 d'autres arbres rares. I1y a beaucoup aussi de petites Magnolia produits des
graines de ces arbres. La parterre quoique petite contient un grand nombre de jolies
plantes. J'6tudiai les Cahiers. Nous dinSmes chez M. B6rard.
30 Octobre
[N] J'6tudiai les Cahiers, et lus un morceau des Annales des Voyages.
31 Octobre
[N] Je pris ma premiere leqon d'escrime; j'Studiai les Cahiers, j'arrangeai mes
plantes, et lus un autre morceau des Annales de Voyages: je fus avec M. George au
jardin botanique: il y a un grand nombre de plantes rares et dans les serres au moins
il y a beaucoup d'ordre: il n'en 6st pas de m6me pour les plantes hors de serre.
1 Novembre
[N] J'6tudiai les Cahiers, et commen_ai _ 6crire une autre lettre/l mon p6re. Je
ne pris pas de l%on, parcequ'il 6tait fSte.
2 Novembre
[N] Je pris ma leqon d'escrime, j'6tudiai les Cahiers, je fus avec M. B6rard et
M. George/t la foire du Pont Juvenal, on y d_bitait une grande quantit6 de b6tail,
beaucoup de colifichets pour les enfans, et beaucoup de chfitaignes; il y avait aussi
de la coutellerie, des ferblanteries, des outils d'agriculture, etc. et l'on y dansait
beaucoup: chaque compagnie de danseurs et de danseuses eut un hautboi et un
tambour, ou quelquefois deux. Les bords du Lez 6taient couverts de promeneurs.
SAparlfrom Jacques Etienne, one other son may be plausibly identified as Auguste
(1796-1852), who had just returned from a circumnavigation of the world.
November 1820 French Journal and Notebook 129
3 Novembre
[N] Je pris ma lemon d'escrime, j'6tudiai les Cahiers, je fus encore au Jardin
Botanique.
4 Novembre
[N] Apr_s ma leqon d'escrime je m'occupai de l'6tude des Cahiers et de la
lecture des Annales de Voyages: la pluie fut tr6s violente pendant une partie de la
journ_e.
5 Novembre. Dimanche
IN] Je m'occupai toute la joum6e des Cahiers de math6matiques. Ceux d'entre
eux qui traitent du Calcul Diff6rentiel l'expliquent tr_s clairement par le moyen de
la Th_orie des Fonctions de Lagrange, 9 et je la crois la meilleure exposition de
celles que j'ai encore etudi6es. Il plut tr_s fortement toute la journ6e.
6 Novembre
[N] Escrime, math6matiques.
7 Novembre
[N] Je pris ma leqon d'armes, j'6tudiai, comme toujours, les cahiers, et
continuai ma lettre, apr_s quoi M. B6rard ills eut la bont6 de me conduire chez un
professeur de Math6matiques qu'il avait pri6 h me donner des leqons. Ce
monsieur, nomm6 Lentheric, lo 6st bien connu de M. B6rard, qui dit qu'il 6st tr_s
fort sur les Math6matiques. Nous din_nes chez M. B6rard.
8 Novembre
[N] Je pris ma lemond'armes, je continuai ma lettre, et fus prendre ma premiere
leqon de math6matiques chez M. Lenth6ric: je commenqai d'6tudier avec lui la
G6om6trie Analytique, ou l'application de l'Alg_bre h la G6om6trie. Il me pr_ta
aussi l'ouvrage de Biot sur ce sujet; l_ je commen_ai, le soil _ l'6tudier.
10 Novembre
[N] Je pris mes leqons d'escrime et de math, j'6mdiai Biot et les cahiers.
11 Novembre
[N] Je pris mes lemons, j'6tudiai Blot.
12 Novembre
[N] Je fus avec Mme B. et M. George _ Restincli6re, qui leur appartenait d6j_
depuis quelque terns. On quitte la ville par le Faubourg Boutonn6 et l'on monte peu
peu ensuite _ une hauteur consid6rable, d'oO en descendant on voit devant soi le
Pic St. Loup, le chateau et village de Monferrier sur une colline h moiti6 chemin, et
une vaste 6tendue de garrigue presqu'au pied des Cevennes. On descend dans la
vallee dti Lez: on laisse tt droite un beau chateau appartenantau propri6taire du
chateau de Monfemer, 12et l'on passe entre Monfemer et la rivi6re. Les prairies,
les arbresencore verts, la verdure commen_ante des champs, et le son de la rivi_re
qui tombe en petite cascade _ droite font prendre tttout une autreapparence. On se
toume peu apr_s_ droite, on traverse le Lez, et, toujours en montant, on entre dans
un beau bois de pins. Apr_s ce bois on rentre au milieu des garrigues; on passe par
le village Prades oil il y a deux auberges d'un dehors assez propre. Delh on voit
distinctement le chateau de Restincli_res: on passe entre la terre qui appartient
cette campagne, et une rang6e de hardis rochers, et l'on se d6tourne peu apr_s de la
route, pour approcher an chateau par un chemin d6testable. La route qu'on a suivi
6st celle de Montpellier _tSt. Hypolite; elle 6st bonne jusqu'h Prades. Les voitures
sont oblig6s de s'approcher du chateau du c6t6 du nord. Pour nous, Mme B. et
moi, nous quittfimes la voiture pour nous en approcher du c6t6 du sud. Cette
approche 6st beaucoup plus agr6able que l'autre: on traverse une jolie parterre; on
remonte par un escalier _ la terrasse devant le chateau. Cette terrasse 6st
maintenant couverte d'herbe. Les salles sont grandes et belles, quoiqu'elles aient
besoin d'un pea de reparation.--II y a beancoup plus d'arbres pros de la maison
que je ne m'6tais attendu avoir: surtout il y a des pins magnifiques et une ch6ne
verte d'un age et d'une grandeur extraordinaire. Tout le jardin 6st sur le penchant
d'une colline: le chateau 6st au sommet; le jardin potager 6st arros6 par un ruisseau.
Au fond coule le Lez, ses bords sont couverts de prairies, jusqu'au pied des
cbteaux. Ceux-ci, an contraire, ne sont que des garrigues. Au pied des c6teaux de
l'est, il y a un sentier pour traverser du chateau _ Prades sans faire la tour que fait la
route de St. Hypolite. On n'y passe que lorsqu'on peut passer le Lirou h gu6. M.
Bentham ale dessein de faire une nouvelle route de ce c6t6 1_;pour raccourcir le
therein et pour que les voitures puissent s'approcher du chateau du c6t6 le plus
agr6able. I1 y aura alors un pont sur le Lirou. Au milieu du jardin il y ace qu'on
13 Novembre 13
[N] Je pris ma lemon d'escrime, et fus aussi chez M. Lentheric, mais je ne l'y
trouvai pas: tin _v_nement 6tait arriv_ qui produisait une grande sensation parmi
les professeurs: Mme Blanquet, femme du Recteur de l'Acad6mie,_4 s'6tait noy6e
darts un puits au Jardin des Plantes.--Les cours publiques de la Facult6 des
Sciences 6taient d6j_ affich6es. Malheureusement les principales sont en 6t6,
cependant il yen aura trois cet hiver.
14 Novembre
[N] Je pris mes leqons d'escrime et de math6matiques, j'6tudiai Biot. Nous
quitt_aaes aujourd'hui notre logement h l'h6tel, et ffimes hun apartement qu'on
avait lou6.
15 Novembre
[N] Je pris mes lemons,j e lus un morceau de l'Alg_bre de Lacroix 15et j'aidai M.
George Itarranger tout darts l'apartement.
17 Novembre
[N] Je pris mes lecons. Ce n'Etait qu'aujourdui que nous recfimes nous effets et
je m'occupai pendant tout le tems qui me resta en aidant M. George h dEballer.
18 Novembre
[N] Je pris ma lecon d'escrime, et fus chez M. Lentheric, mais y Etant allE par
hasard plus tard qu'_ l'ordinaire, je le trouvai sorti: J'attendai son retour, et quand
il arriva, il me dit de venir le lendemain (Dimanche) pour prendre ma
le_on.--J'Etudiai Biot, j'aidai M. George _ dEballer.
19 Novembre
IN] Je pris ma lecon de mathEmatiques, M. B6rard ills eut la bontE de me
conduire chez M. Morand, le professeur de littErature francaise. 17J'Etudiai Biot,
je defis ma malle, j'examinai mes plantes.
20 Novembre
IN] Je pris mes lecons d'escrime, de mathEmatiques, et de francais; j'Ecris une
lettre _ mon p_re; je relus et commencai _ comger le dialogue que j'avais Ecrit
Pompignan; je fus au cours de Zoologie de M. Provencal. _s Ce professeur ne parle
pas aussi bien que M. Gergonne: il commence toujours trop haut. II traita
aujourd'hui l'utililk de la Zoologie et les diffErens moyens dont se sert le
Zoologiste. En parlant des usages de la Zoologie il s'adressa plus particuli_rement
aux Etudians en M6decine, parceque la plupart de ces auditeurs Etaient de ce
classe.
21 Novembre
IN] Je pris mes lemons ordinaires, je redigeai mes notes de la lecon de Zoologie,
je fus all COUrSde Chimie de M. Anglada. 19 Ce professeur parle bien, mais avec un
peu d'accent, ce qui n'Est pas Etonnant, attendu qu'il Est de Perpignan. Son cours
de cet ann6e n'Est que la suite de celui de l'ann6e demi_re.--Je fus aussi au cours
de Logique. M. Gergonne traita dans cette seance des sensations et des iddes. Ces
consid_ations, quoiqu'appartenant plut6t _ la MEtaphysique qu'_ la Logique, sont
cependant utiles pour bien comprendre cette demi_re s6ance.
Le tours de Zoologie a lieu les hmdi, mercredi, et vendredi /13½hems; celui de
Chimie les mardi, jeudi, et sarnedi _ 11 h; celui de Logique les mardi et jeudi h 3½h.
Je prends rna leqon d'escrime _ 7 ou h 8 h du matin, celle de franqais h 5½h le soir,
et celle de math6matiques h 11 h ou _t2½selon les jours.
22 Novembre
[N] Je pris mes lemons ordinaires, j'appris par coeur un morceau de l'Art
Po_tique de Boileau: 2° je redigeai mes notes du cours de logique, j'6cris mort
journal, je ills _ la 2me lemonde Zoologie. Le professeur traita les distinctions des
corps organis_s et inorganis6s.
23 Novembre. Jeudi
[N] Cependant je pris une leqon de math6matiques, ayant arrang6 avec M.
Lenth6ric d'en prendre les jeudis plut6t que les Samedis, comme nous n'aurions
pas pu arranger l'heure pour les samedis. Je commenqai une autre lettre _ mon
l_re, je fus _tla 2de lemon de chimie. Le professeur donna un court apperqu de ce
qu'il avait trait6darts son cours de l'ann6e derni_re, savoir de l'affinit6 chimique,
des fluides imponderables, et des corps simples.--Je fus aussi _ la 3me leqon de
Logique: M. Gergonne continua _ traiter des sensations, mais il me semble entrer
trop dans les d6tails qui appartient plut6t h la Physiologie qu'h la M6taphysique.
M. Fabre,21 neveu de M. B6rard, suit ce cours.
Le soir je redigeai mes notes de cette leqon.
24 Novembre
[N] Je pris mes leqons, je redigeai mes notes de la seconde lemonde Zoologie, et
je fus it la 3me leqon sur les distinctions entre les veg6taux et les animaux: Je fis
aussi mes exercices sur les math6matiques.
25 Novembre
IN] Je pris mes lemons d'armes et de Fran_ais, je redigeai mes notes sur la leqon
de Zoologie, j'achevai ma lettre et j'6tudiai les math6matiques: Je fus _ la 3me
lemonde Chimie, sur la classification des corps compos_s, et sur la Nomenclature
chimique.
26 Novembre. Dimanche
[N]J'appris
unpeudeBoileau
parcoeur,
jelusle"Cataplus"
deLucien:
Messrs
B_rarddin_rent
cheznous.
27 Novembre
[N]JeWisrueslemons
ordinai_s,
jecommen_aiavecM. Lentheric
_ 1'_tude
de
laTh_riedeFonctions.
Jegedigeai
ruesnotessurunedeslemons
deChimie,jefus
_icolasBoileau-Desp_aux,
L'artpoc_tique
(1674),
inOeuvres,
Vol.I,pp.263-324.
2tNot
otherwise
identified.
134 Journals and Speeches No. 1
28 Novembre
[N] Je pris mes lemonsordinaires: je fais maintenant avec le maitre de Fran_ais,
un cours de rh6torique, avantde faire la lecture des auteurs Franqais, afin de mieux
sentir leurs beaut6s et leurs d6fauts: j'appris un morceau de Boileau par coeur.
J'envoyai une lettre _ mon p_re, je ills h la 4me lemon de Chimie. Le professeur
traitades divers compos_s chimiques, notamment des sulfures de phosphore et de
carbon. I1ne fait pas beaucoup d'experiences; en effet le seul professeur qui en fait
beaucoup ici ou qui les fait bien 6st M. B6rard ills, et son cours n'aura lieu qu'au
printems prochain. Je fus aussi h la 4me lemonde Logique: M. Gergonne cominua
les d6tails du m_canisme des sensations.
29 Novembre
[N] Je pris mes lemons ordinaires, et redigeai mes notes de la lemonde Logique.
30 Novembre. Jeudi
[ N] Je pris ma leqon de math_matiques; je fus _tla 5me leqon de Chimie: on traita
le gaz hydrog_ne sulfur6 et le gaz ammoniaque. Je fus aussi _ la 5me leqon de
Logique: M. Gergonne, apr_s avoir continu6 ses d6tails sur les sensations,
classifia les ides, d'abord en distinctes et confuses, ensuite en complettes et
incomplettes, enfm en simples et complexes.--Je redigeai mes notes d'une lemon
de Chimie.
1 Decembre
[ N] Je pris rues lexjons,je redigeai mes notes sur la leqon de Logique. En allant
la facult_ des sciences je rencontrai quelqu'un qui me prevint qu'il n'y avait point
de tours, M. Provencal _tant trop malade.
2 Decembre
[N] Je pris mes lemons d'escrime et de Fran_ais, je commenqai d'_crire une
lettre _tmort l_re, je fis des exercices de matl_matiques. Je fus _ la 6me l_on de
chimie; on traita l'hydrog_ne phosphur_ et carbur6.
3 Decembre. Dimanche
[N] Je partis avant le jour avec M. George et les ills de M. B_rard pour aller
Restinclih'e: Nous parcourfimes tree grande partie de cette domaine, eux en
chassant, et moi en cherehant des plantes dont je trouvai quelques-uns, quoique la
saison fflt un peu avarice. Nous fflmes d'abord aux prairies qu'arrose le Lez: nous
remontames cette rivi_re _ une hauteur considerable: puis je montai le cfteau de
December 1820 French Journal and Notebook 135
garrigues _ droite: du sommet il y a une vue tr_s 6tendue sur une espace immense
de garrigues qui ne produisent que la lavande, le romarin, et quelques autres
herbes: le terrain 6st tr_s vari6 par des collines et des vall6es, le paysage serait
charmant si tous ces garrigues _taient cultiv6s: comme le seront bient6t ceux qui
appartiennent _ M. Bentham. Je trouvai quelques plantes en fleur sur les garrigues,
et retoumai au chateau d'oh je me promenai dans te jardin. Peu apr_s, ces
messieurs arriv_rent, et nous mange_laes quelque chose au chateau. Del_ nous
retoum_nes au L_z, que nous travers_nes. De l'autre c6t6 se trouve la ferme
appel6¢ la Grange du Pin. Apr_s avoir remont6 la rivi_re, presqu'_ la source, nous
repass_nes au Pont et del_ au chateau. Avant notre arriv6e a la ville il fesait d6j_
obscur. Apr_s diner je mis dess6cher mes plantes et fus chez M. B_rard.
4 Deeembre
[N] Je pris rues lemons ordinaires, je commen_ai avec M. Lentheric l'6tude du
Calcul Diff_rentiel, j'an'angeai mes plantes, j'achevai et j'envoyai une lettre
moll p_l'e.
5 Decembre
[N] Je pris rues lemons, je fus _ la 7me lemon de chimie; M. Anglada traita les
sulfures m_taUiques. Je fus aussi _ la 6me lemon de Logique: M. Gergonne traita
Fart d'abstraire: ses id6es 6taient assez conformes aux miennes, seulement il
semble _ croire que les id6es peuvent _tre g6n6rales, qu'on peut avoir une id6e de
genre, d'esp_ce, etc.
6 Decembre
IN] Je pris rues lemons d'armes et de math6matiques, je lus Lucien, je fis des
exercices de math6matiques etc. M. Morand 6tant un peu indispos6, remit la leqon
demain.
7 Deeembre
IN] Je pris mes leqons de math6matiques et de Franqais, je fus _ la 8me lemonde
chimie: on traita les azotures, les phosphures, les carbures m6talliques. Je fus aussi
la 7me lemonde Logique: M. Gergonne u'aita les id6es absa'aites: ses notions me
semblent tout _ fait corr_tes sur ce sujet: il a dit qu'une essence universelle 6st une
absurditY, et que le corps n'6st que la cause inconnae des diverses modifications de
notre _u_.
M. BMlard, jeune homme bien connu de M. B6rard, et qui fair toutes les
pr6parations pour les cours publiques, de la Fac. des Sciences, a eu la bont6 de me
donner quelques plantes de ces environs. 22 M. BO_:l m'a beaucoup dit _ ses
louaages; il 6st tr_s instruit, surtout en chimie.
9 Deeembre
IN] Je pris rues leqons d'armes et de Fran_ais, je fus _tla 9me leqon de Chimie.
M. Anglada traita les borures, les hydrures; et les alliages m6talliques. Je corrigeai
et copiai rues notes sur la Ire leqon de Logique.
10 Decembre
[N] Je corrigeai et copiai mes notes sur la 2me lemon de Logique.
11 Decembre
[N] J6 pris mes lemons d'escrime, de math6matiques, et de Fran_ais. Je
m'occupai comme _tl'ordinaire. Je fus au tours de M. Virenque. 23
12 Deeembre
[N] Je fus _ la 10me lemonde chimie. M. Anglada commen_a la partie de son
cours qui a rapport aux acides. Je fus aussi _ la 8me leqon de Logique, sur la
Division. Je pris mes leqons d'armes et de math6matiques.
13 Decembre... 18 Decembre
[N] Dartstout cet intervalle j'6tais indispos6.
19 Decembre
[N] Je fus h la 13me lemon de chimie, sur l'acide sulfurique, h la 10me lemon de
logique, sur la definition. Je pourrai voir des notes sur les lemonsque j'ai perdues.
20 Deeembre
[N] Je fus h l'Ecole de M6decine, mais le professeur 6tait malade. Je pris ma
lemonde Math6matiques. Je lus une tragedie fran_aise.
21 Decembre
IN] Jeudi. Je pris ma leqon de Math6matiques, je fus _ la 14me legon de chimie:
M. Anglada traita fort bien les acides sulfureux, hyposulfureux, et hyposulfurique:
ces demiers nouvellement d6couverts. 24 L'apr_s midi, M. Gergonne continua la
Definition, clans son 1lme leqon: Je suis encore d'accord avec lui sur tout ce qu'il
dit, mais il entre tellement en d6tail que le tems de son cours sera fini avant qu'il
n'arrive aux principes du raisonnement.--J'arrangeai mon herbier, avec les
plantes que j'ai re_u. Je lus l'"Icaromenippus" de Lucien, et une tragedie
fran_aise.
22 Deeembre
[N] Je pris mes lemons ordinaires d'armes et de math6matiques, je lus une Satire
d'Horace, 25 je commen_ai l'6tude de l'Economie Politique de Say, je lus une
trag&lie fran_aise, je fis des exercices de math6matiques, j'6tudiai la musique.
23 Deeembre
[N] Je pris mes lemons d'armes et de fran_ais, je fus h la 15me lemon de chimie,
sur les acides de phosphore. Je lus quelques unes des lettres familidres de
Ciceron, _6je lus un morceau de Say, et une piece de th6atre franqais.
24 Deeembre. Dimanche
[N] Mme B. et M. George qui avaient 6t6 quinze jours _ la campagne, dirigeant
les ouvriers, revinrent aujourd'hui. Je lus des pi_ces de th6_tre, etc. I1y eut comme
l'ordinaire la messe de minuit _ la cath6drale pour la f6te de No_l; et le souper ou
r(veillon apr_s la messe parmi les gens Catholiques.
25 Decembre. La No_l
[N] Je fus chez le Col. Vaysey; 27 Anglais qui a _t_ longtems en Inde, qui a
emprunt6 de M. Bentham l'ouvrage de mon l_re, et qui s'occupe maintenant h la
lecture.--Messrs B6rard din_rent avec nous.--Je lus des pi_ces de th6_tre
fran_ais.
27 Decembre
[N] Je pris rues leqons de math6matiques de franqais et d'escrime. Je continuai
la lecture de Say, en fesant des notes de ce queje trouvai _remarquer. I1me semble
que M. Say confond la valeur avec les richesses.2S Apr_s avoir d6fini les richesses
comme _tant/a somme des valeurs, il donne des exemples de ce que les agens
naturels ajoutent h la richesse, et fait ensuite ses conclusions comme s'ils
ajoutaient _ la valeur. I1 me semble aussi attacher trop d'importance aux agens
naturels. 29 I1 6st vrai comme il le dit que nous ne saurions nous passer des
propri6t6s, par exemple, de la mati_re, qui nous donnent les moyens d'en faire nos
instrumens: 3° mais comme cet aide est gratuit, et n'a nul effet sur les valeurs, ni
m_me sur la quantit6 comparative des produits _ des 6poques divers, pourquoi
parler d'une chose 6trang_re au sujet?--J'achevai le premier livre des lettres
familidres de Ciceron.
28 l)eeembre. Jeudi
IN] Je pris mes leqons d'armes et de math6matiques. Je fus h la 16me leqon de
chimie, sur l'acide carbonique. Je fus aussi h la 12me leqon de M. Gergonne: il
acheva ce qu'il avait _ dire sur la l_finition. Je commenqai le 2me hvre des lettres
de Ciceron.
29 Decembre
[N] Je pris mes leqons ordinaires, je lus un morceau de Say etc. Je ins quelques
lettres de Cic6ron.
30 Deeembre
[N] Je pris mes lemons d'armes et de fran_ais, je fus h la 17me leqon de chimie
sur les acides borique et ars6nique.
31 Decembre. Dimanche
[N] Jecontinuai la lecture de Say; je fus chez M. Ballard, jeune homme _ qui M.
B6rardm'a recommand6, pour voir son herbier: J'en vis une petite pattie.
1 Janvier [1821]
[N] Point de leqons: je continuai la lecture de Say, etc.
2 Janvier
[N] Je conunen_ai l'6tude du Systdme du Monde de Laplace, 31 je pris rues
leqons d'armes et de math_matiques, je ills _tla 18me lec.pn de M. Anglada, sur les
acides ars_nieux, antimonique, et antimonieux. Je ills aussi _ la 13me s_ance de
Logique: M. Gergonne traita les noms et le langage en g6n_ral, tous ses usages,
etc. Ume semble avoir commis une faute d'arrangement etaparlant de la D_finition
des norm avant de parler des norm n_me.
3 Janvier
[N] Je pris rues leqons ordinaires, M. Provenqal professeur de Zoologie qui
avait suspendu son cours _tcause d'une indisposition la reprit aujourd'hui: il traita
l'organisation g6n6rale de l'homme et des animaux, mais d'une mani_re si
embrouill6e et parlant si vite que je ne pus comprendre ce qu'il disait, encore
moins l'_rire. Ce n'6st pas que je ne compris pas les phrases, mais il 6tait
impossible de me rapeler d'une phrase quand il passa h la prochaine.--Je
continuai la lecture du Systdme du Monde.
4 Janvier
[N] Je flus _ la 19me lemon de Chimie, sur les acides chromique, molybdique,
tongstique, sel6nique, et columbique. Je flusaussi h la 14me leqon de Logique, on
traitales langues hi6roglyphique et alphabcSfique,les avantages et les desavantages
de l'une et de l'autre esp_e.
5 Janvier
[N] Je flus/t la 5me l_on de M. Provenqal; il traita plus en particulier le cerveau
des animaux. Je continual la lecture du Systdme du Monde.
6 Janvier
[N] Je flusau cours de M. Provencal. I1traita les diff_rentes fonctions du corps
animal. Je flusetc. aussi au cours de M. Anglada sur l'air atmosph6rique.
7 Janvier
[N] Dimanche. J'6tudiai Laplace et Biot. Je fis rues th_mes etc.
8 Janvier
[N] Je fis rues th_mes, je flus au cours de M. Provencal sur la classification
g_n_rale des Anirnaux.
9 Janvier
[N] Je flus_tla 2 lme leqon de M. Anglada, sur les oxides d'azote et de carbonne,
/t la 15me lemonde Logique sur les langues de la musique, des math6matiques etc.
Je fis rues th_mes etc.
10 Janvier
[N] Je flusau tours tralnant de M. Virenque,/t la 8me lexjonde M. Provencal sur
les caraet_res g6n6raux et la classification des Mammif6res. Je fis mes th_mes, etc.
J'6tudiai Laplace.
11 Janvier
[N] Je flus _ la 22me lemon de M. Anglada sur l'eau: _ la 16me leqon de M.
140 Journals
and Speeches No. !
Gergorme,encoresurlelangage, surlesd_fauts
deslanguesactuelles,
m_me
jusqu'aux
d_tailsde la grammaire,et surla mani_rede faireune langue
philosophique.
Jeprisrueslemonsordinaires.
Jecontinuai
leSystdmedu Monde.
12 Janvier
[N] Je fus au tours de M. Virenque, qui tratne toujours: _ la 9me lemon de M.
Provencal, sur l'histoire namreUe de l'homme. Je pris rues lemonsordinaires. Je
continuai le Syst_me du Monde.
13 Janvier
IN] Je fus Ala 23me lemonde M. Anglada, encore sur l'eau: _ la 10me lemonde
M. Provencal, il continua l'histoire de l'homme. Je pris rueslemons d'armes et de
fran_ais, je continual le Syst_me de Monde, je lus un morceau de Lucien, je fis des
th_mes etc.
14 Janvier. Dimanche 32
[N] Je fis une excursion _ Restincli_re Apied, n'y ayant pas 6t_ depuis quelque
tems. Je partis aussit6t qu'il fit jour; je n'arrivai _ Restincli_re que vers onze
heures: mais c'6tait que j'avais quitt_ souvent la route pour chercher des plantes,
dont je trouvai tm assez grand nombre, nonobstant la saison. I1 y a eu si peu de
g_l_e clanscet hiver que beaucoup de plantes printanni_res avaient _j_ commenc_
s'_panouir: J'en trouvai quelques unes en fleur. Apr_s avoir rest_ quelque tems
Restincli_Xre,je f-usme promener A la source du Lez, _ une petite demi-lieue du
chateau. Cette source, _ ce que l'on dit, 6st clans le genre de Vaucluse. II y a une
esp_w.ed'amphithc_atrede rochers perpendiculaires tr_s hauts, du fond desquels
sort un fleuve _j_t fort consi_rable qui tourne ensuite un moulin, et apr_s avoir
travers_ beaucoup de prairies trouve la route pros de Monferrier: Il passe sous le
Pont Juvenal pros Montpellier, et va se jeter dans l'Etang de Maguelonne _ 5 ou six
lieues de sa source. II _st navigable pour les bfiteaux, jusqu'au Pont Juvenal, et le
serait pour ceux d'une certaine grandeur presque jusqu'_ la source, sans une
quantit6 de moulins qu'il sert _ tourner en divers endroits._Je fus de r6tour
Montpellier pros de six hems, apr_s une promenade de 17 ou 18 milles anglaises.
15 Janvier. Lundi
[N] Je fus au cours de M. Virenque: A la 1line lemon de M. Provenqal sur
l'homme. Je continual l'6tude de Laplace mais je m'occupai la plupart de la
journ_e _ rediger les notes de M. Gergonne. Je pfis rues lemons d'armes et de math.
16 Janvier
IN] J'_zrivis et j'envoyai une lettre _ mon pere. Je redigeai les notes de M.
Gergonne. Je fus h la 24me l_on de chimie sur les oxides m_talliques, et h la 17me
lec_onde M. Gergonne o_ il traitafort bien certaines questions telles que celle des
idles inn_es ou acquises, etc. Je pris mes lemons.
17 Janvier
[N] Je fus au cours de M. Virenque; _ la 13me lemon de M. Provencal sur
l'histoire de l'homme. J'6crivis une autre lettre. Je pris mes leqons.
18 Janvier. Jeudi
IN] J'envoyai ma lettre, je fus _ la 25me lemon de chimie sur les alkales, _ la
18me leqon de M. Gergonne, oh il traitalejugementet la proposition. Je continual
le Syst_me de Monde. Je pris mes leqons d'armes et de math_matiques.
19 Janvier
[N] Je fus au cours de M. Virenque, je fus aussi _ la 14me lemon de M.
Provencal. Je fus voir lepavillon, bfiti en pierre, qui re_oit les eaux pour l'usage de
la ville: I1y atm long double acqueduc entre ce pavilion et la ville: je me promenai
dartsl'arcade: la perspective de cette galerie, du bout le plus proche de la ville,
pr6sente un coup d'oeil magnifique. Je pris rues lemonsd'armes et de franqais.
20 Janvier
[N] Point de cours: anniversaire de la mort de Louis XVI. Je continuai la lecture
de Laplace, je pris mes IKons d'armes et de fran_ais, etc.
21 Janvier. Dimanche
[N] Je ills faire une promenade sur les garrigues autour de la ville avec M.
Ballard, pr6parateur de chimie _t la facult_ des sciences, _ qui M. B6rard m'a
recommande. J'y trouvai qqs plantes, que j'6talai _ mon r6tour: apr_s diner je fus
chez M. Ballard, pour voir une pattie de son herbier.
22 Janvier
[N] Je pris ma lemonde fran_ais je fus au cours de M. Virenque, _ la 15me lemon
de M. Provencal, je fis un th_me.
23 Janvier
[N] Je pris mes lemons, je fus Ala 26me s6ance de chimie sur les terres, _ la 19me
lemonde M. Gergorme sur la proposition: il a trait6 son sujet d'une mani_re tr_s
agr6able, et ses ides sont en g_n_ral assez conformes aux vftres, _ ceci p_s, qu'il
ne me parait pas assez sentir que les id6es ne peuvent pas _tre g_n_rales, ce qui
changerait beaucoup de ses raisonnemens.
24 Jmavim"
[N] Je pris rues lemons, je redigeai la derni_re lemon de M. Gergorme, je fus au
142 Journals and Speeches No. 1
c.oursde M. Virenque, et/t la 16me leqon de M. Provencal. Le soir je fus voir une
autre partie de l'herbier de M. Balard.
25 Janvier. Jeudi
[N] Je pris mes leqons d'armes et de math6matiques, je fush la 27me s6ance de
chimie, sur les sels: _ la 20me leqon de Logique sur la notation qui lui semblait la
plus commode pour exprimer les propositions; sur l'6tendue diverse des termes
dans une proposition de quantit6 et de qualit6 donn6e, et sur l'opposition des
propositions.
26 Janvier
[N] Je pris rues lemons,je fus au cours de M. Virenque et h la 17me lemonde M.
Provdn_al. Je redigeai la demi_re lemon de M. Gergonne. Le soir je fus voir une
autre pattie de l'herbier de M. Balard.
27 Janvier
[N] Je pris mes lemons d'armes et de fran_ais, je fus au 28me leqon de chirnie,
surles sels en g6n&al et sur les nitrates en particulier. Je fus aussi _tla 18me leqon
de M. Provencal. Je commenqai _ faire un autre th_me.
28 Janvier
[N] Je fus avec M. Balard et d'autres messieurs pour faire une excursion/l la
mer. Un d'eux avait amen6 une voiture appel6e berline, mais ne ressemblant gu_re
une berline anglaise; les chevaux 6taient assez indiff6rens, et le chemin horrible
en sorte qu'il nous fallait d6monter h chaque instant pour sortir la voiture de la
boue. Arriv6s aux cabanes sur la rive gauche du Lez, presque vis-a-vis l'endroit oO
j'avais 6t6 tree fois auparavant, nous nous embarqu_rnes en bfiteau pour flier/l
l'embouchure du Lez. L_tnous cherch_nes des plantes marines. Nous avions eu le
projet d'aller _ Maguelonne. Mais nous n'avions pas assez de tems, malgr6 que
nous fflmes partis de Montpollier/t cinq heures et demie du matin. Nous 6tions de
retour vers les 4 h.
29 Janvier
[N] Je fus au cours de M. Virenque, et _tla 19me lemon de M. Provencal: je lus
un morceau du Systdme du Monde; je fus chez M. Lentheric, mais il avait chang6
de logement: je pris ma lecson de fran_ais.
30 Janvier
[N] Je pris rues legions d'armes et de fran_ais, je fus chez M. Lenth6ric, qui me
dit qu'il 6tait tr6s occup6, et ne pouvait pas encore me donner une heure fixe. Je fus
/_la 28me lemonde chimie, sur les nitrites, les sulphates et les sulfites;/t la 21me
lec_n de M. Gergonne sur la conversion de propositions: je r6digeai cette lefon.
J'6talai tree pattie de mes plantes marines.
February 1821 French Journal and Notebook 143
31 Janvier
[N] Je pris mes IRons d'armes et de franqais; je fus au cours de M. Virenque,/t
la 20me lemon de M. Provencal, je fus chez M. Pouzin, professeur de botanique
l'Ecole de Pharmacie, 33 qui eut la bont_ de me faire voir une petite partie de son
herbier: Je redigeai les notes de l'avant demi_re leqon de M. Ang[lada], j'6talai le
reste de mes plantes.
I Fevrier
[N] Je ills _tla 29me lemon de chin'fie, sur les phosphates, les carbonates, et les
borates: _ la 22me leqon de M. Gergonne sur les propositions compliqu6es, je fus
voir une autre petite pattie de l'herbier de M. Pouzin, je redigeai les notes de la
lemonde logique. Je pris mes leqons.
2 Fevrier
[N] Je fus au cours de M. Virenque, _ la 21me lemonde M. Provencal. Je pris
rues lemons.
3 Fevrier
IN] Je fus _tla 30me lemonde chimie sur l'acide hydrochlorique, _tla 22me lemon
de M. Provenqal. Je pris rues lemons. Je redigeai deux lemons de chimie.
4 Fevrier. Dimanche
IN] Je me promenai le matin pour trouver des plantes. Quoiqu'il g_le routes les
nuits, cependant la chaleur dans la journ6e 6st si grande que la v6g6tation des
petites plantes est d6j_ assez avanc6e. Mine Be et M. George revinrent de
Restincli_re.
$ Fevrier
[N] Je fus au tours de M. Virenque, je pris rues leqons, je fus h la 23me leqon de
M. Provencal. Je redigeai.
6 Fevrier
IN] Je ills _ la 31me le_jonde chimie sur l'acide hydrochlorique, M. Gergonne
6tait des jur_s: je pris rues leqons.
33Martin Hugues C6sar Pouzin (1768-1822) had been professor of botany and the
natural history of medicine since the founding of the Ecole in 1803; he had worked
energetically in establishing its botanical garden.
2. Trait6 de Logique
1820-21
CHAPITRE I
CONSID]_RATIONS GI_N_RALES
CELUI QUI VOUDRAIT exercer un art m6canique, sans aaucunement connaitre a Importance dq
la mati6re sur laquelle il devrait agir,--sans avoir 6tudi6 la mani6re de se la LoOque.
servir des machines propres au m6tier,hne pourrait pas, h bon droit,
s'attendre _tun r_sultat favorable. Si donc dans un art m6canique, une pareille
entreprise est ridicule, combien l'6st-elle davantage dans une 6tude plus
importante! et combien 6st imprudent celui qui s'occupe d'une branche
quelconque de la science, sans jamais avoir s6rieusement refl6chi sur les
diff&entes operations par lesquelles l'esprit humain arrive h des cormaissan-
ces certaines!
Je ne bdispute b point qu'on n'ait connu des individus, qui par les efforts du
g_nie extraordinaire dont ils 6taient dou6s, ont fait de tr_s grands progr_s dans
la science, et qui en ont m_me recul_ les homes d'une distance consid6rable:
sans avoir song6 _tun examen s_rieux de la mani_re dont l'esprit s'61_ve _ de
pareiiles hauteurs. Mais il 6st tr_s probable que ces hommes extraordinaires
ont invent_ des m6thodes particuli_res qu'ils ne nous ont point transmises,
que peut_tre ils avaient trouv_es, pour ainsi dire, _t leur insu, et dont ils
n'auraient gu_re su donner une explication satisfesante. On ne doit pas
d'ailleurs _bAtircune r_gle gen6rale sur ces exceptions, ni conclure qu'une
branche des connaissances humaines, si utile pour l'6tude approfondie de
toutes les autres branches, n'est pas elle-meme digne d'etre _tudi_e, parceque
eertains individus ont su s'en passer: tout comme on aurait tort de dire qu'il ne
"-%-'H connaitre aucunement
b"_H hie
c-cell _tablir
146 Journals and Speeches No. 2
d-riCHdu peudejustesse
_-'CH du
ffCH classer
s-_'I-I auxquelles
h-%'I-Iexpo_
'-_-1 en compremiredartsla n_meclasseunnombred'aiileurstr/:slimit_
_-_CH alternatives
_-kCH contraires
1820-21 Traitd de Logique 147
plus commode que celle des autres pierres: par ce moyen lh on a fait
quelqu'instrument nn peu plus maniable, et ainsi de suite, jusqu'_ ce qu'enfin
on soit parvenu _tfaire des outils de la m6me excellence que ceux dont on se
sert anjourd'hui. Cette m_me explication est applicable aux Sciences.
L'Astronomie, l'une de celles dont la th6orie 6st aujourd'hui la plus complette
et la mieux 6tablie, a commenc6 par des hypotheses grossi6res qu'on
perfectionnait ensuite: et c'est del_ qu'on 6st patti, pour arriver h toutes les
d6eouvertes qui enrichissent maintenant la science, et ne laissent plus _tla
post6fit6 que le travail de perfectionner les r_sultats. Pour revenir h l'exemple
de la Grammaire,--un enfant qui sait parler--bien qu'il n'ait jamais appris
les r_gles qui enseignent _tparler correctement,--ne laisse pas que d'avoir
quelque notion gen6rale du r61e que jouent le Nom et le Verbe dans le
discours. La Grammaire fait vaioir cette notion vague pour donner une Nons
connaissance plus exacte. La m6me r_ponse convient _ la Logique. Dans aequierrons en
notre enfance nous acquerrons sur une grande vari6t6 de sujets, des notions notre enfance
beaucoupde
imparfaites, que le Logicien s'occupe de corriger et de perfectionner, notions
Condillac a mis en avant ces notions primitives qu'acquierrent les enfans, imparfaites,
sans que, pour ainsi dire, nous nous y m61ions du tout,--Condillac, dis-je, a que le Logieien
mis en avant ces notions pour accuser nos m6thodes. Puisque, a-t-il dit, la s'occupe de
Nature donne par eile-m6me tant de connaissances, nos m6thodes devraient perfectionnor.
continuer, comme la Nature a commenc6. 2 Quelle 6st cette mani6re
d'enseigner qu'il appelle imiter la Nature, c'6st ce que nous verrons dans la
suite: il suffit maintenant de remarquer que les enfans n'apprennent par
eux-m_mes un si grand hombre de choses que parcequ'ils en sentent vivement
l'int_r_t. Ils voient quelqu'objet qui leur plait; ils d6sirent l'avoir; pour y
parvenir, ils apprennent d'abord h se trainer, puis _ marcher. Ils desirent
poss&ler quelqu'objet qui n'6st pas _ la port6e de leurs mains; ils
s'apeNoivent que les autres, darts une pareille occasion, prononcent certains
sons; ils ta/',,outentces sons; ils essaient de les imiter, et apprennent ainsi _t
parler. Mais aussit6t qu'ils ont appris tout ce qui 6st essentiel aux besoins de la
vie, c'6st _t dire ce que le paysan le plus grossier sait aussi bien que le
philosophe le plus 6claire, ils ne voient plus rien qui leur inspire le m_me
int_t: I_ lols, sans nos m6thodes, ils n'apprendraient plus rien.--Je ne nie
pas qu'il n'y nit des gens qui s'instruisent tout seuls, qui poussent m6me leurs
6tudes jusqu'_ un point tr_s haut de la science: mais ces individus sont
toujours bien peu nombreux: et pourquoi n'attribuerait-on pas cette diff6rence
entre les hommes _tl'in_galit_ naturelle des esprits?*
CHAP1TRE II
uw com, s PEUTAam surun antre corps de deux mani6res. Sije frappe un objet
de ma main, celle-ci agit imm_iatement sur l'objet. Si j'abats un mur d'un
coup de canon, j'agis m6diatement sur le mur: ma main, en allumant la
poudre, produit une emission de gaz; le gaz, en se dilatant, fait aUerle boulet;
celui-ci frappe contre le mur, et le fait tomber. Un corps agit donc
m_Miatement sur un autre corps, s'il ne le modifie que par suite des
modifications, qu'il fait 6prouver imm_liatement _ d'autres corps.
Les sensations Les ph6nom6nes de la sensation offrent un exemple d'action m6diate.
sont communi- L'impression, revue par l'un des cinq organes des sens, est communiqu6e par
qu_ an les neffs, de l'organe affect6 jusqu'au cerveau, qui parait _tre le si6ge de
cervean par ks
nerfs. Le l'fime, c._t.d, le centre du syst_me sensitif. La mani_re dont les impressions se
¢erveau_st le communiquent au cerveau peut _tre compar6e _ la mani_re dont quelques
si_ge de I'_tme. araign6es font leur toile: Toute impression sur une partie quelconque de la
toile se reproduit _ une esl_ce de foyer commun, oO l'araign6e se place et
attend que par la secousse elle s'aper_oive de l'arriv6e d'une mouche.
Perception. L'attention, pour ainsi dire, de l'fime aux sensations 6st appel_e percep-
tion. II6st clair que la sensation peut exister sans la perception: comme dans le
cas de celui qui travaille en hiver sans feu: S'il prend beaucoup d'int6r_t _ son
ouvrage, le froid peut se saisir de ses pieds, sans qu'il s'en aper_oive: et ce
n'6st qu'apr_s qu'il a achev6 son ouvrage qu'il se trouve avoir les pieds gel6s.
On a connu des militaires qui dans la chaleur d'une bataille ont re_u sans le
savoir de tr_s graves blessures. Ces exemples prouvent qu'il y a non
seulement une action de l'organe affect6 sur le cervean, mais anssi une
reactiondu cerveau sur l'organe, qui rend l'impression plus intense: et c'6st ce
qu'on appelle perception. Les modifications m_me de notre langue peuvent
nous faire sentir cette distinction entre la sensation et la perception. Nous
disons, par exemple, voir et regarder: toucher et Mter: entendre et dcouter.
On emend beaucoup de monde qui parle: mais on ne sait pasce qu'ils ont dit,
parcequ'on n'a pas dcout_; la sensation n'est pas aper_ue.
Attention. L'acte par lequel I'Ve s'applique/_ la sensation, et fait r6agir le cerveau stir
l'organe affectS, 6st appel6 attention. L'_me ne donne son attention que
lorsqu'il y a quelque int6r_t.
des La mani6re d'etre d'une sensation dans l'esprit a re_u le nom d'id6e. Une
ida. id6e n'6st done autre chose que l'impression revue par les sens, et
communiqu6e h l'fime; impression qui porte le nom de sensation lorsqu'elle
6st revue par lessens, mais qui deviem id6e lorsqu'elle est transf6r6e _ l'_ne.
Les sensations sont revues et communiqu6es au cerveau par de petits
physiquedes vaisseaux d'une substance mo_lleuse, qui partent du cerveau, et aboutissent
Smmtiom. _ la surface du corps. Ces vaisseaux, appel6s nerfs, sont si nombreux qu'il 6st
1820-21 Trait_ de Logique 151
°-_H plusiettrs
_-_I,I
et
152 Journals
and Speeches No. 2
dansunechambreobscure, iC'6stencorepourcelaquelesgensquim_ditent
beaucoupsemettent quelquefois_ I'obscurit_,
afinde n'_trepasdistraits
par
lavuedesobjets ext6rieurs.
Jeleurconseillerais
ausside semettredansun
endroit
oi_ilsne seraient
distraits
paraucunbruit.
Ce nesontpasdesgensfortCm6ditatives¢quiIouent desapartemensgarnis
danslaRue St.Honor, parexemple,_ Paris, ou danslaGrandeRue de
Montpellier.Ceux pourtant qui parleursituation se trouventexpos6s
entendre
beaucoupdebruit, ceux,parexemple,quitravaillent
clans
unmoulm
s'yaccoutument enfm de mani6re_ n'en_tre
plusincommod6s. 2On raconte
qu'Archim_e,6rant occup_de lasolutiond'unprobl6me, n'entendit
pasle
bruit
de laprisede Syracuse)
La sensation
dureaumoinsquelques instans,
apr_s
quesacausea disparu:
c'6st
ainsi
qu'onexplique un ph6nom6netr_s
connu,savoirqu'unbatondont
lebout6stenflamm_,etqu'onfartourner tr_s
rapidementdarts
l'air,
donne
l'id6e
d'unrubande feu.C'6std_lam_me cause,qu'ondoitattribuer,
dque
lessonsr6pet_s
_tde petits
intervalles,
eseconfondent_eun seul.
CHAPITRE III
Sel_ldion la LASOURCEPaIMITIVEde toutes nos id:.es 6st dans les objets exterieurs. Si je
seuree primi- me prom_ne darts un parterre, j'acquiers l'id6e de la couleur des fleurs, de leur
five de nos parfum,du bruit que fait le feuillage des arbres, s'il yen a, et ainsi de suite. La
M_moire ne donne point d'id6es; mais elle en rappelle: il semble m_me que
De la _ l'_me peut produire/l volont6 stir le cerveau, une impression pareille _ celle
etade ses que produirait l'objet lui-m_me clans lequel l'id6e a _t6 puis6e. Cependant,
ides _.
que ce soit parceque l'action 6st moins efficace, ou parceque nous sommes
disWaits par d'autres objets, l'impression reproduite, quoique de la m6me
nature, 6st toujours moins forte que l'impression primitive. Je puis me figurer
le Soleil: l'image que j'en fais darts mon esprit n'a pas btoute la brillance bdu
iA footnoteindicatorappearshere, but there is no note in the manuscript.
2Thetwo partsof the preceding clause ("ceux... rnoulin"and"s'y... incom-
mod6s")appearin the text in reverse order,but markedfor transposition.
3Plutarch(ca. 50-120 A.D.) tells the storyof Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) in his
Life of Marcellus, in Lives (Greek and English), trans.BernadottePerrin,11 vols.
(London:Heinemann; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1914-26),
Vol. V, p. 487 (fix).
*-_CH por_sk lam6ditafion
par lan_meraison
d-'_CI-I
"-'CH paraissent
se confondreen
Soleil lui-m6me, mais elle ne ressemble pas h la Lune: C'¢st toujours le soleil,
quoiqu'avec moins Cd'6clatC. Quelques individus ont la facult6 de retenir
mieux que les autres, les sensations qu'ils ont Cprouv6es: I1yen a m6me qui se
reproduisent si vivement l'id6e d'un objet, qu'ils pourraient dire avec raison
qu'ils le voient. Delh viennent, je crois, la plupart des avisitations d
sumaturelles: Ceux qui ont perdu un parent ou un ami qu'ils ont beaucoup
aira_, croient parfois que cette personne leur ea paru e et ils l'ont vue en effet:
car l'impression qu'ils reproduisent sur le cerveau est presqu'aussi forte que
celle qui serait produite par l'objet lui-m6me.
L'_me cr6e quelquefois des phant6mes, en rev6tissant un objet imaginaire De l'im_lna-
de certaines propriet6s qu'il connait h des objets r6els: c'¢st ce qui s'appelle ttoa et de ses
imaginer. Mais on ne peutjamais se figurer un objet doue de qualit6s qu'on ne idq_es.
connait pas. Un aveugle ne, par exemple, peut fort bien se figurer un chien,
car il alm en connaitre la forme par le toucher, mais n'ayant aucune id6e des
couleurs, il ne peut pas se figurer un chien vert. Les songes me semblent du
m_me genre clue les phant6mes de l'imagination. I1 est aise de concevoir la
manii_redont on reqoit des sensations dans un songe, malgr_ l'absence des
objets qui produisent ordinairement ces impressions: car la sensation ne
d6pend que de la disposition des organes ext_rieurs, du syst_me nerveux, et
du cerveau. Si darts la nuit je me frappe la t6te d'une certaine mani_re contre
un tour, j'6prouve la sensation d'une vive lumi_re: Or il est certain que tout y
est dans l'obscurit6: il faut donc que le coup ait produit sur la r_tine et sur le
neff optique la m6me impression que produirait sur eux un soudam 6clair: et
l'on sent bien que la m_me sensation doit en resulter. Je pourrais encore citer
la lumihe Galvanique.
Nous n'avons encore trait6 que les id6es qui ont des prototypes, soit dans la Des id6es
nature, soit clans fl'imagination f. L'_rne, en comptant et en comparant ses inldleauelles.
impressions, donne naissance Aune autre esl_e d'id6es, appel6es intellec-
tuelles, et qui ne sont que des id6es de r61ation. Nos prepositions en sont des
exemples: car il n'est aucun objet qui r_ponde aux noms dessus, dessous,
dedans, dehors, droite, gauche: ces mots ne repr_sentent que les r61ations des
objets entr'eux par rapport Aleur situation clans l'espace.--Les id6es morales
sont aussi des idees intellectueUes, car elles ne peuvent passe peindre, _t
moins que ce ne soit en allegorie. Toutes ont leur source darts la sensation.
Quand l'_ne a requ une impression agr6able, elle d_sire la conserver; quand Elles oat ieur
elle a eprouve une sensation I_nible, elle craint de l'eprouver une seconde source dana la
lois. Delh viennent l'affection et la haine: car on aime les sensations qu'on sensation.
d6sire _ouver, ainsi que l'objet qui en est la cause: mais ce qu'on craint est
regarde avec detestation. I1ne serait pas difficile d'expliquer ainsi les id6es les
_-_CI-Ide splendeur
d-_CHpropo_ed:] visions
"-'CH est apparue
HCH la_moire
154 Journals and Speeches No. 2
Et haas vien- plus m6taphysiques, fi 6st clair qu'elles pourraient venir par un sens
nent par tous quelconque,/l celui qui serait priv6 de tousles autres sens: car il n'en 6st aucun
ks sens _
meat. par lequel on ne regoive des impressions agr6ables, et d'autres qui ne le sont
pas. I1y avait en Ecosse un jeune homme, n6 sourd, et par cons6quent muet:
il 6tait aussi h peu pr6s aveugle, car bien qu'il pOt reconnaRre s'il fesait clair
ou obscur, il ne pouvait aucunement distinguer les objets par la vue: l'un de
ses plus grands amusemens 6tait de s'enfermer dans une chambre, et de
regarder la lumi6re par un trou dans le volet. Bien que cet enfant n'eQt que
trois sens, le gofit, l'odorat et le toucher, cela n'emp6cha pas qu'on ne tint
avec lui une sorte de conversation, par des coups plus ou moins forts, qu'on
lui donnait sur diverses parties du corps. Par ce moyen on parvint h lui faire
sentir s'il avait fait tree bonne ou une mauvaise action, et _tlui donner d'autres
idles morales.
Un 6tre n6 sans sensation ne pourrait avoir aucune id6e, m6me de
l'imagination, et serait incapable de penser. Celui qui aurait joui de la
sensation, et qui en aurait 6t6 priv6, ne serait pas dans le m6me cas. Rien
n'emp6cherait qu'il ne rev6tit un objet imaginaire des propri6t6s qu'il avait
autrefois connues, mais qu'il ne serait plus dans le cas d'observer.
Quelksid&_s Puisqu'il 6st maintenant 6tabli que toutes nos id6es viennent de nos sens,
nous viennent
de chacun des c'6st une consid6ration assez int6ressante, quelles id6es nous viennent de tel
cinq sens? sens, et quelles de tel autre?
Condillac, dans sa Thdorie des Sensations, a suppos6, pour r6soudre cette
question, que l'on donne _ une statue inanim6e, une _tme,sans aucnn organe;
qu'on lui donne ensuite, un seul sens, l'odorat, par exemple, et darts cette
hypoth6se, il cherche quelles id6es la statue pourrait avoir. 2 Apr6s lui avoir
donn6 les cinq sens _tleur tour, il lui en donne deux/t la fois, puis trois, et ainsi
de suite. Nous ne pouvons pas entrer dans tousles d6tails o0 nous entrainerait
cette mani6re de traiter le sujet: nous nous contenterons de donner quelqu'id6e
des connaissances d'une personne qui n'aurait qu'un sens quelconque.
ldaes regues Celui qui n'aurait que le sens du toucher pourrait distinguer les objets hors
par le sens du de lui de ceux qui feraient pattie de lui-mSme, parceque en touchant h ceux-ci
toucher, il 6In_uverait tree sensation double, clans la partie touchante et dans la partie
touch6e, au lieu que les objets extemes ne lui feraient 6prouver qu'tme seule
sensation. 3 I1 6st clair qu'il aurar les id6es de dur et de mou, d'uni et de
rabatu, de chaud et de froid. II pourrait 6tudier le Calcul, car en comptant ses
sensations, il acquierrait l'id6e du hombre, et c'6st tout ce qu'il faut pour
_-sCH sesprogr_sseraientlents
h-_'H deviendraient
156 Journals and Speeches No. 2
mais eela ne le serait pas, sans une longue 6rode faite darts notre enfance, et
qui consiste a comparer les renseignemens fournis par la vue avec ceux que
nous donne le toucher. I1y a toute apparence que l'enfant qui vient de naitre,
ne voit qu'une surface, color6e de diverses mani6res: aussi croit-il d'abord
que tousles objets qu'il voit sont tt la m6me distance de lui: mais le toucher
corrige les m6prises oh nous m6nerait la vue, et nous parvenons enfin a juger
de la distance des objets par l'oeil seul. Pour se convaincre de cette v6rit6, il
suftit de penser quels sont les moyens par lesquels nous jugeons de la distance
d'un objet. I1 y a d'abord sa grandeur apparente: mais cette circonstance ne
nous sen etarich, a moins que nous n'ayons reconnu par le toucher quelle 6st la
grandeur r6elle de l'objet. Le d6gr6 de convergence qu'il faut donner aux axes
de_ deux yeux pour les fixer tous deux stir le meme point, 6st un autre moyen
pour juger de la distance de ce point: mais pour cela il a fallu apprendre par le
toucher que plus l'objet _st pros, et plus il faut donner de convergence aux
axes des yeux. Une antre ressource est la vitesse avec laquelle un objet parait
changer de place, lorsque nous changeons de position par rapport _ lui: mais
sans avoir constat_ par le sens du toucher qt_e l'objet reste en sa place, nous
pourrions croire que c'est en effet lui qui change de position. I16st donc clair
que sans le toucher, nous ne pourrions avoir aucune id6e de distance.--Je
erois impossible que le sens de la rue puisse etre communiqu_ _ toute la
surface du corps: car la vision d6pend de la concentration sur un m_me point
de la r_tine, de tousles rayons de lumi_re qui partent d'un point: et si les
rayons convergent de mani_re a se concentrer tam soit peu devant ou derriere
la r_tine, la vision ne saurait etre distincte. Or si tousles points de la main
recevaient les rayons qui partaient de chaque point d'un objet, il n'y aurait
qu'une impression tt peu pros uniforme sur toute la surface de la main, et par
consbluent il n'y aurait point de vision. Je suis loin de nier qu'on ne puisse
coneevoir que les nerfs de la main soient assez d_lies pour distinguer les
couleurs au toucher: Mais rex_nnaitre les couleurs, ce n'6st pas voir. Je dis
qu'on peut concevoir la possibilit_ de distinguer les couleurs au toucher; je ne
dis pas que cela soit jamais arriv& carje crois que tousles exemples qu'on en a
cit_.s n'6taient que des impostures. On a cit_ une certaine Mile Mitory, en
Anglvterre, mais pour distinguer les couleurs, elle _tait oblig_e de passer la
main sur un plateau de verre: or il 6st constant qu'un simple plfiteau de verre,
qui n'6st ni concave ni convexe, ne peut nullernent faciliter la vision: Je crois
done qu'il y a la dedans quelque fourberie. Sur le m_me principe, je crois
impossible que eertains inseetes, qui ont la crystalline noire, et tn3s dure,
puissent jouir de la vision: Car la lumi_re ne peut point pen_trer dans
l'interieur de leurs yeux. On a affLcm_que ces insectes voyaient par la surface
ext&'ieure de l'oeil: Je n'ai pas besoin de r_futer cette hypoth_se, car la vision
(:st_videmment impossible, _tmoins que la lumi_re ne tombe sur la r_tine, on
demande, A quoi done servent les yeux ttces insectes? Je r_pondrai, Pour
l'ornement, comme les man_lons _tl'homme, qui n'ont point d'autre usage.
1820-21 TraiM de Logique 157
CHAPITRE IV
a-'_'l-I de eomprendre
b-_l'l qui divise les iddes simples des ides
160 Journals and Speeches No. 2
on en fait des corps simples en chimie. On n'aurait plus alors qu'_t examiner
leurs diff6rentes combinaisons entr'elles: ce qui raccourcirait de beaucoup
cette 6tude, et nous enseignerait d'ailleurs la composition exacte de bien des
id6es qui se pnSsentent tousles jours h notre esprit, sans que jamais nous
pensions _ten chercher la composition.
Des ldees Les idles se divisent encore en absolues et en relatives. Une id6e r_lative 6st
absalues et celle qui 6st susceptible de plus ou de moins, c.O.d, de modification de degr6.
relatives. Les id6es des diff6rentes couieurs sont absolues: car tous les objets qui sont
blancs, rouges, noirs, etc. le sont autant les uns que les autres. Parmi les id6es
intellectuelles, celle de l'6galit_ 6st absolue, ainsi que celle de la justice, car
tout ce qui n'6st pas tout _ fait juste ne l'6st pas du tout. L'id6e du pouvoir 6st
au contraire r_lative, car on peut _tre plus ou moins puissant. Les id6es de
chaleur, de grandeur, etc. en sont de m_me. Je m'arr_terai ici un moment pour
relever une faute qui 6st tr_s ordinaire, en parlant de Dieu. On dit qu'il 6st
infmiment puissant: ici 1'oll ne fait point de fante, car l'id6e de la puissance,
6tant susceptible de plus et de moins, peut _tre port_e _t l'infini. Mais
lorsqu'on dit que Dieu 6st infiniment juste, on fait une faute, car la justice
n'6st pas susceptible de d6gnS: h moins qu'on ne veuille dire qu'il 6st juste
dans une infiuit_ de circonstances, ou darts tous les cas possibles: dans ce
cas-l_i on ne fait point de faute.
Des _ On a une id6e positive d'tm objet, si on le connait par les propri6t_s qu'il a:
positives et mais quand on sait seulement ce qu'il n'6st pas, on en a une id6e n6gative. Nos
_tives. idles de tousles objets physiques sont positives: mais l'id6e du n6ant 6st
n6gative car qu'6st-ce que le n6ant? Ce qui n'6st pas, ce qui n'a point de
propri6t_s. En math6matiques, l'id_e d'un nombre Cprime c 6st n6gative, car
c'6st un hombre qui n'a point de facteurs.
L'id_ de L'id6e de l'infmi 6st-elle positive ou n6gative? I1 y a deux opinions _ ce
l'inflnie/st sujet: les uns font valoir l'6tymologie du nom, et disent que l'inf'mi 6st ce qui
n_ptive, n'dstpointfini. Les autres r_pondent que le nom ne fait rien _tla chose, que
l'id(:e d'un hombre impair, par exemple, 6st positive, car c'6st un nombre qui
divis_ par 2 laisse 1 de reste: cependant le mot impair 6st n6gatif. Ceux-l_i
disent que pour avoir une id6e de l'infini, il faut d'abord se faire une id6e du
fmi, et puis, faire abstraction des limites: tandis que ceux-ci pr6tendent que
c'_st darts l'inf'mi qu'on puise l'id_e du fini, en posant de certaines bomes, et
en rejetant tout ce qui 6st dehors. Je serais plutbt de l'avis des premiers. Je
trois qu'un enfant peut beaucoup apprendre sans se faire aucune idle de
l'infmi: quant _ moi je sais que je n'avais jamais pens6 _ la chose, tant que le
mot n'avait pas frapl_ mon oreille.
c-cCI'I premier
1820-21 Trait( de Logique 161
CHAPITRE V
par exemple, au lieu d'6tudier tousles ch6nes, 6tudiera sur un seul, les
proIn'i6t6s communes i_tous. Mais l'art d'abstraire, comme routes les autres
facult6s de l'esprit, 6st susceptible d'abus. On s'en sert par paresse, pour
s'6pargner le travail d'6mdier le nombre n6cessaire d'individus: h peine a-t-on
observ6 un petit hombre de cas particuliers, qu'on g6n6ralise ces cas, et qu'on
batisse un syst6me sur un si petit fondement. Del_ tant de sectes philoso-
phiques, tant de syst6mes diff6rens dans presque toutes les sciences.--Les
enfans en has Age sont tr6s port6s _ g6n6raliser: souvent ils g6n6ralisent trop,
et s'apercevant qu'ils se sont tromp6s, ils donnent, peu _ peu, _ leurs
propositions, les modifications n6c6ssaires. Je suppose, par exemple, qu'une
noumce 6rant _ la f6n6tre avec un enfant, voie passer un cheval: elle prononce
lemot cheval. IIen passe un autre, d'une taille et d'une couleur diff6rente,
elle r6p_tele nom, et l'enfant, i_la fin, apprend _ le prononcer. Un _ne passe:
l'enfant s'6crie cheval: c'6st alors qu'on lui fair entendre que ce ne sont pas
tousles animaux _ quatre pieds, _ queue longue, etc. qui soient des chevaux.
Ce que font les enfans dans les choses ordinaires de la vie, nous le fesons
quand nous voulons faire des d6couvertes nouvelles: et c'6st par cette esp6ce
de tAtonnement que s'avancent les sciences.
L'al_traetion L'art d'abstraire 6st-il particulier/l l'homme? Si l'on donne aux animaux la
n'_st point facult6 de penser (ce qu'on ne peut gu6re leur r6fuser,/t moins qu'on ne pense
lmrtiea_re i avec Descartes que ce sont de pures machines,) 1je crois qu'on ne peut gu6re
I'homme. nier qu'ils ne possb.dentla facult6 d'abstraire. Quiconque ajamais observ6 les
animaux avec attention, admettra qu'ils poss6dent cette facult6, quoiqu'_ un
moindre d6gr6 clue les hommes. Jetez pour la premi6re fois un morceau de
merlane _ un chat, il s'y approchera, le regardera pendant quelque tems, le
goQterapour savoir s'il 6st bon, et enfin le mangera: maintenant donnez-lui en
an autre, et il se j6tera dessus avec avidit6. II faut donc qu'il air fait abstraction
des petites diff6rences entre les deux morceaux, et qu'il ait form6 une id6e
abstraite de merlane. Les chats aiment ordinairement mieux le poisson que la
viande: il faut doric qu'ils aient une id6e abstraite de poisson, car si vous leur
jetez un morceau d'un poisson dont ils n'ont jamais gout6, ils le pr6fereront
la viande. Si vous jetez/L un chien, un morceau de viande qui 6st trop chaud, il
attendra pour le manger qu'il soit refroidi. I1 a doric s6par6 clans son esprit
l'id6e de la chaleur de celle de l'objet.--II parfiit que les animaux ont non
seulement des id6es abstraites d'objets sensibles, mais qu'ils ont aussi des
id6es intellectuelles, et m6me morales. Tout le monde connait l'histoire du
lion qui d6fendit son bienfaiteur. 2 Un autre exemple non moins frappant 6st
IDissertatio de methodo (in French, 1637), in Opera philosophica, 4th ed. (Am-
sterdam:Elzevir, 1664), pp. 23 ff. (v).
ZThestoryof the slave Androclesis toldby Aulus Csellins(b. ca. 130A.D. ) in The
Attic Nights (Latin and English),trans. John C. Rolfe, 3 vols. (London:Heinemann;
New York: Putnam's Sons, 1927-28), Vol. I, pp. 420-6 (V, xiv).
1820-21 Trait_ de Logique 163
celui du chat d'une pension, qui 6tait accoutum6 _tvenir diner tousles jours au
son d'une cloche: ce chat devint sourd, et n'entendit plus la cloche: voici alors
la mani_re dont il s'y prit: lorsque sa faim le prevenait de 1'approche de l'heure
du diner, il se mettait darts la cour, et quand il voyait remuer la cloche, il se
rendait sur le champ all r_fectoire.
On peut envisager une notion abstraite de deux mani_res: ou par rapport h Etendue et
son 6tendue, ou bien _ sa comprehension. Elle contient des objets: elle eompra_nsion
comprend les qualit_s, qui 6tant communes _ tous ces objets, sont exprim_es d'une id_
abstraite.
par le terme g6n6ral. Une idle donc 6st plus 6tendue qu'une autre, si elle
contient tousles objets contenus dans celle-ci, et quelque chose de plus: elle a
plus de comprehension, s'il faut qu'un objet ait plus de propri6t6s pour y _tre
contenu. Plus une id6e a d'6tendue, et moins elle a de comprehension. L'id6e
d'arbre, par exemple, 6st plus 6tendue que celle de chine, car non seulement
tousles chines sont arbres, mais aussi les ormes, les peupliers, etc. Mais
l'id6e de ch6ne a plus de comprehension que celle d'arbre, car pour _tre
ch6ne, il ne suffit pas d'etre arbre, il faut encore quelque chose de plus.
Une idle qui contient d'autres idees abstraites 6st dite de genre:--ainsi Des idG_esde
l'id6e d'arbre est de genre, car elle contient les notions abstraites de ch6ne, de genre et
peuplier, de maronnier, etc. Ces demi_res sont des id6es d'esl_e, contenues d'esp_'e.
dans le genre. La plupart des notions abstraites peuvent _tre en m6me tems des
id6es de genre, par rapport _ d'autres id6es d'une moindre 6tendue, et
d'eslz3ce par rapport _ celles d'une 6tendue plus grande. L'id6e d'etre 6st la
seule qui tie puisse jamais devenir esp_e, parcequ'il n'y a point d'id6e plus
6tendue que celle-l_. Les anciens m6taphysiciens l'appelaient genus genera-
lissimum.3 Les esl_es qui n'ont au dessous d'elles que des individus, comme
le cercle, ne peuvent jamais devenir id6es de genre: Ce sont les species
infimae ou specialissimae des Scholastiques. I16st ais_ de voir que le nombre
de celles-ci n'6st pas susceptible de limitation.
Nous venons de voir que les termes g_n_raux expriment un certain nombre Les termes
d'objets. Ils n'expriment aucun de ces objets en particulier, mais bien tous en g_n_raux
g6n6ral. Ils ne sont que l'expression de notre mani_re d'envisager les choses: expriment-ns
ou non des
cependant on les a souvent confondu avec les choses elles-m_mes. Cette choses r_dlles?
question, Les termes g6n6raux expriment-ils ou n'expriment-ils pas des
choses reelles? a _t_ le sujet de beaucoup de disputes, qui ont m_me failli
ensanglanter l'Europe. Les scholastiques 6tait divis6s entre les r_alistes et les
nominaux: Dunscotus, plus connu par le nom de Scot, 6tait le chef des
r_alistes, Aquinas celui des nominaux. 4 Dans ce tems-l_t chaque m6taphysi-
3For these terms, see the discussion under "predicables" in Aristotle, Topica, in
Posterior Analytics, Topica (Greek and English), trans. Hugh Tredennick and
E.S. Forster (London: Heinemann; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1960),pp. 282--4 (102ab).
4JoannesScotus Duns (1265-1308?) and St. Thomas Aquinas (ca. 1225-74).
164 Journals and Speeches No. 2
cien se donnait quelque titre expressif de la force de ses argumens: il y avait des
docteurs invincibles, inexpugnables, etc. Aquinas prit le titre de Docteur
irrefragable,5 Scot celui de subtil. Les nominaux affmnaient que les termes
g6n6rauxn'6taient que des mots, qui ne se rapportaienta aucun objet r6el. Les
r_alistes croyaient au contraire que les noms g6n6raux exprimaient des
essences universelles: que le mot orange exprimait parexemple non pas telle
ou telle orange, mais bien une orange universelle, qui 6tait le module de
routes. Cette dispute durerait peut etre encore si Descartes n'avait fairjustice
routes ces subtilit_s. 6 Ce qui trompa les r_alistes, c'6st que nous donnons un
nora _tchaque chose, d'o_t ils ont tir_ la conclusion clue chaque nora exprime
une chose. I1 6st tr_s 6vident qu'il n'y a point de chose universelle: les noms
seuls peuvent l'&re. Qu'expriment donc les termes g6n6raux? Tout bonne-
ment une groupe d'objets qui se ressemblent tous a certains 6gards.
De la substance Les objets sensibles ne peuvent nous _tre connus que par leurs propri6t_s. I1
et de ses modes, y a pourtant des objets qui peuvent 6tre priv6s de quelques-unes de leurs
propri6t_s,sans cesser d'6tre ce qu'ils sont, en autres roots, sans que nous leur
r_fusions le nom que nous leur accordions auparavant. C'6st pourquoi les
Scholastiques ont imagin6 un soutien ou support, rev6tu de propri6t_s, qu'ils
appelaient substance, en dormantaux propri6t_s le nora de modes. Ils disaient
que si nous pouvions d_pouiller une orange de routes ses propri6t6s, il y aurait
encore une orange. On peut dire que dans le cas m_me o_ il existerait une
substance sans propri6t_s, nous ne pourrions jamais la conna_tre: car nous ne
connaissons les objets que par les impressions qu'ils produisent sur nos sens,
c'6st-_-dire par leurs propri6t_s. Ce sujet, ce soutien, n'6st donc qu'un mot.
Voici peut 6tre ce qui a tromp_ ces logiciens. Nous ne refuserions pas le nora
d'orange _tun corps qui ne diff6rerait de ce fruit qu'en une seule de ses
propri6t_s. Si par exemple je voyais un corps qui ressemblait en tout _ une
orange, except_ qu'elle ffit rouge au lieu de jaune, je dirais, Voil_ une orange
rouge: nous dirions de m6me, une orange sans saveur, sans odeur, et ainsi de
suite: Cela fit croire aux Scholastiques, que si nous s6parions routes les
propri6t_s_tla lois, il y aurait encore quelque chose. II 6st pourtant tr_s clair
qu'une orange d_pouillde de toutes ses propri6t_s n'6st plus une orange,--
n'_st den, en un mot. Une preuve convainqnante de la futilit6 de cette
distinction du sujet et des attributs, c'6st que ce qui 6st attribut peut devenir
sujet, et vice versa; nous disons, par exemple, la neige 6st blanche, la
blancheur 6st 6blouissante.
Des modes Les Scholastiques appelaient modes essentiels d'un sujet, les propri6t_s
ementl_ el dont il ne saurait _tre priv_ sans changer de nature; ou en autres roots, sans
Ecidentels.
perdre son nora. Les modes accidentels, 6taient au contraire ceux dont le sujet
pourrait _tre pdv_ sans changer de nature. L'61asticit6, par exemple, 6st un
mode essentiel aux gaz, car nous ne regardons pas comme des gaz, les fluides
qui ne poss&lent pas cette propri6t6. Mais telle ou telle pesanteur sp6cifique,
n'6st qu'un mode accidentel _tun gaz: et il n'en serait pas autrement, m_me
darts le cas oil tous ceux que nous connaissions auraient la m6me pesanteur
sp6cifique: parcequ'on pourrait en d6couvrir d'autres qui en aurait une
diff6rente. L'6tendue et l'iml_n6trabilit6 sont les modes essentiels de la
mati_re: quelques-uns y ajoutent le poids: La couleur en 6st un mode
accidentel. Mais il 6st facile de voir que cela tient h notre mani_re d'envisager
les choses. Si nous jugions _ propos de ne plus appeler arbres que les
cerisiers, la facult_ de porter des cerises deviendrait un mode essentiel aux
arbres. I16st d'ailleurs bien difficile de trouver quels sont les modes essentiels
de certains sujets. Quels, par exemple, sont ceux de l'homme? La raison en
6st-elle? Non: car on ne refuse pas le titre d'homme aux idiots. Est-ce la
facult_ de la parole? Les muets ne l'ont pas. Est-ce le pouvoir de marcher
deux pieds? Quelques estropi6s ne le font pas: et cependant on donne le titre
d'homme _ttoutes ces exceptions, et l'on aurait beaucoup de peine/_ trouver
un caract_re distinctif de l'homme, tel qu'on ne pot pas trouver des hommes
qui ne l'eussent pas. Que veut donc dire ce qu'on a tant de fois r6p6t6, que les
attributs essentiels des choses sont immortels? Ce que tout le monde accordera
facilement, savoir que si nous donnons _un objet quelconque un nom auquel
nous attachons l'id6e d'une certaine propri6t6, l'objet ne saurait perdre cette
propri6t6 sans perdre son nom.
On appeUe modes absolus d'un sujet, ceux qu'il aurait encore si tousles _ modes
autres corps 6taient an6antis: tels sont la forme, la consistence, la duret6 ou la ibsolus et
mollesse, etc. du sujet. Les modes r61atifs sont ceux qui d6pendent d'autres rflalifs.
objets, sa situation, par exemple, darts l'espace.
U y a deux id6es d'une nature toute particuli_re, et qui m6ritent d'6tre Be l'esoKe et
consid6r6es a part. Je veux parler des id6es du tems et de l'espace. Descartes, tlu terns.
qui regardait l'univers comme plein de mati_re, voulait que l'6tendue ne ffit
autre chose que les corps eux-m6mes. 7 Condillac ne croyait voir, dans
l'espace et darts la dur6e, que de pures abstractions, s Nous apercevons,
disait-il, qu'on peut placer un objet entre deux corps: nous fesons abstraction
de ces deux corps, et nous formons ainsi une id6e abstraite de situation darts
l'espaee. L'espace, disait-il, n'6st que la capacit_ de recevoir les corps: en
sorte que s'il n'y avait point eu de corps il n'y aurait point eu d'espace. 9 Kant
regardait les id6es de l'espace et du terns comme des formes de notre
sensibilitY, port6es au monde avec nous. I° fi 6st possible qu'il nit raison
jusqu'_ tm certain point, car si nous supposons tousles corps an6antis, nous
retenons encore l'id6e de l'espace: Nous ne concevons pas que l'6tendue et la
dur6e puissent 6tre an_anties: elles sont infinies et imp6rissables.--D'autres
philosophes ont regard6 l'espace et le terns comme des attributs de la divinit6.
Des id_ du Trois autres id6es assez singuli_res sont celles du pr6sent, du pass6, et de
lm_ent, dn l'avenir. On peut dire que toute notre vie se passe _ jeter de l'avenir dans le
1_ et de
i'avenir. pass6: car le pr6sent n'6st qu'un instant indivisible. On pourrait tirer de ce fait
un argument assez bizarre, pour prouver que le plaisir et la peine n'existent
pas. A chaque instant nous ne souffrons plus ce qui 6st pass6, nous ne
souffrons pas encore ce qui 6st _tvenir: toute notre souffrance se renferme
doric en un instant indivisible: et ne souffrir que pendant un tel instant n'6st
pas souffrir du tout: et de m_me pour la jouissance. On pent r6futer ce
raisonnement par le fait que nous accumulons sur le pr6sent tousles maux
pass6s et futurs, par la m6moire qui nous reste des sensations pass6es, et par la
crainte de ce qui 6st encore _ venir.
La mati_re Une question qui a beaucoup de rapport avec ce dont nous venons de parler,
exlste-t-dle? c'_st celle de l'existence des objets extemes. Les Mat_rialistes ne veulent voir
partout que des corps, tandis que les Id6alistes en nient absolument
l'existence. Lorsqu'on regarde dans un rniroir, on croit voir beaucoup
d'objets; cependant on n'en voit point. Dans le sommeil nous croyons voir,
entondre, agir, etc. Ne serait-il pas possible que la vie ne fOt qu'un long
sommeil, darts lequel nous croyons voir des objets que nous ne voyons pas
r6ellement? Berkeley, savant ev&lue Anglais, _t6crit pour detruire les preuves
de rexistence des corps. 1_Malbranche m_me la trouva si difficile _tprouver,
qu'il disait qu'il n'y croirait pas sans la r6v61ation. 12M. Destutt-Tracy a cru
pouvoir la d6montrer par les mouvemens voulus et emp6ch6s. :3 Les premiers
mouvemens d'un enfant, sont, dit-il, sans volont6. Mais lorsqu'il trouve qu'il
en 6st capable, il ca fait de volontaires. Enfm, se trouvant emp_ch6 par
quelqu'obstacle de faire un certain mouvement, cela lui prouve l'existence
des objets externes. Pour moi je ne trouve pas ce raisonnement tr_s concluant.
L'enfant serait 6galement en droit de conclure que son bras n'6tait pas
l°Kalat, Kritik der reinen Vernunft ( 1781), inSi_mtliche Werke, ed. KarlRosen-
krantzand FriedrichSchubert,14 vols. in 12 (Leipzig: Voss, 1838-40), Vol. II,
pp. 34-54.
::GeorgeBerkeley ( 1685-1753) fwstexpounded his principle in An Essay towarda
New Theory of Vision (1709), in Works, 3 vols. (London: Priestley, 1820), Vol. I,
pp. 225-316; it is more fully expounded inA Treatise Concerning the Principles of
HumanKnowledge ( 1710), ibid., pp. 1-106, and Three Dialogues betweenHylas and
Philonous(1713), ibid., pp. 255-360.
:2Nicolas Malebranehe (1638-1715), Recherche de la vdrit_ (1674-78), in
Oeuvrescompletes, ed. A. Robinet, et al., 20 vols. (Paris: Vrin, 1962-67), Vol. M,
pp. 58-9 (Eclaircissement vi).
t3El_mentsd'id_ologie, Vol. I, pp. 115-22 (Chap. vii).
1820-21 Trait_ de Logique 167
CHAPITRE VI
DE LA DIVISION
Teat physique On distingue deux sortes de tout: l'un physique, et l'autre moral. Le tout
et moral, physique 6st compos_ de parties, dont chacune pourrait encore exister, si l'on
6tait toutes les antres. On les appeUe parties intdgrantes: et la division qui y
r6pond _st appel6e partition. Le tout logique 6st compos_ de parties qui ne
peuvent exister que darts un sujet: ce sont les parties subjectives. On emploie
l'une ou l'antre division, selon la nature du sujet. Elles sont soumises _ des
r_gles, dont la premiere seule 6st essentiellement n6cessaire, quoiqu'elles
soient toutes d'une grande utilitY.
lk_glesde la 1° La division doit _tre enti_re, c.O.d, que l'ensemble de tousles membres
Division. doit contenir tout ce qui 6st contenu darts le tout. Cette r6gle ne pr6sente
aucune difficult6: car lorsque nous divisons le tout en ses parties, quel 6st
notre objet? C'6st sans doute celui d'en simplifier l'6tude en consid6rant
chaque partie s6par6ment. Or si la division n'6st pas enti6re, nous n'attein-
drons pasce but: car apr6s avoir 6tudi6 routes les parties, nous ne connaltrons
pas le tout. Cette r6gle est doric de rigueur.
2° Les membres de la division ne doivent pas rentrer les uns dans les
autres, c.O.d, que rien ne doit _tre contenu en m6me tems en deux membres:
car darts ce cas on serait oblig6 d'6tudier deux fois les m6mes individus. Ex. la
division des opinions humaines en vrales, fansses, et douteuses: car il faut que
tousles individus de cette demi6re classe rentrent dans l'une ou l'autre des
deux premi6res. Il 6st 6vident qu'une division peut p6cher contre cette r6gle
sans 6tre absolument inadmissible.
3° I1 doit exister entre les membres d'une division un certain d6gr6
d'opposition: car si deux d'entr'eux se ressemblent beancoup, il vaudrait
mieux n'en faire qu'un.
4° IIne faut pas mettre une grande disproportion entre les membres d'une
division: En G6ographie, par exemple, il serait ridicule de mettre la France
d'un c6t6, et tous les autres pays de l'autre. En France la division qu'on a
adopt6e clans les affaires de l'6tat p6che contre cette r6gle: Le minist_re de
l'Int6rieur 6st beaucoup trop charg6 d'affaires, h proportion des autres
minist6res.
5° IIne faut pas mettre trop de membres _ une division. Pierre Ramus et
quelques antres Logiciens ne veulent permettre que les divisions binaires ou
bifarqu6es: 1Mais on voit bien cluela nature du sujet peut quelquefois exiger la
division ternalre ou quatemaire. Il y a pourtant des cas oi_la division binaire
peut _re utile: M. Lamarck l'a employ6e avec un tr6s grand avantage darts la
Flore Franfaise: il se sert pourtant de la division/_ plus de deux membres
lorsque le sujet l'exige, et il rend par 1_ son t_moignage au principe ClUeje
viens d'6tablir. 2 Mais il faut bien se garder de mettre _ une division plus de
membres qu'il n'6st absolument n6cessaire: ce serait compliquer le sujet sans
aucune utilit6.
On a besoin de la division logique darts une foule de cas. Si par exemple le Application de
chef de l'_tat voulait cr6er une administration, il faudrait diviser toutes les hi Division.
op6rations du gouvemement en un certain nombre de Minist_res, puis
sous-diviser chaque minist6re en bureaux, et ainsi de suite.--On a surtout
besoin d'une bonne division logique pour bien profiter des 6tudes qu'on fait:
sans cela, quelque nombreuses que soient les connaissances qu'on peut avoir
acquises, elles restent toujours, faute d'arrangement, inutiles dans l'esprit.
On a quelquefois t_ch_ de faire une classification de toutes les connaissan- Classification
ces humaines, et de la r&luire en tableau synoptique. Tel 6st l'arbre des con-
encyclop6dique de Bacon, qui a 6t6 modifi6 par les auteurs de l'Encyclo- nAi_-,ances
p_die.3 Bacon mettait les connaissances humaines sous trois chefs principaux: humaines.
les connaissances fournies par la m6moire, par la raison, et par l'imagination.
Darts la premiere classe se trouvaient l'histoire (consider6e comme un simple
6nonc6 des faits), la g6ographie, et l'histoire naturelle d6scriptive. Dans la
seconde classe il mettait la philosophie en g6n6ral, les sciences du
raisormement, de Dieu, de l'homme, et de la nature. Dans la troisi6me se
trouvaient les beaux arts, les belles lettres, la peinture, la sculpture, et les arts
d'imitation. Ce serait tm ouvrage tr6s utile qu'une Encyclop6die o0 l'ordre
qu'on suit ordinairement serait renvers6. Darts une Encyclop6die ordinaire,
on 6st cens6 conna/Ire le nom, et l'on cherche la nature de la chose: dans
celle-ci l'on connaia'ait la chose, et l'on en chercherait le nom. Nous avons en
histoire naturelle de pareils ouvrages: j'ai une plante devant les yeux, j'en
examine les caract6res, et par une suite de recherches, j'arrive jusqu'au nom
de la plante.
Une application importante de cette classification des connaissances
humaines serait darts le cas oO l'on voudrait cr6er un corps enseignant: car il
faudrait que ce corps r6unit autant que possible tousles genres d'enseigne-
ment. Nos Universit6s sont compos6es de quatres facult6s, 1. de M6decine,
2. de Droit, 3. des Sciences et des Arts, 4. des Lettres. Cette division 6st
imparfaite: car les sciences morales et politiques n'y sont pas comprises.
Aussi 6st-elle rentrante: car h ce compte la m6decine ne serait pas une science.
L'Institut des Sciences et des Arts, soci6t6 centrale cr_e apr_s la r6volution
pour encourager les sciences, et qui, pour qu'elle fOt utile, devrait les
encourager toutes _galement, a _t_ de m_me divis6e en quatre academies. 4
L'ancienne division, en 1. sciences physiques et math6matiques, 2. sciences
morales et politiques, et 3. beaux-arts, valait beaucoup mieux: et il vaudrait
mieux encore de faire trois facult6s, 1. des lettres, 2. des sciences, 3. des arts.
L'histoire et la philosophie des langues serait du d6partement de la premiere;
la m&tecine, le droit, la chimie, la physique, les math6matiques, les sciences
morales et politiques, seraient de la seconde; enfm les beaux-arts, c.h.d, la
po6sie, la peinture, la sculpture, et la musique, de la troisi6me. Dans un cas si
compliqu6 une division logique 6st difficile _ bien faire. La nature ne nous
pr6sente que des individus: nous-m6mes nous les arrangeons en classes, mais
elle se joue quelquefois de nos divisions.
M_thode et On distingue deux mani6res de faire les divisions logiques: par m6thode, et
Syst_me. par syst_me. Les objets sont class6s suivant une m6thode toutes les fois qu'ils
le sont par l'ensemhle de leurs propri6t6s, de telle mani6re que les objets les
plus voisins par leurs propri6t6s sont aussi les plus rapproch6s darts notre
classification. Ils sont class6s au contraire suivant un syst_me lorsque la
division 6st fond6e sur une seule propri6t6, sans 6gard aux autres. Dans les
dictionnaires les mots de nos langues sont rang6s d'apr6s un syst6me, et c'en
6st un tr6s commode pour les recherches, aussi voyons-nous que m6me les
enfans trouvent facilement un mot dans un pareil ouvrage. Dans la grammaire
au contraire les mots sont rang6s d'apr6s une m6thode. Un certain M. Butet/_
Pads pr6tendait enseigner les langues avec plus de facilit6, en arrangeant les
mots de la m6me mani6re dont on arrange les plantes dans une m6thode
naturelle.5 Mais on remarqua qu'il avait fait une foule de mots nouveaux, et
qu'il expliquait les roots par d'autres que l'6tudiant comprenait tout aussi peu
que les premiers. 6 La classification des plantes de Lian6 6st syst6matique,
4Arr_t6contenant une nouvelle organisationde l'Institut National, Bull. 243, No.
2257 (23 Jan., 1803), Bulletin, 3rd ser., VII, 373-8, set up four academies, of
sciences, French language and literature, Classical history and literature, and
Beaux-Arts.This scheme reflected Napoleon's desire to abolish the Academy of
Moral and Political Science established with the Academies of Science and of
Literatureand Beaux-Artsby Constitutionde la r_publiquefran_alse(1795), which
providedfor the Institutin Article 298, and Loi sur l'organisationde l'instruction
publique,Bull. 203, No. 1216 (25 Oct., 1795), Bulletin, 1stset., VI, 1-13, which
establishedthe Academies in Titre4.
5PierreRoland Franfois Butet (1769-1825), Abrdgd d'un cours complet de
ldxicographie(Paris:Renouard,1801).
6Andr6MoreUet(1727-1819), "Remarquessur un ouvrageintitul6:Abr_g6d'un
cours completde 16xicographie,"in Mdlanges de littdrature et de philosophie du 1Be
sidcle, 4 vols. (Paris: Lepetit, 1818), Vol. I, pp. 369-84, esp. 369-71, and 377 ft.
1820-21 Trait_ de Logique 171
parcequ'elle 6st fond6e en entier stir les organes de la reproduction, sans 6gard
aux autres organes. 7 Celle de Jussieu 6st au contraire m6thodique: car il
examina toutes les parties de la plante, et rapprocha entr'eux les v6g6taux qui
avaient le plus d'analogie par l'ensemble de leurs caract6res. 8 Dans les
syst_mes de Litre6, des plantes ou des animaux de nature bien diff6rente, se
trouvent souvent Fun aupr_s de l'autre, s'ils se rcssemblent par hasard en ce
caract_re particulier sur lequel la classification 6st fond6e: on a remarqu6 par
exemple que la violette n'6st pas 61oign6e du chine, ni la souris d'un lion: Ce
d6savantage 6st ins6parable de la nature d'un syst_me, mais en revanche, il
faut avoir bien plus 6tudi6 les plantes pour les classer suivant une m6thode que
suivant un systb,me, aussi les recberches sont-elles beaucoup plus faciles/l
ex6cuter par un syst_me que par une m6thode.
CHAPITRE VII
DELAD_FINITION
Leur erigtne, II _st des connaissances communes _ tousles hommes: ce sont les
dam la cormaissances essentielles _t notre bien _tre. Tout le monde salt parler,
n_sslt_ marcher; tout le monde salt enfin pourvoir aux besoins les plus pressans de la
d'imposer des
IIOIIIlS ilHX vie. Le paysan le plus grossier a quelques notions _l_mentaires sur les
,o,veUes ph6nom_nes de la nature. Quelques hommes ne se contentant pas de ces
eomblnalsom connaissances communes _ tous, cherehent _ les etendre et _ les d6velopper,
d'id_, les uns sur un sujet, les autres sur un autre. Ces hommes sont appel6s savans,
et le r_sultat de leurs observations et de leurs r_flexions 6st la science. Tout le
monde a, par exemple, quelques ides vagues sur le mouvement des astres:
des hommes industrieux cherchent h augmenter ces cormaissances, del_ vient
la science de l'astronomie.--Mais il arrive souvent que ceux qui refl6chissent
peu profondement sur quoi que ce soit, y trouvent des rapports, des
propri6t_s, etc. qui 6ehappent an vulgaire. Del_ vient la r_l_tition fr&luente
de longues phrases, qui ne laissent pas de beaucoup embarasser le discours, et
qui augmentent beaucoup la difficult_ d'6tudier les sciences. On donne alors
un nouveau mot pour nSpresenter chacune de ces phrases. Chaque science
parvient done enfin h avoir une langue distincte, qui 6st particuli_re
elle-m_me. C'6st 1_ ce qui a fait h6risser chaque science, et surtout la
m&lecine, de tant de roots techniques, qui d6goQtent les commenqans: c'6st
tm mal, mais un mal n_cessaire: on le sent lorsqu'on considere que sans ces
roots il serait presqu'impossible de comprendre m_me les livres 616mentaires.
Mais s'il _st n_cessaire d'inventer des mots, il _st _galement n_.cessaire de les
expliquer: ce qu'on ne peut faire qu'en indiquant les phrases dont ils sont
l'abr_g6: et c'6st l_tce qu'on appelle d6finir.--La r_pugnance que nous avons
ordinairement pour les mots nouveaux, emp_che ordinairement les m6taphy-
siciens I non pas les physiciens, ni les math6maticiens, de d6signer les
nouvelles combinaisons d'id_es par des mots de leur invention: Ils aiment
mieux se servir de roots qui sont d_j_ employ6s dans un sens un peu analogue.
QueUe diff6rence entre le sens des mots grandeur, quantitY, fonction, en
matl_matiques et clans la vie ordinaire! du mot produit en math6matiques et
dens les arts! I1 vaudrait beaucoup mieux en de pareils cas, inventer de mots
nouveaux. D'antres, an contraire, ont port_ trop loin cette licence: parcequ'ils
ont voulu faire croire qu'ils avaient trouv_ de nouvelles combinaisons
d'id(_es, lorsqu'ils n'avaient vraiment invent6 que des mots.
On peut dire, Mais si nous dormons un mot pour d6signer une combinaison
d'id_es, et si toutes les lois qu'on emploie ce mot, il faut y substituer dans la
pens_e cette suite d'id_es, il n'y a v6ritablement d'abr_g6 que le langage. Pour
cela il n'y a qu'a s'en rapporter a r exl_rience, eta voir si l'on ne se rappelle
pas beaucoup plus promptement l'id6e d'un cercle lorsqu'on l'a represent6
_Millhere indicatesthe insertionof the next seven wordsfrom the verso of the
previous folio.
1820-21 Trait( de Logique 173
par un seul mot, que si on l'avait appel6 "uric figure plane bom6e" etc. Cette
facilit6 6st dfie _ l'association habituelle du mot avec l'id6e qu'il repr_sente.
--Aussi voyous nous qu'elle ne nous vient que peu _ peu: que nous ne nous
familiarisons pas tout de suite _ l'emploi d'un mot nouveau.
Il y a des logiciens qui admettent deux sortes de d6fmitions; ceUes de mots, D_i_itioas de
et celles de choses: ils pr6tendent que les d6finitions de mots sont arbiu:aires, mots, et de
que celles de choses ne le sont pas. 2 Pour moi je ne trouve aucune diff6rence ehoses--
distinction
entre ces deux sortes de d6fmition, et je me range sans h_siter avec ceux qui imremeat
n'admettent que les d_flnitions de noms. J'ai 6crit quelque chose la dessus verbale.
dam un journal queje r6dige, et cela m'a valu l'honneur d'tme r6futation, oi_
l'on me dit qu'en n'admettant que des d6fmitions de noms qui sont
n&zessairement arbitraires, la morale 6st viol&e, qu'on peut appeler la vertu,
vice, et le vice, vertu, que tuer son bienfaiteur pourra alors s'appeler un acre
de vertu, faire l'anm6ne un crime. 3 En effet, cela serait tr_s facile, mais alors
il faudrait changer l'6nonc6 de nos lois; il faudrait pendre ceux qui feraient
des actes de vertu, et recompenser ceux qui feraient des crimes. Si, au
commencement d'un ouvrage, un auteur avertissait le lecteur qu'il appellerait
toujours verm ce qu'ou appelle vice, et vice ce qu'on appelle venu, ce serait
certes une grande bizarrerie, mais il n'en r6sulterait rien de fficheux pour la
morale, car le lecteur averti ferait toujours les corrections convenables. 4
Une d6finition 6st complette, si elle renferme tout ce qui 6st n6cessaire pour l_iaition
qu'on puisse en d&iuire toutes les propri6t6s du d6fini. Les d6finitions des complete et
notions abstraites en sont des exemples. En G6om6trie, toutes les d6fmitions inCOml_tte.
sont complettes: celle, par exemple, d'un cercle, renferme routes les
propd6t6s du cercle, car on peut les d&tuire toutes de sa d6finition. Celle d'un
tout physique 6st toujours incomplette: car bien qu'on connaisse les propri6t_s
qui suffisent _ distinguer un objet de tous les autres, on n'en connaR pas pour
cela les autres qualit6s.
Line d_fmition 6st explicite si cUe 6st pr6sent&e sous forme de d6finition: DC_tion
cUe 6st implicite, si sans qu'elle soit directement exprim6e, on peut pourtant explidte et
la definer en parcourant une phrase. Lorsque j'entends dire par exemple que implieite.
le tout 6st plus grand que sa pattie, et qu'il 6st 6gal _ l'ensemble de toutes les
parties, je devine _tl'instant qu'un tout 6st ce qui 6st compos6 de parties.
D'autres fois on ne peut pas definer le sens d'un mot par uric seule phrase,
parcequ'un antre mot, qu'on ne connaR pas, entre dans la phrase; mais on peut
deviner tousles deux par le moyen de cette phrase et d'une autre: C'6st comme
en alg_hre on trouve par deux 6quations la valeur de deux inconnues. C'6st
ainsi qu'en lisant un ouvrage qui emploie, sans les d6finir, des mots queje ne
connais pas, je parviens enfin ale comprendre. J'ai peut_tre commencg le
livre sans comprendre une grande partie des mots: mais en parcourant
beaucoup de phrases o_ ees mots sont employ6s, je vois qu'il n'y a que
certains sens qui puissent y convenir, et alors si je recommence le livre, je
l'_tudie avec beaucoup plus de fruit.
li_,les de hi Les d6fmitions sont arbitraires, jusqu'a un certain point; car chacun peut
dfl'tnitloa. _tre permis de lier ensemble toutes les id6es qu'il voudra, et de les d_signer
par le nom qu'il jugera apropos. Mais de m_me que celui qui a la libert6 de se
promener dans une chambre, au lieu d'etre attach_ par les mains et les pieds,
n'6st pas, pour cela, moins prisonnier; de rn6me les definitions, bien qu'en
partie arbitraires, sont pourtant soumises a des r_gles; dont quelques unes sont
de rigueur: d'autres ne le sont pas, mais il 6st bon de les suivre tant qu'on pout.
1° I1 faut defmir par des mots cormus de celui a qui l'on s'adresse. Cette
r_gle 6st de rigueur, car a moins qu'on ne l'observe on n'atteint point le but de
la d_finition, qui 6st celui de faire connaJtre le sens du mot d6fini. C'6st ane
difficult_ qu'on trouve a tout moment aupr_s des enfans en bas age. Encore
moins doit-on definir un mot par lui-m_me ou par ses deriv6s. J'ai vu dans un
ouvrage sur l'Adthm6tique, cette definition, "La Multiplication _st l'ol_ra-
tion par laquelle on multiplie un nombre par un autre.'5 Sije sais ce qu'on fait
lorsqu'on multiplie, je n'ai pas besoin de la d6finition.
2° I1fant que la d_fmition renferme tout ce qui 6st n6cessaire pour fixer le
sens du mot d6fini, et rien de plus. La premiere partie de cette r_gle 6st de
rigueur: car si le mot n'6st pas fix_ a une seule signification, la defmition 6st
vicieuse. Mais s'il y a quelque chose de superflu dans une d6finition, elle n'6st
pas pour eela absolument inadmissible.
Pour qu'on puisse observer cette r_gle, il faut savoir ce qu'il faut pour que
la signification d'un mot soit fix6e. L'esp_ce diff'ere du genre par ane
propfi6t6 qu'on a nomm6e caract_re diff6rentiel: c'6st ce qui la distingue des
autres esl_.es contenues dans le m6me genre. Et comme nous verrons darts la
suite que ce ne sont que des noms d'esl_,ce qu'on pout definir, on a donn6 pour
r_gle qu'on doit d6finir par le genre et la diff6rence caract6ristique de
l'esp_,ce. Mais alors il faut prendre le genre qui se trouve imm6diatement
au-dessus de l'esl_e qu'on veut d6fmir.
3° I1 rant toujours mieux d6finir par des qualit6s positives que par des
qualit6s r_gatives, c.a.d, que pour expliquer un mot, il vaut mieux faire
connaitre ce qu'il exprime, que ce qu'il n'expfime pas. I1 y a pourtant des
mots qu'on ne pout d_finir que n6gativement: tels sont ees mots n_ant, rien,
SNotlocated.
1820-21 Trait_ de Logique 175
infini: la seule definition qu'on puisse donner de l'infini, c'6st ce qui n'a point
de fin. M6me lorsqu'on peut dEf'mir un mot des deux mani_res,--si la
definition par les qualitEs positives 6st trEs compliquEe, et celle par les
qualitEs n6gatives trEs simple, celle-ci Est la meilleure.
4° Puisqu'on n'impose des noms que pour abrEger le discours, il ne faut
donner des noms qu'_ des reunions d'idees qu'on Est souvent oblige
d'exprimer en mots. Mais celle-ci Est plut6t une r_gle de nomenclature que de
definition.
5° I1ne faut pas donner le m6me nom _ deux choses diffErentes: I1faut donc
que la definition ne puisse s'appliquer qu'au dEfmi. C'Est une regle dont on
s'Ecarte assez souvent: exemple, la def'mition c61_bre que Platon donna de
l'homme, un animal d deux pieds sans plumes. On raconte que Diog_ne
dEpouilla nn oiseau de ses plumes, et le porta darts l'6cole de Platon, en
s'Ecriant, Voild l' homme de P laton. 6
Mais il n'y a pas de danger .hdonner plusieurs noms _ la m6me chose: et je
trois que les poEtes seraient quelquefois fort embarrasses si on les bornait/t un
seul mot pour exprimer nne chose.--C'Est pourtant un abus du droit de
donner les hornS, que d'avoir pour la m_me chose, an nom scientifique et un
nom vulgaire. Les botanistes nous donnent pour les plantes les plus
communes, nn nom tout different du nom vulgaire. I1 faudrait employer, ou
les noms vulgaires clans la science, ou les noms scientifiques darts le langage
ordinaire.
Lorsqu'on veut donner nn nom _t nne nouvelle combinaison d'idEes on
pourrait le fake en prenant les lettres au hasard, ou en les tirant au sort. Mais
crainte de dEgouter, on les prend d'ordinaire darts les langues Etrang_res et
savantes. Je m'art_terai ici pour un moment afro de lever une erreur qui Est
assez r6pandue. Beaucoup de monde croient que l'6tymologie Est n6cessaire
aux sciences. II Est vrai qu'elle Est utile pour suppl6er _ l'histoire: lorsque
eelle-ei ne fait pas connaitre l'origine d'une nation, les rapports de la langue
de cette nation avec les autres langues peut souvent l'indiquer. Ils peuvent
aussi beaucoup aider ceux qui veulent Etudier le progrEs de l'esprit humain.
D'ailleurs, un mot dErivE du Grec ou du Latin donne sur le champ _ ceux qui
connaissent ces langues, l'idEe de ce qu'il signifie. Mais on peut toujours
supplEer par les def'mitions all defaut de l'Etymologie: Elle n'6st doric pas
nEcessaire aux sciences. 7
On tAehe ordinairement de donner a chaque objet nouveau un nora qui en
t'I'he story concerningDiogenes the Cynic (ca. 412-323 B.C. ) is told in Diogenes
Laerfius(ft. early 3rd century A.D.), "Diogenes," in Lives of Eminem Philosophers,
(Greek and English), trans. R.D. Hicks, 2 vols. (London: Heinemann;New York:
Putnam's Sons, 1925), Vol. II, p. 42.
7Millhere indicatesthe insertion of the next two paragraphs from the verso of the
previousfolio.
176 Journals and Speeches No. 2
Cependant il faut faire connaitre le sens de ces mots: Comment les faire Comment en
comprendre hun 6tranger?--Les id6es simples sont ou sensibles ou faire connaitre
intellectuelles. Pour faire connaitre _ quelqu'un le sens du nom d'une id6e ie sens?
sensible, il faut prononcer le mot, tandis qu'on lui fait 6prouver la sensation.
Mais il y a ici quelque chose _ remarquer. Si pour faire comprendre _ un enfant
le sens du mot rouge, on met devant lui des fraises, des groseilles, des cerises,
etc. il risquera de croire, que le mot rouge d6signe ce que nous appelonsfruit.
fi faut donc beaucoup varier les objets, et lui en pr6senter qui ne se
ressemblent que clans la qualit6 d'etre rouge.
On n'a pas la m6me ressource aupr_s d'un homme priv6 de l'organe qui
re_oit la sensation dont il s'agit: Aussi ne pouvons-nous jamais faire
comprendre _ un aveugle le sens du mot blanc, ffl _ un sourd de naissance, ce
que c'6st que le son.
Si le nora dont il s'agit exprime une id6e intellectuelle, il faut examiner
darts quelles circonstances nous en fesons usage, et faire hypoth_se de
quelqu'une de ces circonstances. Pour fairc comprcndre h un enfant ce que
c'6st clue la crainte, je lui dirais, Si tu te perds dans un bois vers le
commencement de la nuit, tu _prouves de la crainte:--Si tu vois un chien qui
s'approche de toi pour te mordre, tu 6prouves de la crainte,--et ainsi de suite.
On ne pout done pas d_finir lcs noms des id6es simplcs: mais on peut
rappelcr dans l'esprit de celui _ qui l'on parle, l'id6e dont il s'agit. Ces id6es
sont les memes dans tousles pays; aussi lcs noms qui los cxpriment sont
synonymes dans toutes les langues.
II y a des id6cs si compos6cs qu'il faudrait tout un livrc pour en expliquer la
composition: en supposant m6mc qu'elle ffit constat_e, ce qu'elle n'6st pas
toujours: car nous employons des mots tousles jours sans savoir quelles sont
les id6es simples dont ils d6signcnt la r6union. Tel 6st le mot g_nie, qui
repr6sente uric idle tr_s complexe, et dont la composition _st encore loin
d'Stre constat6e. Presque toutcs nos disputes naissent de ce que nous
employons des mots sans _tre convenus sur leur signification: car il arrive
presque toujours que les deux partis prennent le mot en deux acceptions
diff6rentes. En g6om6trie l'on d6finit toujours les roots avant de les employer,
et c'6st ce qui fait qu'il n'y a jamais des disputes sur la v6fit6 ou sur la fansset6
d'une proposition g6om6triquc. Mais darts les autres sciences, oil l'on ne
prend pas la m_.me pr6caution, il y a des disputes incessantes: et il yen aura
toujours jusqu'_ ce qu'on ait r6fait tout le syst_me de nos id6es, et avec lui
celui de nos langues et qu'on ait fait un tableau de toutes les id6es simples, par
l_luel on pourra d6termincr la composition des id6es complexes. On voit del_
combien fl 6st n6cessaire de mettre des personnes intelligentes aupr_s des
enfans, n_me en bas _ge: sans cela ils se serviront des rnots parhabitude, sans
en connaltm la signification.
Quelqucfois la d6fmition qui 6tait bonnc a tel 6poque, scra mauvaise a telle
178 Journals and Speeches No. 2
autre: c'6st que le sens des mots change avec le tems. Pour faire des lois
invariables, il faudrait avoir une langue invariable: ou bien on pourrait ajouter
chaque code un vocabulaire qui ferait connaitre le sens dans lequel on y a
employ6 tousles noms qui expriment des id6es complexes et intellectuelles.
Moi-m6me j'ai 61616moin d'une dispute venant d'un changement dam le sens
d'un mot. I1 y avait _ Nimes un proc_s sur la validi16 d'un testament. Le
plaignant ne voulait pas l'admettre, car il disait qu'il n'6tait pas sign_. Le nom
et la signature du testateur y 6taient, ainsi que ceux des 16moins mais la date
n'y 6tait pas: et il affn'ma qu'on n'avait pas sign6, tant qu'on n'avait pas mis la
date. I1perdit sa cause, comme il le devait.
On medC, finit On ne peut d6finir que des noms de genre et d'esp_ce. 1° Les noms
que ies noms de individuels ne sont pas susceptibles de d6fmition: car d_ que le moindre
genreet changement survient clans les quali16s, physiques ou morales, de l'individu, le
d'esptce, nora a chang6 de sens: il n'exprime plus la m_me combinaison d'id6es
simples. On ne pout que d6crire les individus: mais ce serait tm travail bien
grand, puisqu'enfin on ne saurait donner qu'tme idle tr6s imparfaite d'un
individu: car on ne peut pas en 6num6rer en detail toutes les propri616s.
Les d_nitions Une d6fmition peut _tre blamable, ou sujette _ la critique: mais elle ne peut
ne sont jamais jamais 8tre fausse. On peut permettre _ chaque 6crivain de donner aux noms
fanues, qu'il emploie, les significations qu'il veut, pourvu qu'il ne s'en _carte pas
lui-m6me. On ne saurait r6fuser d'admettre la definition m6me d'un 6tre
imaginaire. Je puis bien donner un nora _tun baton _tun bout: je puis d6finir ce
nora: J'ai fait un nora dont on ne fera aucun usage; mais la d6fmition n'6st pas
fausse.
Si doric les d_finitions ne pouvent pas &re fausses, on peut les admettre
parmi les principcs, quoiqu'en dise Condillac, qui veut que les sensations
soient les seuls principos de nos connaissances.ll C'_st une pure dispute de
roots: 12 car panni les nombreuses significations du mot principe, il en a
celles-ci, 1° la source ou l'origine (et darts ce sens-ci les sensations sont
coup stir les seuls principes de nos connaissances), 2° une v6ri16 qu'on peut
poser eomme certaine, et dont on peut d6duire d'autres v6ri16s par le
raisonnement: et darts ce sens-l,_ton ne disputera gu_re aux d_finitions une
place parmi les principes de nos connaissances. 13
Un secte de m6taphysiciens modemes attaquent les def'mitions: fls disent
qu'au lieu de d6fmir, il faut montrer les objets qu'on nomme. Cette mani_re
d'enseigner 6st indispensable pour des roots qui ne sont pas susceptibles de
ddfinition: Mais pour ceux qui le sont, il rant beaucoup mieux d6finir: L'autre
mdthode _t des inconv6niens tr_s graves. On ne peut montrer que des
individus; et l'on ne d6fmit que des noms d'espb, ce et de genre. Celui donc
qui vous montrez un objet, pourrait croire que le nom g6ndrique exprime tin
caract_re particulier _ l'individu. Si je montre un triangle _ quelqu'un, et que
par hasard ce triangle soit 6quilat6re, il pourra croire que c'6st un caract_re
essentiel du triangle d'avoir les trois c6tds 6gaux entr'eux.
Condillac dit qu'il faut remplacer les d6t'mitions par des analyses. _4 Ici il
faut faire attention qu'il n'y a que deux eslx3ces d'iddes; simples et complexes.
On ne peut point analyser les iddes simples, non plus que des objets simples.
Et l'analyse d'une idde complexe fait connaitre la signification du mot qui
l'exprime, ou ne le far patsconnaitre. Si elle la fait connaitre, elle ne diffbre
point de la ddfmition. Et si elle ne le fait pas, il 6st absurde de nous dire que la
d6finition peut 8tre remplacde par l'analyse.
CHAPITRE VIII
DU LANGAGE
sous N'AmtONSVAS_ jouir tout seuls. Nous aimons _ voir le plaisir d'autrui,
et que les autres hommes voient le nbtre. Un de mes amis me dit une fois qu'il
voudralt faire un voyage _ un autre plan6te, revenir a la terre pour raconter ce
qu'il avait vu, et mourir sur le champ. I1se garda bien de vouloir mourir avant
d'avoir racont6 aux hommes les merveilles d'un autre plan6te. Cette loi de la
nature s'6tend mSme aux animaux: ceux-ci ont la sociabilitd, mais _ un plus
faible ddgrd que les hommes.
11ne suffit donc pas b l'homme d'avoir des iddes. I1 faut qu'il puisse les Naeemit_
communiquer aux autres: et pour cela, il faut qu'il ait des signes sensibles de d'=voir des
ses iddes, qui lorsqu'il les prdsente aux sens des autres hommes, exciteront _ignessemdbles
de n_ _.
clans leur imagination ces mSmes id6es.
on distingue les signes en signes naturels, et signes de convention. La Dtvislom des
chaleur extraordinaire du corps, le ddrangement du pouls, le changement de slgnes.
couleur de la langue, sont des signes naturels de maladie: Lorsque le malade
dderit au mddecin les sensations qu'il 6prouve, il emploie, pour les lui faire
connal_-e un signe conventionnel, le langage.
On divise aussi les signes en permanens et en fugitifs. Parmi les signes
conventionnels, la parole 6st un signe fugitif; l'6criture 6st un signe
permanent. Parmi les signes naturels, le fire, les pleurs, etc. sont des signes
fugitifs; le dessin 6st un signe permanEnt.
on ne sait pas toujours _tquelle classe appartient tel ou tel signe: car il 6st
14Condillac,La logique, Oeuvres, Vol. XXX, pp. 141-51 (Pt. II, Chap. vi).
180 Journals and Speeches No. 2
des signes d'institution qui sont tr_s analogues aux choses qu'ils repr_sentent.
Tels sont ces signes, (>) (<) (=); plus grand, plus petit, dgal. On _st
convenu de mettre le hombre le plus grand du c6t_ o_ la distance des deux
lignes _st la plus grande; et si les hombres sont _gaux, on met les lignes _ des
distances _gales.nDans la musique, on _st convenu de dire que la voix monte
lorsqu'elle va du grave _ l'aigu, qu'elle descend lorsque'elle va de l'aigu au
grave: et par cons_xluent duns la musique _crite les notes sont hautes ou
basses, _ mesure que les sons qu'elles d_signent sont aigus ou graves. I16st
bon d'employer les conventions les plus gfin6rales qu'on peut, afin d'etre
compris par le plus de monde qu'on peut.
(Je remarquerai ici par parenth_se que nous confondons souvent les signes
av_ les choses: c'_st une erreur dont on doit se garder. Nous parlons
habituellement du nombre huit: cependant huit n'6st pus un nombre, c'6st un
cbiffre.)
DeIiniCiondu L'ensemble de tous ces signes, soit naturels, soit conventionnels, qui
lugage, servem _ communiquer les id6es d'un _tre sentient _ un autre, fait le langage
duns le sens le plus 6tendu. On voit que clans ce sens le langage n'6st point
particulier _ l'homme. Ce ne sont que les langues articul6es qui lui sont
parficuli_res. Pour former une langue articul6e, il parait que deux conditions
sont n6cessaires: d'abord, un certain d6gr6 d'intelligence, puis l'organisation
n6cessaire pour varier les sons de la voix. Ces deux conditions se trouvent
r6unies chez l'homme: chez les autres animaux il n'y en a tout au plus qu'un
seul. Chez les singes il paralt y avoir assez d'intelligence, mais l'organisation
leur manque: Les perroquets et quelques autres oiseaux ont l'organisation
propre, mais ils ne paralssent pus avoir assez d'intelligence. Une autre cause
pourquoi les animaux n'ont pus le don de la parole, c'6st que leurs besoins
sont plus born6s que les n6tres; ils n'ont pus, autant que nous, besom Fun de
l'autre; ils manquent de motifs pour inventer une langue articul6e. Diderot a
dit quelque part que l'homme n'6tait qu'un chien couvert d'habits: il a voulu
dire par 1_clue sans nos besoins, sans notre luxe, nous n'aurions gu_re plus
d'intelligence que les brutes. C'6st doric _ tort qu'on s'6crie contre le luxe:
Nous voyons d'ailleurs que les nations qui ont le plus de besoins, le plus de
luxe, ont aussi le plus d'intelligence.
Le lupge _t On connait depuis longtems deux avantages qu'on retire du langage: le
i'g_rumeat de premier 6st celui de pouvoir communiquer ses id6es a autrui: c'6st un usage
II lm_e. commun _ la langue parl6e avec la langue 6crite: le second _st particulier _ la
langue _x-rite, c'est celui d'aider la m_moire _ se rappeler des pens6es, et de
tenir la conversation avec ceux qui n'existent plus, ou qui sont en des lieux
61oign_s. Mais il y a un autre usage non moins important qu'on ne connait que
depuis peu: et de tousles services que la M6taphysique doit _tCondillac, le
plus grand 6st peut_tre celui d'avoir mis an jour ce troisi_me usage. C'6st lui
1820-21 Trait_ de Logique 181
qui ale premier d6montr6 que le langage aide/t la pens6e elle-m_me: l fair dont
on pent s'assurer si l'on 6coute avec attention une horloge qui sonne, sans se
rappeler/t l'esprit les noms des nombres: On ne pourra pas dire l'heure qu'elle
a sorm6: on saura seulement qu'elle a sonn6 beaucoup de fois. Condillac a dit
que nous ne pourrions jamais sans les noms des hombres, compter au delh de
trois: et tm fair qui confirme cet hypoth_se, c'6st que dans la langue d'un tribu
de l'Am6rique, il n'y a de noms nmn6raux que ceux-ci, un, deux, trois: au del_
de trois il n'y a qu'un seul mot pour d6signer tousles hombres: ce mot/t la
m6me force qu'a chez nous le mot beaucoup.--La doctrine de Condillac 6st
encore support6e par le fait que ceux qui ont 6t6 d_s leur enfance abandonn6s
dartsles bois, et qui n'ont par cons6xtuent appris ancune langue, n'ont presque
point d'id6es.--Comment pensent done les sourds et muets? Il 6st constat_
qu'ils pensent avec des mots 6crits.2 Quelques individus m6me qui ne scot pas
priv6s du sens de l'ouie, pensent avec des mots 6crits: c'6st qu'ils ont
commenc6 _ lire avant de savoir parler.
Mais, me dira-t-on, vous tombez dans un cercle vicieux: car s'il faut une
langue pour penser, il faut aussi penser pour former une langue. Je r6ponds
que nos langues n'ont pas toujours 6t6 aussi parfaites qu'elles le sont
aujourd'hui. II y a des signes naturels ind6pendans de toute convention, qui
ont donn6 le moyen de penser assez bien pour former une langue un peu plus
parfaite: Celle-ci a donn6 de meiUeurs moyens encore, et c'6st par une
progression presqu'insensible que nos langues sont arriv6es au point de
perfection oi_ elles se trouvent maintenant.
Les avantages queje viens de signaler sont si importans, que Condillac a 6t6 La lmrfectiou
port6 jusqu'_ dire que toute science se r6duit _ une langue bien faite: 3 Mais il de la iaague
6st probable qu'il a un peu exag6r6: qu'il a dit plus qu'il ne pensait. Sans d'une science
en fadlllte
doute, on ne peut point faire une science avant d'en faire la langue: mais il 6st beaueoup
6galement certain qu'on ne peut point faire la langue, avant de faire la science. I'C,
mde.
La nomenclature et la science naissent et se perfectionnent ensemble. La
g6om6trie a une langue encore tr6s imparfaite: maigr6 cela, elle n'a cess6
depuis deux mille artsde faire des progr6s rapides et elle en fair aujourd'hui de
plus rapides encore. La langue de la chimie 6st toujours/_ refaire. Tout cela
prouve qu'une science pent fairc beaucoup de progr6s avec une langue real
faite. Cependant, la perfection de la langue d'une science, eta facilite
ICondillac,Essai, Oeuvres, Vol. I, pp. 173-87 (Pt. I, Sect. IV, Chap. i); cf. La
/og2_..,/b/d., Vol. XXX, pp. 109-30 (Pt. II, Chaps. ii-iv).
Louis GabrielAmbroise, vicomte de Bonald (1754-1840), "Dissertationsur la
pcnsdc de l'homme et sur son expression," Recherches philosophiques sur les
premiers objets des connoissances morales (1818), in Oeuvres completes, 3 vols.
(Paris:Mign¢, 1859), Vol. III, col. 426.
3_,La logique, Oeuvres, Vol. XXX, pp. 131-40 (Pt. If, Chap.v).
182 Journals and Speeches No. 2
soit pas difficile de trouver des signes naturels pour le chiffre. Un autred6faut
c'_st que les chiffres se ressemblent trop:en 6crivant vite, on peut quetquefois
les confondre.
La langue de la musique a trois choses _ exprimer, l'intonation, la dur_e, et Examende la
l'intensit6 du son. On exprime la premiere par des notes, qui sont plus ou langue de la
moins hautes sur l'_chelle, selon que les sons qu'elles repr6sentent sont plus musique.
ou moins aigus. Pour repr6senter la dur_ on n'a pas 6t_ aussi heureux. I16st
vrai qu'il y a des rondes, des blanches, etc. mais les signes sont donn6s
contresens: les notes les plus charg_es d'encre sont souvent celles qu'il faut
jouer le plus vite. On pourraitobvier _ cette difficult6 en exprimant les notes
par des barres qui seraient plus ou moins longues suivant que le son devait
durer plus ou moins longtems. Pour l'intensit6, on n'a gu_re de signe aussi
naturel. I1y a bien lepiano, leforte, etc. On pourrait employer de l'encre de
diff_ns d_gr_s de noirceur selon l'intensit6 du son: mais cela serait assez
difficile, et, de plus, assez ennuyant. I1 y a un autre contresens dans cette
nomenclature: la double-croche, 6st joule deux fois plus vlte que la simple
croche. Pour la vitesse g6n6rale du mouvement, on n'a que des 3/6, des 3/8,
ou des Adagio, des Andante, etc. qui ne signifient rien. I1 faudrait pour la
r6gler exactement, employer une machine qui battrait reguli_rement tel ou tel
nombre de fois dans une minute, et qu'on connQt le nombre de fois qu'elle
devait battre dans une mesure de Fair qu'on voulait jouer. On a fait un pareil
instrument: il s'appelle le M6tronome.
Les nouvelles langues des poids et des mesures sont tr6s bien faites. Le Des nouveaux
m6tre, par exemple, 6st pris, aussi exactement qu'il 6st possible, 6gal/l la poids et
dix-millioni6me pattie du quart du m6ridien terrestre. On le multiplie et on le mesm_.
divise par les puissances du nombre dix. On a de l'un c6t6 des decam6tres, des
hectom6trcs, des ldlom6tres, et des myriam6tres; et de l'autre c6t6, des
decim6tres, des centim6tres, et des millim6tres. On en use de m6me avec les
autres poids et mesures.
Je passe a l'examen de nos langues Europ6ennes. Dans ces langues tout 6st Examen des
conventionnel. Les caract_res ne sont pas faits avec la plus grande perfection: iangues
Ils se ressemblent trop: et en _a'ivant vite on poutrait les confondre. Nos Eurol_nnes.
r_gles grammaticales sont d_fectueuses, _ cause des nombreuses exceptions.
Bien des mots ont un grand nombre de significations. Mais il ne faut pas que
j'entre dans tousles d_tails de la Grammaire. II suffit de donner une vue
g_n6"raledes qualit_s qu'une langue devrait avoir: C'_st ce que nous ferons
clansla suite.
On a t_ich_de raccomoder les langues: mais il y a des d_fauts radicaux, qui
ne pourront se lever clue lorsqu'on refera les langues en entier.
On a quelquefois t_ch_ d'inventer une langue universelle, qui serait Projet d'une
commune aux sarans de tousles pays. La langue Latine, qu'ils employaient ltmgueuni-
vers¢_.
autrefois pour se faire entendre les uns des autres, suWh-'aitbien pour cet
184 Journals and Speeches No. 2
usage, mais elle aurar le d6savantage de faire des savans une caste
particuli_re. Pour qu'une langue devint universelle, il faudrait qu'elle fir
facile _ apprendre; et il ne faudrait pas employer la violence pour la faire
recevoir: ce serait un moyen robs-stir de dego0ter.
Structure Pour faire une langue philosophique, il fandrait cr_r un caract_m pour
grtmmatk_ chaque son simple qui ne blesse pas l'oreille: Les caract_res se ressemble-
d'mm langue raient, suivant que les sons qu'ils d6signaient se mssembleraient. On en ferait
pl_mophklue, ensuite dessyllabes de deux ou de troislettres: Les mots d'unesyllabc
r6pondraient auxchosesdonton aurait leplussouvent occasion deparler. IIy
auraient trois genres, le masculin et le f_minin pour les animaux, le neutre
pour tousles autres objets. Les noms seraient tous ind6clinables, et l'on
expfimerait les cas par des propositions, dont ils ne sont en effet que l'abrdg6.
Les verbes seraient actifs, passifs, et neutres: Les terns ne seraient que trois, le
passe, le prdsent, et le futur. On pourrait, si on le voulait, subdiviser le pass6,
en ce qui dtait passd, prdsent ou futur,/t tel 6poque. A chaque substantif
rd_ndrait un adjectif, un verbe, et un adverbe, tous ddrivds du substantif
d'une mani6re uniforme invariable.
Une langue tellement construite serait bien facile _ appmndre. Mais elle ne
sauraitjamais devenir tout/t fait vulgaire: et elle ne pourrait gu6re se garantir
d'un certain d6gr6 de corruption. Les gens qui ne sont pas instruits gfitent les
langues, et en alt6rent toute la formation. Une pmuve, c'est que les verbes
auxiliaires sont darts presque routes les langues, les plus irrdguliers de tous:
car ils sont le plus usds par le vulgaire.
Meyeas de On a suppl_e au d_faut d'une langue universelle par des dictionnaires
mppi_ i tree synonymiques, et par des langues en chiffre. On fait, je suppose, un
iaagae
verselle.mi- dictionnaire de tousles mots de la langue Franqaise, avec un numdm affich6
chacun. Les m6mes num6ros, darts un pareil dictionnaire de la langue Russe
sont affich_s aux n_mes noms qui r_pondem aces mots francais. Lorsqu'un
Fran_ais veut 6crire a un Russe, il commence par arranger sa lettre de la
manikin simple dont patient les sanvages, sans aucun 6gard anx r_gles de la
grammaire, pour obvier _tla diffdrence de la tourmlre des phrases darts les
deux langues. 11traduit ensuite sa lettre en chiffres, il l'envoie en Russie, ofJ
son correspond_ant,par un dictionnaire semblable, la traduit clans la langue
Russe.
Ortglae des Comment une langue a-t-elle pu se former? C'6st mac question que bien des
iaagaes, gens trouvent fort difficile _trdsoudre: c'6st ce qui leur a fait supposer que le
langage _st venu directement de l'Etre Supreme. C'dst qu'ils ne consid_nt
les langues qu'au d6gr6 de perfection ot'telles se trouvent chez nous: et qu'ils
les croient particuli_rcs _ l'homme. I1 6st certain que les animaux ont une
mani_re d'exprimer leurs d_sirs, qu'on petit appeler en quelque sorte une
Langue, quoiqu'elle en soit une tr6s imparfaite.
L'invention et l'emploi des langues 6crites exige un ddgr_ de civilisation
1820-21 Traitff de Logique 185
d6j/_ assez haute. Chez les Am6ricains, lorsqu'fls furent conquis par les
Espagnols, les langues 6crites n'6taient pas connues, quoique certaines
nations d'entr'eux, les P6ruviens par exemple, et les Mexicains, efissent d6ja
une soci6t6 polic6e. Ils suppl6aient par la peinture au d6faut du langage. Mais
la parole et le geste employ6s comme signes de la pens6e, ne supposent pas un
aussi haut d6gr6 de civilisation. On n'a jamais d6couvert de peuplade,
quelque barbare qu'il f-fit d'aiUeurs, qui manquait enti6rement de langue
parl_e.
Sur le progr6s des langues, il y a deux syst_mes; dont Fun 6st directement Sy_ mr le
oppos6/_ l'antre. M. Destutt-Tracy pense qu'il n'y a eu d'abord que des progr_ des
interjections, et que nous avons ensure d6compos6 la pens6e, et donn6 des langnes.
nom_s aux parties: 5 d'autres croient que les noms substantifs ont 6t6 les
premiers roots;6 et que nous avons proc6d6 par composition, en rassemblant
les id6es en groupes, et en dormant des noms _ ces groupes. Pour moi je crois
que nous avons suivi tant6t l'une et tant6t l'autre m6thode. I16st impossible,
par exemple, que nous ayons form6 l'id6e de g6nie par composition, car nous
n'en connaissons pas la composition: de l'autre c6te, les d6finitions sont des
preuves que nous n'avons pas toujours proc6d6 par analyse; car elles ne
seraiem pas n6cessaires, si nous n'avions pas li6 plusieurs id6es ensemble, et
donn6 des noms _ leurs combinaisons.
I16st probable que les premiers roots ont 6t6 des imitations: qu'un animal, Hlstoire de la
par exemple, a 6t6 distingu6 par le son qu'il fesait habituellement. Le langage laagne lmrl6e.
6tait alors compos6 de signes naturels. I1y a encore dans nos langues quelques
vestiges de cette formation: mais les roots s'alt6rent avec le terns; de mani_re
ne conserver enfm qu'une tr6s 16g_re trace de leur origine: ainsi, de signes
naturels, ils d6g6n6rent en signes purement de convention. D'ailleurs il faut
absolument des signes conventionnels pour d6signer les id6es intellectuelles,
et la plupart m_me des objets inanimfs. Malgr6 cela, il y a bien des gens qui
croient leur langue la langue naturelle. Il yen a beaucoup aussi qui croient
leurs noms les noms naturels, parcequ'ils leur sont familiers, et qui font pas
cons6quent les signatures de mani6re/i ce que personne ne puisse les lire. De
m_me, on imagine que l'oeil juge naturellement des distances: c'6st qu'on a
oubli6 l'apprentissage qu'on a servi darts son enfance, en comparant les
impressions regues par le sens de la vue, avec celles qu'on regoit par le
toucher.
La premi6re langue 6crite a dO 8tre une repr6sentation des objets qu'on De ia iangnae
voulait rappeler. Cette mani6re 6tait bonne pour repr6senter les objets 6erite.
sensibles. Tout le monde pouvait alors lire sans apprendre. Mais comment
peindre les id6es intellectuelles? On l'a falt par a116gorie:et c'6st peut _tre
5Destuttde Tracy,Eb_ments, Vol. II, pp. 23-8 and74-6 (Chaps. i and iii).
6E.g., Bonald,Recherches, cols. 183-207 (Chap. viii).
186 Journals and Speeches No. 2
Ecriture hlero- cela qu'6st dOle style figur6 qui 6st si r6pandu parmi les Orientaux. l_s qu'on
glyphique, repr6senta par des all6gories les id6es inteUectuelles, la langue ¢crite n'ftait
plus _ la port6e que de ceux qui 6taient dou6s d'assez d'intelligence pour
eomprendre les all6gories. Mais il yen a que les gens les plus instruites ne
comprendraient pas. De cette nouvelle complication, quelques hommes sont
parvenus _ retenir _teux-m6mes le langage 6crit, comme le fesaient les pr_tres
en Egypte. La langue hi6roglyphique a un autre desavantage: pour l'6crire, il
faut avoir acquis une certaine facilit_ de dessiner. Les caract_res se sont
ait6r6s entre les mains des mauvais dessinateurs. Quelquefois on en a fondu
plusieurs en un seul: enfin il n'en 6st rest6 que les premiers lineamens, comme
nous le voyons darts l'6criture Chinoise.
Des langues Les langues Orientales sont 6videmment fond6es sur le dessin. Qnelques-
alphab_tiques, unsont voulu rapporter les langues Europdennes _ la m_me origine: mais il y a
une longue dissertation darts l'Id_ologie de M. Destutt Tracy, qui prouve
effectnellement que cette opinion n'6st point soutenable. 7 Nos langues
semblent d6river plut6t de la musique que du dessin. On a voulu peindre les
sons de la voix: on a cherch6 quels 6taient les sons 616mentaires, on les a
repr_sent_s par des caract_res, et les sons complexes par les combinaisons de
ces caract_res.
Comparaisons Ces deux espies de langue ont chacune leurs avantages. La langue
de ces deux hi6roglyphiqne, dans sa premiere simplicit6, a l'avantage d'etre une langue
sortes de universelle, et d'etre facile h lire. Mais elle a aussi ses d_savantages. D'abord,
langue, on ne peut peindre que des objets sensibles: ensuite, pour peindre un objet, il
faut le connaItre parfaitement: et l'on a souvent besoin de parler d'objets
qu'on n'a jamais vus. La langue alphabetique peut exprimer tant les idles
intellectnelles qne les sensibles, et cela sans qu'on connaisse l'objet qu'on
veut d6signer. Mais die 6st tr_s difficile _tlire, surtout si aux autres difficult_s,
on ajoute celle de la prononeiation: D'ailleurs, nous croyons souvent avoir
eompris un livre, lorsque nous en avons lu tous les mots: or il arrive souvent
que nous n'en avons presqne rien compris, ce qui n'arriverait pas si tousles
signes _taient naturels, comme clans l'b_'iture hi_roglyphique.
On a voulu reformer nos langnes, et conformer toujours l'6criture _ la
prononciation. Mais de graves diffieult6s se pr6sentent ici. D'abord,
quelques-uns tierment aux _tymologies, et veulent les conserver: ensure,
notre prononciation peut bien s'alt£-rer: nous n'avons pas de diapason
invariable pour la r6gler: Un chanoine ing_nieux qne j'ai connu _tNimes avait
eu l'id_ d'une machine parlante, qui conserverait les sons, et qui les
emp/_eherait de varier: il avait reussi _ eonstruire tree est_e d'orgue, qui
lorsqu'on tournait la manehe, prononqait d'tme mani_re assez semblable _ la
voix humaine, les voyelles a, e, i, o, u, et les roots papa, maman. I1n'y avait
que cet inconv6nient-ci, que lorsque la chose devint connue, chaque fois que
l'inventeur se promenait darts les rues, les enfans le suivaient, et criaient,
a,e,i,o,u, papa, maman: a,e,i,o,u, papa, maman.
CHAPITRE IX
NOUS AVONSVU tout ce qui a rapport _tla nature et _ la subdivision des id6es: il Syst_me des
nous reste _texaminer les divers syst_mes qu'on a d6bit6s sur leur origine, idt_es_.
Des id6es
Ils se r6duisent _tdeux prineipaux. Platon pr6tend que nous naissons avec
acquises.
toutes les id6es que nous aurons jamais de notre vie: _ et que lorsque nous
croyons acqu6rir des id6es, elles ne font que se d6velopper en nous: il appelle
ces id6es que nous avons naturellement dans l'esprit, types intellectuels.
Selon lui nous avons aussi, d_s notre naissance, des id6es que les
circonstances eml_cheront de se jamais developper dans notre esprit.
Descartes et Malebranehe ont adopt6 ce syst6me, h quelques modifications
pr6s. 2 Aristote tient au contraire que rien n'6st dans l'esprit qui n'ait 6t6 dans
lessens. 3 Lui-m_me il n'a pas dans ses ouvrages d6montr6 ce maxime: Locke
l'a mis hors de doute: 4 Condillac, Bonnal, etc. l'ont encore plus d6velopp6:5
Cabanis et Destutt-Tracy l'on port6 _tun d6gr6 plus haut encore: ils ont adopt6
l'opinion que penser dst sentir. 6 La doctrine de Platon 6st appel6e celle des
id4es inndes: celle d'Aristote 6st la doctrine des idles acquises. Celle de
Platon fut d'abord reque clans nos 6coles: mais celle d'Aristote la supplanta, et
y domina jusqu'au terns de Descartes. Depuis son terns, les id6es inn6es sont
encore en vogue.
Kvanm_ de ees Ce qu'il faut remarquer, c'_st que les partisans des idtes inntes n'ont
_. jamais d_montr_ leur existence: ils se sont content, s de l'affirmer. Mais il ne
faut pas admettre ce syst_me sans preuve. Dtmontrez-moi que j'ai apport6
toutes rues idtes au monde, et alors je le croirai: mais je ne le croirai pas
auparavant: d'autant plus que cette notion n'tst pas de la moindre utilite clans
la pratique. Ce qui a pu 6garer Platon, c'tst que lorsque nous dtcomposons
une nouvelle idte, nous la r&luisons a des idtes simples que nous
connaissions dtj_t depuis longtems. Cela pourrait faire croire que nous
appor_nes ces idtes avec nous au monde. D'un autre c6tt, chaque fois que
nous voyons un nouvel objet, nous acquerrons une nouvelle idte: il y a donc
des idtes acquises; car si elles 6taient clans nos esprits sans que nous en
sfissions den, ce serait pour nous comme si elles n'y 6taient pas. Ce n'tst
qu'apr_s avoir vu l'objet, que nous avons la conscience que l'idte se trouve
clans notre esprit: oi_donc y a-t-il des preuves qu'elle s'y trouvait auparavant?
Nous avons dtj_t prouv6 que les idtes intellectuelles m_me ont leur source
clans lessens. D'ailleurs les noms qui expriment ces idtes l'indiquent assez:
car ce sont presque tous des alltgories, tirtes de la sensation. Celles-mtme
d'entr'elles qui sont fantastiques, qui sont imaginaires, ont leur origine dans
la sensation: Que quelqu'un fasse tomber par exemple mon chapeau dans la
boue, et que je prenne le patti de me couper la gorge avec ce quelqu'un pour
venger l'affront: c'tst de l'honneur real entendue, mais c'_st toujours de
l'honneur: et l'on ne niera gu_'re qu'elle ne vienne des sensations.
Objections On objecte que s'il n'y avait point d'idtes inntes, les hommes ne seraient
rnmlnes pas d'accord sur tant de choses. Mais doit-on s'ttonner qu'ils soient d'accord?
toaclumt les N'tst-ce pas beaucoup plus 6tonnant qu'ils ne s'accordent pas davantage?
ldees SCtlaises. N'ont-ils pas la n_me organisation, les m_mes besoins, les mtmes facultts?
On a encore afftrm6 que les sentimens du juste et de l'injuste doivent _tre
innqSs,parcequ'ils sont plus vifs darts la jeunesse qu'ils ne le sont darts l'fige
mur. D'abord, on peut disputer le fait. Hobbes a appel6 le mtchant, un enfant
robuste: 7 et certes si les enfans n'avaient jamais appris ce que sont le juste et
l'injuste, ils n'en auraient gu_re un sentiment aussi vif. Ceux d'entr'eux _tqui
on a donn6 le sentiment, ront plus vivement que nous: c'tst qu'_t force de
vivre darts le monde, on s'use un peu l_tdessus, et l'on se r_igne _tl'injustice,
comme _ une chose clans l'ordre de la nature.
Les pompes, les ctr_monies, sont autant de t_moignages rendues
l'opinion d'Aristote: s elles sont faites pour parler aux sens. Et que de gens n'y
a-t-il pas au monde, qui n'ont d'idte nette d'un juge, passte celle de sa
perruque et de sa robe?
suivent nos perishes, et nous croyons qu'elles en sont les effets: C'rst une
erreur: Dieu a arrang6 nos esprits, _6d_s le commencement, de mani_re/_ re-
eevoir une certaine suite de modifications, et nos esprits _ recevoir, aux
mrmes instans, des modifications analogues. Ainsi le corps et l'_ne sont
comme deux horloges qui vont d'une vitesse 6gale.
Modil_ par On objecta/_ ce syst_me qu'il drtruisait le libre arbitre. Pour obvier h cet
Malebranche. inconvrnient, Malebranche imagina que le corps avait la libert_ de ses
modifications: mais qu'_ chaque impression, Dieu, qui n'rtait pas loin,
arrangeait l'_rne sur le champ de la m_me mani_re. 17 I1 faut avouer que
ce syst_me fait jouer h l'Auteur de l'Univers un rrle bien ridicule.
L'esprit Une troisi_me question qu'on a tich6 de resoudre, 6st celle-ci, L'esprit
pense-t-n perlse-t-il toujours? On assure qu'il pense, m_me clans le sommeil le plus
toujours? profond: et si nous croyons n'avoir pas r_v_, c'rst que nous avons oubli6 nos
r_ves. Pour appuyer eette proposition, on a d_fini l'esprit, une substance
essentiellement pensante, et l'on a dit, Puisqu'il 6st essentiellement pensant,
il faut qu'il pense toujours. On pourrait, de cette mani_re-1/_, prouver tout ce
qu'on voulait. Faut-il que je regarde comme drmontr_e la proposition que
l'esprit pense toujours, pareeque vous avez jug6 _propos de le drf'mir, une
substance essentiellement pensante? La conclusion n'rst d'ailleurs pas une
suite rigoureuse des prrmisses. On dit bien que les corps sont essentiellement
mobiles: eependant ils ne sont pas toujours en mouvement.
MS, British Library of Political and Economic Science, Mill-Taylor Collection, Vol.
XXXVm. These, the only extant notes, are for lectures 18 through 32 of the course given by
Joseph Diez Gergonne at Montpellier; the course began on 16 November, 1820, and
continued, with lectures on Tuesdays and Thursdays at 3:30 p.m.; the 18th lecture was
given on 18 January, and Mill's record in his Notebook runs up to 6 February (the 23rd
lecture); presumably the course terminated on 8 March. In the 18th Lecture and the first
three paragraphs of the 19th, there are suggested changes of wording in an unknown hand
(a different one from that correcting No. 2). These are indicated in variant notes, where
"CH" signifies the correcting hand, and the minus sign iadicates a proposed deletion. As
not published in Mill's lifetime, not listed in his bibliography.
18ME LF__ON
NOUS AVONSVU que les impressions faites sur nos organes des sens par les objets
exterieurs, sont communiqu6es au cerveau par le moyen des nerfs: que ces
impressions sont appel6es sensations: que la mani_re d'etre d'une sensation clans
l'esprit 6st une id6e: que c'6st ordinairement darts notre enfance que nous
acquierons le plus d'id6es, mais que chacun de nous 6st susceptible, quel que soit
son Age, d'en acqu6rir plus ou moins d'antres, suivant les circonstances o0 il 6st
plat6.
aMais les a id6es ne sont que la mati_re de nos connaissances: Pour en brecueillir
le fruit t', il faut comparer les id6es entr'elles, CetCsaisir leurs aressemblancesd et
leurs diff6rences. Sans cela, on epeute avoir rune tr_s grande quantit6 f d'id6es,
sans qu'elles Spuissent g servir que de fardeau h la m6moire. L'ol_ration de
comparer les id6es entr'elles 6st appel6e jugement: ce n'6st autre chose que la
perception des rapports et des diff6rences: Par ce moyen on s'assure si on peut
affirmer ou nier h de tout un sujet, 'ou seulement' d'une pattie certaines
_-*CH Les
b-bCH fake quelqu'usage
c-cCI-I de ranai_re i
d-%7-I rapports
"-'CH pourrait
-¢-JCH tm tr_sgrandhombre
s-sCH pOssent
_d soit
_-_'I-I soit
192 Journals and Speeches No. 3
propriet6s. Le jugement J exprim6 par les mots de nos langues 6st appel6
proposition.
Une question qui a ksouvent k produit des disputes darts les 6coles 6st celle/dont
l'objet _st t de savoir si ml'acte de juger m _st un acte simple. Pour r_soudre cette
question, il faut d'abord savoir ce qu'on entend par acre simple. La d6finition qui
me para_t la plus nnaturellen 6st o une action oft l'on ne distingue point de
commencement, de milieu, ni de fin. Or quelque lente que puisse 8tre la
comparaison qui Ppr6c&le le jugement, cette op6ration elle mSme me parait 8tre p
toujours instantan6e.
Mais de quelle utilit(5 cette question 6st-elle? Quel objet s'6st-on proposg en
t_chant de le r_soudre? C'6st que les m6taphysiciens ont cru y voir une preuve que
la substance pensante 6st tree substance simple. Un acte simple, disaient-ils, ne
peut sortir que d'une substance simple: Or le jugement 6st un acte simple de
l'esprit: donc l'esprit 6st une substance simple: Mais la mati_re est n6cessairement
tree substance compos_e: Doric la substance pensante 6st immat6rielle. Cette
philosophie qest ce qu'on pent appeler qavec r raisonphilosophie d arri_repens_e:
J'ai invent_ un syst_me, dit un m6taphysicien: Pour 6tablir ce syst_me, telle ou
telle proposition me sera fort commode: Donc il faut Spar tout moyen possible s
6tablir cette proposition. D' ailleurs, ce traisonnement t n'_st pas enti_rement libre
d'objections. I1y a des actes simples qui r_sultent des substances compos(Ses: Upar
exemple u, la percussion de deux billes de billard: Cette percussion n'a ni
commencement, ni milieu, ni fin: cependant on ne dira pas qu'une bille de billard
VgstVun corps simple. Le raisonnement que j'ai cit_ 6st en effet si loin d'Stre
convainquant, qu'on pourrait _o_tir de la mSme mani_re un pareil raisonnement
_galement fort, pour prouver tout le contraire de ce qu'on veut appuyer sur ces
argumens w. Pour comparer les ides, pourrait-on dire, il faut en avoir au m_me
instant _au x moins deux dans l'esprit: Donc l'esprit doit avoir au moins deux
parties, pour contenir ces deux ide3es, y Mais tout ce qui 6st divisible 6st mati_re:
Donc l'esprit _st materiel. On a t_hg de prouver "d'une pareille _ mani_re
JCH lorsqu'il est
k-k_CH
_-t_CH
"-_'TI le jugement
"-%'1-I convenable
°CH celle-ci:
P-_'CH le pr6c_le le jugemem, [sic] lui m_me 6st ce me semble
q-qCH peut etre appcl_
"CH de la
"-*CH a toute force
t-t_CH
"-_2H e.g.
_-_CH soit
"-'CH inventer un pared raisonnement aussi fort que le premier qui n_ne _t one conclusion
diremement oppo_
"-_CH du
Yell I1 est done divisible.
*-'CI-I deia n_me
1820-21 Lecture Notes on Logic 193
l'immortalit6 de l'L, ne a. On a dit que la a mort n'6st que la s6paration des parties:
Or l'_ae, bn'6tantb pas divisible, n'a point de parties: Donc elle 6st immortelle:
_Mais ce c raisonnement 6st aussi fallacieux que les autres: dcar la d mort n'6st pas
la s6paration des parties: ec'est lorsque e les divers organes d'une substance
organis6e n'6x6cutent plus les fonctions qui leur sont propres, f que nous disons
que cette substance 6st morte. _M6me il y a des substances divisibles et cependant
immortelles, comme le tems et l'espace, s hAuss i 1,on h peut dire ' que la mati_re
ne meurt pas, non plus que l'esprit: Elle se pr6sente/t la v6rit6 sous diverses
formes, mais elle ne meurt jarnais: Cependant les parties de la mati_re sont tr6s
souvent s6par6es l'une de l'autre. I1 y a donc fort peu de diff6rence _ l'6gard de
l'immortalit6, entre Sl'esprit et la mati_reL I1 y aurait _ne k temerit6/t dire que
Dieu n'a pas le pouvoir d'an6antir l'esprit aussi bien que la mati_re. Locke,
philosophe tr6s r61igieux, n'a pas dout6 de la possibilit6 de faire penser la mati_re. 1
On peut demander comment il 6st possible de concevoir que la mati_re puisse
penser: Mais en effet, comment l concevoir beaucoup d'autres faits? dont mon
n'6st m pas, pour cela, moins nassur6 n. Pourquoi borner la puissance de Dieu? Une
autre objection, non moins forte,/_ ces raisonnemens 6st que suivant eux il °faut °
accorder une _ne immortelle aux animaux: Car si on leur accorde la facult6 de
penser, ce qu'il 6st presqu'impossible de leur r6fuser, on ne peut pas nier que leur
_tme ne soit indivisible, et par cons6quent, immortelle, Psuivant p le raisonnement
qque j'ai cit_ q tout/t l'heure r. Descartes se tira de cette difficult6, "par la seule
mani_re possible, savoir s en supposant que les animaux tne sont t que de pures
machines. 2 Malbranche, apr6s lui, fit la m6me supposition. 3 L'abb6 Baran, 4
ILocke, Essay, Vol. II, pp. 330-62 (Bk. IV, Chap. iii, Sect. 6).
2Descartes, Dissertatio de methodo, pp. 23ff.
3Malebranehe, Recherche, Vol. II, pp. 104-6 (Bk. IV, Chap. xi, Sect. iii).
4probably a misheard name; not identified.
_voyant" les objections auxquelles cet hypoth_se 6st sujet, "asuppos6 vque l'_tme
des amimaux W6stWquelque chose d'interm6diaire entre la mati_re et l'esprit. I1n'y
a pas besoin de r6futer cette supposition. Que _peut _ 6tre, en effet, une substance
interm&liaire entre l'esprit et la mati_re? Si elle pense, comment lui r_fuser le nom
d'esprit? YSiy elle ne pense pas, Z6st-ceZ autre chose que la mati_re?
On s'6st aussi demamd6 si l'acte de juger 6st un acte libre de la volont6, ou un
acte forc_ de l'intelligence? I1 me parait "indisputable a qu'on ne peut pas
s'eml_her de penser que la plus petite de deux lignes n'6st pas la plus grande: On
peut s'eml_her de le dire: On peut n_me le nier: Mais alors on ment: Cela ne
d6montre point, qu'on bpeutb penser comme on veut. Quelques-uns ont r_pondu,
que nous avons la facult6 de suspendre nos jugemens: cSans dispute¢: mais
seulement alorsquea nous avons encore des doutes: et jugeons que nous n'avons
pas assez de lumi_res: Dams un autre cas nous ne pouvons pas suspendre nos
jugemens. Si je vois deux lignes, men_s en deux directions econtrairese, et
longues l'une de 60, et l'autre de 61 pieds, je ne puis pas fau premier abord savoir f
laquelle des deux 6st la plus longue: je suspends donc mon jugement jusqu'_ ce
qu'en mesurant les lignes, 8j'acquiersS les hlumi_resh, qu'il me faut: alors je ne
puis plus le suspendre. Mais si les deux lignes 6taient longues, l'une de cent et
l'autre settlement de dix pieds, iil est 6vident quei je ne pourrais pas j suspendre
mort jugement: Mais, kdit-onk, nous revenons quelquefois sur nos jugemens:
D'accord: mais nous le fesons tpar la suite d'un jugement: post_rieur, que nous
avons port6 le premier jugernent avec trop de pr6cipitation, et sans assez de
preuves, on r_pond, Mais nous pouvons ticher d'acqu6rir plus de lumi6res: Oui,
si nous jugeons que nous n'en avons pas assez: mais dams tout autre cas, nous ne
pourrons pas nous emp&_her de porter un jugement. On a mfait beaucoup de
disputes sur ce sujet", parcequ'on a voulu batir "un syst_me de morale sur cette
proposition que l'acte de juger 6st un acte libre de la volont& En effet, °la morale
est facile _ 6tablir 1_ dessus, car si l'on peut juger (suivant ces philosophes) °
comme on veut, tout d_faut de jugement 6st un crime. C'_st 1_ ce qui a allure6 les
bQchers de Pla superstitionP: On a cru dignes de mort tous ceux qui n'ont pas jug_
d'une certaine mani_re sur la religion.
On a fait une objection assez grave _ l'opinion que le jugement 6st un acte forc_
de l'intelligence: on a dit: Toutes nos d_terminations sont la suite de nos
jugemens: Si donc nos jugemens ne sont pats libres voil_ le libre arbitre d6truit.
Pour r_pondre _ cette objection, on a fait comme on qle q fait tr_s souvent: On nous
a pay6 de roots, en fesant tree distinction entre les causes et les motifs. Les corps
'brutes r, a-t-on dit, ne sont pas libres, parcequ'ils agissent en vertu de causes;
Smals' nous le sommes, parceque nous agissons par des motifs, tMais c'est tune
distinction sans aucune diff6rence: _On ne fait que d'appeler par le nom de"
motifs, les causes qui agissent sur notre esprit.
v I1faut observer cependant clue lorsque je dis que notre jugement n'6st pas libre,
je ne veux pas dire, comme les anciens, que nous Wsommes w pouss_s par une
fatalit_ qui nous crop&he d'agir en vertu de nos jugemens: Au contraire, nous
agissons tonjours en verm de ces jugemens, form6s en comparant les avantages et
les desavantages Xqui r_sulteront si nous agissons d'une certaine mani_re x. YOn a
dit, Voi_ une doctrine tr_s d_solante, que nous n'avons pas le pouvoir d'agir
notre volont_: Soit: je ne connais point _non plus _ de doctrine plus d6solante que
celle de la contagion de la peste: cependant je trois qu'on auralt grand tort, si, dans
une ville oil rageait cette maladie on conseillait _ tout le monde de s'y exposer sans
aucune pr6caution, y °On a dit baussib qu'il _st injuste de punir ceux qui ne
peuvent agir autrement qu'ils ne le font, et que tout l'ordre social se trouve par
cons&luent an&anti si l'on Cadmet cette doctrineC: Mais en effet, que fait-on, aen
punissant a les criminels? On ajonte un poids _ la balance: Celui qui se trouve
dispos_ _tcommettre tm crime, ne le ecommettra pas e s'il croit devoir _tre puni: en
r-_CH C'est
"-_-I C'est tout bonnemem
_CH [paragraph break indicated by single square bracket and interlined NL]
w-wCI.l soyons
_CH de relic ou telle rnani_ d'agir
Y-YCH [marked off with square brackets, presumably to suggest deletion]
z_z_CH
19ME LEGON
aJ'^I OUBLII_darts la demi6re s6ance de vous parler d'un a syst6me qui a quelque
rapport avec ce bqui a d6j/t 6t6 l'objet de notre consid6ration. Je parle du syst6me b
de Gall, qui d6duit Ctoutes les habitudes, routes les propensions, de l'individu, de
l'organisation du cerveauC. _ Jusqu'/_ un certain point, je asuis de son avis: car
puisque le a cerveau 6st le si6ge de l'_ae, pourquoi e le d6veloppement d'un
organe particulier du cerveau ne produirait-il / un gpareil d6veloppementg dans
une facult6 particuli6re de l'esprit? hAussi par ce moyen-l_ on peut parvenir _th
expliquer ' pourquoi les hommes ont quelquefois une facilit6 particuli6re _ se
rappeler de telle Jou telleJ chose, plut6t que de telle autre. Je me souviens que darts
mon enfance j'avais la plus grande facilit6/t me *rappeler k des sons, mais pour les
noms tie ne pouvais jamais r6ussirk Je voudrais donc accorder qu'il peut y avoir
une pattie du cerveau appropri6e aux noms, une autre aux sons, etc.
IThe phrenological system is exposited in Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) and Johann
Caspar Spurzheim (1776-1832), Anatomie et physiologie du syst_me nerveux en gdndral,
et du cerveau en particulier, 4 vols. (Paris: Sehoell, 1810-19).
f-fCH _t mon ffls_u
s-sCH rantqueje ne savais
h-_-'H j'6tais [?]
'-'CH pas
J-JCH C'6st un cas pareil_ celui que nous venonsde traiter
[onfollowing line, centred, "Passto (a)", evidently signalling thatthefirst twoparagraphs of
the next lec_n should be omitted; see 197" be/ow]
_-"CH Un
_bCH quenous venons de traiter,c'est celui
¢-_CH de I'organisationdu cerveautoutes les habitudes,routesles propensions,de l'individu
a-aCI-I
crois qu'ilpeutavoir raison. Le
*CH donc
/CH pas
*-SCH d_veloppement pareil
h-%'_-IOn pounait
ainsi
H-CH
*-_L'Hsouvenir
t-_H j'avais biende la difficult_[?]
1820-21 Lecture Notes on Logic 197
Un talent qui a quelque rapport mavecm celui que Gall pr6tendit avoir 6st celui
de juger des caract_res et des dispositions des hommes _ la simple vue. Tout le
monde poss_de ce talent jusqu'_ un certain point: "parcequ'on n volt habituelle-
merit que telle ou telle °figure s'accorde commun6ment avec ° telle ou telle
disposition. Mais certaines personnes le portent _ un degr6 de perfection ofJ les
hommes en g6n6ral ne peuvent point atteindre. Tout le monde connait l'histoire de
Socrate, qui P6taitPjug6 tr_s m6chant homme par une femme qui ne l'avait jamais
vu, qet qui q r6pondit qu'en effet il avait eu darts son enfance de tr6s mauvaises
dispositions, et que ce n'6tait qu'h force de rtravail" qu'il S6taitSparvenu _ les
gu6rir.2 Cette histoh'¢ nous donne 'aussi' une autre l_on, qu'il ne faut point trop
nous tier aux conclusions que nous donne la physiognomographie: Ucaron u peut
avoir eu de mauvaises qualit6s, et pourtant 6tre parvenu/_ les perdre apr6s que les
traits du visage se fussent form6s: car apr6s un certain Age ils ne sont plus
susceptibles de changer leur forme avec autant de facilit6, vDe m6me certaines v
persones, w d'un naturel tr_s doux, ont souffert des revers de fortune qui leur ont
enlev6 cett¢ qualit6 tandis qu'ils conservent les m6mes traits.--Cependant il serait
fort utile qu'un grand nombre de personnes eussent ce talent: car il pourrait souvent
donner de grandes lumi6res darts les cours _de justice _, dans la choix des
fonctionnaires publics, etc. Mais Ymalheureusement il ne peut gu6re y se
communiquer: car il d6pend de la facult6 de saisir de petites nuances qu'on peut
dessiner mais qu'on ne peut Zgu6reZd6crire.
QbQuant au libre arbitre, nous avons vu bque nos actions sont le r6sultat de nos
jugemens, qui sont euxm6mes forcds par la comparaison des avantages et des
d6savantages. Mais ce n'6st pas tout: Nos jugemens sont tr_s souvent modifi6s par
des circonstances externes, et par notre organisation. Ceux que nous portons sur
2No source gives precisely this story about Socrates (469-399 B.C. ), but cf. Cicero, De
faro, in De oratore, De faro, Paradoxa stoicorum, De partitione oratoria (Latin and
English), trans. H. Rackham (London: Heinemann; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univer-
sity Press, 1942), pp. 202-4 (Sects. 10-11 ).
m-inCH _t
"-'_H c'est qu'on
°-°CH physionomie s'unit/l [?]
P-PCH 6tant
q-q-OH
"-"CH I_au¢oup travaillcr
_-aCH [illegiblesubstitution]
t-t_CH
"-_cI On
_-vCH Certaines
wCH aussi
_-_CH d'assise
Y-YCHcec_inernent
il ne peutpas [?]
z-ZCH pas
_CH [(a)inthemargin,toindicatepointat whichrevisedversionshouldresume:see196kabove]
b-bCH l'ai c_t
198 Journals and Speeches No. 3
les actions d'autrui sont presque toujours plus s6v_res qu'ils ne devraient l'_tre.
Toutes ces circonstances nous apprennent combien il faut _tre indulgens aux
actions de nos semblables Cpuisqu'ilsC ne peuvent s'eml_her de faire comme ils
font. Je ale crois indisputable d qu'en 6tant le libre arbitre, loin de dftruire la
morale, on l'appuie, en fesant voir que les actions des autres hommes m6ritent
notre piti6 au lieu de notre indignation ": c'est en effet ce qui constitue la vraie
morale e.
Nous avons vu qu'en comparant les id6es nous en saisissons les rapports et les
diff6rences, c'6st _ dire, nous portons des jugemens, qui, exprim6s par des signes
ext6rieurs, soit par les roots, soit par le geste, deviennent propositions. I1 paralt
doric qu'on peut en faire sans parler: Non seulement le geste, mais quelquefois
memeJes cris, deviennent des propositions. Examinons la mani_re dont on a class_
les propositions; en r6flechissant que les mots ne sont en eux m6mes que des sons,
qui ne valent que par le sens qu'on y attache, mais qu'il 6st essentiel de connaitre ce
sens, afin de comprendre le discours dont ces mots font pattie.
D'abord doric, les propositions sont ou simples ou compliqu6es. Une
proposition simple 6st celle qui ne renferme qu'un seul jugement, et par
cons6quent deux id6es compar6es l'une _ l'autre. Cette proposition L'homme _st
mortel 6st une proposition simple, puisqu'elle ne renferme qu'un jugement. Mals
celle-ci, L 'homme, qui ne fait que passer sur la terre, con_oit pourtant de vastes
entreprises, renferme deux jugemens, d'abord, que l'homme ne fait que passer sur
la terre, et ensuite, qu'il conqoit de grandes entreprises: Elle 6st donc une
proposition compliqu6e.--Quand un sujet peut recevoir plusieurs qualifications,
on peut sous-entendre une d'entr'elles, et celle, de pr6f6rence, qui 6st de l'usage le
plus fr6quent: nous sous-entendrons donc toujours la qualification de simple, et
lorsque nous parlerons de proposition sans aucune modification nous entendrons
toujours proposition simple.
On a voulu donner un nom particulier _ chacune des id6es que nous comparons
pour faire tm jugement: On a donn_ le nom de sujet _ l'id6e dont on pr6tend
affirmer ou nier quelque chose: cette id6e 6st exprim6e ordinairement par un nom
substantif ou par un pronom demonstratif ou personel. L'id_e qu'on aflame ou nie
d'une autre idle a re_u mal _tpropos le nom d'attribut, cependant on ne se borne
pas _ attribuer, on hie quelquefois une id_ d'une autre id6e. Lorsque je dis Nul
homme n'_st parfait, Parfait n'6st pas certainement un attribut d'homme.
L'attribut _st toujours un adjectif. Dans cette proposition Tout homme _st mortel,
Tout homme 6st le sujet, mortel 6st l'attribut. Le lien qui r6unit ces deux et qui 6st
ordinairement le verbe dst s'appeUe copule. Ces trois choses se retrouvent dans
routes les propositions. Comme on a souvent occasion de parler eollectivement du
sujet et de l'attribut, on leur a donn6, pour abr6ger le langage, le nora commun de
c-cCH qui
_-'L-'H crois
e-'-CH [thisis thefinal correction]
1820-21 Lecture Notes on Logic 199
20MELE(_ON
4Destutt
deTracy,
E//ments,
Vol.m, pp.358-9(Chap.viii).
1820-21 Lecture Notes on Logic 201
Pour bien saisir le sens des propositions il faut consid_rer que leur nature d6pend
de l'6tendue r_lative des id6es. Exprimons donc cette 6tendue par des signes.
On peut r6pr6senter l'6tendue d'une id6e par une espace bom6e, telle qu'un
cercle. Or deux cercles peuvent 6tre enti_rement hors l'un de l'autre, ils peuvent se
couper, ils peuvent comcider pr6cis6ment, ou l'un peut 6tre enti_rement contenu
clans l'autre. Deux id6es sont dans le m6me cas. Les id6es, par exemple, de
Fran_ais et d'Anglais sont enti_rement hors l'un de l'autre: car nul Franqais n'6st
Anglais, ni nul Anglais n'6st Fran_ais. Les id6es de m&lecm et de g6om_tre sont
darts le second cas, car quelques m&lecins sont g6om_tres, mais pas tous: C'6st
comme les deux cercles qui se coupent: chacune a une partie en dedans et une
partie en dehors de l'autre. Pour exemple du troisi_me cas il faut prendre deux
noms exactement synonymes, tels que Suisse et Helvetien, Hollandais et Batave.
Les id6es d'afore et de cerisier sont dans le quatfi_me cas: l'une 6st contenue darts
l'autre: il y a des arbres qui ne sont pas des c_risiers, mais tout ce qui 6st c_risier 6st
afore. Donnons _ chacun de ces cas un signe aussi naturel que nous pouvons.
R6pr6sentons par Hle premier cas: d'abord parceque c'6st la lettre initielle du mot
hors, et que clans ce cas les id6es sont enti_rement hors l'une de l'autre, ensuite
pareeque eette lettre _st compos6e en pattie de deux barres qui ne se coupent pas,
qui n'ont den de commun. La lettre X, compos6e de deux banes qui se croisent,
peut r_pr6senter le cas de deux cercles qui se coupent. I, lettre initielle du mot
identitY, et d'ailleurs ne consistant qu'en une seule barre, peut r6pr6senter deux
id6es qui coincident l'tme et l'autre: C ou D (on verra bient6t pourquoi je donne
deux signes) 6tant la lettre initielle du mot contenant, peut r6pr6senter le quatri_me
cas. n faut observer que clans les deux premiers cas les deux id6es sont
symm_triques, c'6st a dire que l'une a la m_me relation _tl'autre que celle-lh _tla
premiere: Car si P _st hors de G, G 6st hors de P: si P coupe G, G coupe aussi P. De
m_me les lettres H et X sont symmCtriques: car si on les renverse ils ne changent
pas. Si les deux idles sont identiques ils sont 6videnmmnt symm6triques par
rapport l'une l'autre: de m_me la lettre 16st symm_trique. Mais dans le quatri6me
cas, les idles ne sont plus symmCtriques: l'une 6st contenante, et l'autre contenue:
de m_me la lettre C n'6st pas symmCtrique. On ne saurait en cr6ant les notations,
soulager l'attention en liant les signes aux choses.
Si ensure nous considCrons les id6es comme termes d'une proposition, nous
trouvons qu'au lieu de quatre cas, il yen a cinq: car on peut demander, dans le
dernier cas, si l'id6e contenue 6st le sujet, ou l'attribut. Puisqu'il 6st plus conforme
la nomenclature que le petit terme soit l'id_e contenue dans le grand terme nous
r_pr6senterons ce cas par C: et le cas oil le grand terme 6st contenu dans le petit
terme, par D. Nous avons doric
® @ (.)
(_) (X)
@ (I)
(C)
Darts le cas D, on ne peut pas dire Tout P 6st G, car P a une partie hors de G:
toutefois on ne peut pas dire Nul P n'fst G, car ces idles ont une partie commune,
c'fst _tdire l'id_ G elle mfme. Mais on peut dire Quelque P 6st G, et Quelque P
n'fst pas G. Ce cas donc, comme le cas X, s'ftend aux propositions particuli_res.
On a donc
s'ils sont darts un des quatre cas, ils soient darts le cas I ou C. Del/l on tire un moyen
puissant pour le raisonnement. Si quelqu'un hie un cas particulier, prouvez-lui
l'universel, et le particulier dst prouv6: affirme-t-il l'universel? Refutez-le en
prouvant que le particulier dst faux.
I1peut y avoir aussi des propositions qui aient les m_mes termes, mais celui qui
6st l'attribut de l'un peut _tre le sujet de l'autre. Elles peuvent diff6rer de quantit6
ou de qualit6. La rdciproque d'une proposition dst celle qui r6sulte en mettant tout
simplement le sujet _ la place de l'attribut, sans changer ni la qualitd, ni la quantit6.
La converse dst celle dont la v6rit6 6st une suite ndcessaire de la verit6 de la
proposition dont elle 6st la converse. La r6ciproque 6st quelquefois, mais pas
toujours, la converse.
Dans la prochaine s6ance j'examinerai les cas dans lesquels elle l'6st, ou ne l'6st
pas.
21 MELEMON
1Sic.The sense requires "quelquefois" (as in the second paragraph of the lecture).
208 Journals and Speeches No. 3
J'observerai aussi qu'on peut tr_s bien raisonner sur des id6es qui me sent
tout-_t-fait inconnues. Si un Botaniste, par exemple, me parle de certaines plantes
queje ne connais point, s'il en aftirme ou nie quelque chose, je pourrai d6duire de
c.eRe proposition sa converse et sa proposition subalterne, je pourrai nier sa
contradictoire, et ainsi de suite. I1n'6st donc pas n6cessaire de connaitre les objets,
pour pouvoir raisonner sur eux: il suffit d'avoir requ sur ces objets des
renseignemens auxquels on peut se tier.
Si nos langues 6taient simples, nous n'aurions que ces sortes de propositions,
dont je viens de parler. Mais, soit un avantage, soit un desavantage, nos langues
ont 6t6 fort travaill6es, et elles renferment beaucoup de propositions qui
contiennent plus d'un jugement: On les appelle propositions compliqu6es. I1 &st
presqu'impossible d'6num6rer les propositions compliqu6es: Chaque fois qu'un
6crivain donne un nouveau tour _ une pens6e il cr6e une nouvelle proposition, et
quelquefois la m_me ouvrage en contiennem de tousles genres. I1 6st donc tr6s
difficile, pour ne pas dire impossible, de faire des r6gles pour les propositions
compliqu6es. Mais il &st bon de pouvoir les s6parer en les propositions simples
dont elles sont form6es, atin de pouvoir, dans les cas difticiles, leur substituer une
suite de propositions simples qui ait la m6me valeur: Et cet art fera le sujet de la
s_ance prochaine.
22MESi_ANCE
rant multiplier le nombre des sujets par le nombre des attributs: Mais cette r_gle n'a
pas lieu darts le cas o/l les sujets et les attributs sont du m6me nombre, et que
chaque attribut se rapporte hun seul sujet anquel il 6st propre: Comme si je voulais
dire que j'aime 1'6t6, et qu'un autre aime l'hiver, je pourrais dire Vous et moi nous
craignons le chaud et lefroid: je ne veux pas dire ici Vous craignez le chaud et le
froid, Je crains le chaud et lefroid, rnais vous craignez le chaud, je crains lefroid.
Dans ce cas il faut mettre les attributs dans le m6me ordre que les sujets, pour que
l'on puisse savoir quel attfibut convient _ttel sujet.
Une proposition 6st appel6e complexe, si l'on 6nonce en passant un jugement
sur le sujet ou sur l'attribut de la proposition: comme lorsqu'on dit Le Terns, qui
d_truit tout,fortifie les mauvaises habitudes. I1y a alors une proposition principale
et une proposition incidente, car il 6st clair que celle que je veux principalement
6noncer 6st que Le Terns fortifie les mauvaises habitudes, mais je dis aussi en
passant que le terns ddtruit tout. I1faut cependant observer que le qui ou le que ne
donne pas toujours la certitude que la proposition 6st complexe; ces particules
peuvent 6tre d6terminatifs, pour limiter le sujet par rapport _tson 6tendue; comme
si je dis L' homme qui sait borner ses d_sirs n' est jamais pauvre ,je ne veux pas dire
que l'homme n'6st jamais pauvre ni que l'homme sait bomer ses d6sirs, mais je
veux limiter le sujet, et faire voir que je ne dis pas que L'homme n'dst jamais
pauvre, mais seulement que L' homme qui sait borner ses d_sirs ne l'est jamais.
Quelquefois il y a de l'6quivoque dans une proposition, et l'on ne sait pas si elle 6st
en effet eomplexe. L'homme ldger et inconstant ne conduit jamais _ la fin de
grandes entreprises. Ici on ne sait pas si le sens de la phrase 6st que l'homme 6st
16ger et inconstant, ou bien que l'homme qui _st leger et inconstant ne conduit
jamais h la fin de grandes entreprises. On 6st convenu d'6viter cette ambiguit6 en
mettant une virgule apr_s le sujet principal toutes les fois que la proposition 6st
complexe. Quelquefois la complication ne porte ni sur le sujet ni sur l'attribut,
mais sur l'affirmation ou sur la n_gation: Les astronomes assurent que la terre se
meut. I1 faut observer que cette proposition peut avoir deux sens. Si je veux dire
que les astronomes 1'assurent, mais que je n'en sais rien, la proposition 6st simple,
ne renfermant qu'un seul jugerncnt: mais si je veux dire que la terre se meut, et
appuyerrnon affLrrnationen ajoutantque ies astronomes l'assurent, la proposition
6st complexe, et la complication porte sur l'affirmation. II 6st clair qu'une
proposition complexe peut 8tre fausse, bien que la proposition incidente soit vraie:
ou vraie quoiqu'elle soit fausse. L'homme, qui dst ldger et inconstant, est
immortel: La proposition principale 6st ici fausse, quoique la proposition incidente
soit v_e. L'homme, qui $st d_pourvu d'organes, est mortel: C'est ici la
proposition incidente qui 6st fausse, tandis que la principale 6st vraie.
Une proposition 6st dite absolue si l'on y affu'me que l'attribut convient au sujet
sans aucune restriction: elle 6st modale si on affirme ou nie avec quelque
r6striction. Telles sont ces propositions L' eau n'dst pas constamment liquide: II
faut que les citoyens ob_issent aux lois. Je ne veux pas dire ici que les citoyens
210 Journals and Speeches No. 3
ob_issent anx lois: car dans ce cas il n'y auraitplus besoin de cour d'assises. I1dst
clair que la suppression de l'adverbe peut souvent rendre la proposition fausse: Si
au lieu de dire L'eau n'dst pas constamment liquide je disais L' eau n'_st pas
liquide, il dst clair que ma proposition serait fausse.
Une proposition dst dire conditionelle lorsqu'elle affn'me que tel ou tel attribut
convient ou ne convient pas _ tel ou tel sujet, si tel autre attribut convient ou ne
convient pas _ tel autre sujet. I1 y a donc deux propositions, l'ant_cedente et la
cons_uente. Si les animaux sont de pures machines, ils doivent _tre insensibles.
(II faut observer que dans cette proposition le pronom ils tient la place d'un sujet. )
La proposition, Les animaux sont de pures machines dst l'antdcddente; Les
animaux doivent $tre insensibles _st la cons&luente. I!dst clair que la verit_ ou la
fausset_ de la proposition conditionelle ne depend pas de celle de l'ant_c_Aente ni
de la consb.quente: I1 suffit pour sa vdrit_ que celle de la consdquente r_sulte
n&:essairementde celle de l'antkc6dente. Dans la proposition queje viens de citer
je crois ferm_ment _ la faussetd de routes deux: cependant l'une me parait _tre la
suite n6cessaire de l'autre. Darts celle-ci, Si la neige _st blanche, les hommes sont
morte/s on ne niera point la v6rit_ de l'ant_lente ni de la cons&luente, cependant
la proposition 6st fausse, et m_me ridicule.--Si l'on met l'ant6c&lente et la
cons6quente _t la place l'une de l'autre, on a la r6ciproque; La r6ciproque de la
proposition que j'ai cit6e tout _ l'heure 6st Si les animaux ne sontpas sensibles, ils
sont de pures machines. Comme dams les propositions simples, la r6ciproque
d'une proposition vraie n'dst pas toujours vraie: Pour trouver la converse il faut en
m_me terns changer la qualit_ de l'ant(_dente et de la cons6quente: Si les animaux
sore sensibles, ce ne sont pas de pures machines: proposition qui dst une
suite rigoureuse de la proposition primaire. On a donc quatre propositions
conditionelles qui ont les m_mes deux propositions pour en fake leurs Con-
S&lUentes et leurs Ant6c6dentes: Pour prouver toutes les quatre, il suffit d'en
prouver deux, qui ne sont pas converses rune de l'antre.--Les anciens Logiciens
ont rassembl_ les rb.glesde la Proposition Conditionelle en ces quatre: Qui accorde
l'Ant_c6dente accorde la Cons&luente: Qui nie la Cons6quente nie l'Ant6c6dente:
mais qui accorde la Cons6quente n' accorde point l'Ant6c&lente, ni celui qui nie
l'Ant6c6dente nie-t-il la Cons&luente.
Viennent ensuite les Propositions Disjonctives, Si l'on donne deux sujets ou
deux attributs tels que si run ne convient pas, l'autre convient. L'envie ou
le nu_pris dst le sort des _crivains. On peut les changer en propositions
conditionelles: Si r envie n'_st pas le sort des _crivains, le nu_pris l'_st. I1faut un
certain degr6 d'opposition entre les deux membres de la proposition comme dans
l'exemple: L'envie attend les bons _'rivains, le m6pris attend les mauvais.
Darts les propositions causales on affirme que tel attribut convient ou ne
convient pas _ttel sujet parceque tel autre attribut convient ou ne convient pas _ttel
antre sujet. I1y a iei, comme dartsles propositions conditionelles, une Ant6_dente
et une Cons_quente: mais avec cette difference, qu'il 6st m_.essaire que toutes les
1820-21 Lecture Notes on Logic 211
deux soient vraies. I1y a ici trois jugemens: d'abord que l'ant6c6dente est vraie,
ensuite la cons_luente, et enfin que la v6rit6 de l'une 6st la cause de la v6rit_ de
l'autre. Quoiqu'il soit n6cessaire que les deux membres soit vrais ils peuvent
cependant l'6tre sans que le jugemem causal le soit: comme darts cette proposition
Les hommes sont mortels parceque la neige _st blanche.
Les propositions comparatives ou discr6tives sont celles oO l'on dit que tel
attribut convient _ tel sujet, mais qu'il convient mieux _ tel autre, ou que tel attribut
convient _ tel sujet mais que tel autre attribut lui convient mieux. Il y a ici trois
jugemens. Lafontaine dit qu' il _st bon de parler, mais meilleur de se taire. _Il y a
d'abord le jugement qu'il 6st bon de parler, ensuite qu'il 6st bon de se mire, et enfin
qu'il vaut mieux se taire que de parler. Ici il faut un certain degr6 de contraste entre
les deux memhres.
Les propositions exclusives affmnent que tel attribut convient seul _ tel sujet,
qu'aucun autre ne lui convient: ou que tel attribut convient _ tel sujet seul, et
aucnn antre. I1y a ici deux jugemens: d'abord que tel attribut convient _ tel sujet,
ensuite qu'aucun autre ne lui convient. Mais il faut distinguer ce cas de celui o_ le
mot seul ne sert qu'_ limiter le sujet ou l'attribut _ une seule chose, comme lorsque
Boileau dit [In sonnet sans d_faut vaut seui un long po_me; 2 il ne veut pas dire
qu'un sonnet sans d6faut 6st la seule chose qui vaille un long po_me, mais qu'_ lui
tout seul il le vaut.
Les propositions inceptives affn'me que tel attribut convient _ tel sujet depuis
que tel antre attribut convient _ tel autre sujet. Les propositions desitives affn-ment
que tel attribut ne convient plus _ tel sujet depuis que tel autre attdbut a cess6 de
convenir _ tel autre sujet. Ici il y a une ant6c6dente et une cons6quente. Lorsqu'on
c_t Les oracles n'ont cess_ de parler que depuis qu' on a cess_ d'y croire, l'ant_-
c6dente 6st Les oracles ont cess_ de parler, la consO:tuente 6st On a cess_ d'y
croire. La v6rit6 de la proposition ne depend pas de celle de l'ant_c6dente ni de la
cons(_quente. Lorsqu'on dit Les hivers sont doux _ Montpellier depuis que les
femmes ne portent plus de gros paniers les deux membres sont vrais, mais la
proposition inceptive 6st fausse.
Les propositions r6dupficatives, peut _tre mal nomm6es, sont ceUes qui
affLrmentque tel attributne convient _ tel sujet que sous certains rapportset _ tels
6gards. La terre comme corps c_leste ne diff_re point des autres plan_tes.
Les propositions imp6ratives ou supplicatives sont celles qui manifestent un
voeu que tel atlribut convienne ou ne convienne pas _ tel sujet. Si la proposition
exprime un ordre, on l'appelle impdrative; si elle exprime un simple voeu, elle 6st
supplicative. Quelquefois il y a des doutes si la proposition 6st imp6rative ou
suppficative. Dartsce morceau de Voltaire Descend des cieux auguste Vdritd etc. :3
le ton de la phrase fait bien voir que la proposition 6st supplicative, mais Voltaire
se serait servi des m6mes mots s'il avait voulu ordonner.
Enfin, les propositions interrogatives sont des propositions tronqu6es, qui
expriment un dfsir de savoir quelque chose: Elles ne sont ni vraies ni fausses en
elles-m6mes, et pour prononcer sur leur v6rit6 il faut attendre que la r6ponse ait
compl6t_ la proposition.
Je ne quitterai pas ce sujet avant de dire un mot sur un genre peu important de
propositions, mais qui a beaucoup tourment_ les sophistes Grecs: ce sont les
propositions qui ne peuvent, pour ainsi dire, 6tre vraies qu'6tant fausses, ni fausses
qu'6tant vraies. En voil_ des exemples. Un dervische fait voeu de je_ner jusqu'h ce
qu'on lui ait dit une fausset6. On lui dit, Derviche, tu as assezjean_ pour accomplir
un voeu: Est-ce vrai? donc on ne lui a point dit encore de fausset6, donc il n'a pas
encore assez jefin6, et par cons6quent la proposition est fausse: Est-elle fausse?
donc il n'a pas assez jefm_, donc on ne lui a point dit de fausset6, et par cons&luent
la proposition 6st vraie. Le dervische ne sait pas s'il doit jeQner ou non. On ouvre
un livre qui ne contient que cette seule phrase, Tout ce qui dst dcrit dans ce livre est
faux: mais il n'y a que cette phrase: donc si elle 6st vraie elle 6st fausse, si elle 6st
fausse elle 6st vraie. Tout cela remonte _ ce sophisme tr_s connu. Un jeune homme
apprit la Rh6torique d'un autre, snr cette condition qu'il ne paierait qu'apr_s qu'il
ei_t gagn6 sa premiere cause. Le jeune homme ne voulut point plaider. L'autre
devint impatient, et le poursuivit (levant des juges. Le jefme homme dit aux juges,
Si je suis condamn6, j'ai perdu ma premiere cause, etje ne vous dois rien: Dans le
cas contraire, lejuge aura d6termin6 que vous avez tort, donc je ne vous dois rien. 4
23raE SI_ANCE
story of Euathlus, the young man, and Protagoras, the sophist, is told in Aulus
Gellius, The Attic Nights, Vol. I, pp. 404-8 (V, x).
1820-21 Lecture Notes on Logic 213
eux ce qu'un singe $stpour nous: _II exprime une doute par cette proposition. Les
propositions hypoth_tiques affirment que tel attribut convient ou ne convient pas
tel sujet clans une certaine supposition, qui peut en elle m_me _tre vraie ou fausse.
Si la conclusion 6st la suite n6eessaire de cette supposition, on ne peut jamais nier
la v6rit_ de la proposition. Les d6finitions sont toujours vraies, parcequ'elles
expriment que celui qui les 6nonce veut entendre relic chose par tel nora, done elles
sont vraies par cela seul qu'elles sont 6nonc6es. Les divisions logiques sont
toujours vraies, pourvu qu'elles ne t_hent pas contre les r_gles.
I1faut observer enfin qu'une proposition peut renfermer un grand nombre de ces
sortes de complication que nous venons d'expliquer.
Une observation tr_s importante h faire 6st que darts la Logique il faut toujours
prendre une proposition pour tout ee qu'elle signifie, et uniquement pour ce qu'elle
signifie. Mais darts le langage ordinaire, qui n'admet pas une si grande rigueur
dans les expressions, il faut souvent eonsid6rer le ton, le geste, et les habitudes de
l'individu qui 6nonce la proposition. Souvent nous pronon_ons une proposition
d'un ton d'ironie, alors il ne faut pas l'entendre _ la rigueur. D'ailleurs quand nous
6nonqons tree proposition particuli_re dans la conversation ordinaire, nous
sous-entendons que l'universelle n'fst pas vraie. Aussi 6nonqons nous souvent
comme universelle une proposition qui ne l'6st pas a la rigueur, mais qui n'a que
peu d'exceptions: Et c'6st ce qui donne lieu _ ce que nous disons cornmun6ment,
qu'il n'y a point de r_gle sans exception; car il 6st clair que si les propositions
6taient toujours 6nonc_,6s de la mani&e la plus exacte possible, il n'y aurait jamais
des exceptions. Lorsqu'on dit que les Allemands manquent de gofit, il 6st bien
certain qu'on ne veule pas dire qu'il n'y a pas un seul homme dans toute
l'Allemagne qui ait du gofit; on veut seulement dire, Quelles que soient d'ailleurs
les bonnes qualit6s des Allemands, le goi_t n'6st pas le caract_re g6n6ral, au moins
de la plus grande pattie. Les Flamands sont de bonspeintres: Cette proposition ne
veule pas dire que tous les Flamands soient peintres, ni que tous ceux qui le sont
n6ussissent clans cette art, mais que les Flamands s'y donnent volontiers et y
nSussissent ordinairement. Quelquefois on applique _ un 6tre des caract_res qui
s'appliquent proprement _ un autre, comme lorsqu'on ditLes moeurs des Franfais
ont beaucoup chang_ depuis Charlemagne: Puisque il n'existe aucun Franqais du
terns de Charlemagne, il aurait fallu dire que les Fran_ais d'aujourd'hui n'ont pas
les n_mes moeurs que ceux du terns de Charlemagne. Lorsqu'on dit qu'il y a eu un
monde innombrable a la promenade, il ne faut pas prendre cela a la rigueur, car on
peut les compter. J'aipass# la nuit, dis-je _tquelqu'un. I1pourrait rfpondre, Et moi
aussi, et tout le monde: Et nous sommes arriv6s au lendemain. Mais c'6st qu'on
sous.entend sans me coucher. Lorsqu'on me dit a la porte d'une maison.
"Monsieur n'y 6st pas," il faut entendre cela comme un r6fus honn_te de me voir.
Quelques-tms consid_ent cela eomme une mensonge: I1 me parait qu'ils ont bien
tort: Une mensonge 6st ee qui trompe: Or cette mani_re de parler 6st convenue dans
la soci6t_ pour dire qu'on 6st occup6, qu'on ne peut pas recevoir les visites. On va
voir quelqu'un au moment qu'on sait qu'il n'6st pas chez lui: Le lendemain on le
rencontre, on a eu leplaisir d'aller chez lui la veille, et on a _t6 au ddsespoir de ne
pas ry trouver. Nous disons commun6ment, l'or 6st jaune; _ la rigueur il faudrait
dire qne l'or _tla qualit6 de nous donner l'id6e de jaune: Car demandez _tun aveugle
ce que c'est qne le jaune; il ne pourra rien dire. Je ne parle pas des locutions des
po6tes, car tout le monde sait qu'il ne faut pas les prendre _ la rigueur.
Ces comparaisons de deux id6es par le moyen d'une autre id6e 6st appel6e
syllogisme.
Mais il faut que l'6chelle soit bien construite, pour que je ne cause aucun risque
en la montant, et bien pos6e, pour que j'arrive en le montant, au lieu 00 je veux
aller. De m_me il faut des r_gles pour le syllogisme. Ces r_gles ont 6t6 pour la
premiere lois signal6es par Aristote: 2 Elles ont depuis occup6 Gallien,3 Gassendi ,4
MM de Port Royal, 5 et Euler. 6 Les m_taphysiciens modernes patient ordinaire-
merit de ces r_gles avec une sorte de d6dain. Condillac dans un Petit Trait6 de
Logique dit darts une note, "Je me rappelle qu'on m'a enseign6 au coll_ge qu'on
comparait deux id6es par le moyen d'une troisi_me: qu'on concluait que l'id6e A
convient _tl'id6e B parceque l'une et l'autre convient h l'id6e C: On ne verra rien de
tout cela clans ce livre."7 Et que verra-t-on donc? Depuis que l'homme a raisonn6
sur la terre, il 6st certain qu'il n'a jamais raisonn6 que de cette mani_re. Et si l'on
peut reprocher _tAristote de s'_tre trop attach6 au m6canisme du raisonnement,
s'ensuit-il del_ qu'il n'y faut rien donner? Nous avons d6jh dit que plus on pout
reduire d'ol_rations de l'esprit _ un pur m6canisme, mieux cela va, car nous ne
pouvons jamais 6tre siirs que du r6sultat d'une operation m6canique.
L'art de la Dialectique consiste doric _ conclure la r61ation entre deux id6es de
celle de chactme de ces deux avec une id6e interm6diaire. Si toutes les trois
propositions sont simples, le syllogisme 6st dit simple: Si une quelconque
d'entr'elles 6st compliqu6e, le syllogisme 6st compliqu6. Nous ne nous occupe-
rons d'abord que des syllogismes simples.
Des trois propositions qui forment un syllogisme, les deux desquelles on conclut
la troisi_me sont appel6es du nom des premisses: la troisi_me 6st la conclusion.
l.es pr6misses contiennent toutes deux le terme moyen, ou idee interm6diaire:
Celle des deux qui contient l'attribut de la conclusion, que nous pouvons appeler
grand terme du syllogisme, 6st appel6e proposition majeure, et celle qui contient
le sujet de la conclusion, ou le petit terme du syllogisme, 6st la proposition
mineure. On 6nonce, clans la Logique, la proposition Majeure la premiX'e, puis la
mineure et enfin la conclusion: mais darts le langage ordinaire on les arrange
comme on le veut.
Un syUogisme 6st exacte et r_gulier, si la conclusion 6st une suite rigoureuse des
premisses: il 6st vicieux, si les premisses ne sont d'une nature _ donner aucune
conclusion, ou du moins si celle qu'on a tir_e n'6st pas celle qu'on doit tirer. La
v_rit_ ou la fausset_ des premisses ne fait rien _ l'exactitude du syllogisme.
MontpeUier 6st en France, Languedoc 6st en France, doric Montpellier 6st en
Languedoc. Voil_ trois propositions bien vraies, cependant le syllogisme 6st
vicieux: il ne s'ensuit pas que Montpellier soit en Languedoc, parce qu'il 6st en
France aussi bien que le Languedoc 6st en France: car on pourrait dire autant de la
ville de Lyon, qui n'6st pourtant pas en Languedoc. Le Chateau d'Eau du Peyrou
6st dans la lune, La lune 6st dans ma poche, Donc le Chateau d'Eau du Peyrou 6st
darts ma poche. Ces trois propositions sont fausses, cependant le syllogisme 6st
exacte, car si l'on admet les pr6misses, il faut n6cessairement admettre la
conclusion.
On a class6 les syllogismes selon leur mode, c'6st-/t-dire, selon la quantit6 et la
qualit_ des propositions. Deux syllogismes sont cens6s de m_me mode lorsque les
deux pr6misses et la conclusion sont de m6me qualit6 et de m6me quantit6 darts les
deux syllogismes. Comme chaque proposition peut varier de quatre mani6res
possibles on aura 64 modes. De tous ceux-l_ il y en a bien qui sont vicieux.
On a aussi class6 les syllogismes selon leur figure, c./Ld, selon la place que tient
le terme moyen dans les deux pr6misses. Sice terme 6st sujet darts la Majeure, et
attribut clans la Mineure, la proposition 6st cens6 de la 1re figure: s'il 6st attribut
darts la Majeure et sujet darts hi Mineure, eUe 6st de la 2de: s'il 6st attribut dans
toutes les deux die 6st dite de la 3me figure: enfin s'il 6st sujet dans mutes les deux,
ere 6st de la quatri6me.
En combinant chacune de ces quatre figures avec chacune des 64 modes on a
256 diff6rentes esp6ces de syllogisme. Mais de toutes celles-ci il n'y a que 24 qui
ne soient pas vicieuses. Pour les d6terminer Aristote a r6jet6 toutes les autres
esp6ces par des r_gles, eta conclu del_ que ces 24 sont bonnes: s mais il 6st vrai que
cette mani6re de raisonner 6st peu exacte, car on ne peut pas conclure que puisque
les auwes sont vicieuses, celles-ci sont bonnes. Euler a p6ch6 du cot6 oppose: I1 a
6tabli des r_gles auxqueUes il a trouv6 clue ces 24 espb,ces sont conformes, et il a
6tabli ceux-l_t en rejetant les autres: Mais il 6st 6vident que pour constater les
r6sultats il faut chercher si les r6gles d'exclusion sont n6cessaires, et en m6me tems
suffisantes.
24ME LE(_ON
NOUSAVONSVU que les deux termes d'une proposition peuvent avoir entr'elles
cinq r61ations diff6rentes. Elles peuvent 6tre enti&ement hors Fun de l'autre, ou
darts le cas H: ils peuvent avoir une pattie commune, ou &re dans le cas X: ils
peuvent _.treidentiques, ou darts le cas I: le petit terme peut 6tre contenu darts le
grand, casque nous avons r6pr6sent_ par la lettre C; ou le grand peut _tre contenu
darts le petit, tls sont alors dans le cas 9.
Examinons maintenant quelles peuvent 6tre les r61ations des id6es dans les trois
propositions d'un syllogisme.--D'abord, les id6es peuvent 6tre, clans la conclu-
sion, darts un quelconque des cinq cas: ou pour le dire d'une autre mani6re, le
grand terme et le petit terme peuvent &re dans le cas H, dans le cas X, etc.
R6pr6sentons par deux lettres combin6es le syllogisme darts lequel la r61ation des
termes des deux premisses serait r6pr6sent6£ par ces m6mes lettres s6par6es l'une
de l'autre. Ainsi si le terme moyen et le grand terme sont clans le cas H, et que le
terme moyen et le petit terme sont dans le cas X, r6pr6sentons le syllogisme par
HX, et ainsi de suite. I1 faut ajouter h chacune de ces combinaisons de lettres une
troisi6me lettre pour r6pr6senter la r61ation des formes de la conclusion.
Supposons d'abord que le grand et le petit terme sont clans le cas H. Puis-je avoir
un moyen terme qui soit hors de tous les deux? Certainement, comme dans
la figure. @ Si P et G sont hors l'un de l'autre, puis-je avoir un
® @
moyen terme qui soit hors de Pet qui ait une pattie commune avec (3?
Certainement. Qui soit hors de Get qui ait une pattie commune avec P? De n_me.
I_nc les formes HI-I, ttX, XH, peuvent _tre admis, en sousentendant toujours
que Pet G soient darts le cas H. (I1 faut ajouter la lettre H _ ces deux lettres. ) Enfin
si Pet G sont hors Fun de l'autre, puis-je trouver un terme moyen qui soit dans le
cas I avec tousles deux? Non: il faut doric rejeter le cas ILl.En allant de cette
mani6re on trouve enfin 54 formes: comme dans le tableau suivant.
HI-I, HX, HI, HC, H::), XH, XX, XC, IH, CH, OH, DX, 3C, H
HI-I, HX, HD, XH, XX, XI, XC, X_D,IX, CH, CX, CO, :OX, 3C X
HH, XX, II, CC, 39, I
HI,I, XH, XX, XC, IC, CH, CX, CI, CC, CO, DC C
HI-I, HX, HO, XX, XD, I3, C3, 3X, 01, DC, 33 D
J'emploie ici le signe C po_ d6noter que clans la Majeure, le grand terme
renferme le moyen, ou que chins la Mineure, le moyen renferme le petit. La lettre 3
218 Journals and Speeches No. 3
I1s'agit de trouver quelles sont les r61ations qui peuvent exister entre le moyen
terme d'un syllogisme el les deux autres, pour que la conclusion soit universelle
affu'mative. I1 suffit et il 6st n6cessaire pour cela que le grand et le petit terme
soient l'un a l'autre dans le cas I ou darts le cas C: Pour donc que la conclusion soit
universelle et affu'mative il faut que les termes aient dans les pr6misses les
r61ations qui se trouvent sous Iet C mais qui ne se trouvent sous aucun autre des
cinq cas. On trouve ainsi,
II, CC, IC, CI donnent A
HI, HC, IH, DH donnent N
XI, XD, IX, CX, C3, II, CC, DD, IC, CI, ID, DI
donnent a
I-IX, HI, HC, HD, IH, DH, DX, XI, ID, DI
donnent n
J'ai r6pr6sent_ par des lettres renvers6es ceUes clans lesquelles le moyen terme
devient sujet et le petit terme attribut, ou le moyen terme attribut et le grand tetme
sujet.
Dans la plupart des livres de Logique on ne trouve que dix neuf formes
r6guli_'es: c'6st que ces auteurs n' admettent pas celles oil comme darts AAa, la
1820-21 Lecture Notes on Logic 219
conclusion n'6st que particuli_re, tandis qu'on peut avec autant de r6gularit_
d6duire l'uaiv_'selle, par la forme AAA. Cependant il 6st clair que celles-l_ sont
des formes distinctes: Et les logiciens qui les ont r6jet6es ont d'autant plus de tort,
qu'ils admettent d'autres formes bien plus 6quivalentes que celles-l_, et darts
lesquelles en effet il suffit de renverser l'une des pr6misses pour changer la forme
du syllogisme.
Pour 6viter la n6cessit6 de retenir ces 24 formes darts la m6moire, on a cherch6
d'en d6duire des principes g6n_raux, qui soient en m6me tems n6cessaires et
suffisants, c'6st _tdire qu'ils rejettent toutes les formes except6 ces 24, et qu'ils ne
rejettent pas celles-lh. On _st toml_ stir les r_gles suivantes:
1° Une seule au plus des deux premisses peut 6tre n6gative: et si l'une des deux
l'6st, la conclusion 6st aussi n6gative.
2° Une seule au plus des deux premisses peut _tre particuli_re: et si I'une des
deux l'6st, la conclusion 6st aussi particuli_re.--Les anciens Logiciens ont
expdm_ ces deux r_gles par celle-ci; que la Conclusion suit toujours le patti le plus
faible.--
On 6st convenu apparemment de consid6rer les propositions n6gatives comme
inf_rieures ell m_rite aux propositions affirmatives, et les propositions particuli-
_res comme inf6rieures en m_rite aux propositions universelles.
3° Si la Majeure 6st universelle, il faut que la Mineure 6st affirmative.
4° Deux premisses affirmatives ne peuvent pas donner une conclusion
n6gative.
I1y a ensuite une autre r_gle pour chacune des quatre figures.
5° Dartsle Ire figure, il faut que la Majeure soit universelle, et que la Mineure
soit affh'mative.
6° Darts la 2de figure, si la Majeure 6st affirmative, il faut que la Mineure soit
universelle: Si l'une des deux pr_misses 6st n6gative, il faut que la Majeure soit
universelle: Si la Mmeure 6st afftrmative, la conclusion 6st particuli_re.
7° Darts la 3me figure, il faut que la Majeure soit universelle, et que la
Conclusion soit n_gative.
8° Dans la 4me figure, il faut que la Mineure soit affirmative et que la
Conclusion soit particuli_re.
On peut observer que toutes les formes peuvent se r6duire _tla Ire figure. Car on
peut renverser les propositions universelles n6gatives et Particuli_res affm'natives:
Si la conclusion 6st dans l'un de ces cas on peut transposer la Majeure et la
Mineure: Si la conclusion 6st particuli_re elle 6st renferm6e dartsl'nniverselle, etc.
Les r_gles de cette transformation sont appeldes r_gles de la r6duction des
syUogismes. Cette r6Auction 6st quelquefois utile, parceque la cons_luence 6st
plus claire aux yeux ordinaires lorsqu'on se sen de la Ire figure. M6me on pourrait
ramenertoutes les formes _ la premiere, en substituant des termes n6gatifs au lieu
de positifs etc. en changeant par exemple la proposition Nul homme n'_st immortel
en Tout homme dst mortel, et ainsi de suite.
Les anciens logiciens ont invent_ des mots baroques _ trois syllabes pour se
220 Journals and Speeches No. 3
25ME LE(7ON
MESSRS DEPORTROYAL,qui ont trait_ toutes les r_gles de la Logique avec beaucoup
d'6xactitude, croyant pourtant qu'il serait difficile de les retenir, ont voulu trouver
une seule r_gle qui les remplacerait toutes._ Ils ont dit qu'un Syllogisme 6st bon si
la Majeure renferme implicitement la Conclusion: et que la Mineure n'y 6st que
pour indiquer qu'elle le renferme en effet. Ainsi darts le syllogisme
Tout M 6st G,
Or tout P 6st M,
Donc tout P 6st G
la substituantdartsl'autre. Lorsqu'on dit Tout M 6st G, on veut dire que tout M _st
quelque G: en substituant cette valeur de M dam l'6quation Tout P 6st M on trouve,
Tout P 6st quelque G, ou tout P 6st G.
Sije veux prouver telle ou telle proposition, il me fautchercher un moyen terme.
Les anciens logiciens ont donn6 des lieux logiques pour le chercher, comme on a
donn_ des lietLXoratoires dans la Rh6torique: mais celui qui pour trouver un
argument, 6st oblig6 de recourir aux lieux logiques ne fera pas de meilleurs
argumens que les vers d'un porte qui 6st oblig6 de chercher dans un dictionnaire de
time. Je me contenterai donc d'indiquer les conditions que ce moyen terme dolt
remplir.
Pour le premier mode il faut que M contienne Pet soit contenu dam G. Ainsi
pour d6montrer que Tout avare _st malheureux, je me sers du moyen terme homme
inquiet, qui contient avare, car il _st certain que tout avare 6st inquiet, et qui 6st
contenu dartsl'id_.ede malheureux, car tout homme inquiet 6st malheureux. Donc
j'ai le syllogisme
Tout homme inquiet 6st malheureux,
Or tout avare 6st homme inquiet,
Doric tout avare 6st malheureux.
Dartsle troisi_me mode, il fant que Malt au moins une partie commune avec P,
et soit contenu darts G. Ainsi pour prouver que quelques poisons sont utiles,
j'emploie l'id6e de m_dicament, qui a une pattie commune avec poison, et qui 6st
eontenu chins utile.
Dans le quatri_me mode il faut que M ait au moins une pattie commune avec P,
et soit 6tranger _ G. Pour d6montrer que quelques marchands ne sont point
estimable, je fals usage de l'interm_le fripon, qui malheureusement a une partie
commune avec l'id6e de marchand, mals qui 6st 6tranger it celle d'homme
est/mab/e.
Le lion rugit,
Or le lion 6st une constellation cdleste,
Donc une constellation cdleste rugit.
Ce syllogisme, qui parait bon, n'dst pas correctement 6noncd. I1 fallait dire
Nos ennemis sont devant _tre aimds par nous,
Or les Espagnols ne sont pas nos ennemis,
Done les Espagnols ne sont pas devant _tre aim6s par nous:
syllogisme de la premiere figure/l Mineure n6gative, et par cons6quent vicieux.
Les fflous sont adroits,
Or les lois punissent les filous,
Donc les lois punissent les gens adroits:
syllogisme qui parait de la premiere figure, devrait 6tre dnoncd comme il suit.
Les filous sont admits,
Or les filous sont punis par les lois,
Done les gens adroits sont punis par les lois:
Ce syllogisme, quoiqu'il porte la conviction darts les esprits de tous les gens
raisonnables, parait pourtant p6cher contre la r6gle qu'il ne faut pas que les
pr6misses soient toutes les deux n6gatives. Mais on remedie _ c.eRedifficult6 en le
mettant sous ceRe forme,
Nul 6tre
insensiblenepcnsc,
Or toutcpierre
dstun etrcinsensible,
Done nulpierrene pense:
1820-21 Lecture Notes on Logic 223
I1_st _vident que les sorites sont des abr_g_s de syllogismes: qu'on pourrait les
d_omposer en syUogismes, comn_ nous l'avons d_j_ vu. I1 faut aussi observer
1820-21 Lecture Notes on Logic 225
qu'il ne saurait y avoir dans un bon sorite, deux ant6c&lens n6gatifs, ou deux
particuliers: car si cela 6tait, on tomberait n6cessairement sur un syllogisme oil les
deux pr6misses seraient toutes deux n6gatives, ou toutes deux particuli6res. Mais
ces conditions, quoique n6cessaires, ne sont pas suffisantes, car un sorite peut fort
bien 6tre mauvais sans avoir deux ant6c6dens particuliers ou n6gatifs.
Aussi faut-il que les ant6c6dens soient rigoureusement vrais: car la moindre
erreur pourrait mener _ une conclusion tout/l fait fausse, surtout si les Ant6c6dens
sont un peu nombreux. On dit souvent que lorsqu'on dine, quand il y a pour trois il
y a pour quatre: proposition qui n'6st pas rigoureusement vraie, mais qui en
approche de beaucoup. A plus forte raison, quand il y a pour quatre il y a pour cinq:
quand il y a pour cinq il y a pour six, etc. et enfin on serait conduit h la conclusion
que lorsqu'il y a pour trois il y a pour cent.
L'enthym_me 6st un syllogisme tronqu6, oil l'on sousentend, pour la brievet6,
une des pr6misses, qu'on suppose 6tre suffisamment connue. Je ne puis citer un
exemple plus c61_bre que celui de Descartes. Je pense, donc je suis:3 il sousentend
ici la Majeure du syllogisme, Tout ce qui pense, existe. Mais souvent les 6crivains
cachent, en se servant de l'enthym_me, l'impossibilit6 de trouver leur seconde
pr6misse. Ainsi lorsqu'on dit Le soleil a toujours brill6, donc il brillera toujours.
Oil chercher la Majeure de ce syllogisme? Ce qui a toujours _td, sera toujours,
proposition loin d'6tre d6montr6e.
La dilemme 6st un raisonnement compos6 de quatre propositions. La premi6re
6st une Disjonctive: dans la seconde on fait voir que si l'on admet l'un des deux
membres, il s'ensuit une certaine cons&luence. Dans la troisi6me on prouve que la
m_me chose a lieu lorsqu'on admet l'autre membre. Donc on conclut que cette
cons&luence 6st vraie dans tousles cas. Tout le monde connait la c61_bredilemme
du Calife Oram lorsqu'a la prise d'Alexandrie on lui a demand6 comment il fallait
disposer de la bibliothb,que. I1adit, Ou ce qui 6st contenu dans cette biblioth6que
6st contenu darts l'Alcoran, ou il lui 6st contraire. S'il lui est contraire, il faut brlller
les livres: s'il y 6st contenu, nous n'en avons pas besoin: Dans tout cas, il faut les
brftler. 4
I1y a quelques esp6ces de conclusion qu'on appelle conclusions asyllogistiques,
parcequ'on ne peut pas les reduire au syllogisme, quoique d'ailleurs elles soient
parfaitement convaincantes. Telle 6st la conclusion de la proposition Particuli_re
lorsqu'on commit l'Universelle _ laquelle elle appartient: de la Converse d'une
proposition quelconque lorsqu'on connait la proposition, etc.
On abien dit qu'il n'y a qu'une mani6re de bien raisonner, mais que les mani6res
26MELEMON
Si l'erreur 6tait toujours aussi manifeste que clans ce cas-ci il n'y aurait point de
danger: mais elle 6st souvent mieux cach6e.
Dire d'une chose en g6n6ral ce qui n'6st vrai de cette chose que dans un certain
6tat, ou d'affn'mer d'elle darts un certain 6tat ee qui n'6st vrai que dans un autre
IClaude Lancelot(ca. 1615-95) and Louis Isaac Lemaistrede Sacy ( 1613-84 ), thetitle
work in Le jardin des racines grecques, raises en vers franfois, avec un traitd des
prdpositionset autresparticules inddclinables (Pads: Le Petit, 1657), pp. 1-218.
2FrancsoisLouis de Salignac F6r_lon, marquis de la Motile (1722-64), Suite du
quatridme livre de r Odyssde d'Hom_re, ou Les avantures de Tdlimaque, ills d'Ulysse
(Pads: Barbin, 1699), and Seconde pattie des avantures de Tdldmaque,ills d'Ulysse
(ibid.).
1820-21 Lecture Notes on Logic 227
6tat, 6st aussi une erreur tr_s commune. Ainsi on pourrait dire,
conclusion qu'on ne peut pas 6tre admis dans l'Acad6mie _ cet _tge, parceque il a
fallu une ordonnance sp6ciale du Roi pour dispenser _ la r_gle, cette conclusion
serait bien fond6e: et darts ce sens on peut dire sans dispute que rexceptionprouve
la rdgle. Mais de quels abus ce principe n'6st-il pas susceptible! On pourrait
prouver par lh que la philosophic m_ne h l'incr6dulit_, et que tousles philosophes
sont n6cessairement mcr6dules. Mais, dites-vous, voil_ Malbranche et tant
d'autres qui ne le sont pas. Non: tant mieux; L'exception prouve la r_gle. Que tous
les nombres sont paires, mais le nombre trois ne l'6st pas:--L'exception prouve la
r_gle. Mais 5 ne l'6st pas:--L'exception prouve la r_gle. II yen a, je suis content.
Une autre source tr_s commune de faux raisonnemens 6st l'abus des
comparaisons. Les comparaisons sont utiles quelquefois pour exciter l'attention,
ou'pour faire comprendre une proposition qui laiss6e darts l'6tat abstrait, serait
peut-_tre difficile _ comprendre. Mais l'abus de ce moyen 6st tr_s fr&luent. En
voulant expliquer les ph6nom_nes de la lumi_re on a compar6 les molecules de
lumi_e _tune bille de billard qu'on frappe obliquement contre lemur et qui se
r_fl6chit en fesant l'angle d'incidence 6gal _tcelui de r6flection, loi qui 6st en effet
celle de la r6flexion de la lumi_re. Mais pour la r_fraetion on a trouv6 de
l'embarras. U 6st vrai que si l'on tire un coup de fusil dans l'eau la balle change de
direction, mais il s'approche du perpendiculaire: au lieu que la lumi_re s'en 6carte.
On a trouv_ pourtant le moyen d'expliquer ces faits par une comparaison. La
lumi_re, dit-on, 6st eomme un fleuve qui va plus rapidement lorsqu'il 6st confin6
clans un canal plus 6troit. On s'6st servi de cette comparaison pour justifier la
versification: La rime, dit-on, en resserrant l'esprit entre des bornes plus 6troites,
augmente son activit6. I1 faut done, si quelqu'un ne peut pas 6crire en prose, lui
dire "Ecrivez en vers: votre esprit deviendra plus actif lorsqu'il sera resserr_ et
g6n6 par les rimes et par l'obligation d'arranger les roots en vers de tel ou tel
hombre de syllabes." Je ne veux m'en rapporter qu'aux versificateurs: Demandez-
leur si la rime ne les a pas souvent forc6s d'abandonner une belle pens6e.--I1
parait done que lorsque nous marchons darts une foule nous devrions marcher plus
vlte, puisque la foule nous resserre en des bomes moins 6cart6s.--On a abus6 la
comparaison de beaucoup d'autres mani_res. On a souvent dit que le chef d'un 6tat
devrait _tre comme un p_re de famille, qu'il devrait _tre envers ses sujets comme
un l_hre_ ses enfans. Jusque l_til n'y a fien _ redire: Mais il ne faut pas pousser trop
loin eette comparaison. Un l_re a l'habitude de voir joumellement toute sa famille:
un roi ne voit jamais qu'une petite partie de ses sujets. On sait d'ailleurs que le l_re
qui a dix ou douze enfans n'a pas pour ehacun une tendresse _gale _tcelle qu'un
autre a pour son ills unique: Toutes ces circonstances consid6r6es, il ne faut pas
s'attendre _ trouver dans un roi ces entrailles de p&e qu'un enfant 6st en droit
d'attendre de la part de celui dont il tient la vie. Aussi y a t-il de ces l_res stir la c6te
de Barbaric qui n'ont pas la m_me tendresse paternelle pour leurs sujets qu'un vrai
p_ ell a pour ses enfans: et je trois qu'il y a peu de nations qui voudraient donner
leur roi ee pouvoir absolu qu'il 6st juste et rhyme n6w.essairequ'un _ ait sur sa
famille.
1820-21 Lecture Notes on Logic 229
Enfin on raisonne fort souvent en citant les autorit6s. Pour des faits, dont on ne
peut pas soi-m6me etre t6moin, il faut admettre les autorit6s, et l'on ne peut pas
faire autrement: mais pour des mati6res de raisonnement, l'opinion d'un autre
n'influerait jamais stir la mienne, except6 que sije vois qu'un homme de beaucoup
de jugement a une opinion diff6rente de la mienne, cela me porterait _ bien
examiner la question avant de me d6terminer.
J'ai t_ch6 d'expliquer de la mani6re la plus courte possible, les r6gles du
raisonnement. I1 faut s'accoutumer /_ l'application de ces r6gles, en fesant
beaucoup de lectures, surtout des lectures de plaidoyers pour et contre sur une
question de barreau, ou des oraisons dans nos chamhres d61ib6ratives, pour voir
sous combien de formes une question peut 6tre pr6sent_e: car aussi hien dans la
m6decine qu'au barreau, la vie d'un individu d6pend souvent d'un raisonnement
vrai ou faux.
27ME LEMON
pense. 1leije trois que Mercier a raison, et tout eonvaincu queje suis du m6rite de
Newton, je crois que le paysan ferait un fort mauvais march6 s'il changeait tout ee
qu'il sait pour tout ce que Newton sait de plus que lui: car il fait grand usage des
eonnaissances qu'il a, mais de eelles de Newton il ne pourrait en faire ancun. La
science ne eonsiste done qu'/l tirer de ees v6rit6s communes _ tons les hommes, le
plus grand nombre de eons&luenees qu'il 6st possible d'en tirer.
Quelques philosophes, voyant que les enfans apprennent d'eux m6mes tant de
choses avec une facilit6 _ pen pr6s 6gale, mais qu'ensuite nos m6thodes qui tendent
/t augmenter leurs eonnaissances 6chouent aupr6s d'un grand nombre, ont cru que
nous g_ttons l'ouvrage de la nature. Mais pourquoi ne peut-on pas attribuer ceRe
diff6rence de facilit6/i l'in6galit6 des esprits, dont il 6st impossible de douter
l'existence, soit qu'elle 6st naturelle, soit qu'elle 6st produite par des causes
extemes? I1faut r6fl6chir que les connaissances qu'acquierrent les enfans avec tant
de facilit6 sont celles qui sont essentielles _ notre bien 6tre. Un enfant voit quelque
chose qu'il d6sire, il apprend _ tendre le bras pour s'en emparer: un autre objet se
pr6sente qui n'6st pas _ la port6e de son bras; il apprend _ se mouvoir vers cet objet:
enfin il desire des objets qu'il lui 6st impossible d'aReindre de lui-m_me; il veut
faire eonnaitre son d6sir/_ ceux qu'il sait poss6der les objets, il voit que les autres
ont ceRe facult6, par le moyen des sons de la voix; il 6conte ce qu'on dit, et apprend
parler: I1 apprend de la m6me mani_re _ prendre sa nourriture, et/_ satisfaire
tons ses besoins, soit de n6cessit6, soit de luxe. Mais _ mesure qu'il acquiert ainsi
des eonnaissances, l'acc_s devient moins libre pour les autres eonnaissances:
l'enfant 6st moins int6ress6 qu'auparavant _t_tendre ses eonnaissances: il 6st plus
distrait par d'autres id6es plus agr6ables: et sans nos m6thodes il s'axr6terait _ ce
point. La nature prend le senl moyen possible pour eeux qui ne savent rien: mais
quoiqu'on en dise, ses soins sont tr6s superfieiels: ils ne sont que jusqu'/_ la
satisfaction des besoins de l'enfant. Nos m6thodes en applanant les difficult6s qui
se pr6sentent _ l'6tude, eompensent l'in6galit6 des esprits, et nous trouvons en
effet qu'_t mesure que les m6thodes sent peffectionn6s, telles eonnaissances
devierment le partage d'un jenne homme sorti du eoll6ge, qui un peu plut6t
auraient exig6 une tr6s grande force d'esprit.
I1doit n6cessairement y avoir des m6thodes parfaites et imparfaites, les parfaites
pour les sujets qui sont susceptibles de la rigueur des raisonnemens de la
g&ma6hrie; les imparfaites pour eenx qui n'admettent pas cette rigueur. Ce n'6st
gu6re qu'en math6matiques qu'on pent avoir des rn6thodes parfaites: Elles sont
dej/| moins parfaites en physique, moins encore en m6decine, et beaneonp moins
clans l'administration publique.
I1 y a clans les sciences denx sores de propositions, qui r6pondent aux deux
esp6ces d'interrogation. On pent demander _t quel attribut convient tel sujet, on
ICf. Louis S_bastien Mercier ( 1740-1814), "Newton," inMon bonnet de nuit, 4 vols.
(Lausanne:Heubaeh, 1784-85), Vol. IV, pp. 209-14.
1820-21 Lecture Notes on Logic 233
bien _ quel sujet convient tel attribut. Le th6or_me r6pond _ la premiere question,
le probl_me _tla seconde. Le th6or_me affLrme que tel attribut convient h tel sujet: il
6st doric n6cessairement vrai ou faux. Un probl_me n'6st ni Fun ni l'autre; car il
n'6st eta effet qu'une interrogation quel 6st le sujet _tqui convient tel attribut; la
v6dt6 et la fansset6 n'appartiennem qu'h la r6ponse. Les th6or_mes, comme les
d6finitions, forment un sens parfait: mais ils en different en ce qu'il n'y parait point
de mot nouveau qui soit sens6 n'_tre pas connu et que la d6finition 6st toujours
vraie, puisqu'elle ne fait que d'expliquer le sens qu'il faut donner _ un mot, tandis
que le th6or_me, se servant de mots connus, a besoin de d_monstration pour
assurer la v6rit_.--Dans un probl_me il faut des choses inconnues, que le
probl_me propose _ttrouver. Mais l'art de r6soudre un probl_me n'6st pas l'art de
deviner; il faut donc, pour trouver les choses inconnues, des choses connues, par le
moyen desquelles on peut parvenir h la connaissance des premieres. Mais les
choses connues seraient elles-m6mes inutiles, sans quelques conditions qui les
lieraient aux incormues. Si je dis, "J'ai pens6 deux hombres: l'un 6st douze, quel
6st l'autre," il s'agit de deviner, et non de r6soudre un probl_me. I1faut donc dans
l'6noncement d'un probl_me, des choses connues et des choses inconnues.
Quelquefois les dorm6es elles-m6mes ne sont pas donn6es explicitement: et la plus
grande difficult_ d'tm probl_me 6st souvent celle de trouver les donn6es. Si l'on
propose par exemple ce probl_me en politique, "Quel syst_me d'imp6ts 6st le plus
avantageux _ l'6tat," il faut trouver les donn6es: ce sont, la diff6rence des frais de
collection, la mani_re de produire le moins possible de peine _ ceux qui payent les
imp6ts, etc. etc. car il 6st certain qu'on 6st bien moins bless6 par les contributions
indirectes, qu'on perlepeu h peu, et sans qu'on s'en aperqoive, que si l'on payait
directement au bureau des contributions une valeur 6gale _ celle qu'on paie
indirectement.--Souvent on prend pour solution d'un probl_me la simple
indication de la mani_re dont il faut le r6soudre. Si l'on me propose un probl_me en
g6ara6trie, tel que celui-ci, "D6crire un cercle qui passe par tous points donn6s,"
on se contente d'indiquer la mani_re de le faire. Sije vais chez un m6decin pour lui
demander une consultation, il ne va pas chez le malade pour administrer les
r6m&ies; il se contente de me dire ce qu'il faut faire. Cependant il faut que
l'ex6eution ait lieu: et si le malade se contentait de lire la consultation, sans faire ce
qu'elle ordormait, il n'en remit pas beaucoup mieux. Les indications qu'on donne
peuvent nous tromper: On peut indiquer des moyens qui ne suffisent pas pour la
r6solution du probl/_me; il y a doric besoin de d6monstration, pour assurer la bont_
des moyens.
Les conditions d'un probl_me peuvent 8tre insuffisantes pour fixer la valeur des
inconnues, ll y a alors tm hombre infini de solutions, et le probl_me 6st dit
ind_termin_. Par exemple si je demande la maniSre de tirer une ligne droite qui
passe par un point, le problSme 6st tout _ fait ind6termin& car il peut y avoir une
infmit6 de lignes droites qui passent par le m6me point. Mais si je demande le
moyen de faire passer une ligne par deux points donn6s, le problSme 6st d6termin6:
234 Journals and Speeches No. 3
28ME LE(_ON
_Descattes,Discours, p. 32.
1820-21 Lecture Notes on Logic 235
partie $st moindre que le tout. Les axiomes doivent _tre 6nonc6s en termes
g6n6raux, de mani6re _ renfermer une infmit6 d'autres axi6mes particuliers. La
France dstplus petite que rEurope n'6st qu'un cas particulier de cet axiome, La
partie dst moindre que le tout.
Les axiomes sont form6s de roots ind6finissables. Par cons6quent, ils ne
peuvent pas se d6montrer. Quelques philosophes modemes n'ont voulu regarder
comme axi6me que cette proposition, Une chose ne peut pas _tre et n' _tre pas en
m_me terns: Us sont partis delh pour demontrer tousles autres. Wolff, disciple de
Leibnitz, a voulu d_montrer que la partie 6st moindre que le tout, et il l'a fait avec
assez peu de succ_s pour faire douter de la v6rit_ de ce principe si l'on ne savait pas
d'ailleurs qu'elle 6st incontestable, z Un axiome peut avoir besoin d'explication,
surtout quand son _nonc6 6st un peu long, mais il n'a jamais besoin de
d6monstration. D'ailleurs, il ne faut pas d6montrer les propositions m6me qui sont
susceptibles de d6monstration, pourvu que tout le monde les admette. On pourrait
bien, par exemple, d6montrer ce th6or6me que la ligne droite 6st le plus court
chemin d'un point _ un autre, mais comme c'6st une v6rit6 incontestable, dont
personne ne peut douter, on la regarde comme un axiome, et on ne la d6montre pas
ordmairement.
Darts le terns de la vogue des id6es inn_es, les axiomes 6taient regard6s comme
des jugemens irm6s, et l'on en fesait le fondement des sciences humaines: on
croyait que c'6tait par les axiomes qu'on s'assurait de la v6rit_ des propositions
particuli_res qui s'y trouvaient comprises. Mais un exarnen plus r_fl6chi a prouv6
qu'au contraire les axiomes en sont le r6sum6, et que c'6st en nSunissant ces
propositions particuli6res, r_sultats de l'observation, pour faire une proposition
g6n6rale, que nous arrivons aux axi6mes. Cela 6st si vrai qu'un enfant ou une
personne qui n'est pas instruite n'a aucune id6e de ces propositions g6n_rales, et
que cependant elle connait bien les cas particuliers. Demandez a une femme de la
halle si deux choses 6gales _ une troisi_me sont 6gales entr'elles, et elle vous dira
qu'elle ne comprend rien aces beaux discours: mais si vous lui dites, Si deux de
vos oranges p6sent chacune autant que celle-ci, l'une pesera-t-elle autant que
l'autre, et die vous r_pondra certainement oui.
En 6vitant l'6cueil que je viens de signaler, on 6st tombe, comme il arrive
souvent, darts un 6cueil tout oppose. Les axi6rnes sont aujourd'hui en grand
distrait aupr_s de certains logiciens: ils disent que c'_st la chose du monde la plus
ridicule, que c'6st une simple identitY, que c'6st dire le meme 6st le m_me. Mais
s'il fallait sur cette objection proscrire l'usage des axiomes, les sciences, et surtout
celles qui approchent le plus de la perfection, recevraient un grand 6chec,
puisqu'une proposition n'y peut pas 8tre admise si elle n'6st pas une identitY. Un
cerele, dit-on, 6st une figure born6e par une circonf6rence dont tousles points sont
6galement distans d'un mtme point, c.O.d. Une circonftrence dont tons les points
sont 6galement distans d'un mtme point, 6st une circonftrence, etc. Toutes les
propositions doivent 6tre rejettes des sciences, qui ne peuvent passe r_uire _ des
identit_s,--On a dit que les axiomes _taient abstraits, qu'ils n'avaient aucune
utilit_ qu'_ cause des cas particuliers qu'ils contenaient et qu'on pouvait se
contenter de ces cas particuliers sans charger la m._moire d'une formule gtntrale:
mais on pourrait r_ptter ce que nous avons dit sur les notions abstraites: I1n'y a pas
dans la nature d'arbre g_ntral, il n'y a que des individus: cependant on ne conteste
pas l'utilit_ de ces notions abstraites. Ce sont en quelque sorte des magasins ot_
nous tirons au besoin des idtes individuelles. I1 6st vrai que c'tst par les
particuli_res que nous arrivons aux gtntrales: mais remarquons aussi que lorsqu'il
se pr_sente one chose particuli_re moins famili_re, c'tst de la proposition gtntrale
que nons tirons beaucoup des notions que nons avons sur elle.
I1 fant bien se garder d'un danger qui se pr_sente tr_s communtment. Certains
raisormeurs avancent comme des axiomes des propositions fausses, et raisonnent
ensuite bien sur de faux principes. D'Alembert combat avec agrtment cet abus des
axibmes, etasupposant que transport_ dans un autre plan_te o0 l'on ne conna_t pas
notre vtgttation il demandait aux savants de ce pays-lh s'il 6st possible qu'un petit
corps mis en terre produise un corps vaste et 61ev_ qui couvre de son ombre une
vaste _tendue de terrain: Non, diraient-ils, le moins ne saurait produire le plus.
Croyez-vous, leur dit-il, que quelques livres d'une certaine poudre plac_es sons un
grand 6difice puissent le renverser? Non, disent-ils, les effets sont proportionnels
aux causes.3 Tout crime doit _tre imputd d celui qui en retire du profit: Voilh un de
ces axifmes ridicules: car je puis retirer du profit d'un crime que j'ignore. I1 6st
vrai que lorsqu'on voit, comn_ darts l'Aveyron, cinq personnes d'une mtme
famille l_rir successivement dans l'espace d'un mois, sans qu'il eflt 6pidtmie dans
le lieu, et cela darts l'ordre convenable pour que la succession arriv_t ttune de leurs
parentes qui les avait toutes soigntes, on peut presumer que cette personne entre
pour quelque chose dans ces morts si bien arrangtes: mais ce n'tst pourtant encore
qu'une prtsomption.--Un t_moin, point de tdmoins, ai-je entendu dire _ un avocat
darts une cour d'assises. Cependant un seul homme digne de confiance, qui assure
d'une chose probable, et qui n'a point d'int_r_t _ mentir, me donne plus de
croyance que cinq cents hommes de mauvaises moeurs, et qui peuvent beancoup
gagner _ dire ce qu'ils disent; surtout s'ils disent une chose improbable, en
elle-rn_me. On trouve jusque darts Newton des axiomes avances un peu trop
hardiment. I1dit quelque part que des effets du m_me genre doivent _tre attributs
aux n_mes causes. 4 On doit h la vtrit6 soup_onner l'existence d'une seule cause,
mais on ne peut pas l'assurer. Si on examine one pierre fausse, on s'appercevra
qu'elle pr6sente les propri6t6s du diamant, qu'elle a l'aspect brillant, qu'elle 6st
transparente, qu'eUe raye le verre, etc. Faut-il conclure del/t que ces deux
substances sont compos6es des rhymes 61emens chimiques?
Ce sont les philosophes de l'antiquit6 qui ont donn6 l'exemple de mettre les
axiomes en 6vidence: forc6s par le hombre des Sceptiques et des Sophistes dont ils
6taient entout6s, et qui s'amusaient _ttout revoquer en doute. Ils durent donc poser
des axiomes que personne ne contestait, et de proposition en proposition, t_cher
d'amener leurs adversaires _ nier un de ces axiomes pour pouvoir leur dire, "Ou
vous 8tes de mauvaise foi, ou vous n'avez pas le sens commun." Maintenant que
les sceptiques sont plus rares, on n'6st plus si rigoureux sur l'6nonc6 des axi6mes.
Ce que je dis des axi6mes, je pourrais le dire des posmlatum.
29r,tE LE(_ON
sens-ci des mots analyse et synthdse n'6st pas tres 61oign6 de leur signification
naturelle; mais on les emploie en d'autres cas oil il l'6st bien davantage. Je suppose
queje veux m'assurer si Henri quatre descend d'Hugues Capet; _si j'examine quels
furent les ills de Hugues Capet, quels furent les enfans de ses ills, etc. jusqu'/_ ce
que j'arrive _tHenri quatre, j'aural far de la synth_se: si au contraire j'examine
quel fut le p6re d'Henri quatre, z et qu'en descendant ainsi des branches aux
souches j'arrivasse _tHugues Capet, j'anrais fait une analyse, quoiqu'il n'y ait pas
plus composition de l'un c6t6 que d6composition de l'autre: On a cependant
conserv6 ces d6nominations vicieuses.
Le propre de la Synth6se 6st de partir des principes avou6s, et en les liant
successivement _ d'autres propositions, de parvenir a des v6rit6s nouvelles. Le
propre de l'Analyse 6st de partir de la v6rit6 qu'on veut 6tablir et en lui attachant
d_autres propositions, d'arriver/_ quelque chose que l'on sait d6j_. L'analyse va du
compos6 au simple, la synth6se va du simple au compos6. Dans ces deux m6thodes
on suit la meme route, mais en sens contraires. Par l'analyse on traduit une
proposition compliqu6e dans un langage plus simple, celle-ci darts un autre
encore, jusqu'a ce qu'on arrive it une v6rit6 d6ja 6tablie. Par la synth6se on suit la
marche contraire. Ces deux m6thodes n'ont de pr6f6rence l'une sur l'autre que
celle que causent les circonstances, car une v6rit6 pourra tout aussi bien etre
d6montr6e synth6tiquement qu'analytiquement.
n 6st des cas cependant oil l'une off l'antre de ces m6thodes m_rite la pr6f6rence.
II fant d'abord distinguer deux cas: l'un, of1n'envisageant rien en particulier, on
veut faire des d6couvertes nouveUes; l'autre oh l'on veut reconnaitre la v6rit6 de
telle ou telle proposition en particulier. Darts le premier cas on dolt employer la
synth6se; darts l'autre cas, l'analyse. Si par exemple je veux savoir de qui descend
Henri Quatre, je ne puis pas employer la synth6se, car alors il faudrait prendre tons
les Fran_als du tems de Hugues Capet, et reconnaltre qui furent les ills de chacun,
les enfans de leur ills, etc. etc. jusqu qt trouver Henri Quatre. Meme sije suis limit6
/_ savoir si Henri Quatre descend de Hugues Capet, il y anraient de grands
inconv6niens/_ employer la synth6se, car il faudrait trouver qui furent les f'fls
d'Hugues Capet, qui furent les enfans de chacun de ses ills, qui furent les ills de
chacan de ces enfans, cela ne finirait pas. Mals si j'emploie l'analyse, il suffit de
trouver qui rut le pere d'Henri quatre, qui fut le p6re de son p6re, etc. etc. pour voir
si j'arriverai/t Hugues Capet. Donc pour confirmer la v6rit_ d'une proposition
soupc/mn6e d'etre vraie, il faut employer l'analyse: De meme on trouvera que pour
faire des d6couvertes, sans ancun objet particulier, on ne doit pas employer
l'analyse, car on nc pourrait pas savoir oil il fallait commencer.
Cette analyse date du tems de Platon, quoiqu'il y ait beaucoup de monde qui la
croient plus modeme. Avant Platon, les g6om6tres Grecs s'occupaient des
IHuguesCapet(946-96 A.D. ).
2Antoinede Bourbon(1518-62), duc de Vend6me, mi de Navarre.
1820-21 Lecture Notes on Logic 239
probl_mes sans m6thode. I1 y avait alors beaucoup plus _ faire dans la g6om6trie
qu'il n'y en a maintenant, et les g6om6tres se laissaient conduire par le hasard, en
fesant des d&:ouvertes. Platon leur dit, Si vous voulez resoudre un probl6me,
faites en tme traduction 6quivalente, mais plus simple, traduisez encore cette
traduction, jusqu'_ ce que vous arriviez /_ un probl6me que vous savez d6j_
resoudre. 3
Puisque la m6thode de prouver un th6or6me consiste _ le lier par une suite
d'interm6diaires/t un autre th6or6me d6jh d6montr6, il se pr6sente une question:
Faut-il 6tablir peu d'interm&liaires, ou beaucoup? Cela d6pend de la facilit6 de
ceux pour qui ron &:rit. On pourrait 6tablir tant d'interm6diaires que chaque
proposition soit la suite imm&tiate de la pr&:6dente: Mais ces raisonnemens
seraient ennuyans pour ceux qui sont d6j_tfamiliers avec le sujet. On pourrait d'un
autre c6t6 omettre tant d'interm6diaires qu'il faudrait un esprit tr6s exerc6 pour
pouvoir les suppl6er. C'6st ce qu'a fait M. de Laplace dans sa Mdcanique C#leste,
livre si difficile qu'il n'y a peut 6tre pas douze personnes en Europe qui le
comprennent: 4 I1 yen a bien plus /t la v6rit6 qui ont cet ouvrage dans leur
biblioth6que, pour dire J'ai la Mdeanique Cdleste, et pour faire croire qu'ils la
comprennent. Mais c'6st que M. de Laplace a &:tit pour les sarans. I1 faut donc
proportionner le nombre d'interm6diaires _ la capacit6 de ceux pour qui l'on &:fit.
Darts les ouvrages 616mentaires il ne faut lien omettre: mais comme l'6tudiant
devient plus avanc6, on peut en mettre de moins en moins. C'6st pour cela que tr6s
souvent dans les ouvrages 616mentaires on met plus d'intenn&tiaires au com-
mencement que vers la fin, parce que le lecteur 6st cens6 6tre plus avanc6 comme il
s'approche plus de la fin. C'6st doric par erreur qu'on dit que les livres &:rits pour
la jeunesse doivent 6tre courts, pour ne pas trop charger la m6moire. Si l'on veut
dire qu'ils ne doivent renfermer que peu de chose, passe: mais si l'on dit qu'ils
doivent dire beaucoup en peu de mots, c'est une erreur: car certes on ne dolt pas
omettre le plus d'interm6diaires, lorsqu'on &:ritpour ceux qui peuvent le moins les
suppl6er.
Souvent on peut lier une proposition _ une autre par plusieurs chaines
d'interm&liaires. Darts ce cas, laquelle faut-il choisir? I1 y a trois choses
eonsid6rer. Lorsqu'il y a plusieurs mutes d'un lieu/l un autre, il y en a toujours une
qui 6st plus courte que les autres. Souvent on ne connait pas la route la plus courte
de toutes: car on voit continuellement quelqu'un qui pr6tend avoir trouv6 une
mani6re de d6montrer un lh6or6me plus courte que celles qu'on connaissait
3Plato, The Statesman, in The Statesman, Philebus, Ion (Greek and English), trans.
H.N. FowlerandW.R.M. Lamb (London: Heinemarm;New York: Putnam's Sons, 1925),
pp. 104-10 (285¢-287b);and Sophist, in Theaetetus, Sophist (Greek and English), trans.
H.N. Fowler (London: Heinemann; New York: Putnam's Sons, 1921), pp. 270-82
(218b-221c).
4Laplace,Traiti de nu_caniquecdleste, 5 vols. and supplement (Paris: Duprat, et al.,
1798-1825).
240 Journals and Speeches No. 3
auparavant. Mais il y a toujours une route la plus courte qu'on connaisse. I1faut
ensuite r_fl6chir quelle route 6st la plus ais6e. A coup stir quelqu'un qui serait de
l'autre c6t6 du Pie St. Loup et qui voudrait arriver h Montpellier, n'irait pas
traverser la montagne, quoique ce flit souvent son plus court chemin. De m_me il
faut choisir la mani_re de d6montrer un th6or_me ou de resoudre un probl_me, la
plus facile _ comprendre. Enfin, il faut consid6rer par quelle route on peut faire en
passant les d_uvertes les plus utiles. C'6st ainsi que font les Naturalistes en
voyageant: ils ne vont pas toujours par le chemin le plus court: ils se d6tournent
souvent pour ramasser des objets d'histoire naturelle. M_me les voyageurs
ordinaires prennent souvent le chemin le plus long pour voir une ville, ou
quelqu'autre chose digne de leur attention.
Non seulernent on peut flier d'une proposition h une autre par plusieurs routes,
mais on peut avoir plusieurs points de d6part. D'Alembert a eu l'id6e d'une carte
g6om6trique qui nSpr_senterait les diff6rentes mani_res de d6montrer diff6rentes
propositions. 5 Cette carte r6pr_senterait les diff6rentes propositions, et les
diff6rentes routes d'une proposition h une autre.
Ce que j'ai entendu par les mots analyse et synthdse 6st ce qu'on a entendu par
ces mots pendant vingt si_,cles. Pour faire faire un progn_s quelconque _t une
science, on emploie la synth_se: pour 6tablir telle ou telle v6rit6 en particulier, on
se sert de l'analyse. Mais les m6taphysiciens modemes, de l'6cole de Condillac, 6
ne font plus question que d'analyse. Ils ont 6t_ induits en erreur par un pur
&iuivoque. Comme on fait assez souvent usage de l'analyse dans l'alg_bre, on a
donn6 aux m6thodes alg6briques le nom d'analyse: En effet, on r6pr6sente la
propriet_ de nombres qu'il s'agit de prouver, par une &luation entre des nombres
connus et des hombres inconnus: on fait passer ensuite cette &tuation par une suite
de traductions toujours 6quivalentes, jusqu'_ trouver le nombre qu'on cherche. Ce
procb_ 6st assez semblable _ l'analyse logique: mais il faut observer que dans
celle-ci les &tuations ne sont pas toujours &luivalentes, car on d&iuit quelquefois
le particulier du g6n6ral: aussi ne peut-on pas toujours, comme darts l'alg_bre,
renverser le calcul, et prouver la v6rit_ qu'on cherche, par un proc&16 synth6tique,
en partant de v6rit_s reconnues: Car quoiqu'on puisse d&luire le particulier du
g6n_ral, on ne peut pas d&tuire le g6n6ral du particulier. Condillac, qui savait
assez peu les matl_matiques, et qui avait entendu parler des grands progr_s que
l'Analyse (c.d.d. l'Alg6bre) avait fait faire h la G_m6trie, prit le parti de vanter
l'analyse au d_pens de la syria. 7
Condillac prend l'exemple d'une montre: s il dit que pour en reconnaitre le
m_anisme on la demonte et puis on remet les parties. On peut r_pondre _ cela, que
d'abord il y a des gens assez adroits pour saisir le m6canisme au premier coup
d'oeil sans d6monter la montre. Aussi, yen a-t-il de si maladroits qu'ils n'y
comprendraient rien, quand ils l'auraient demont6e et remont6e mille fois. Ensuite
on peut dire que ce que Condillac appelle analyse renferme aussi la synth6se: et il
dit en effet qu'il n'y a point de v6ritable analyse sans d6composition et
r6.composition. Alors tout se r6duit h nne dispute de mot, 9et il paralt seulement que
ce que nous appelons analyse et synth6se r6unies, Condillac appelle analyse. C'6st
r6unir sous un m6me nom deux choses bien diff6rentes, et m6me oppos6es l'une de
l'autre: c'6st comme s'il disait, Nous appelerons dor6navant monter un escalier les
deux actes de le monter et de descendre ensuite. On peut ajouter, que la
v6riilcation par la synth6se, du r6sultat de l'analyse, quoiqu'elle puisse quelque-
fois [6tre] utile darts l'exposition, n'6st jamais n6cessaire. On 6st tout aussi sftr d'un
r6sultat lorsqu'on y 6st parvenu par la m6thode analytique, pourvu qu'on ait bien
raisonn6, que si l'on avait employ6 la m6thode synth6tique.
"La synth6se," dit Condillac, "cette m6thode t6n6breuse, qu'on appelle
mdthode de doctrine, a cr66 la manic des d6f'mitions. J'aurai de la peine/t la faire
comprendre, puisqu'en v6rit6 je ne la comprends pas moi-m6me. Mais un ouvrage
connu en donne cette id6e."t° C'6st la Logique de MM de Port Royal, qui apr6s
avoir parl6 de l'Analyse et de la Synth6se, dorment deux comparaisons, dont la
premi6re 6st/t la v6rit6 assez mal choisie, mais dont la seconde est bonne. Ces deux
m6thodes different, disent-ils, comme le chemin qu'on fait pour monter d'une
vall6e _ une montagne, et celle qu'on fait pour descendre d'une montagne h une
vall6e; ils ajoutent ensuite une autre comparaison, en disant que si je voulais savoir
si quelqu'un descendait de St. Louis, je remonterais de ills en p6re jusqu'_
parvenir/l St. Louis, et pour exposer ensuite ce fait aux autres, je commencerais
par St. Louis et descendrais de p6re en ills.11 Condillac tronque la phrase, et
s'arr_te _t la premi6re comparaison. I1 dit, "Puisque ces deux m6thodes sont
directement oppos6es l'une de l'autre, il faut n6cessairement que si l'une 6st
bonne, l'autre soit mauvaise: car il 6st clair que sice que je cherche 6st sur la
montagne, je ne le trouverai pas si je descends dans la vall6e; s'il 6st darts la vall6e,
je ne le trouverai pas sur la montagne. De pareilles opinions ne m6dtent pas une
r6futation plus s6rieuse. ,,t2 Mais de tels raisonnemens ne suffisent gu6re fi faire
rejeter la synth_:sede la science.
30MELF_._ON
J'AI REMARQUI_ deux proc6d6s pour s'assurer d'tme v6rit6 nouvelle: celui de partir
d'tm pfineipe et de le lier/t la proposition qu'on veut 6tablir, ou bien celui de partir
9Bacon,De augmentis, Works, Vol. I, p. 643 (Latin), Vol. IV, p. 431 (English).
1°Condillac,La logique, Oeuvres, Vol. XXX, p. 149 (Pt. 11,Chap. vi).
HAmauldand Nicole, La logique, pp. 470-1 (Pt. IV, Chap. ii).
tZCondillac,La logique, Oeuvres, Vol. XXX, pp. 149-50 (Pt. II, Chap. vi).
242 Journals and Speeches No. 3
de cette proposition, et de faire voir qu'elle serait vraie si telle autre l'6st, etc.
jusqu'_ parvenir /l une proposition reconnue vraie. Nous avons vu que pour
d6montrer une v6rit6 d6j/Ld_ouverte on peut se servir indiff6remment de l'une ou
de l'autre m6thode: mais qu'il n'en 6st pas de m_me lorsqu'il s'agit de d6couvrir
des v_rit6s nouvelles: que si l'on eherche h faire des decouvertes, sans se limiter
nn objet particulier, on doit employer la synth_se: mais que si l'on veut constater si
telle ou telle proposition 6st vraie, c'6st de l'analyse qu'il fant se servir. On a aussi
appel6 l'analyse, m6thode de doctrine, et la synth_se, m6thode d'exposition: mais
ces noms ne peuvent pas _tre admis, car on peut exposer aux autres, en tant par
l'analyse que par la synth6se, les v6rit6s que l'on a d6couvertes, aussi on peut
quelquefois par hasard tomber, par la synth6se, sur une proposition quelconque
qu'on veut 6tablir.
Ni l'une ni l'autre de ces m6thodes ne peut toujours nous mener l/l oO nous
voulons aller: il faut qu'elles soient employ6es par une main habile, autrement la
d6couverte de nouvelles v6rit6s serait _ la port6e de tout le monde.
C'_st h tort qu'on donne souvent le nora d'Anaiyse h l'Alg6bre: ce sont deux
choses bien distinctes: L'Alg6bre,/t la v6rit6, se sert souvent de l'Analyse, mais
elle se sert tout aussi souvent de la synth6se. C'6st cet abus qui a tromp_ Condillac.
Ce logicien appelle analyse, tant6t une chose, tant6t une autre. I1 l'appelle l'art
d'examiner successivement et avec ordre. _C'6st la m6thode des naturalistes: non
s'ils se bornent/l la simple observation des objets de la nature: mais s'ils en font
une classification, s'ils les 6xaminent avec soin pour en reconna/tre les caract6res.
Condillac dit ailleurs que l'analyse consiste/t aller du connu/i l'incormu. 2 Mais il
fant ici s'entendre. S'il veut dire que l'Anaiyse se sert de ce qu'on sait pour arriver
i_la connaissance de ce qu'on ne sait pas, je pense que nous serons tous d'accord
avec Condillac, car il serait difficile de trouver quelqu'nn qui voudrait arriver h la
connaissanee de ce qu'il sait par le moyen de ce qu'il ne sait pas. Mais s'il veut
dire, "Partir d'une proposition reconnue vraie, et la lier par une suite de
propositions _t une autre proposition de mani_re _t prouver que cette autre 6st
vraie," c'_st le propre de la Synth_se, et il appelle Analyse ce que nous appelons
Synth_se. S'il entend par analyse la d_.composition et la r_omposition, 3 c'est
l'Analyse et la Synth_se ensemble. On ne peut jamais comprendre, faute de
d6finitions, contre lesquelles Condillac s'6crie constamment, 4 ce qu'il entend par
le mot Synth_se. I1paralt qu'il a form6 une nouvelle langue m6taphysique: qu'il a
dit, Convenons d'appeler analyse toute bonne m_thode, queUe qu'elle soit, et
ICondillac,La logique, Oeuvres, Vol. XXX, pp. 16-24 (Pt. I, Chap. ii) and149(Pt. II,
Chap. vi).
21bid.,pp. 149-50. See also his "Introductionaucours d'_tudes," Oeuvres, Vol. VIII,
pp. v-vi.
3Lalogique,passira; el. Essai, Oeuvres, Vol. I, pp. 102-12 (Pt. I, Sect. H, Chap. vii),
and L' art de penser, Oeuvres, Vol. IX, pp. 221-9 (Pt. H, Chap. iv).
4E.g., inLa logique, Oeuvres, Vol. XXX, pp. 141-51 (Pt. II, Chap. vi).
1820-21 Lecture Notes on Logic 243
synth6se, toute mauvaise m6thode, alors il 6st clair qu'il faut toujours proc6der par
analyse et jamais par synth_se.
I1regarde ensuite l'analyse comme une m6thode infaillible. 5 Tout probl_me,
dit-il, 6st facile a resoudre, lorsqu'on connait bien les donn6es, et qu'on les a bien
raises en avant. Cependant il y a beaucoup de probl_mes qui ont exerc6 sans effet
les meilleurs t_tes, et dont l'6nonc6 6st pourtantbien clair et les donn6es bien mises
en avant. II dit ensuite que nos langues sont des m6thodes analytiques.6 Je dirais
plut6t que nos langues sont des outils, qui comme les outils d'un menuisier, sans
_tre des m6thodes, sont ntis en oeuvre par des m6thodes. Les langues, dit
Condillac, d6composent la pens6e, 7 qui en elle-m_me 6st une, mais nous la
divisons en diff6rentes parties, et donnons un nom/l chaque pattie. Cela 6st vrai en
pattie: M. Destutt-Tracy le porte au point de dire que les premiers mots de chaque
langue ont dO _tre des interjections, et que nous avons proc6de toujours par
d6composition, s Mais combien de fois nos langues ne composent-elles pas?
Chaque fois que la m_me groupe d'id6es revient souvent a notre esprit, nous lui
donnons un nom, pour 6viter la r6p6tition d'une longue phrase.--J'ai entendu
faire a un 61_ve par un logicien de l'6cole de Condillac cette question entr'autres
sur la d6finition, si en d6finissant on fait de l'analyse ou de la synth_se: l'_l_ve fur
tr6s embarass6, il ne sut que r6pondre. Apr6s que le logicien ffit parti, je dis
l'61_ve que j'aurais r6pondu a sa place qu'on ne fait ni de l'une ni de l'autre. Car
l'analyse et la synth_se sont des m_thodes pour arriver a une v_rit_ nouvelle: Dam
la d6finition on ne trouve point de v6rit6 nouvelle: doric on ne fait ni de l'analyse ni
de la synth_se. C'aurait 6t_ une r6ponse pareille a celui de quelqu'un du terns des
Jans6nistes et des Molinistes, qui lorsque son confesseur lui demanda Etes-vous
Jans_niste ou Moliniste, croyait que c'6taient des m6tiers, et r6pondit, Non,
Monsieur, je suis Eb6niste.
D'Alembert a eu une id6e, qu'il n'a point approfondie, qu'on pourrait, en
apprenantl'histoire, apprendre d'abord celle des temps les plus voisins, ensuite
celle des tems un peu plus recul6s, etc. 9jusqu'/t parvenir aux 6v6nemens les plus
anciens qu'on connait. Cette m6thode aurait peut-6tre quelques avantages, mais
eUeauraitdu moins un grand inconv6nient, c'6st que le germe d'un 6v6nement 6st
dartsl'6v6nement qui le pr6c6de: et il me paraitbeaucoup plus naturel de connaitre
la cause avant de connm_rel'effet, que l'effet avant la cause.
Les disciples de Condillac se sont empar6s de cette id6e, que d'Alembert n'avait
51bid., pp. 25-31 (Pt. I, Chap. iii); L'art de penser, Oeuvres, Vol. IX, pp. 221-9
(Pt. II, Chap.iv).
6La logique, Oeuvres, Vol. XXX, pp. 118-24 (Pt. II, Chap. iii); "Grammaire,"
Oeuvres, Vol. vm, pp. 67-73 (Pt. I, Chap. vi).
_"Grammaire,"Oeuvres, Vol. VIII, pp. 39-44 (Pt. l, Chap.iii).
8Destuttde Tracy,Elements, Vol. II, pp. 74-6 (Chap. iii).
9D'Alembert,"R6flexions surl'histoire et surles diff_rentesmani_resde l'6crire," in
Mdlanges, Vol. V, p. 490.
244 Journals and Speeches No. 3
qu'6bauch6e: ils ont vant6 cette m6thode d'6tudier l'histoire, et ils l'ont appel6e
ra_thode analytique. Io Ils ont voulu l'6tendre _t la g6ographie, et ont propos_ de
commencer l'6tude de la g6ographie par bien connaitre les rues de la ville qu'on
habite, d'6tudier ensure la carnpagne voisine, et apr_s cela les autres communes
les plus proches de celle-l_, et ainsi de suite jusqu'h ce qu'on fiat arriv6 _ la Chine.
I1me parait bien plus naturel de commencer par faire de grandes divisions, et de
subdiviser ensure: mais l'autre mani_re 6st la bonne, car c'6st la mani_re
analytique. I1 para3t que Condillac appelle analyse, faire le rebours de tout le
monde.
Camot, l'auteur de quelques ouvrages tr_s estim6s en g6om6trie,ll a expos6 un
syst_me particulier sur l'analyse et la synth6se: mais il 6st tomb6 darts l'erreur de
croire que ces deux mots ont une valeur intrins&tue, et ind6pendante de toute
c6nvention. I1 cherche cette valeur: et voici/l peu pr6s le syllogisme conditionel
qu'il fait. Si l'analyse et la synth6se ne diff6raient que par le sens darts lequel on
passe en revue les propositions, ce ne sont pas deux m6thodes bien diff6rentes.
Mais l'analyse et la synth6se doivent _tre deux m6thodes bien diff6rentes, donc ils
different par d'autres circonstances que le sens dans lequel on passe les
propositions en r6vue. Je demanderais d'abord pourquoi elles doivent 6tre deux
m6thodes tr_s diff6rentes: ensuite je nie sa majeure, car le sens darts lequel on
parcourt les propositions fait une tr_s grande diff6rence dans la recherche,
quoiqu'il n'en fasse pas tree grande dans l'exposition. Ce syllogisme 6tabli, voici
le syst_me que Camot a bati l_tdessus: On proc6de, dit-il, par synth6se, toutes les
fois qu'on emploie comme interm&liaires des _tres concevables par l'esprit. Si on
emploie des 6tres de raison comme interm&liaires, on proc&le par analyse. En
admettant les termes dans cette acception-lh, il s'ensuit que, puisqu'on ne se
rappelle pas toujours de tousles interm6diaires qu'on emploie, il faudra revenir sur
ses pas pour savoir si on a fait de l'analyse ou de la synth_se.--L'Academie de
Bordeaux 6st tomb6e il y a quelques ann6es dans la m6me erreur o2 6st tomb_
Carnot; elle crut clue ces mots avaient une signification intrins6que. Elle proposa
cette question: Caract_riser l'analyse et la synth6se, et exposer les effets que ces
deux m6thodes ont eu sur l'enseignement. Mais, dira-t-on, l'Acad6mie a voulu
qu'on caract6ris_t ce qu'on entend ordinairement par ces deux mots:--II y a
cinquante arts que cette question aurar 6t6 raisonnable: mais aujourd'hui que tout
6st embrouill6, et que ces deux roots ont autant de significations que de bouches
qui les prononcent, une telle question 6st absurde.
porter toutes les choses _ l'extr6me limite. Des exemples feront comprendre ce que
je veux dire. J'ai eu affaire avec un arpenteur de terrain qui voulait arpenter les
terrains inclin6s sans avoir 6gard _ leur inclinaison. On lui r6pr6senta que comme
les v6g6taux croissent dans une direction verticale, et non perpendiculaire au
terrain, ces terres inclin6es ne produiraient pas plus que ne produirait leur
projection horizontale: mais il ne voulut point 6touter. Je lui demandai,
Acheteriez-vous cher une terre parfaitement verticale? Mais vous exagerez, me
dit-il. Vous ne feriez rien payer _ un terrain vertical, et vous ferez payer _ celui qui
s'en 6carte tant soit peu, autant que s'il 6tait sur la plaine? Oh donc mettriez-vous la
limite? On a soutenu une fois devant moi que le p6re de douze enfans aurait les
m6mes entrailles de p6re pour chacun de ses ills que sice ills 6tait unique: j'ai dit,
Supposez-vous pour tm moment le p6re de tout le genre humain: il y aurait de vos
efffans que vous n'auriez jamais vus. M_me le p6re de tout un r6giment
d'infanterie ne pourrait pas avoir pour chacun de ses ills la m6me tendresse que
pour un ills unique.--Dans le tems des d6sordres _ Nimes le [ ] m'a dit qu'il
avait une affaire tr6s malheureuse soils les mains, qu'il y avaient quarante
accus6s. _2 Tant mieux, lui dis-je. Pourquoi? C'6st, r6pondis-je, qu'on passe
l'6ponge 1_ dessus, car on ne voudrait pas faire une boucherie. Mais, dit-il, si
quarante hommes sont tous coupables, pourquoi ne les ferait-on pas tous mourir?
J'ai r6pondu, Supposez-donc que toute une province se r6volt&ait: Feriez-vous
mourir toute la province? Et vous n'avez qu'/l supposer tout un royaume: Le roi
ferait alors fusilier tous ses sujets, et r6gnerait seul: il serait bien tranquille alors.
11y a une autre m6thode dont on n'a peut-6tre pas tir6 tout l'avantage qu'on
pourrait en tirer: c'6st ce qu'on appelle la m6thode d'exclusion. Pour trouver un
objet qui satisfasse/t certaines conditions, on cherche tous ceux qui n'y satisfont
pas, on les exclut, et ce qui reste 6st ce qu'il s'agissait de trouver. C'6st de cette
mani6re qu'on cherche les mots darts un dictionnaire: Pour trouver le mot po6te,
j'exclus d'abord tousles mots qui commencent avec tree autre lettre que P, je n'ai
alors h chercher que sous la lettre P, ensuite je rejette ceux qui commencent avec la
lettre P suivie d'une autre lettre qu'O, et ainsi de suite. Les naturalistes font
souvent la m_me chose pour connaitre les noms des objets d'histoire naturelle
qu'ils posshlent. Eratosth6ne, g6om_tre grec, en voulant trouver quels 6taient les
hombres appel6s premiers, commen_ait par chercher ceux qui ne l'6taient pas:_3
12After the Restorationof the Bourbons,during the so-called "White Terror," a large
crowdgatheredin Nimes to opposefreedomof worshipfor Protestants.Whenthe garrison
was calledout to dispersethe mob, the officer in charge was shot andwounded, andthe
commandingofficer wasrecalledfromToulousetorestorepeace andorder.Gergonne(who
was fromthe area) probablyusedan officialtitle, perhaps"procureur," unknownto Mill, to
identifyhis informant.
_3Eratosthenes(ca. 280-200 B.C. ); ourknowledge of"the sieve of Eratosthenes"comes
fromNicomachusof Gerasa (d. ca. 196A.D.), whose arithmeticwork was known through
Boethius (ca. 476-524 A.D.), De arithmetica, libri duo, in Vol. LXIH of Patrologiae
cursuscorapletus.Series latina, ed. JacquesPaulMigne (Paris:Migne, 1860), col. 1094.
1820-21 Lecture Notes on Logic 247
C'_st pour cela qu'on a appel_ sa m6thode parmi les Grecs la Crible d'Eratosth_ne,
parce que les mots _4qui n'6taient pas premiers passaient comme _ travers la crible,
et les autres restaient.--Malbranche a employ6 cette m6thode pour trouver la
v6ritable mani_re dont a lieu Faction de la mati_re sur l'esprit. _5I1a commenc6 par
6num_rer toutes les mani_res qu'il croyait possibles, ensuite il les a toutes rejet6es
par telle ou telle raison, et comme il n'en restait alors qu'une seule, il croyait
celle-l_t d6montr6e: mais comme on a fait beaucoup de syst_mes depuis
Malbranche, auxquels il n'avait jamais pens6, il 6st clair d'abord que son
6num6ration n'6tait pas complette: ensuite il 6st possible que quelques-unes de ses
objections ne soient pas fondees.--Dans les proc_s criminels on combine la
m6thode d'exclusion avec les autres m_thodes, avec beaucoup de succ_s. Est-il
question d'un asassinat? On peut exclure tous ceux qui n'6taient pas dans la ville:
ensuite tous ceux qui ne connaissaient nullement le d6funt ou qui n'avait aucun
int6r_t h le tuer: et ainsi de suite on va d'exclusion en exclusion, jusqu'_ ne pouvoir
SOUl_onnerque tout au plus huit ou neuf personnes. Alors un jugement exerc6 peut
facilement d6cider lequel de ces huit ou neuf 6st le coupable: ou s'il ne le peut pas,
on les renvoie tous, non comme innocens, mais comme n'6tant pas convaincus.
Toutes ces m6thodes ne sont bonnes que pour ce dont nous pouvons avoir des
preuves rigoureuses. Mais le nombre des choses susceptibles d'une rigueur
math6matique 6st tellement petit qu'il faut attacher une grande importance aux
m_thodes indirectes, qui feront le sujet de notre prochaine s6ance.
3 IMELEMON
chose sera toujours parcequ'elle a 6t6 longtems; par analogie lorsque nous
concluons que deux objets auront les ra_mes propri6t6s, _ raison de leur
ressemblance. C'6st par analogie clue nous accordons aux hommes la facult6 de
penser, quoique nous n'ayons lien qui nous le prouve: c'6st l'effet d'un jugement
involontaire. Cela _st si vrai, que le syst_me de Descartes, qui fesait des animaux
de pures machines, t n' a pas beaucoup eu de sectateurs. C'6st encore par analogie
que les astronomes pensent que les planetes sont habitL's,parcequ'ils ressemblent
la terre par leur forme, leur mouvement autour du soleil. C'6st par induction qne
nous attendons le lever du soleil chaque matin, car nous l'avons toujours vu se
lever tousles matins jusqu'ici, etnos aieux nous oat transmis que le m6me
ph6nom_ne a toujours eu lieu clans leurs terns.
L'analogie _st une n_thode tr_s imparfaite, car elle peut souvent nous tromper,
pu_squ'elle conclut du particulier au g6n_ral: C'6st cependant la seule qui nous soit
possible dam les sciences de fait et d'observation, qui n'admettent point la
d6monstration math6matique, au moins pour _tablir les principes, car lorsqu'ils
sont 6tablis, on peut ensure en tiler des conclusions par le raisonnement. On peut
dire la m_me chose pour l'induction. Ces m6thodes ont, au reste, l'avantage de
frapper l'ignorant comme le savant: ce sont des moyens de raisonnement a la
port6e de tout le monde. ILln'y a pas de paysan quelque grossier qu'il soit, qui
n'attende chaqne ann6e le retour des saisons comme l'ann6e pr_c6dente; il sacrifie
chaqne autonme une partie de sa graine dartsl'espoir d'en retirer l'6t_ prochain,
moins de quelqu'accident extraordinaire, une r6colte qui le pai_ra avec profit, et
cela sans penser a la possibilit_ que la r6colte lui manque, suivant l'opinion de
quelques naturalistes, qui croient que la ch6ne entiere est contenue en petit dartsle
gland, que par consb]uent tousles glands que portera jamais cette ch6ne y sont
aussi contenus, que chacun de ces glands enferme une nouvelle ch6ne, etc. d'oh il
s'ensuit que si le hombre de ces insertions successives est finie (et on ade la peine
concevoir comment elle peut _tre infinie), il arrivera quelque jour que la r6colte
manquera:Mais le paysan ne pense pas h tout cela; il s_me sa graine, et il 6st bien
certain que l'_t_ prochain il en retirera sa r6colte, comme Font toujours fair ces
aieux. De m_me si la lumiere du soleil _st 6puisable, nous avons a craindre qu'un
jour elle sera 6puis_e: cependant nous comptons avec bien de la certitude stir le
lever du soleil tous les matins.
C'6st aussi l'analogie qui dirige les enfans darts leurs premieres 6tudes et
r_flexions. C'6st par analogie qu'ils apprennent a parler: voyant que les autres
expriment leurs besoins par certains sons, ils t_hent a igniterces sons, pour arriver
au m_me but. L'analogie 6gate quelquefois les enfans, en les fesant suivre la r_gle
g_n6rale an lieu de l'exception. Un enfant dira Fesez cela: on dit Parlons, parlez:
donc on doit dire Fesons, Fesez.
en serait libre. 2C'6st d'apr_s ce module qu'on a fait tant de Lenres P_ruviennes, 3
etc.
Ces m6thodes sont doric tr_s imparfaites: mais il ne faudrait pas r6fuser la
lumi_re d'tme chandelle, parceque nous ne pouvons pas avoir celle du soleil.
Cependant il faut employer ces m6thodes avec circonspection dans la physique,
encore plus darts l'administration publique: et j amais dans les sciences exactes elle
ne doit jouer d'autre r61e que celui de faire soupqonner une v6rit_, qu'on d6montre
ensuite par des moyens plus rigoureux.--Quelles sont donc les sciences exactes?
Ce sont eelles qui ont pour objets de pures abstractions de l'esprit, qui _tant notre
ouvrage, et ind_pendantes de la nature, sont susceptibles d'un calcul exacte. Les
conclusions qu'on fait sur ces abstractions ne sont vraies que comme des v6rit6s
Sl_Sculatives: Darts la physique, elles ne sont vraies qu'_t peu p_s, et sont les
lim_tes des v6rit_s physiques: comme une ligne g6om6trique, qui ne doit avoir ni
largeur ni _paisseur, 6st le limite des lignes physiques, qui peuvent s'en approcher
de plus en plus, mais qui ne peuvent jarnais atteindre ce d6gn6 de perfection.
U y a pourtant quelques genres de recherche physique qui approchent beaucoup
des v_rit_s g_.om_triques: Telles sont les theories de M. Cuvier dans l'Anatomie: I1
dit, la Nature a toujours pourvu chaque animal de tout ce qui 6st n6cessaire pour
que l'esp_e ne se perde pas: A un animal de telle nature et mani6re de vivre, il faut
telles ou telles propri6t_s: doric si un animal pr6sente ces propri6t_s, j'ai le droit de
conclure que cet animal 6st de cette nature 1_.4 M. Cuvier 6st parvenu delh
peuvoir donner presque toute l'histoire d'tm animal avec une certitude presque
g_n_trique, _ la vue d'un seul ossement.
32ME LE(_ON
LORSQUE NOUSCONNAISSONS les causes des ph6nom_nes que nous examinons, ils
se lient les uns aux autres, et pr_sentent un int_r_t beaucoup plus grand que si nous
ne connaissions pas les causes. L'histoire born_ au simple r_cit des faits 6st
enti_rement d_nu6e d'int_r_t: mais lorsqu'avant d'_tudier l'histoire Romaine, par
exemple, on a lu avec attention le cel_bre ouvrage de Montesquieu sur les causes
de la grandeur et de la d_.cadence des Romains, _on lit dans le present ce qu'on peut
attendre darts l'avenir, et on 6tudie avec beaucoup plus de profit. C'6st ainsi que
lor_ue nous suivions l'astronomie de Ptolom6e, 2 et observ_aes les ph6nom6nes,
sans nous inqui6ter sur les causes, tousles mouvemens c61estes nous paraissaient
bien compliqu6s: l/i dessus Copernic,3 voyant que d'une autre mani6re on pouvait
les expliquer d'une mani6re bien plus simple, nous chasse du centre du monde, que
nous avions occup6 jusqu'alors en paix, et y met le soleil: de cette mani6re tous ces
ph_nom6nes se pr6sentent sous un aspect beaucoup plus r6gulier. Ce que Copernic
n'avait que devin6, Newton d6montra, et en d6couvrit la cause: 4 ce qui lui donna le
moyen de rendre compte de quelques irr6gularit6s qui n'avaient pas encore disparu
et m6me de calculer quelques in6galit6s _ longues p6riodes.--
De m6me lorsqu'on observe les ph6nom6nes des mar6es, on reconnait bientbt
qu'ils suivent le mouvement de la lune: d'oO on peut conclure/_ bon droit que la
ltme entre pour quelque chose dans ces ph6nom6nes. On observe bient6t des
irr_gularit6s: on en recueille des observations exactes, et on trouve que les hautes
mers les plus consid6rables sont lorsque la lune 6st en conjonction et en opposition,
et les plus petites lorsqu'elle 6st clans les quadratures: delh on conclut que l'action
du soleil modifie celle de la lune. On peut alors pr6voir les irr6gularit6s.
Au d6faut de connaissance des causes r6elles, qui ont produit les effets, nous en
aeons imagin6es qui auraient pu les produire: c'6st faire des syst6mes ou des
hypoth6ses. Et quoiqu'on puisse dire peut 6tre que ce n'6st qu'tme mani6re plus
deuce d'ignorer, cependant cela contente l'esprit jusqu'/l un certain point: tout
comme tm m_anicien habile, qui aurait vu une machine qui produisait certains
mouvemens, et qui n'aurait pas vu l'int_rieur de la machine, chercherait dans sa
t_te comment elle aurait pu 6tre faite, et lorsqu'il l'a trouv6, quoiqu'il ne sache pas
si elle a 6t6 vraiment faite de cette mani6re, cependant il 6st content, car il sait
comment elle a pu _tre faite, et darts le besoin, il serait darts le cas d'en faire une qui
produirait les m6mes mouvemens. Aussi, sans les syst6mes, toutes les sciences
seraient bien moins avanc6es qu'elles ne le sont: car les th6ories que nous
consid6rons aujourd'hui comme les mieux 6tablies, n'ont 6t6 d'abord que des
hypoth6ses. Exemples la th6orie du syst6me du monde: l'anneau de Satume, et
tant d'autres.
Mais on peut abuser de ce moyen comme de tout autre. Les anciens se sont trop
abandonn6s _tl'esprit de syst6me: au lieu d'observer et de tenir r6gistre des faits, ils
ont trouv6 plus court de faire un syst6me qui s'accorderait avec quelques faits
qu'ils connaissaient d6j_t. Aussi le Traitd de Physique d'Aristote, ouvrage tr6s
61oquent, n'6st presque point lu aujourd'hui. 5 Trop souvent, soit par paresse
d'esprit, soit par amour propre, on n'abandonne pas son syst_me m_me quand la
fausset_ en 6st parfaitement 6tablie: on aime mieux tordre les faits pour les
accorder avec le syst_me.
Jusqu'a quel point doit on done employer les syst6mes, et audela de quel point
sont-ils dang6reux? I1faut commencer en s'assurant par l'observation d'un assez
grand hombre de fairs: il faut ensure les classer m6thodiquement, et ensure tacher
de les exprimer par van petit hombre de loix g6n6rales, aussi simples qu'il 6st
possible. I1 faut alors faire une hypoth6se qui puisse satisfaire/t ces faits jusque
clans les plus petits d6tails: mais pour cela il faut commencer par faire un syst6me
qui satisfasse aux ph_nom6nes en gros, et le modifier ensuite pour expliquer les
d6tails. C'6st ainsi clue le fit Newton pour expliquer le Syst6me du Monde. 6 I1
supposa d'abord que le soleil exer_ait envers les planetes une force d'attraction: et
il trouva que cet hypoth6se expliquait assez bien les ph6nomenes en gros. S'il avait
rejet6 ce syst_me aussit6t qu'il trouva l'impossibilit6 d'expliquer ainsi les petites
irr6gularit_sdes mouvemens plan6taires, l'Astronomie aurait probablement rest6e
jusqu'aujourd'hui au niveau _ elle 6tait alors. Mais il ne le rejeta point: il chercha
/_le modifier: et apres de longues r6flexions, il trouva que s'il supposait que chaque
plan6te exer_ait envers tousles autres la m6me force d'attraction que le soleil
exer_ait envers lui, il pouvait expliquer jusqu'aux plus petits d6tails.
Darts la nature tout 6st en m6me tems cause et effet. Chaque 6vehement 6st caus6
par un 6v6nement ant6rieur, eta son tour il produit d'autres 6venemens. Mais il y a
des causes prochaines, ou imm6diates, et des causes 61oign6es, ou m6diates. I1 6st
6vident que si nous ne pouvons pas tracer un ph6nom6ne/t sa cause remote, il faut
au moins _,trecontent d'arriver _ la cause prochaine. Lorsqu'il n'y a qu'une seule
cause qui concoure a produire un m_me effet, il n'6st ordinairement pas bien
difficile de la trouver. La difficult6 6st lorsque plusieurs causes qui agissent _ peu
pros avecla m_me force, concourent dans la production d'un ph6nom6ne. Comme
ces causes suivent une marche diff6rente, tant6t l'une pr6domine, et tant6t l'autre,
et l'effet, quoiqu'il d6pende de causes tr6s reguli6res, parait ponrtant on ne peut
pas plus irr6gulier. En voici un exemple
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10
1, 2, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 2, 1, 2
3,4,3,2, 1,2,3,4,3,2
5, 8, 9, 8, 7,10,13,14,13,14
Voil_ une progression qui paraR tr6s irr6guli6re, malgr6 qu'elle soit compos6e
de trois qui suivent une marche tr6s r6guli6re. I1 serait fort difficile de d6viner ces
trois s&'ies, en ne connaissant que leur somme. Si tme de ces causes pr6domine
beaucoup sur les autres, c'tst plus facile, car on n'a qu'h fermer les yeux h tout ce
qui n'tst pas l'effet de la cause prtdominante; hfonder l_tdessus un hypoth_se, et le
modifier ensuite pour le faire cadrer avec les petites variations.
Enfm si l'on n'a pas d'autre moyen de demtler les causes d'un phtnom_ne, on
suppose que telle ou telle cause y entre et l'on examine quelles autres causes
auraient pu y concourir avec celle-l_. C'tst de cette mani_re que se servent ceux
qui dtchiffrent les 6critures sec_tes, qu'on 6st oblig6 parfois h employer dans la
guerre et dam les ntgociations. Elles sont faites ordinairement en substituant tel ou
tel caract_e de convention _ chaque lettre de l'alphab_te. Lorsque l'tcriture 6st
fort longue, c'tst bien facile h la dtchiffrer, en observant quels caract_res se
reneontrent le plus souvent, car les impfimeurs et les fabriquans de types savent
parfaitement quelles lettres se rencontrent le plus souvent: lorsqu'un fabriquant
vend des types _ un imprimeur il se gardera bien de lui donner autant d'x et de z que
d'e et d'i, etc. Mais si le morceau 6st court, ce moyen manque, car une lettre qui se
rencontre rarement clans une langue enti_re, peut bien se rencontrer souvent dans
une phrase. Prenez par exemple ce vers de Voltaire, "non il n'tst den que Nanine
n'honore: ''7 Quelle profusion d'n l_t dedans! on serait tent_ de croire que le
caract_re qui rtprtsente un n r_prtsentait tin e. I1faut alors supposer que deux ou
trois caract_res rtprtsentent telles ou telles lettres de mani_re _ faire un sens, et
voir ensuite quelle valeur il faut donner aux autres lettres pour que le morceau
entier puisse s'interprtter: si on ne rtussit pas on donne aux premiers caract_res un
autre sens, et ainsi de suite jusqu'_ ce qu'on arrive _ son but. Pour obvier/l ce
moyen-lh, il n'tst d'autre mani_re que celle d'tcrire le morceau de sorte qu'en
dormant aux caract_res difftrentes valeurs, il soit susceptible de plusieurs
explications. Mais cette mani_re serait non seulement presqu'impossible; elle ne
nSussirait pas toujours.
THEBENEFICIAL EFFECTS produced upon the human mind and upon the structure of
society by the revival of science and by the cessation of feudal darkness have been
so obvious that there is scarcely room for the smallest discussion. No one, I
apprehend, would insult the aunderstandinga of this Society by reviving the
ascetic sophistry of the fanatic Rousseau by maintaining that what are called the
comforts and conveniences of life are in fact neither comforts nor conveniences,
and add not the smallest particle to human happiness; that the progress of
civilization is in fact the progress of barbarism and that the Hurons and the Iroquois
are the happiest and the most enlightened of mankind. 1Were such a reasoner to
arise I should ask him by what authority he claims to know better than A, B and C
what constitutes the happiness of A, B and C. I should maintain that what all men
have uniformly considered as comforts and conveniences cannot be otherwise than
comforts and conveniences, and I should require him who considers knowledge as
standing in the way of happiness to go and legislate for those savages upon whose
blissful state of ignorance he would have b an opportunity of trying his skill with-
out those obstacles which he finds in the knowledge of this comparatively en-
lightened counu'y.
Such doctrines are scarcely worthy of a serious reply, but as the refutation may
be made remarkably pointed and concise, it may be better to give it. In reasoning
on these general questions a want of precision in the use of language is the principal
engine of sophistry. Here the confusion lies in the word knowledge, a word so
vague and indefinite as to be an easy instrument in the hands of malafide arguers,
being capable of signifying just as much or as little as they please. It is not this kind
tJean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78), Discours sur l'origine et lesfondements de l'in_-
galitdparmi les hommes (1755), in Oeuvres compldtes, 2nd ed., 25 vols. in 12 (Paris:
Feret, 1826), Vol. I, pp. 239-392.
°-_L] TS understandings
(not) [parentheses added in ink, presumably to indtcate an addition: not here accepted]
258 Journals and Speeches No. 4
2Notidentified.
_-"L] TS knowledge
1823 The Utility of Knowledge 259
abundantly at little expense of labour with those necessaries and comforts which
formerly they either could not procure at all, or if at all, only in a very small amount
and with very great labour. This increase of wealth must have contributed greatly
to the improvement of morality. I would not be understood as aff'u'ming that the
rich are more moral than the poor. As far as general reasoning and my own
particular experience can lead me I should rather adopt the contrary conclusion.
But when the augmentation of wealth is not, by being confined in the hands of a
few, reduced to be but one expedient more for the oppression of the many; when I
say instead of being exclusively devoted to the enjoyment of a few the increase of
wealth is generally and equally diffused throughout the whole community; then by
conferring upon the working classes the inestimable benefit of leisure, it forces
them to seek society, it forces them to seek education. Each working man becomes
himself better qualified to distinguish fight from wrong, _vhile each knows that he
is under the constant surveillance of hundreds and thousands equally instructed
with himself. Thus does the improvement of the physical sciences, by increasing
and diffusing wealth, indirectly tend to promote morality.
But the evils which man is doomed to suffer from the hands of nature are nothing
when compared to those which man frequently suffers from man. Communities
have been known to flourish in spots which Nature seems to have selected for the
sepulchre of the universe; but there is no country, however favoured by nature,
which superstition and misgovernment do not suffice to ruin. Let us therefore take
a general view of the situation of our ancestors with respect to these two main
points, religion and government.
And fLrst as to their government: he must be an adept in the art of rendering
mankind miserable who could devise anything more destructive of all happiness. It
was not here the common vice of a rude government, where each man has not yet
learned to trust his neighbour, and where no one will as yet renounce the privilege
of protecting himself, aTbesed are imperfect governments for they afford
imperfect securities for happiness, but they are not in every sense as execrable as
the feudal system. Imagine a tribe with a government such as that to which I have
alluded spreading itself by conquest over a large portion of the globe, and reducing
the native population to the state of domestic cattle! Each chief absolute master of
thousands of human beings, and himself acknowledging no regular government,
but striving to retain his pristine independency! Not only is no one secure from the
arbitrary will of a master; even that master cannot afford him protection against
other despots and slaves! It has frequently been made a question whether
despotism or anarchy is worst; but this is not the question here, for the feudal
system united the evils of both. The laws were openly and flagrantly violated, and
the violations remained unpunished. Judge of the security which the administra-
tion of justice could afford when the trial by battle was the best expedient which
could be devised to ensure the purity of judicature, and where it was usual for the
party who was ecast e in a lawsuit to challenge his judge to mortal combat.
The religion of our ancestors is next to be considered, and here I shall begin by
laying down a principle of which the ordinary reasoners on these subjects have
usually lost sight. It is not indeed extremely recondite for it is no other than this,
that priests are men. They are usually considered as partaking of that perfect
goodness and wisdom which they verbally attribute to the Great Master whom they
profess to serve, although the actions and precepts which they ascribe to Him
partake but too often of a contrary character.
From the principle that priests are men I draw the inference that in those cases
which very frequently occur, and in which their individual interest is opposed to
the interest of mankind, they will act as other men would act in similar
circumstances; they would pursue their own interest to the detriment of mankind.
Now if all men agree to believe whatever they say, they have a decided interest in
making them believe everything which is likely to make them venerate and
worship their spiritual guides; and if trueo_pinions on the .subject of_ligionare not
of a nature calculatedto inspire the requi_sit_eof veneration, it would be
unfair to expect that these irresponsible di-r_tors of the public mind should confine
themselves strictly to what is true; and we might indeed predict with tolerable
certainty that they would not fail to intermingle much of what is utterly false, the
more so as they may do this without the slightest insincerity. There is no fact better
ascertained than the facility with which men are persuaded to believe what they
wish. It is only necessary that there should be someone, who may be either a knave
or a madman, to start a falsehood; if it is unfavourable to the clergy he will be
hunted down as a heretic, but if it is favourable to them it will not be long before he
finds many sincere disciples among the clergy themselves, who of course
propagate it among the laity. It is in this way that the Catholic priesthood added to
their religion the profitable doctrine of purgatory and masses for the dead, the
crime-promoting doctrine of indulgences, and above all the terrific engines of
auricular confession and absolution, the concentration of which, and particularly
of the former, in the hands of the clergy, make it astonishing that mankind should
ever have emancipated themselves from the terrific sway of priests and their
coadjutors, aristocracies and kings. If at this day we rarely hear of murders
perpetrated in the name of religion, still more rarely of those terrible persecutions
which once disgraced every nation in Europe, we owe this to the revival of letters
and the consequent diffusion of knowledge.
Such a government and such a religion as our ancestors had the happiness to
enjoy afford us in some degree the means of appreciating that ancestorial wisdom
which is even now held up to us as a model for imitation. 3In the nineteenth century
3By followers of Edmund Burke (1729-97), who lauded "the wisdom of our ancestors"
in _s Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents (1770), in Works, 8 vols. (London:
"-_L] TS suit[transcriber'serror?]
August 1824 Parliamentary Reform [1] 261
we are not infrequently called upon to pursue the course which was followed by
those sages, our ancestors, in the eleventh and twelfth. But this appeal from the age
of civilization to the age fofJbarbarism is made, we may observe, by those and by
those alone who now, as then, would wish to see the great mass of mankind subject
to the despotic sway of nobles, priests and kings. But although it is in one respect
true that the aristocracy of wealth and rank has given place to the democracy of
intellect, I would not insinuate that the evils of feudal despotism and superstition
are altogether eradicated even from this enlightened country. Knowledge has done
much, but it has not yet done all. We are still subject to a constitution which is at
best a shattered fragment of the feudal system; we are still subject to a priesthood
who do whatever is yet in their power to excite a spirit of religious intolerance and
to support the domination of a despotic aristocracy. We cannot therefore be
surprised that those who are interested in misgovernment should raise a cry against
the diffusion of knowledge on the ground that it renders the people dissatisfied
with their institutions. When despotism and superstition were in their greatest
vigour the same cry was raised, and for the same reason. Knowledge has
triumphed. It has worked the downfall of much that is mischievous. It is in vain to
suppose that it will pass by and spare any institution the existence of which is
pernicious to mankind.
5. Parliamentary Reform [ 1]
AUGUST 1824
Dodsley, and Rivington, 1792-1827), Vol. I, p. 485. Mill would also have in mind the
Benthamiterejectionof the idea,madeespeciallyprominentthe nextyearinBentham'sThe
Book ofFaUacies, ed. PeregrineBingham (London:Hunt, 1824), pp. 69-81 (Chap. ii:
"TheWisdomof Our Ancestors;a Chinese Argument").
1Thegreatest_k orator(384-322 B.C.).
inexpressible
importanceofthequestion,thanIam ofmy utterinaOility
todo it
justice;
I who am solittle
habituated
topublicspeaking,
thatevenmy thoughts,
andmy reasonings,feeble
astheymay be,willappearstill
feeblerby my manner
ofexpressingthem;--andwho toallmy personaldisadvantages,
addthefarther
disadvantage,
ofnotevenbeingamember oftheSociety,
uponwhoseindulgence I
ventureto throw myself,--Imust indeedbe arrogant, indeedvainlyand
presumptuouslyconfident,
ifIdidnotfeelgreat
embarrassmentinenteringupon
thetaskwhichIhaveundertaken.
Indeedwhere successis doubtful, and obloquycertain, I mightwell be
permitted tohesitate;andwhatevermay bemy other deficiencies Ido givemyself
credit forsomeportion ofcourage, inbraving thehardnames whichIknow willbe
levelled atme.Forithasbeentoocommon toconsider thewordReformasamere
_ver forsinister designs, andallwho presumetodoubtthat ourConstitution is
perfect, asenemiestosocial orderandtotheexistence ofproperty. IfthenIshould
be sofortunate, astoovercomeallthepreliminary obstacles, and inspite ofmy
own deficiencies, and thedifficulty of thesubject, to present an intelligible
exposition of my views;Imightpossibly do no more thanbringdisrepute upon
myself, without serving thecauseinwhichIam engaged.Iam content however
that theyshouldcall me radical, revolutionist, anarchist,jacobin, iftheyplease. I
am content tobe treated asan enemy toestablishments, toinstitutions, and to
order. ForthoughIprofess no attachment tobadinstitutions,Ihopetoprovethat I
am assincerely afriend togood institutions, asanypersonhere: andtheattempt to
crydown thetruth, by applying badnames toitssupporters, thoughitmighthave
some success ina darkerage,may inthepresent stateof thehuman mind be
regarded I thinkasnearlyhopeless.
We allknow, Sir, thatthesimpleformsofgovernmentastheyarecalled, are
three: monarchy,aristocracy, anddemocracy. Eachofthese isuniversally allowed
tohaveitsadvantages: eachofthem hasalsoitsdisadvantages: andithasbeen
pretty generally thedoctrine ofBritish statesmen, andofBritish politicians, thatin
everyoneof them,thedisadvantages preponderate. Of everyone ofthem,itis
affLrmed that moremay be said against itthanforit:thatmoreevil thangoodwould
betheconsequence ofits unqualified adoption: andinshort, that a nationisalmost
sureto be illgoverned, whetheritbe undera monarchy,a democracyor an
aristocracy. Allthesimpleformsofgovernment beingthusobjectionable, theonly
chanceforgoodgovernment istobefound,theyallege, ina mixture ofthethree: a
mixture absurd, indeed, andinconsistent intheory,butwhichissaidtoberealized
in the British Constitution; a Constitution which, according to them, combines all
the advantages of democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy.
Granting for the present what I am fully prepared to deny, viz. fast that a mixed
government is possible, and next, thatour own is a mixed government, Iwonder it
should never have occurred to them as a possible case, that some turbulentfellow
might dispute the assumption, that ffthe three forms of government are thrown pel!
mell into the melting-pot, they would come out freed from all their defects, and
August 1824 Parliamentary Reform [1] 263
retaining their advantages: that this same turbulent fellow might furthermaintain,
that he had looked more closely into the melting-pot than they had, and that instead
of coming out refined and corrected, all the pure spirit had evaporated, and nothing
but the scum and dross remained: to use plainer language, Sir, that the British
Constitution instead of combining the advantages, combined all the disadvantages
of the simple forms of government. If this were said, I do not well see what on their
own principles they could say against it, nor what means they would possess of
silencing the turbulent fellow,--except by the old established method of knocking
him down.
I have heard a great deal, Sir, about the balance of the Constitution. 2What this
means, I confess myself to be in ignorance. One would think it must be something
unspeakably excellent, judging from the encomiums which are heaped upon it. It
is in truth a mere metaphor. There seems to be something singularly captivating in
the word balance: as if, because any thing is called a balance, it must, for that
reason, be necessarily good. I know no artifice of language, more pernicious than
this: to invent a metaphorical expression, and then reason from it as if it was the
name of something real, of something tangible. What is there, that may not be
proved in this way? What form of government, what person, what thing may not be
demonstrated to be excellent, if nothing is required but to call it by some fine high
sounding name?
Even admitting the metaphor, one would think that if all the moving forces are in
equilibrio, the machine must stand still. This inference seems to flow at least as
naturally from the premises, as the former.
Stripped of its metaphorical language, the doctrine is that the British
Constitution is a system of mutual checks; that each of the three branches when it
oversteps its limits, and attempts to do wrong, is restrained by the other two. But
why should the three branches check one another in doing wrong? Of three equal
forces, any two must be stronger than the third. May not two of them unite in doing
wrong and overthrow the third if it opposes them? What is to hinder the
monarchical branch, and the aristocratic branch, from uniting for the overthrow of
the democratic? Not only is this probable but certain. The reason why the monarch
would unite with the aristocracy, rather than either of them with the people, is, that
it can never be the interest of the people to unite with either of them. It must always
be the interest of the people, that iaeither of them should enjoy more power than is
absolutely necessary for good government. It is their interest, to take as much
power as they can get. For this purpose, they are sure to conspire against their
common enemy, or at least the common enemy of their sinister designs ,--the
people. Assertion, however, is so much easier than proof, that no attempt to prove
it has yet come under my observation. 3
But it is needless to enquire whether a mixed government is possible, or what
would be its consequences ff it were so. I contend, Sir, that whether a mixed
government be possible or not, the British Constitution, at any rate, is not a mixed
government. I am prepared to maintain, that the British government is an
aristocracy: and I request the most serious attention of this society to the proof. I
am prepared to make it appear, that there is not one of the distinguishing
characteristics of an aristocracy, which the British Constitution does not possess:
that it is controuled by a few; that it is administered by a few, that it is conducted
wholly for the benefit of a few; and that there is no check, upon the conduct of
those few, which would not equally exist under an Oriental despotism, if the
subjects of that despotism were equally wise, virtuous, and enlightened with the
people of Great Britain.
By the general admission of political writers in the present day, as well those
who are enemies, as those who are friends to reform, the governing power in these
kingdoms, the dominant authority under the British Constitution, is lodged in the
House of Commons. The royal negative is become a mere name; and the Peers,
though highly powerful by their influence over elections, do not, in their capacity
of Peers exercise much influence on the legislation of the country.
But if this be true--if the supreme power is vested in the House of Commons,
whoever chuses the House of Commons, possesses the supreme power. Now
evidence was tendered at the bar of that House to prove that two thirds of its
members were actually nominated and appointed by less than two hundred
aristocratic families, mostly landholders. 4The offer not having been accepted, the
proof was never given to the world: but from the circumstance that without being
refuted an assertion like this was not permitted to be proved, I should be entitled to
consider it as fully ms de out, even if it were not, as it is, notorious to all the world.
It is an insult to our understandings to tell us that this is a mixed government. In
every government the supreme power must be vested somewhere; if it is vested in
one, the government is a monarchy: if in a few, it is an aristocracy; if in the people,
through an assembly responsible to them, it is a democracy. In this country, the
supreme power is vested in the House of Commons; and a great majority in the
House of Commons is returned by two hundred families. Those two hundred
the real checking power, the real balance of the Constitution that is in appearance
an aristocracy, but in truth is nevertheless a mixed government, and unites the
advantages of democracy, aristocracy and monarchy.
If this be true, Sir, I say that we have no occasion for a parliament. To resort to
this doctrine is to give up the theory of the Constitution. The Constitution supposes
that the House of Commons is a check. But no! it seems, the House of Commons,
instead of being a check, itself requires to be checked, and there is no check except
public opinion. But if the governing body is neither elected by nor responsible to
the people, and is only kept in awe by the partial and inefficient check of naked and
disarmed public opinion, where is the use of keeping up a cumbrous and operose
machinery to cheat the people by persuading them that they really have some
_ecurity in the constitution of the House of Commons? If it comes to this at last,
that the House of Commons are tyrants, but tyrants subdued and kept down by the
dread of public opinion, methinks it were more honest to take off the mask, that the
people might know henceforward to what they have to trust, and may look to
nothing for security, but their own unassisted exertions.
No, Sir, it is a cruel mockery, to say that public opinion is a check upon the
members of parliament when public opinion can neither remove them nor punish
them. Carry this into practice. Let any one consider how far he would be inclined
to trust to public opinion for the prevention and punishment of theft or robbery. Yet
a thief is far more unpopular than a bad member of parliament. How absurd to bid
us trust for the security of our happiness and of our lives, to a check that we would
not confide in for the safety of a few shillings or pounds.
Driven from the theoretical ground, the defenders of the Constitution will take
refuge in what they are pleased to call practice. The experience of ages, it will be
said is in favour of the British Constitution. Notwithstanding some theoretical
imperfections, so long as it has lasted, it has worked well, and still continues to do
so. Why quit a certain good for one which is uncertain? Why substitute abstract
theories for practical experience?
We are well as we are. This is their grand argument. What do they mean? Well
as compared to better? But this is absurd. Well as compared to worse? Truly a
stupendous merit. They must therefore mean, well as compared to what we once
were. But this, far from being a reason for stopping short, is one of the strongest of
all arguments for advancing. For if we look back and ask ourselves, why it is that
we are well, as compared with what we were 300 years ago,--what is the cause to
which we owe this prodigious difference,--we shall fred it to be progression,m
improvement,--amelioration. Then too we were well, as compared with our
condition at a still earlier period; then too the certainty of present good and the
chance of future evil, might have been urged as successfully as in the present day;
then too we might have stopped short, and said We are well as we are; all farther
progression is unnecessary. Nor were the aristocracies and hierarchies of those
days more slack than those of the present in diffusing and inculcating those
August 1824 Parliamentary Reform [1] 267
oppressing the poor;--above all I might call your attention to that barbarous and
confused mass of precedents and of statutes to which the much abused name of
Law is in this country applied.
But I will not occupy the time by detailing all the evils under which we groan.
From the mere existence of these evils, nothing can be inferred. I should be as little
justified in reprobating the Constitution, on the mere ground that evil exists, as my
opponents are in applauding it, because every thing is not evil. And if no mischiefs
at all had as yet resulted from the Constitution, the obligation to reform it, if it were
proved to have a tendency to evil, would not be a whit less imperative.
Contrivance, combination, foresight, are the characteristics of the philosopher: to
wait for specific experience is that of the man who is incapable of doing more than
groping in the dark.
What, then? (it will be said) Do you set up visionary theories as the rule of
conduct? Is it not upon experience, and experience alone, that all human
knowledge, is founded?--Yes. Experience is the only legitimate guide of human
actions. By no other test can we determine what is good and what is bad. None but
a madman would question the authority of experience.
But this experience, this infallible directive rule, to which we must adhere or
perish, does not consist in judging after a model,--in never departing from what
already exists--and in copying implicitly both the excellencies and the defects of
some favorite system. If this be the meaning of the term, improvement in human
affairs can only be effeeted by deviating from experience. In this sense, the savage
had experience against him, when he first fixed his cabin in one spot, and
commenced cultivating the earth. Very different is the experience of a philoso-
pher. His is an experience which compares, which analyses: which takes to pieces
a complicated machine, and distinguishes between the parts which promote and
the parts which impede its operation. In this sense, experience is synonymous with
sound and enlightened theory. By theory I mean general propositions; by sound
theory, I mean theory conformable to experience: theory founded on observation.
Not observation limited to a single field, but an enlarged view of the actions and
motives of mankind.
A country with the natural resources, and with the capital of Great Britain, in a
period of profound peace, and when commerce is subjected only to moderate
restraints, must be ill governed indeed, if it does not rapidly increase in wealth; and
before we ascribe any part of its prosperity to the goodness of its government, we
must ascertain what are likely to be the effects of that government when no other
causes of prosperity exist. And if we can obtain a practical experiment of the
effects which that government produces when unassisted by favorable circum-
stances, it will go far towards the ultimate decision of the question.
Fortunately for our purpose, such an experiment presents itself in Ireland. That
country which enjoys in so preeminent a degree the blessings of tranquillity and
social order, admirably exemplifies the tendency of our institutions. The Irish are
August 1824 Parliamentary Reform [1] 269
in the full enjoyment of the English Constitution; nor of that alone, but of the
unspeakable blessings which we owe to it: our admirable system of law, an
established Protestant Church, 5 and a landed aristocracy. With all these glorious
things, Ireland ought to be "the envy of surrounding nations, and the admiration of
the world. ,,6 But what is it? The completest specimen upon record of the combined
horrors of despotism and anarchy! These are the effects of the system which works
well. If therefore England is more prosperous than Ireland--if we have not yet
fallen quite so low--it is not to our institutions that we are to ascribe our
superiority.
After all, when I consider attentively the situation of this country, I really cannot
see what foundation there is for such unbounded self applause, nor what these
astonishing advantages are, which distinguish us so preeminently above all other
nations. We enjoy, it is true, a certain degree of security for person and property:
but how deficient this security is, daily experience demonstrates. For greater
security for person and property has existed under governments universally
acknowledged to be bad. Under the Emperor Napoleon, the police was so efficient
that scarcely any crime remained free from detection. Then as to cheapness, the
other requisite of good government, no one, I apprehend, will attribute this quality
to our Constitution. A debt of 800 millions, and an annual taxation of 60, (without
counting tithes or poor rates) are indeed proud monuments of national prosperity!
If frequent wars are a proof of misrule, we have been engaged, since the
Revolution of 1688, in a greater number than any other nation in Europe. If the
degree in which the body of Civil and Penal Law answers its purpose, be the
circumstance chosen for the criterion of good government; in this respect no
European nation is worse, and one, at least, in a remarkable degree is better, than
ourselves. If discretionary powers entrusted to public officers be regarded as a
symptom of misgovernment, our justices of peace may well be set off against the
most arbitrary and oppressive authority which ever existed under the most despotic
government.
I pity the man who can see any thing to admire in all this. I should prefer even the
straightforward despot, who is not imbecil enough to be duped by his own fallacies
but feels and acknowledges the power of sinister interest. 7 He, I am sure, would
ere long be convinced, that it is no longer for his advantage to hold out against
popular feeling: that tim age is gone by when he could hope to do so with success.
For a time is approaching when the enquiry, What has been, shall no longer
supersede the enquiry, What ought to be, and when the rust of antiquity shall no
longer be permitted to sanctify institutions which reason and the public interest
condemn. In vain do they who profit by misrule persist in shutting their eyes to the
advancement of knowledge in the world. In vain do they judge of the future by the
past, and hope to see the public sink back into the apathy in which they were
plunged during the age of despotism and superstition. Never did the circumstances
of the world bear the most distant resemblance to their present state. Never were
the blessings of education so widely diffused, never were political questions so
freely discussed. Never were so many men in existence whose enlarged and
philosophic views will enable them, when reform takes place, to lead the public
mind and guard it from going astray as heretofore. To prevent a change may, at the
present day, be fairly pronounced impossible. The only question is, Shall it be
effected
t by moderate or by violent means. The people have always been and still
are peaceably inclined. They seek not violence; they avoid it. May they avoid it
ever, unless they are driven to it. But moderate means have been tried. Petitions
without number have been poured into Parliament. If our rulers still persist in their
resistance, it is they and not the Reformers, who endeavour to excite insurrection.
It is true, the Reformers do not consider tranquillity as absolutely the end of
government, and if the greater good, a government responsible to the people, can
only be obtained by means of a commotion, no weak and feminine humanity will
induce me at least to deprecate such a result. But if (which God forbid) it should
come at last to this; and if moderate means, after repeated trials, should fail to
produce the desired effect; let all the evils necessarily occasioned by those
commotions, which are the last and dangerous resort of the people, be on the heads
of those eternal enemies of mankind, who, by their interested resistance to the
spirit of the age, 8 will have rendered such a crisis inevitable.
And now, Sir, before I conclude, let me request as a favor what I might fairly
claim as a right of the gentlemen who will take a different view of the question
from myself: and who will support their opinions, I have no doubt, with far greater
ability than I have supported mine; 91 have one thing to request: let them consider
that this is a question of argument: and that by argument only, can it fairly be met:
let them consider also, that if their cause is good, it has nothing to fear from
argument, and every thing to fear, if all the argument should seem to be on the
other side. Let me not then be met by vague and general declamation; by appeals to
the wisdom of our ancestors, or by angry denunciations against innovation. This is
not argument, Sir, it is unworthy of the name. My case in fact, reduces itself into a
SThisterm was apparentlyfirst used in English by William Hazlitt ( 1778-1830) in" The
Drama. No. IV," London Magazine (Apr. 1820), p. 433; Hazlitt had reviewed in 1816
ErnstAmdt's Der Geist derZeit, from which the term derives, and then used it as the title of
a workin 1825. Mill laterused "The Spirit of the Age" as title for a series in the Examiner in
1831; see CW, Vol. XXII, Nos. 73, 77, 82, 92, 97, 103, and 107.
9Thisclause ["and who.., mine;"] writtenat the bottom of the page, is markedfor
insertionhere.
August 1824 Parliamentary Reform [2] 271
very small compass. I rest it upon two assertions: that an aristocracy is bad, and
that this government is an aristocracy. One or other of these assertions they must
disprove, or give up the point, ff they do not touch these propositions, they are
talking in the air: whatever may be their plea, it is irrelevant, and ought to be
dismissed.
Having asked this for my cause, I ask nothing for myself. That cause would
indeed be ill served, if its supporters feared to encounter a few hard words, for the
chance of doing it service. Let them but fairly grapple with my arguments; and they
have my free permission to exercise as they please, their powers either of invective
or of ridicule upon myself.
IF, Sir, when I rose to open this question, _I felt myself to be in a difficult situation,
the difficulty is greatly enhanced by the result of the debate. Contrary to my
expectation, and not a little to my disappointment, there is not one among the
ordinary speakers in this Society who has not differed more or less from me, and
the only gentlemen from whom I have obtained unqualified support, have been
those, who, like myself, stand in the situation of strangers and trespassers on your
indulgence: while those speakers whose reputation stands highest in this Society,
have embraced opinions irreconcilably at variance with mine. Thus circum-
stanced, I may be considered, like Atlas to carry the heavens on my shoulders; and
I hope it will not be deemed unpardonable, if I should be unable to bear up against
the weight.
Among the foremost of my opponents there is one gentleman,2 from whom it is
always painful for me to differ: one whom I can never allude to without the most
profound respect, and with whom, if this were a question of anthoritymI would
rather go against this whole Society, than with this whole Society against him. I
ISee No. 5.
2Notidentified.
272 Journals and Speeches No. 6
had hoped, Sir, that he would not have thrown his weight into that scale, which
was already so much the heaviest. I had hoped that by his support he would have
added authority to the cause which I advocate, that he would have supplied as he
can so well do, the numberless omissions which in so vast a subject, I must
necessarily have made, and aided me in refuting the objections with which I have
been assailed. Disappointed of his aid, my labour will be the greater, but I must not
shrink from it: that cause in which it would have been my proudest boast to fight by
his side, I must now, when left alone, endeavour to the best of my ability to defend
even against him.
A considerable part of his speech consisted of a statement of objections against
one of the propositions of the reformers; the plan of secret suffrage. I have
abstained, Sir, throughout, and shall still abstain, from discussing the merits of
this, or that plan of reform. The question as it stands is surely weighty and difficult
enough without mixing it up with a hundred of other questions. It is enough for me,
if I can prove that the Constitution stands in need of reform: of what precise sort of
reform it stands in need will be a fit subject for discussion on a future occasion.
And if that occasion should ever come; and if the gentleman should there restate his
objections against secret suffrage and give me a fair opportunity of answering
them; then, Sir, in spite of that multiplicity of occupations which prevent and I fear
will long prevent me from aspiring to the honour of being a member of this
Society, I pledge myself to be present, and to show that of his objections there is
not one which is not utterly devoid even of the shadow of plausibility.
Another large portion of the gentleman's speech was devoted to the task of
defending the King and the Peers, though it must be acknowledged at the same
time, that he treated the latter body rather unceremoniously, for he described them
as a parcel of old women. All this, too, Sir, he will forgive me for saying appears to
me to be totally irrelevant. My argument has nothing to do with the King and Peers:
I have my opinion as any one else may have, on the necessity or utility of these
institutions. But I maintained and still maintain, nor would it be difficult to show
from the Honourable Gentleman's own words he agrees with me, that the whole
power is centered in the House of Commons, and that according as that House is
democratically or aristocratically constituted, the government is a democracy or an
aristocracy. So true is this, Sir, that if the King and Peers were to be abolished
to-morrow, the government would remain in all its substantials exactly as it is.
Proclamations indeed would be no longer issued in the name of the King; laws
would be no longer passed by the King, with the advice of the Lords Spiritual and
Temporal and Commons; but the powers of government would be in exactly the
same hands as they are now, and the government would to all practical purposes be
equally bad.
The one proposition on which my case is supported, and the one proposition
which the Honourable Gentleman should have refuted, is, that the majority in the
August 1824 Parliamentary Reform [2] 273
the misconduct of the unpaid magistrate Mr. Chetwinde? 5 Who but the unpaid
magistrates and their nominees in that house. In what other place would Mr.
Holme Sumner have dared to say 6 that no gentleman would undertake the office of
a magistrate, unless his misdeeds were covered from the public eye, unless he was
assured of impunity whether he was an Aristides or a Jefferies. 7 Let me not hear
then that there is no combination among the members of that house: there is
combination enough: whenever there is mischief to be done.
The Honourable Gentleman further observed, that if our government is bad, we
are not yet prepared for a better. For this we have his assertion it is true, but I am
not aware that he attempted to give any evidence for it, or to shew why if we are not
yet altogether so wise as could be wished, to be ill governed should be the best way
to make us wiser. I have always been accustomed to think, Sir, that one of the
worst qualities of an aristocratic government is, that it prevents men from
becoming wiser: that it makes education an instrument, as witness our universities,
not to emancipate the mind but to hold it in perpetual bondage, not to expand it but
to keep it for ever shackled and debased. If I am to give up an opinion which I have
considered to rest upon so large and so universal an experience as this, it must be
on some better ground than the assertion of any men--even of the Honourable
Gentleman.
Ihavebegun,Sir,by replying
tothisgentleman becauseIconsider
himtobcby
farmy mostformidable antagonist.
When hc isdisposed of,thetaskofdealing
withmy otheropponents iscomparativelyan easyone.
Iam greatlyindebtedtoone gentleman, s fortheexemplaryhardihoodwith
whichhchascome forwardtodenythat theBritishConstitution
isan aristocracy.
Unfortunately
however,whathe deniedinonepartofhisspeech, hc admitted
in
another;
andnotonlyadmitted,butwenton tojustifyit.
Afterhavingdeclared
the
fact,
that
a majority
oftheHouseofCommons isrcmmed by afewfamilies, torest
uponnobetterevidencethantheassertionofafewradicals,who offc_,d
toprovc
it,
butnevermade goodtheir promise,
9hc wenton totellus,how admirablcthis
majorityof theHouse of Commons was, and how wc oughtto congratnlate
ourselves
on beinggovernedby suchexcellent men;theyindeedseemtoposscss
every virtue, their opponents every vice, and why? because the others are returned
by the people, they by a few families: thus we see that the same fact can, when it
suits his purpose be applauded as the highest of excellencies, or repelled as the
most scandalous of insinuations. The beginning and end of this gentleman's
speech thus destroying one another, the beginning refuting the end, and the end
refuting the beginning, it may seem unnecessary to take the task out of his own
hands and presumptuous to suppose, that I can refute him, with greater ability than
he has refuted himself. Some, indeed may think that he has shewn more skill, and
been more successful in refuting himself than he has in refuting the radicals; our
faith cannot stretch wide enough to include two contradictory assertions, which
then are we to believe? Not the proposition which rests upon his ipse dixit alone,
but the proposition which rests upon his ipse dixit also, and much better evidence
besides.
The best men, he says, are sometimes returned for the rotten burghs; which is
true; but which proves, not that the rotten burghs are good, but that everything else
is still worse. The rotten burghs, Sir, in my opinion, are the very best part of the
system: and I should be very sorry to see them abolished, if the rest of the system is
to be retained. A man, if he has but a good purse, may be returned for a rotten
burgh, without being a slave; but I defy any one who is not a slave, to be returned
for a nobleman's pocket burgh, or for a county.
Even radicals, the gentleman observes, have been put in by the aristocracy. This
I think may fairly be doubted: but he quotes as instances, Sir S. Romilly and the
great radical, Mr. Brougham. 1o It must be acknowledged that the Honourable
Gentleman selects his examples with singular judgment, and with a perspicacity
quite peculiar to himself. I think he may justly claim the merit of having been the
first to bring to light the radicalism of these gentlemen. I, for one, should never
have found it out without his assistance. If he can prove that either of them ever
made a speech or gave a vote on any side of any question, contrary to the interest of
the great lord who put him in, I shall then say, he has done something, but till then,
I shall certainly take the liberty to believe that a man is not necessarily a radical,
because he opposes ministers: and that the nominee of a lord who hopes to get in is
just as much an enemy to good government as the nominee of another lord who is
in.
The Honourable Gentleman feels a very proper contempt for those members of
parliament who are controlled by what he is pleased to call mob influence, or who
can brook the slavery of being totally dependent upon their constituents. Vile
tools. They are compelled to do their duty. They are restrained from abusing their
power: how mean, how base, how despicable: can too much scorn possibly be felt
for those who can submit to so miserable a servitude? This reminds one of the
monarch, who said that if he could not do what he pleased, it was of no use being a
king; to be sure, what was royalty good for, but to enable him to rob and murder as
he pleased. The Honourable Gentleman is a great stickler for something called
independence: he is for having members of parliament independent: I presume he
would have the king too independent; although you had once a king who wished to
be independent, and for this you sent him packing, to count his beads at home. It is
a fine thing, Sir, this independence, but I should like to know, where is it to end? Is
the Grand Seignor I _independent enough to suit the gentleman's taste? I cannot say
that I relish this species of independence. What I want is good government: and for
this purpose I should prefer a king and parliament not independent but dependent
upon the people, that there might be somebody to watch over them, and turn them
out if they misbehave. I dare say the Honourable Gentleman would be very angry if
I were to tell him that he is an anarchist: yet the only difference is that an anarchist
is for making everybody independent, and he only the king and parliament. An
anarchist, therefore, applies the Honourable Gentleman's principles with greater
consistency than the Honourable Gentleman himself.
Among other proofs of the excellence of our Constitution the Honourable
Gentleman has assigned the excellence of our coats. I should have thought that was
rather a proof of the excellence of our tailors; and might have been more
appropriately urged, if any one had proposed a radical reform in that useful branch
of industry. I cannot learn, however, that among the grievances complained of at
the hands of the parliament, any one has yet included the cut of their coats, or that a
petition imploring his majesty to change his ministers, has ever been coupled with
a request that he would change his tailor: Even in tailoring, I doubt whether the
Honourable Gentleman's argument will hold water: He himself, for aught I know
may be peculiarly fortunate in his tailor, but for my part 1can assure him that I have
philosophy enough to bear improvement even in this respect, with resignation; and
though I certainly think it of more importance that we should be well governed than
well clothed, yet if my tailor should offer to furnish me henceforward with cheaper
or better coats than I have hitherto worn, I should be the last person in the world to
f'md fault with him on that account.
As a further argument against reform, the Honourable Gentleman alleges the
goodness of our roads: thinking apparently that in the event of a reform, they
would infallibly be broken up by the hoofs of the swinish multitude, i: Far be it
from me, Sir, to dispute the excellence of our roads, particularly when
Macadamized, 13 but I own I cannot precisely see the connexion between the
Honourable Gentleman's premises, and his conclusion, nor why, because our
roads are good we should suffer our Constitution always to continue bad.
But it is not in our coats and roads alone that the beauty of our Constitution
manifests itself to the world, it shines forth still more conspicuously in the beauty
of our women: for every thing with this gentleman is a proof of the excellence of
our Constitution, and I have no doubt that if our women were all ugly he would find
the means of drawing the same conclusion from their ugliness, as he now does
from their beauty, and certainly with as much reason. Sir, no one would lament
more than myself, that any deterioration should take place in female beauty; but I
must say, I think the Honourable Gentleman has failed in proving that our women
would be less handsome, after parliamentary reform than before it, and I do say,
Sir, that we have some reason to complain of the Honourable Gentleman for
having attempted by scandalous insinuations, to prejudice the fair sex against us. If
any lady after hearing the Honourable Gentleman's speech should have gone away
as I fear may be the case, with the impression that we wish to make a bonfire of all
the fine women in the country, I hasten to undeceive her, and I beg that she will not
believe such a charge, even if he should swear it.
But this is not all. Good dinners, it seems, are still to be had in this country,
ergo, parliamentary reform is unnecessary. With all my admiration for the
Honourable Gentleman I cannot quite go along with him in this inference: I see
how it is: I see that we have been calumniated: the Honourable Gentleman's mind
has been poisoned against us: some insidious person has been practising upon his
feats, and has persuaded him that as the French constituent assembly abolished
titles,t4 so a reformed House of Commons would abolish good dinners, would shut
up the London tavern, and decree that we should all live upon bread and water. Sir,
if I were at all apprehensive that parliamentary reform would lead to such
consequences, I am not sure that I should not turn round and join with the
Honourable Gentleman, though I hope I should not reason quite so ill; but I own I
cannot participate in the Honourable Gentleman's alarm: though the aldermen of
the city of London might be deprived of some of their privileges, I do not believe
that they would be deprived of their turtle soup: we wage no war on innocent
enjoyment, though we would strongly recommend to them to beware of
indigestion: and if the Honourable Gentleman be fond of French wines, I think I
could promise him that in the event of a reform, they would be as cheap or cheaper
than port, so that, on the whole, I think he may quiet his apprehension.
All these proofs of the excellence of our Constitution may perhaps prove rather
more than he would wish. It is quite true that in this country there are fine women,
good dinners and good coats for the rich: it is quite true that not only this but all
foreign countries axe ransacked, to pamper their appetites, or minister to their
gratifications. That the rich man however is feasting upon venison and turtle is
small consolation to the beggar who is starving at his door. It would be well if this
gentleman whose imagination seems to riot so voluptuously in the luxuries of the
rich, would bestow some commiseration on the sufferings of the poor. Let him
withdraw his eyes for one moment from the palace and fix them on the hovel.
There he will see rather a different spectacle: not a good dinner, or a good coat will
he see there: nothing but rags and starvation: or let him visit our gaols: he will find
tlmt two thirds of the unhappy convicts date the loss of their innocence, of their
character, and of every virtuous propensity, from the day when they were first
incarcerated, _5 the victims of those savage laws created for the sole purpose of
supplying one viand more to the luxurious tables of the lords of the soil. If this were
all, Sir, this would suffice to prove to us what an aristocracy is, and what value the
man of power sets upon the virtue and happiness of thousands of his countrymen,
in comparison with one paltry gratification of his own. I say this, Sir, for you, and
for this society, not for the Honourable Gentleman. He is above being affected by
the little miseries of little men: and he gave us on the last evening a specimen of the
temper with which he regards the people and their wrongs. That triumphant laugh,
which burst from that part of the room where the Honourable Gentleman was
seated, when their wisdom and their virtue were mentioned in higher terms than he
thought they deserved--That laugh by which he seemed to glory in the successful
resistance which men like him have offered to the diffusion of knowledge among
the mass of people, and in the ignorance and brutality which they have hitherto
been able to perpetuate. If this is a sign of what he wishes to be considered his
feelings; I hope they are not his real ones. If they are, I do not envy him. What
renders others miserable makes him laugh: what causes the woes of nations excites
his scorn. Sir, in the sacred writings it is said--Scornful men bring a city into a
snare:_6 and it is ill for one who can feel scorn where he ought to feel pity and
indignation. R is well for the Honourable Gentleman that he holds so high a rank in
this Society as he does: had it happened to any less eminent individual--had it
happened to me, to do as he has done, never more could I have faced this
Societymnever more could I have shewn myself among a portion of that people, of
whose dearest interests I had made a mockery, and whose wrongs had been to me a
subject of laughter and merriment.
Perhaps, however, the Honourable Gentleman may plead ignorance: he may not
ISCf.Thomas Fowell Buxton( 1786-1845), An Inquiry Whether Crime and Misery Are
Produced by Our Present System of Prison Discipline (London: Arch, 1818), p. 44.
16Cf.Proverbs,29:8.
August 1824 Parliamentary Reform [2] 279
have been aware that there are good dinners and good coats only for those who can
pay for them. If so, I acquit him of inhumanity and I moreover admire the short and
easy method which he has discovered of arriving at conclusions. We are very
happy: we are the happiest people in the world: no nation ever came up to us in
felicity: all this happiness we owe to change: all change therefore is wicked and
abominable: a process of reasoning which, if not altogether logical, is at any rate
convenient: but the Honourable Gentleman seems to think its conclusiveness not
sufficiently manifest: for he backs it by another and a still stronger argument. I
have read in books of logic that a reasoner after stating his proof sometimes brings
an auxiliary syllogism, to prove the conclusiveness of the former one: 17 the
Honourable Gentleman's auxiliary syllogism is a very short one and it amounts to
this. My argument is conclusive: why? because all who dispute it are radicals and
cut throat thieves, which is a very pretty way of arguing and a short cut to
infallibility. The Honourable Gentleman seems to be well read in that facetious
history The Tale of a Tub and to have taken some lessons from the celebrated Lord
Peter. That worthy, as is well known, doubtless, to all who hear me, was
accustomed to maintain some rather paradoxical opinions, among others that a
crust of bread was a shoulder of mutton and claret, a proposition which an ordinary
stomach might have had some difficulty in digesting. Lord Peter, however, had
one very powerful argument, by the help of which he could establish that, or any
thing else that he pleased: his astonished hearers were to believe it at their peril,
and why? because, I give you his own words, damn their souls if they did not. 18To
this irresistible mode of proof, the line _f argument adopted by the Honourable
Gentleman seems to bear no slight analogy.
The Honourable Gentleman has been called a political Goliath, _9and seems
indeed to be a Goliath in assertion: but to some it may perhaps appear, that an apter
analogy would have been that of Samson, who in his eagerness to overwhelm his
enemies, pulled down an old house about his own ears. 2°
But enough of this: I pass to those gentlemen, whose arguments, if not more
conclusive, are at any rate less ludicrous and require a more serious reply.
One gentleman 21 admitted every evil of which I complained to be real, and
joined with me in reprobating the system under which such evils could exist. But it
was not the Constitution according to him, which was the cause of the evils but the
abuses which had crept into the Constitution.
17E.g., Arnauld and Nicole, La logique, pp. 293-303 (Pt. III, Chap. ix); and Henry
Aldrich (1647-1710), Artis logicae compendium (Oxford: Sheldonian Theatre, 1691),
Sects. 6-7.
IsJonathan Swift (1667-1745), A Tale of a Tub (1704), in Works, ed. WalterScott, 19
vols. (Edinburgh: Constable, 1814), Vol. XI, pp. 114-17.
19ISamuel, 17.
2°Judges, 16:25-30.
2_Notidentified.
280 Journals and Speeches No. 6
One might suppose from this, that the abuses were of recent origin and that there
was a time when the Constitution existed in all its purity, and made manifest its
goodness by the beauty of its effects. When was this time? Never. At all times,
both in this and in every other nation, the powers of government have uniformly
been monopolised in the hands of a privileged few, to whose interests, the interests
of the many have uniformly been sacrificed: with only one difference, that of old,
when the public were far more ignorant and prejudiced than they now are,
misgovernment was proportionately more flagrant.
It were indeed strange, ff at that period of our history, when all the other arts and
sciences were in their infancy--when the earth was believed to be a fiat surface in
the centre of the universe, and the sea to flow round its outer circumferencem
when the philosopher's stone and the universal medicine were the only object of
chemistry, and to foretell events by the stars the sole purpose of astronomy--
when our roads were inferior to the worst lanes of the present day and when
navigators rarely trusted themselves out of sight of the shore: it were strange I say,
if a people among whom such things were could, amid all their ignorance,
superstition and barbarism, have taken an enlarged view of human nature and
human society--have foreseen every possible mode of oppression and provided
efficient securities against all--should in a word have established a Constitution
which could secure in perpetuity the blessings of good government to mankind.
The word Constitution, Sir, is often used very loosely as it was by the
Honourable Gentleman = who on the last evening made it include I know not what
fundamental laws and charters. Laws, Sir, without somebody to stand up for them
are a dead letter: and as for charters if vague and general injunctions to govern well
are sufficient to make a good Constitution, what country was ever without one?
What I understand by the Constitution is, the securities which are taken for the
good conduct of public functionaries. When those securities are insufficient, the
Constitution is bad. In England, the Honourable Gentleman has acknowledged
that the securities are insufficient, for he has acknowledged that public
functionaries do misconduct themselves. This is to admit every thing that Irequire.
Itis to admit that the Constitution is inadequate to its end. Government may justly
be held responsible for all the evils which it might and does not prevent.
I ought now to make some remarks upon the speech of my Honourable friend23
who opened the adjourned question on the former evening: but upon considera-
tion, I do not know whether I have any fault to fred with my Honourable friend:
for all be professes to prove is, that if certain amendments were made in the British
Constitution it would be the best possible government: now this is all that I say of
the British Constitution: I will add, or of any Constitution whatever. There are few
governments, even the most despotic, which might not be made exceedingly good,
22Notidentif_d.
23Notidentified.
August 1824 Parliamentary Reform [2] 281
2*l'hatis, party caucuses limited the field by choosing candidates for election.
25Thetypescript reads "[combine]" presumably to indicate a gap or a doubtful reading.
282 Journals and Speeches No. 6
three millions a year and that of fifty or sixty millions? But I have more to say than
this: I disrate the fundamental assumption. Person and property it is said enjoy
security under the Constitution: but it is easy to cloak under a vague phrase the
most pernicious of all fallacies. When we say that person and property are secure
we may either mean that every individual is permitted to enjoy with the greatest
possible certainty, the fruits of his labor, which is what constitutes good
government, or we may only mean that our purses are secured from the
pickpocket, our houses from the burglar, and our lives from the assassin. Even in
this last sense of the word, it is far from being strictly true that we have security for
person and property: and in the other sense it is not true at all. Look at the
government of Napoleon Bonaparte: if security from robbery and murderers
constituted good government, there never was a better government than his. But
security from robbers and murderers is a small part of good government and
includes only that very subordinate department called police. Why do we call
Bonaparte's government a bad one? Because if person and property were secure
against individuals, they were not secure against the despot. He suppressed all
robbers and murderers but himself. Here, Sir, we are far from having attained even
this degree of excellence. Here, Sir, and under the British Constitution a rich
landlord is free to oppress his poor neighbour almost without restraint: and if he
cannot put him to death, he can however inflict upon him in the shape of
imprisonment, torments worse than death, on the most frivolous pretexts. 26If any
one doubts this, let him look at the recent convictions for breaking partridge's eggs
or cutting off the bough of a tree.271 myself know an instance in Surrey in which a
Whig lord kept a man in prison five months for picking up a stick in his park and
another in Yorkshire in which a man suffered three months hard labour at the
treadmill for being found in broad day on a public thoroughfare through a
gentleman's grounds and suspected of being a poacher. 2s But why need I go
further. I appeal to any one who has read in the Morning Chronicle of last Tuesday
the case of John Franks, whether after such a case it is not a mockery to talk of
English liberty! The law, indeed, is open to the poor man, and so said Home
Tooke, is the London tavern, if he will pay for it, but if he cannot, it is vain to
expect a dinner at the one or justice at the other.29
And now, Sir, in what I have said, I have already anticipated the great part of
what it is necessary to say, in answer to the very eloquent speech which we have
heard this evening: 3° since that speech, eloquent as it was, contained in it very few
arguments which we had not heard before, and none which give me any great
alarm as to the effect which they can produce on this Society. In truth, that speech
is the most difficult to answer of any--for the difficulty of refutation is usually
proportional to the insignificance of the arguments, and it is not easy to reply,
where nothing has been adduced.
Yet there are some things even in that speech which it may be of use to notice
and particularly the lesson which the gentleman recommends us to take from the
Greek and Roman democracies. I maintain, Sir, and if it were required, I could
prove that these democracies with which he frightens us never had any existence:
that the ancient governments were all of them aristocracies, though sometimes
with the forms of popular government, and whatever evil they did, is fairly
chargeable, not upon democracy, but upon aristocracy. If however, the Honour-
able Gentleman should dispute this, and should affirm that these governments
were real democracies, let it be as he pleases: but if they were democracies, it is not
such a kind of democracies that I advocate: and I tell the Honourable Gentleman
for his information, that what I want is a representative democracy, such as exists
in the United States of America, and never existed any where else, giving him
leave however, to tack a king and peers to it if he pleases, for I shall not enter upon
this question at present.
The strong point of the Honourable Gentleman's argument seems to be, that all I
have urged is theory. If by calling it theory he means to allege that it is unfounded,
this is precisely the question on which we are at issue. I dare him to the proof, but if
by theory, he means general principles I agree with him: every opinion in politics
involves a theory: the question is, not whether it is a theory, but whether it is true.
After accusing me, however, of being governed by theory, he proceeded to inform
us that he himself is governed by experience: and it may be so: but experience, Sir,
is a word of double acceptation. The quack is guided by experience, as well as the
philosopher: examine well the doctrines of this gentleman, and you will find that it
is precisely the experience of the quack, which he is unconsciously passing off
upon himself. Wherein consists the experience of the quack? He has tried his
nostrum, and the patient has survived: he knows this, and it is evident that he
knows no more. But he tells a different story; according to him, experience
teaches, not only that the patient has survived, but that it is his drug which has
saved him: all he really knows is that it has not killed him. Yet he calls this
experience. It is the same sort of experience which has been quoted against me.
The British Constitution is excellent: Why? because the country is prosperous; a
bold assumption: but granting that the country is prosperous: what does it prove?
Why, that the country is prosperous: of the cause it proves nothing: except that
there must have been some cause: but when we go farther and endeavour to
ascertain what that cause is, this is not fact, but inference; not practice, but theory.
So much for the quack: now for the scientific physician. Is it enough for him that a
medicine has been tried once, twice, or a hundred times? No, Sir, his experience is
of a different sort: he reasons from the properties of the human body, and so, Sir, I
reason from the properties of the human mind. Is there any better mode of
reasoning? If there is, let the Honourable Gentleman point it out, but if not only
there is no better mode of reasoning, but no other which is not sure to mislead, and
if the Honourable Gentleman openly rejects the only correct mode of reasoning by
proclaiming his aversion to theory, it only proves what we all knew before, that to
be an orator, and to be a philosopher, are two very different things.
When I wish to foretel men's actions, I endeavour to put myself in possession of
the motives under which they act, and to see how other men would act in their
situation.
Sir, I deny that we have experience of the British Constitution. In any sense in
which experience can be said to prove any thing, we have no experience of it. It is
not true, even between two forms of government both in actual operation, the one
attended with happiness, the other with misery, that we could at once decide the
one government to be good, the other bad. There are a thousand causes of
prosperity besides good government. But even this sort of experience, inadequate
and inconclusive as it is, is much better, much more deserving of the name
experience, than any that we have of the British Constitution. You say, we are
happy under the British Constitution--therefore no reform is needed. Do you
know what it is you say when you assert that no reform is needed? You think,
perhaps, that you are only affirming the British Constitution to be good: but you
affirm a great deal more: you affn-m that the proposed form of government is not so
good. You hold up experience, specific experience, as the only ground of
inference: and here you are found vituperating a Constitution of which you not
only have no experience, but obstinately refuse to have any. You assume a great
deal more than you would be entitled to assume, even if the reformers'
Constitution had been tried and failed: since even then it would have been
premature to affirm that it had failed in consequence of its badness. On what
ground do you affmm that the plan of the reformers is ineligible? From experience?
but you have none: From its presumed tendency--This is something. Well then it
is on this presumed tendency that we are willing to meet you. And I ask from what
is the tendency of a government to be presumed, but from those general principles
of human nature, and of political philosophy, which under the name of theory you
cry down as visionary and chimerical.
I will not lengthen a speech already too long by going into any other of the
August 1824 Parliamentary Reform [2] 285
gentleman's arguments: but I think, on the whole, that the pleas of him and his
supporters are remarkably curious and instructive. I have often thought that if all
the arguments which have been urged against reform were noted down and
collected together, they would form a singular exhibition. These arguments are
numerous and cogent. First of all, they are all villains, who say that reform is
necessary. This is sound and substantial: and why: because they are all villains,
who dare to dispute it. Well! this is one argument, favour us with another. The
Greeks, or, more properly speaking the Athenians, were all villains; and at a time
when all the rest of the world was distinguished for civilization and morality they
were sunk in the lowest brutality and barbarism. A third reason why the British
Constitution needs no amendment is, that the people who say it does are called
Radicals. A fourth reason is that Mr. Canning says it is not needed.3 _A fifth which
may be called the argumentum ad hominem, and which is the standing argument of
the John Bull against great reform is that Mr. Hume's name is Joseph, that he was a
surgeon in India, and made a small fortune there; that he very often speaks scotch,
and often makes grammatical blunders.32 A sixth reason is, that Robespierre cut
throats. 33 A seventh reason is that George IV is the best of princes. An eighth
reason is, that Cobbett and Hunt34 arerather suspicious characters. A ninth reason
is, that the world has always been very foolish, and therefore there is no reason it
should improve. It was reserved for a member of this Society to furnish a tenth,
viz. the goodness of our dinners and coats, and the beauty of our women. It
remains to be seen whether this Society will give their votes in favour of a cause for
which these are the choicest and best of the arguments which can be urged; or
whether they will not rather pronounce that a Constitution which has produced the
Game Laws, the Corn Laws, and the Court of Chancery, 35is more worthy of the
barbarous age which gave it birth, than of the civilized age which is now called
upon to gaze and worship without inquiry.
7. Population: Proaemium
1825
_. CHAm_AN, If among those whom I now attempt to address there be any one
who has ever been placed in the situation in which I stand, he is capable of
appreciating the difficulties under which I labour. When a question is proposed, in
comparison with which the questions which have hitherto been deemed the most
important, are but as a feather in the scale--a question of such magnitude that if
mankind were right on every other subject, and wrong on this, there would need no
more to ensure their perpetual misery and degradation; he who undertakes to bring
such a question before you, had he the logic of an Aristotle and the eloquence of a
Demosthenes, would at all times have a difficult task to perform. But I who am not
more conscious of the inexpressible importance of the question, than I am of my
utter inability to do it justice; I who am so little habituated to public speaking, that
even my thoughts and my reasonings, feeble as they may be, will appear still
feebler by my manner of expressing them;--and who to all my personal
disadvantages, add the farther disadvantage of not even being a member of the
Society, upon whose indulgence I venture to throw myself,--I must indeed be
presumptuous, indeed vainly and arrogantly confident, if I did not feel
considerable embarrassment in entering upon the task which I have proposed to
myself,--and you will readily believe that my embarrassment is not diminished,
by the unpopularity of the opinions, which I have undertaken to advocate. They are
indeed opinions of which it has been little the fashion in this country to speak well.
Men of the most opposite principles have united in reprobating them: Tory, Whig,
and Radical, however they may differ in other respects, agree in heaping
opprobrium upon the opinions which I hold, and which I am about to express: and
to crown all, though these opinions owe their chief celebrity to their having been
promulgated by a parson,l other parsons have not hesitated to stigmatize them as
unchristian and impious. There is no evil however without its good: and the very
unpopularity of my cause is in some respects a circumstance in my favour. It may
cenvince you of one thing: that as there is no credit to be gained by advocating such
a cause it is not for the sake of gaining credit, that I have espoused it: that as there is
no faction or party by which it is not condemned, it is not devotion to any faction or
party which numbers me among its supporters; in short, that nothing but sincerity
in my opinion, and a deep conviction of its importance, can be in any way
concerned in bringing me here: and if sincerity and conviction give any claim upon
your attention, if you value them as I do, far beyond the brilliant talents of the
advocate,--I venture to hold myself assured of a favourable hearing.
To me, Sir, who have so many causes to fear it may be allowed at least to
deprecate one of them: to hope that those who hear me will not be alarmed at the
supposed dryness of the subject, nor fear to be wearied if they apply their attention
to it. I am well aware that the most interesting subject may be made dry by being
unskilfully treated, and if through a defect in power of thinking, energy of
language, or skill in illustration, I should fail of exciting that attention which I have
ventured to request, the fault is in me, and not in my hearers. All I ask is, that they
will not confound the defects of the speaker with those of his cause, nor believe
that the subject is devoid of interest and importance, because I may fail to shew that
it possesses the one or the other. It is not indeed such a subject as is commonly
selected for a debating society. It gives little scope to panegyric on the one hand, or
invective on the other. It leaves little room for vivid painting, for glowing and
poetical description. It affords no place for elegant metaphor, or florid declama-
tion. If a subject in which the happiness of the mass of mankind is involved in a
degree far surpassing almost any other question which can be named--if such a
subject can be a dry one, this subject is dry indeed. But if in the estimation of this
Society, a question is dry, in proportion as it is frivolous and useless, interesting in
proportion as it is great, comprehensive, and important, then, Sir, a more
interesting question than the present never was proposed in this Society.
8. Population
1825
I SCARCELY Era'EC'r_D, Sir, when I entered the room on the last evening of
discussion, that any thing could have added to my persuasion of the truth of the
288 Journals and Speeches No. 8
population: and in any other assembly than this, the principle of population might
have been discussed without adverting to Mr. Owen's system at all. It is true that if
we should come to the conclusion that no system which does not provide a check to
population can possibly be of any permanent utility, and if Mr. Owen's system
does not provide a check to population, Mr. Owen's system must be as inefficient
as the rest. But this proposition, however closely it may follow as a corollary from
the principle of population, surely is not a part of the principle; still less is the truth
of the principle of population itself in any degree dependant upon the goodness or
badness of Mr. Owen's system. The principle of population would have been just
the same, though Mr. Owen and his system, had never been heard of. First settle
the general principle, and then there can be no difficulty in applying it to the
particular case. If the principle of population can be shewn to be a necessary
consequence of the immutable laws of nature, it follows of course that neither Mr.
Owen nor any other person, not commissioned to work miracles, can have it in his
power to set these laws aside.
I wish, Sir, to make this subject as clear as possible: and when the clearness of
the subject has been impaired, and the difficulty of coming to an agreement, a
difficulty already so great, has been still afarther_ enhanced by the different
meanings which different speakers have chosen to attach to a word, I am willing to
give up that word, and to sacrifice whatever advantage my case might have derived
from its employment, rather than that any unnecessary obstacle should stand in the
way of a clear understanding of the subject. In the present discussion it appears to
me, that some such confusion as I have described has arisen from the application of
the word capital: a word which almost all the speakers have employed, and which
scarcely any two of them seem to have understood in the same sense. One
gentleman has confounded capital with money, and insisted that production could
go on without capital, because it would go on if we had leather money instead of
gold and silver: which is certainly true, but nothing at all to the purpose. Another
gentlemen understands capital to mean nothing more than the materials and the
instruments of production. Another extends it a little wider, and includes under it
the whole of the surplus which remains after the immediate wants of the labourer
have been supplied: and others, of whom I am one, include under the word capital,
all that portion of the produce which is in any shape whatever applied to the
purpose of reproduction: whether as buildings, implements, materials, or in
paying or feeding the labourers. A word which has so many significations is unfit
for philosophical discussion, and I shall discard, not only the name, but the very
idea which it implies. In doing this, I wish it to be understood how great is the
concession which I make. The whole of the arguments of Mr. Owen's friends are
founded upon the assertion, that subsistence will follow mouths. 4 Now, granting
4E.g., Report, p. 2; and el. A New View of Society ( 1813), 2nded. (London:Longman, et
al.; Edinburgh: Constable, and Oliphant; Glasgow: Smith, and Brash, 1816), p. 175.
°-*L further
290 Journals and Speeches No. 8
this, I might fairly reply, that subsistence must precede mouths. Obvious and
important as this proposition is, I will consent to waive it. I will consent to argue,
as if, in order to set the labourers to work, it were not necessary to have
accumulated a previous supply of implements, buildings, seed and material
together with food sufficient to maintain the labourers, at least till the first year's
harvest could be gathered in. I will consent to let the controversy rest upon this
single question, whether subsistence would follow mouths.
Now, Sir, I admit that subsistence would follow mouths; that every addition to
the mouths would occasion an addition to the subsistence, but I maintain that the
addition to the subsistence would be not by any means proportional to the addition
to the mouths; I maintain that there would be a much greater addition to the mouths
than there would be to the subsistence, and consequently that the condition of the
whole would be deteriorated. I rest this assertion, upon the immutable laws
prescribed by nature with regard to the productive powers of the soil.
Itis a well known fact that after a piece of land has been cultivated up to a certain
point, any further increase of cultivation must be attended with a considerable
diminution of return. If the labour of ten men on the soil, produce a return of ten
bushels, the labour of a second ten men, superadded to the former ten, will not
produce so much as ten bushels, and the twenty together will not be able to produce
so much as twenty bushels, probably not more than seventeen or eighteen. By
increasing the labour you increase the return, but not in the same proportion. By
doubling the labour, you do not double the return. It is perfectly clear, therefore,
that if the ftrst ten labourers had not more than enough to eat, when they had ten
bushels to themselves, the twenty will not have a sufficiency, when they have only
seventeen or eighteen bushels among them. If another ten labourers be added to the
population, the return to their labour will be still less: probably not more than five
or six bushels. An addition of ten to the population causes an addition of five or six
only, to the production; there will now be thirty labourers and they will only have
twenty four bushels among them: they will therefore be still worse off than before.
This is the death blow to the gainsayers of the principle of population. They all
say, as so many persons said in this room that subsistence would follow
population. I answer--so it would; but as soon as that point of cultivation was
attained, at which any further application of labour to the soil is attended with a
diminution of return, subsistence would follow population it is true, but it would
follow at a rate which is much slower, and which is every day growing still slower
than before; it would follow at a limping, halting pace, and would be continually
falling more and more behind.
What that point is, it is impossible exactly to say, but that there is proof positive
that not in this country alone, but in almost all the countries of the old Continent, it
has been long since attained. The proof is that in all these countries it has been
found necessary to cultivate the barren soils. Land as is well known, is of various
degrees of fertility. In this country land even of the ninth and tenth degree of
1825 Population 291
fertility _as b long since been taken into cultivation. But it is demonstratively
certain not only that we should never have cultivated the ninth and tenth, but that
we should not even have cultivated the second quality of land, if we could have
gone on applying our labour to the land of the highest quality, without any
diminution of return as at first. If the labour of ten men on the best land produces
ten bushels, and the labour of ten men on the second best can produce only nine, so
long as every additional ten men could continue on the best land to produce ten
additional bushels, it could never be the interest of anybody to employ them upon
the second best, and produce no more than nine. The farmer who had, as almost all
farmers have, land of all degrees of fertility on his farm would employ all his
labourers in adding to the productiveness of the best land and would leave all the
other land untouched. But does this happen? We find on the contrary that the
inferior lands are cultivated; and some lands are in cultivation, which with a given
quantity of labour do not yield probably one tenth part as much as the best land of
all. And how, I once more ask,--how can this be accounted for? Why should the
farmer employ any of his labourers on the inferior lands, if he could employ them
to greater advantage on the better qualities? He can have no reason but one: and
that one is satisfactory. The better sort of lands are now cultivated up to so high a
point that any additional labour employed upon them would not now yield a greater
return than it does upon the very worst lands which are at present in cultivation.
This great truth--the limited fertility of the soil--was the grand proposition of
my Honourable friend's speech: it was the basis, on which his whole argument was
founded. Most extraordinary it is, that not one of those who answered him
condescended to notice this fundamental principle, but went on assuming that
every addition to population, would occasion an equal addition to the produce, just
as if the contrary had never been demonstrated. Even now, when the proposition
has been separated from the various other propositions which my Honourable
friend was under the necessity of mixing up with it, and held up naked to the view
of this assembly--I cannot expect that a truth so new to most of those who are
present, should be acceded to at once. It will doubtless he objected, that a very
small proportion of the population can and does produce food for the whole; and
that the period when there shall he any danger of a deficiency of subsistence, if
indeed it can arrive at all, is at any rate far distant.
Let us give to this objection as much as it is worth. Let us suppose that a
community is established, on the principle of Mr. Owen. 5 A gentleman on the
other side has affirmed that in his native county one man can produce food
sufficient for the support of five. 6 Let us suppose then that in this community, one
5Owen,Report, pp. 23-49.
6PossiblyWiliam Thompson (1775-1833), an Irish socialist and proponent of sexual
equality,whowas "the principal champion" on the Owenite side of the debate (CW, Vol. I.
p. 129).
_-t'L] 'IS have[transcriber'serror?]
292 Journals and Speeches No. 8
fifth of the population is employed in the production of food, and the remaining
four fifths in the production of clothing, of lodging, and the other necessaries and
conveniences of life, in the practice of medicine, in the cultivation of knowledge
and in the government of the community, for some sort of government I presume
would be needed even under Mr. Owen's system. I shall suppose also that food
sufficient for the whole community could at fLrst be raised, without having
recourse to any but the very best quality of land, and without being reduced to the
necessity of applying labour even to the best land with a diminution of return. This,
it is to be observed, is granting much more to the system than the warmest of the
panegyrizers have as yet ventured to claim. No one has as yet affirmed that under
Mr. Owen's system food for the whole community could be raised on the very best
land. When we consider how very limited in extent in this and most other countries
land of the highest quality is, and how small a proportion it bears in this country,
not only to the whole land of the country, but even to the whole of the land which is
in cultivation, it is obvious that I am granting infinitely more than the boldest of my
antagonists would dare to ask. Yet I do grant it, because I have no occasion to deny
it; false though it be, my argument would be equally good if it were true. Let us
see, then, what would be the consequence.
Population would increase, additional mouths and additional hands would be
brought into play; these additional hands, if applied to the best soils, would not
produce a proportional increase of return. They must either be applied to inferior
soils, or to a higher cultivation of the best; in either case they would be attended
with an additional, but not proportionate addition to the return. If one man could
previously raise food for five, one man, probably could now raise food for no more
than four. As it is one of Mr. Owen's rules that no other article shall be produced,
until the community is supplied with all the food which it requires, 7 a greater
proportion than before must betake themselves to the production of food. One fifth
of the population was formerly sufficient to produce subsistence for the whole.
One fourth would now be requisite. Three fourths only, instead of four fifths
would remain to supply the other wants of the community. These wants therefore
could not be so well supplied as before. If the community was not previously better
clothed, better lodged, better attended when sick, and better governed than
enough, they could not now be well enough clothed, well enough lodged, well
enough attended nor well enough governed.
ff population went on, the time would speedily come when one man would be
unable to produce more food than enough for three. One third of the population
must now be employed in raising food; and two thirds only would remain for other
purposes. With every increase in population, the proportion employed in raising
food must be increased; it would rise from one third to _, from ½to _, 3, _; and from
the properties of the soil the progression would be very rapid; until at length the
labour of each man applied to the soil, would not be able to produce more than
enough for the subsistence of one. Then must the whole of the population apply
themselves to the production of food. There would be no clothes, no houses, no
furniture. There would be no physicians nor legislators. There would be nothing
for elegance, nothing for ease and nothing for pleasure; mankind would be reduced
to the level of a very low kind of Canimal, c having just two functions, that of
raising, and that of consuming food. After population had reached this point, if it
were still to increase, the surplus, it is evident, could not be supported. There
would then not even be enough food. Starvation must overspread the community,
until the destruction of the surplus population had reduced it again to that number
for which food can be provided, and food alone.
Let it not be objected that this period is far distant. The consummation indeed, it
is to be hoped, is far distant. The dreadful end of the series might be long delayed,
though not so long as may be supposed. But though the end of the series may be
distant, the series itself has long since commenced. That progressive deterioration
which if not checked must end in destruction, commenced from the moment when
it became necessary to cultivate any but the finest soils. The cultivation even of the
second best land, demonstratively proved that additional labour could not be
applied to the best land without a diminution of return. From that moment, every
extension of cultivation drew and must draw a greater and greater proportion of the
labourers to the production of food, and must leave a smaller proportion to the
production of everything else. Let Mr. Owen's system be ever so admirable; let his
arrangements for the employment of labour be ever so efficacious: it would
nevertheless be true that unless the whole of the food requisite for the nourishment
of the community could be raised, not only without cultivating any but the very
best soil, but without expending more than a very small quantity of labour even
upon the best soil itself, every increase of population must continually draw a
greater and greater proportion of the labourers to agriculture, leaving a less and
less proportion for all other pursuits, and consequently deteriorating the condition
of all. With every extension of cultivation, after the inferior lands come under
tillage, all must have less food, or less something else.
There is only one case in which this would not be strictly true. Although there
would every day be a less and less proportion of the population, to be spared for the
production of the comforts and conveniences of life, it is possible that by
improvements in machinery and more extended applications of the principle of the
division of labour, this smaller proportion might be able to produce enough for all.
That this principle has been powerfully called into action in this country there can
be no doubt; and it is the only cause why the increase of our population was not
stopped centuries ago by starvation and misery. But as the increase of population is
constantly going on; as the proportion of labourers which can be spared from the
_-_L] TS animals;
294 Journals and Speeches No. 8
_-*L further
1825 Population 295
population. The incorrectness of this assertion, I hope is now evident. For my part,
I am persuaded that not with a thousand times our present population--indeed
with no amount of population--and with our present means of production, could
we raise twenty times our present produce. Without some gigantic invention, some
machine, or other mode of increasing the productive power of labour, all the men
in the universe concentrated onto this island, could not, I am satisfied, raise more
than three or four times our present produce.
After what I have said, it is scarcely necessary to state, how cordially I agree in
the resolution which was moved on the preceding evening, "That, etc."
There were two objections brought against the principle, which still remain to be
answered, and on which it may not be useless to add a few words more.
A gentleman affirmed on the former evening that the principle of population is
unnatural: that it is contrary to nature and therefore cannot be true. What he meant
by nature, and unnatural, he did not tell us: indeed he did not seem to know: nor did
he offer any proof that the principle of population is unnatural. What he meant by
nature I cannot tell: I will tell him what I mean by nature; I mean all the things
which we see and feel: the sun, moon and stars; men and animals, trees, plants and
shrubs; the earth with all its productions and these various phenomena. If all this be
not nature, I should like to know what is. Now then, to what part of all this does the
gentleman consider the principle of population to be contrary? Is it contrary to the
sun and moon? contrary to the stars? contrary to the trees and shrubs? to the sea? to
the wind? to an earthquake or a volcano? If, Sir, as is abundantly manifest, a man
would make himself ridiculous by saying that the principle of population is
contrary to any of these, I should like to know how that which is not contrary to any
part, can be said to be contrary to the whole.
But the gentleman may reply that it is contrary to some supposed law of nature.
If he can prove this, I have done. But to what law of nature is it contrary? It is a law
of nature that fire burns: is it contrary to that? It is a law of nature that water freezes:
is it contrary to that? No, but it is a law of nature that to every application of
additional labour, the soil yields a diminishing return; and to this law of nature it is
so far from being contrary, that as I have shewn, it is a necessary consequence of it.
If the word unnatural has any meaning at all, I suppose it has some indistinct
reference to the will of God. And this brings me to the other objection which I
promised to notice; that it is a libel on the Deity to suppose that "he" would send
mouths without sending meat to put into themqthat in short, the principle of
population is an evil, and therefore inconsistent with the benevolence of God. One
would really think, Sir, that there were no such thing as evil in the word--either
physical or moral. As long as any evil exists the argument of the Honourable
Gentleman is a dangerous one and may easily be carried a great deal too far. In our
present state of ignorance as to the final causes of many things which we see upon
_-_ He
296 Journals and Speeches No. 9
the earth, the existence of any evil appears to us inconsistent with the divine
benevolence. The principle of population is an evil it is true, but certainly by no
means an irremediable one: and he who can reconcile the benevolence of God with
the existence of war, pestilence, famine, poverty, and crime might be able, one
would think, to reconcile it also with the principle of population. But if we admit,
as we must do, that in the present Ycondition f of our knowledge the existence of
these evils under an all-wise and benevolent ruler is a mystery which we cannot
explain; let us at any rate allow as much to the principle of population as we do to
war, pestilence and famine and not g conclude that it does not exist, because there
is a difficulty in explaining it which it only shares with all the other evils which
afflict humanity.
So much for the religious objection; and with respect to the word unnatural, I
should be inclined to reverse the proposition of the gentleman who made use of the
word, and instead of saying that it is unnatural and therefore cannot be true, I
should say that it is true and therefore cannot be unnatural.
If the gentleman says that the principle is repulsive to his feelings, I answer, that
this is the first time I ever heard that feeling is the test of truth; that a proposition is
true or false, according as we happen to like or dislike it, and that there can be no
such things as unpleasant truths.
Two MSS, Mill-Taylor Collection, IFl/2. Two typescripts, Fabian Society. (The
typescripts conform to the two MSS.) Edited by Harold J. Laski with No. 8 above as the
second of"Two Speecheson Population by John Stuart Mill," Journal of Adult Education,
IV (Oct. 1929), 48-61. The first manuscript is headed in Mill's hand, "Reply"; the second
has, again in his hand, on f. 6v, "In Answer to Thirlwall / Second speech on population at
the Cooperative Society" ("Second speech" originally read "Two speeches"). The first
manuscriptends, "Experienceproves"; the second, the initial folios of which are cancelled,
hasat the bottom of the last cancelled folio, "Experience proves [cancelled that]"; the next
folio begins "and proves fully that" (see 305.17). The implication is that the first
manuscript is a revision (or fair copy) of a draft of the first part of the speech, while the
second manuscript (giving the rest of the speech) was used by Mill withoutrevision. As
unpublishedin Mill's lifetime, the speech does not appearin his bibliography.
THE GENTLEMAN WHO OPENED THE DEBATE 1 having been unavoidably absent
upon the two last adjourned discussions, and feeling himself incapable of replying
to arguments which he has not heard, has requested me to take upon myself a task,
1CharlesAustin.
S-/L] "IS [a gap left, presumably because transcriber could not read word]
rrS [a gap left here as for an unrea,Liahle word]] L [no gapl
1825 Population: Reply to Thirlwall 297
have mentioned these gentlemen together, because it is against what they have
advanced that the few remarks which I have to submit will chiefly be directed; but I
owe an apology to one of the gentlemen, for confounding under the same name an
eloquence of pomp, and glare, and tinsel, and frippery, and meretricious
ornament, with an eloquence which, in plain, but powerful language, addresses
itself to the understanding; for confounding one who treats his audience like
children, to be dazzled by a gaudy brilliancy of colouring, with one who treats
them like men, and I may add, like women, of judgment and sense,--for
confounding a dealer in tropes and figures with a dealer in facts and arguments,
even though the facts be irrelevant, and the arguments sophistical. I am sure that I
meant no disrespect by the comparison, and I can with perfect sincerity assure the
, two gentlemen concerned, that I know how to estimate them both at their just
value.
Before I reply to what has been said on the merits of the question, it is necessary
that I should take some notice of what has been said about the question itself:
because advantage has been taken of an inaccuracy in the wording of the question,
to stigmatize all which has been said on one side of it as irrelevant. The tendency, it
was said, of population to increase faster than the means of subsistence, (if indeed
there be any such tendency) must be a law of nature: and it was pronounced to be a
gross absurdity to say, that in so far as human misery is referable to social causes, it
is referable, not to a social, but to a natural cause. When a question is flamed, as
this was, upon the spur of the moment, it is exceedingly difficult to preserve strict
accuracy in the language, and I doubt not that it will be in the recollection of many
who are now present, that the resolution was originally worded in a still more
objectionable manner than it now is. The framer of the resolution when he entered
the room, was not aware that he would be called upon to propose a question: he had
no time to consult with his friends, no time even to consult with his own thoughts,
but was compelled to write down the resolution in the fn-st terms which occurred to
him, with all those inaccuracies which at the moment were unavoidable, but which
five minutes' notice would have prevented. It does not however follow because the
wording of the question was inaccurate, that all which has been said upon it is
irrelevant, and perhaps we did not the less speak to the question in dispute because
we did not speak to the question as it stood upon the paper. Had I been consulted, I
should most likely have proposed to word the resolution as follows: That the
condition of the great mass of mankind can be permanently improved by no other
means than by limiting their numbers. The evils which may or may not have
already arisen from excess of population, I should have put entirely out of the
question. I should have said nothing of social causes, and the cavils for which this
word has given room would never have been raised or would have been seen at
once to be irrelevant. The word however, although it may have been superfluous,
was not altogether without a meaning; nor was it introduced solely for the purpose
of rounding a sentence. The meaning which the proposer of the question evidently
1825 Population: Reply to Thirlwall 299
intended to express, was that whatever quantity of human misery may be referable
to social causes, a still greater quantity of misery is referable to the principle of
population and that the evils occasioned by the principle of population are of such a
nature as no social arrangement however perfect, can cure.
In my former speech, 5 I advanced two propositions: that population has a
tendency to increase in a uniform ratio; and that subsistence, after a certain point,
can only be made to increase, in a constantly decreasing ratio. If these propositions
be made out, it inevitably follows that after a certain point, any farther increase of
population must be detrimental. I took it for granted that the first of these
propositions,--the tendency of population to increase, would not be disputed. I
have rarely, if ever, heard it disputed. The other proposition I have often heard
disputed. I have often heard it maintained, that with whatever rapidity population
may increase, subsistence can be made to increase as fast. It was therefore to the
refutation of this, the most common objection, that my arguments were chiefly
directed: and in the attainment of this object I have had more success than I
anticipated. 6
bAlmost all the gentlemen who have spoken on the other side, have tacitly
abandoned this fallacy. One gentleman 7 indeed did come forward with something
like it, though he did not seem to be altogether conscious what he was saying. The
opinion of this gentleman seemed to be, that we should trust to the chapter of
accidents. Some island might be thrown up from the bottom of the sea. Some great
agricultural improvement might be introduced, which should effect as great a
revolution in the present modes of cultivation, as was created by the introduction
of the plough. I think Mr. Owen somewhere says, that the time may come when
instead of growing corn, we might be able to make it--in which there might be no
limit to population except the want of elbowroom: s and the gentleman seems to
think that something of this kind may possibly happen: to which I answer, possibly
it may. The sky may fall, and we may catch larks, but I should have a mean opinion
of the prudence of him who should trust to a contingency of this kind for his
supper. I certainly am not disposed to deny that an island may rise fom the sea but
without being very sceptical I think I may be permitted to doubt whether it is quite
sure to do sotand we might chance to fred ourselves in rather an unpleasant
predicament, if we were to people the island before we had it, and if after that it
were never to come at all. It will be quite time enough to people the island when we
have got it. In the mean time, there is no occasion for our starving ourselves, by
having a greater population than we can maintain. To live beyond the means which
we have, in consideration of those which the gentleman thinks we may possibly
5No. 8.
_'rhemanuscripthere has "B"; i.e., insert the passageso marked, written on ft. 14r and
13v(indicated in the text by b-b).
7Notidentif_l,
sCf. Owen, A New View, p. 175.
300 Journals and Speeches No. 9
9ForOwen's use of"parallelogram" (justifying Mill's littlejoke), see Report, pp. 27-8.
l°Infact, the second.
HJones (as is evident below).
1825 Population: Reply to Thirlwall 301
13Juvenal(ca. 60-140 A.D. ), Satire VI, in Juvenal and Persius (Latin andEnglish),
trans.G.G. Ramsay(London:Heinernann;Cambridge,Mass.: HarvardUniversityPress,
1950), p. 96 (1. 165).
l*rhirlwall.
Z_lot identifmd.
1825 Population: Reply to Thirlwall 303
assume that population in other countries has at least the physical power of
increasing at the same rate. I am not aware of any difference in the fecundity of the
female of the human species in different countries. In warm climates, I believe,
child-bearing begins earlier, and terminates earlier: but if there be any difference in
the duration, it is a difference of too trifling a nature to occasion any material
inaccuracy in the conclusion. But if the physical power of increase be the same, the
difference can only be in the causes which counteract it; and these causes are
poverty, and prudence. 16In the countries to which the gentleman has referred us,
we happen to know that poverty is the cause to which the extraordinary decay of
the population is to be ascribed; poverty--grievous and deplorable poverty--
occasioned by the most execrable government which ever cursed human kind.
Does not the gentleman know that in those countries neither person nor property
enjoys an hour's security? That he who goes to bed a rich man knows not that he
may not rise from it a beggar, perhaps a slave? Let him consider that under this
yoke those countries have groaned for ages, and ask himself whether it is
wonderful that such countries should be depopulated? That in such a state of things
children are not born, or are born only to die? True, there was a time when those
countries were populous, but why? because there was a time when those countries
were fl'¢_.
16Herein the manuscript there is an unexplained inked opening square bracket; there
being no closing one, pertmps a new paragraph is intended.
304 Journals and Speeches No. 9
and why? because the churches are empty.17 1 have some difficulty in tracing any
connection between the premises and the conclusion. Mr. Cobbett perhaps thinks
that wherever there are churches there must at some time or other have been people
to fill them. I think I might fairly dispute even this proposition. Mr. Cobbett says,
and says truly, that in some parishes there are not to be found twenty people in the
church, and yet I will consent to be judged by Mr. Cobbett himself, if in these
parishes there had hitherto been no church, and a church had now to be built for
these 20 people, whether it would be built on a scale one inch smaller than it is at
present. The real truth I take to be, that the country was divided into parishes,
much more according to extent of space than amount of population. It was
necessary that every parishioner should be within a moderate distance of the parish
_hurch, and there was of course a church in every parish, whether there were
people to fill it or not. But suppose that when the churches were built there were
people to fill them, it surely does not follow that there were more. In those days,
every body went to church. In these degenerate days the churches are not half full,
and yet I do not remember that I ever saw a parish church which would hold
d6 part of the inhabitants, if they were assembled together. We are to
remember that those who go to church, do not all of them go at the same
hour--that a great many people go to the dissenting parson--and a great many go
to no parson at all.
It cannot well be expected, nor, after what I have said, is it necessary, that I
should follow the gentleman through his special pleading with regard to Ireland,
China and America. I have shewn as I think the fallacy of the arguments by which
he has attempted to prove that population has not increased; and having done so
much, I may safely stop. I do not feel myself called upon to do more. And having
now, I hope, said enough to establish the existence of the evil, it is necessary that I
should still say something on the remedy.
The gentleman to whom I have so often alluded is pleased to deride that
expectation on which all our hopes of human improvement are founded, the
expectation of a gradual increase of prudence, among the people. To expect so
much philosophy from the bulk of mankind is in his opinion altogether visionary:
as if it required much philosophy to avoid leaping into a gulph when it is gaping
before us. I would not willingly renounce these hopes, visionary as the gentleman
may deem them. I expect more from the diffusion of knowledge--more from the
extension of educationmI was going to say more than the honourable gentleman,
but we must remember that he too expects no trifle from education. Let us reflect
what it is which he expects from education, and what it is which I expect. I limit my
expectations within a very moderate compass. I merely expect that when mankind
are taught to know their own interest, they will follow it. He expects that through
17A common theme in Cobbett: see, e.g., "Rural Ride, through the North East Part of
Sussex," Cobbett's Weekly Register, 6 Sept., 1823, cols. 625-6.
1825 Population: Reply to Thirlwall 305
the influence of education, they may be made to love their neighbours better than
themselves. The gentleman has at the same time two contrary theories--the one,
that education can do nothing, the other that it can do every thing: both theories
may be false, but both cannot be true. If he holds fast to the opinion that education
may bring men to a state in which the public affections shall uniformly and
universally predominate over the love of indolence and of pleasure, there is little
difficulty in determining which of us expects most from education, the gentleman
or myself. If mine be a chimerical expectation, what are we to think of his? If he
denies that it is in the power of education to direct our self-love, and affirms that it
is in the power of education to overcome it, I can only infer that he who has so keen
an eye for the inconsistencies of others, is as blind as a mole to his own.
To return to the alleged improbability of an increase of prudence among the
people. In human affairs, the criterion of probability is experience. As the state of
society which I contemplate has never yet had existence, it cannot be in my power
to quote particular experience in justification of my expectations; but we have
experience of the general course of human affairs, and this experience, as far as it
goes, is all in my favour. Experience proves _8and proves fully, that men do follow
their interest more steadily, in proportion as they know better what it is. It is easy to
say that those who have most knowledge do not always act the most wisely--but
the gentleman I presume, will scarcely on that account affirm that it is not the
tendency of knowledge, to make men act wisely. Nor have I ever yet heard of any
other recipe of making them wise except by giving them knowledge, uncertain as
that method may be. But we are not here under the necessity of contenting
ourselves with experience of this general kind. If we are to believe the gentleman,
moral restraint is impracticable--if we look around us, every thing convinces us of
its practicability. That prudencewthat moral restraint which in his opinion
requires philosophy such as few among mankind can ever be expected to attain, is
actually practised to a greater or less extent in every country with which I am
acquainted except Irelandwthat ill-fated island I believe is the only country in the
world where the two sexes begin to propagate their kind as soon as nature enables
them to do so without the slightest thought of the future--and it is therefore the
only country where the mass of the people are reduced to the smallest pittance
which is sufficient to sustain life. I would not be understood to mean that
prudential habits prevail in any European country to the extent which is desirable.
One thing however experience has fully established; that in proportion as the
people are better instructed, in that very proportion prudential habits prevail. If
then prudential habits have hitherto increased in a direct ratio with the increase of
knowledge, perhaps I shall not be far wrong in supposing that they will continue to
do so, Let us only observe what is passing before our eyes. In this room I will
suppose that there are 50 bachelors_and when I look at the numbers around me I
cannot suppose that there are fewer--I will venture to say that of these 50 there are
at least 40 who would willingly marry, and are only restrained from doing so by
prudential motives. When such is the power of prudence, even in the imperfect
degree in which it at present prevails, perhaps in contemplating the possibility of
strengthening it to a degree which may eventually bring about all the good that we
desire, I am not far exceeding the bounds of a just and reasonable expectation. To
those, Sir, who can read the signs of the times,19 there are even now indications
that this process is going on. It may perhaps be gratifying to the honourable
gentleman, for though it does not square with one of his theories, yet at the same
time and for that very reason it is in strict accordance with the other, that I have
some reason to know that prudential habits are rapidly gaining ground in some of
the most populous of our manufacturing districts; that a knowledge that the wages
of labour depend upon the number of the labourers is rapidly spreading itself in
these districts, and the increase of prudence, which that knowledge cannot fail to
engender, may in time be productive of the happiest effects.
So much for the charge of indulging in chimerical expectations.
I have still one word of a personal nature to submit to you. It must be a strong
motive which can induce me in an assembly of this sort to speak of myself, but
there are occasions in which it is necessary, and this appears to me to be one of
them. The gentleman has accused me of not having exhibited what in his opinion is
a proper quantity of feeling--and he thinks that if I had mixed up a greater portion
of feeling in my speech, I should have greatly improved the quality of the
composition. If the gentleman means, Sir, that the matter of my speech does not
derive that aid which it might do from the impressiveness of the manner; that my
delivery is not sufficiently warm and sufficiently animated--that the tones of my
voice are not sufficiently vehement and sufficiently energetic--in short that I do
not speak well--this may be true enough--and the remark shall meet with that
attention which any criticisms from such a master of eloquence deserve. But if he
means that in the substance of what I have said there be any indications of a want of
feeling, I dare him to the proof. The question which I shall presently propose for
the succeeding discussion, 2° is one which will give me an opportunity of entering
into considerable detail with regard to the state of society which we contemplate as
desirable, and of proving to you perhaps for the first time the benevolent and
philanthropic tendency of those opinions which in your mind are perhaps
connected with no ideas but those of unfeeling cruelty or heartless indifference.
Time does not permit me to enter into such a detail at present. In the mean time
however there is one observation which I will not restrain myself from uttering:
That I look with great suspicion upon people who are constantly for introducing
tgMatthew, 16:3.
_Presurnably on cooperation; see No. 10 below.
1825 Population: Reply to Thirlwall 307
feeling every where but in its proper place--that I have indeed heard, as the
gentleman supposes, that appeals to feeling are out of place in a philosophical
enquiry where the object is to instruct and not to persuade: that I have heard, and
believe that feeling ought to be subordinate to reason, and not supreme over her,
and that the province of feeling commences where that of reason ends. Feeling has
to do with our actions, reason with our opinions; it is by our reason that we find out
what it is our duty to do; it is our feelings which supply us with motives to act upon
it when found. Let these two operations be kept as they always ought to be kept,
separate, and let feeling no more encroach upon the province of reason, than
reason upon the province of feeling. The gentleman has quoted Plato, 21 he must be
well aware that this maxim holds a distinguished place in the ethical system of that
great philosopher; of which system in truth it is the very foundation; but I do not
adopt it because it is the language of Plato but because it is the language of truth.
When gentlemen talk of introducing feeling into a question which ought surely to
be decided by arguments, and not by feelings, I am somewhat at a loss to
understand what it is that they mean. Do they mean that feeling ought to supersede
reason entirely? and if not entirely to what extent? Do they mean that we ought to
arrive by feeling at the very same conclusions at which we should arrive by reason?
or that we ought to arrive at different conclusions? In the first case their appeal to
feeling is unnecessary: in the second, it is fraught with mischief and absurdity. Let
feeling be kept strictly to its proper function, that of stimulating our exertions in
that course which reason points out. But in the mean time I must protest against any
verdict which may be pronounced against the moral part of my character merely
from an observation of the intellectual, and I must beg gentlemen not to suppose
that I am destitute of feeling for no reason perhaps but because my feelings are
under better regulation than theirs. No, Sir: if I am to be condemned for want of
feeling, I will have a fair trial--I will be tried in the proper province of feeling--I
will be tried in action--and ifI am found inferior to any of Mr. Owen's disciples or
to Mr. Owen himself, in the steady and laborious pursuit of the best of ends by
what my reason tells me to be the best of means, let me be shaken contemptuously
from the balance in which I shall have been weighed and found wanting, 22and let
Mr. Owen and his disciples trample upon me as they will.
I might say more of myself if I had not already taken up much more of your time
on that subject than is warranted by its importance. I have only now to state that in
the loose and inaccurate way in which the Resolution is worded, it is not the
intention of the proposer to press it to a division.
MS, Connecticut College. Inscribed in Mill's hand: "Speech at the Cooperative Society /
Notdelivered." The speech (like Nos. 10 and 12) was undoubtedly preparedfor the second
of the two debates between the Utilitarians and the Owenites at the latter's Co-operative
Sooety in 1825. As not published in Mill's lifetime, not listed in his bibliography.
^'r rrIE LASTMEETINGof this Society the opinions which I hold were assailed with
a variety of epithets, expressive of hatred and contempt. I shall not follow this
example: I shall not call Mr. Owen's theory a spurious theory nor shall I say that it
ought to be tom into tatters and scattered to the winds. But I shall endeavour to
shew that it is founded on mistaken views of human nature and of the course of
human affairs; and that the end which its supporters have at heart, the greatest
happiness of the greatest number, l would not he attained, but frustrated, by the
adoption of the means which they so warmly recommend.
Before I submit to this Society, my view of the subject, I deem it proper to offer
some few remarks on the principles, which were so ably put forward by a
gentleman2 on the last evening, as the basis on which the system of Mr. Owen is
founded.
The fast of these principles is, that labour is the only source of wealth: 3that the
wealth of a country is wholly produced by labour, and that all other classes are
supportedout of the produce of labour. From this it was inferred, that the burden of
poor-rates is wholly borne by the labourer, that all other classes are living at the
labourer's expense, are receiving a portion of that which of right belongs to him,
and which they either extort from him by force, or which at least they owe to his
charity andforbearance.
Inanswertothis, itwasobserved on thepreceding evening thatwealthisindeed
theproduceof labour, butnotofunassisted labour: andifotherclasses enjoya
portion oftheproduceoflabour, itisnotwithout givingsome sort ofan equivalent
inreturn. Itisofverylittle usetotell thelabourer thatitishe,andnotthecapitalist,
who istheproducer ofwealth, when thelabourer knows wellthat ifthecapitalist
deserts him,he must starve. Turn outa labourer or ifyou pleasea scoreof
labourers intoan untilled field, ofwhateverfertility, eventhefinest soilinthe
world--andwithout theaidof thecapitalist, what cantheyproduce?Nothing;
absolutely nothing. Itisnotthenlabour alone, whichproduces thenational wealth,
butlabourassisted by tools, assisted by seed,or materials, andsupported by a
previous supplyofaccumulated food.Itisthecapitalist who supplies allthese; and
isnotthecapitalist entitled tosome remuneration forthis assistance? Isitnotthe
interest of the labourers themselves, that he should he remunerated for it? Can it be
expected that he would afford this assistance, if he were not remunerated?
These things having been stated on the preceding evening, the gentlemen on the
other side brought forward in reply, an argument which they seemed to think a
complete coup de gr(_ce to theft opponents, and which, judging from the applause
with which it was received appeared so to most of the persons present. This capital,
said they, these tools, this seed or material, and this accumulated food, was itself
the produce of labour. Well; so it was: and what then? Why, then it all belonged to
the labourer, and consequently it was not the capitalist who afforded the capital, it
was the labourer who produced it, and the capitalist took it from him, and now
demands a remuneration for allowing him to make use of that which is of right his
own. This was the argument. I hope I have stated it fairly; if not, I request that
some gentleman will correct me.
Well, then, I proceed to point out the fallacy. The food, tools, seed, and
material, in one word the capital, is the produce of labour, sure enough, but of
what labour? They were not produced by the labourers who consume them. They
are the accumulated product of the labour of the capitalists themselves, or of their
ancestors, and they are wholly made up of the savings from that labour. This may
appear to many who hear it, paradoxical, but I am entitled to be heard while I shew
on what foundation it rests. 4
The journeyman weaver, the journeyman cotton spinner, the agricultural
labourer, and so forth, cannot say of the tools which they use, I made them; they
cannot say of the seed which they sow, or of the material which they work up, I
produced them; of the food which they eat, I raised it from the ground. As
individuals, therefore, it will be allowed that they could not produce any thing, that
they could not live, in fact, unless the capitalists consented to cooperate with them
in the work of production. But then you will say, If they did not produce this food,
tools, etc., other labourers did. Very true; but how? Not unaided, not by
themselves; but with the assistance of other capitalists. Thus we find that capital,
although produced by labour, was not produced by the unaided labour of any of the
present generation, the present capital was produced by the present labourers aided
by a former capital: this former capital was produced by former labourers, aided by
a capital of a still older date, and so on: All these capitals must have been paid for,
or they would not have been had: The labourers are under the necessity of
foregoing a part of what they produce, in order to obtain that assistance, without
which they could not have produced any thing: and how far must we mount up in
order to arrive at the period, when the whole produce belonged to the labourer?
Why, to the origin of the first capital. Before there was any capital except the
spontaneous produce of the earth, the labourer was the owner of all that he
produced. Let us see then how capital originated, let us see who the first capitalist
was. Let us see how the other labourers were persuaded to let him rob them of the
fruits of their industry, that he might live in idleness at their expense. They seem to
have been easily duped by this cunning fellow, to have been nicely taken in--No,
Sir, this will not do. The fn'st capitalist was the man who laboured harder than his
neighbours--the man who worked when others were idle, or who saved when
others spent. This was the origin of capital. The f'wst capital was produced by
labour, but it was by the labour of the capitalist: and it is to the capitalist, and to him
alone that it of right belonged.
The error lies in considering the labourer and the capitalist as men of a different
genus: like a man and a beast. It is true that at this advanced stage of society, the
same man is rarely a labourer and a capitalist; but all capitalists were originally
4A vertical line through this and the previous sentence may signal cancellation.
1825 Cooperation: Intended Speech 311
labourers, or descendants of labourers, and all capital is the saving from the
produce of their industry.
The transformation of labourers into capitalists frequently takes place even at
the present day. A journeyman saves a small sum from his wages, and sets up as a
master: he begins in a small way; his business gradually extends, and he becomes
at length perhaps the richest man in the country and if he does not, his son or his
grandson may. Look at Sir Robert Peep s Is not that his history? And all capital was
originally produced in the same way.
Two men produce the same quantity of food; one man squanders it all in
idleness, the other man goes on producing more and adding to his stock. Thus one
man obtains a great deal more than he has immediate occasion for, and another
man is starving. Well, the provident man says to the spendthrift, You are a strong
man, and have the physical power of producing a great deal; but you are unable to
work, because you have squandered that food which ought to have maintained you
while you were working: I have food; come, and work for me: I will feed you; and
you will give me, all that you produce. Would you prevent him from making this
offer to his distressed fellow labourer? Would you prevent the other from
accepting it? Then you see the consequence: the one starves; the other being unable
to purchase the labour of others, has no resource but his own labour, he is
compelled to labour equally hard, whether he saves or no, and of course he does
not save.
Or I will alter the case. A labourer by the exertion of his ingenuity invents an
implement: a spade we shall suppose. With great time and labour he makes this
spade; and then says to his neighbours, Instead of working for yourselves, come
and work for me: With this spade, you will be able to produce twice or three times
what you can produce without it. You will not indeed be suffered to retain the
whole of what you produce, but that portion which you will retain, exceeds the
whole of what you are now able to produce without the spade. The other labourers
consider the matter; they consider how much time and labour it will cost them to
make spades for themselves. And if they find that it will cost them more time than
the food which they possess will last, they accept the proposal; and the inventor
gets the reward of his ingenuity.
What then is the reason why there is a class of capitalists, and a class of
labourers? It is because one man has worked harder, or squandered less, or had
more skill, or more ingenuity, or a smaller family, than another; and has thus
acquired the means of paying others to work for him, and because he has been
permitted, at his death, to leave the products of his industry to his children and
those other persons whom he holds most dear. The labourer therefore does not
SRobert Peel (1750-1830) inherited the fortune from calico-printing initiated by his
fatherRobert in 1764 and increased by new industrial techniques. In turn the fortune came
to the third Robert Peel (1788-1850), then Home Secretary.
312 Journals and Speeches No. 11
support the capitalist any more than the capitalist supports the labourer. The
capitalist has nothing but what he or his ancestors have actually produced by their
labour, together with that which others have voluntarily given them as a
remuneration for the use of what they produced. The fortune even of a Baring has
no other source.6 Mr. Baring's father or grandfather or some of his ancestors
produced a part by the sweat of their brow; and in order to obtain the use of this
part,the labourers were willing to give to Mr. Bating a part of what they produced,
but what they could not have produced without his aid.
Having thus, as I think, shewn how utterly untenable are the doctrines of my
opponents, I shall endeavour to expound my own. And as the spurious school of
political economy has been charged with caring for nothing but the accumulation
of wealth, I will tell you, Sir, what are my principles. They are these. That the
working people being the majority of the whole population, the interests of all the
other classes are of no importance compared with theirs. So far from thinking that
they aretoo well off I think that they never can be too well paid: that they never can
have too many comforts and enjoyments: and if it were necessary I would willingly
suffer every other person in the community to starve, rather than that they should
be inadequately provided with the necessaries of life.
It is then an enquiry of no trifling importance, what the remuneration of the
labourer depends upon. In the present state of society, every one here will agree
with me that it depends upon competition. By competition, I mean, the
competition on the one hand, of capitalists to get labourers, and on the other hand,
of labourers to get employment. Wages will be high or low, according to which of
these competitions is the greatest. When there is a greater number of labourers,
compared with capital, wages are low: when there is not a great number of
labourers, compared with capital, wages are high. I need not go, I presume, into
the proof of this proposition, which is indeed self evident.
This then being admitted, I say, that it is the tendency of population to increase
faster than capital; that consequently wages have a constant tendency to fall; and
therefore that every plan for ameliorating the condition of the people, which is not
founded upon a regulation of their numbers, is futile and visionary.
It is acknowledged by my opponents that the working classes are in all countries
very inadequately provided with the means of subsistence. Well, then, I ask, how
this could possibly be the case, if population had not always increased so fast as to
overtake the most rapid accumulation of capital? If capital on the contrary had
increased faster than population, wages would have been very high, and the
labourers very well off. Why is the fact so strikingly, so notoriously otherwise?
These gentlemen will probably tell us, that the cause of low wages is the unequal
distribution of wealth, which gives so much to the other classes of society, and
therefore leaves so little to the labourers. And that if wealth were better distributed,
there would be enough for all.
Let us suppose, then, that wealth were distributed in the best possible manner. I
ask, would private property have any existence under that system? I ask the
question, because I wish to be informed, what distribution of wealth these
gentlemen would have. I pause for an answer.
The gentleman has judged rightly. If private property had existence; if the man
who produced most, were suffered to have most, or if he who saves instead of
spending, were suffered to have an exclusive right to that which he saves, there
would in a few years be the same inequality of property which is now so loudly
complained of; we should soon see those who have not working for those who
have; wages would again be regulated by competition, and the same cause which
produces low wages now, would produce low wages then.
Observe, then, these gentlemen renounce private property. With most people,
this would be considered a complete reductio ad absurdum. Let us grant to them,
however, the distribution of wealth which they wish for. Let us place them in Mr.
Robert Owen's communities, and see what will happen.
I will grant for the sake of argument that they would all be very well off at first,
though I might fairly dispute even this proposition 7
refuting, and that those of our adversaries who from their abilities have the
strongest claim to be fairly met, are precisely those who have made us the greatest
concessions. If there be any person in this room who has listened attentively, I will
not say to our arguments, but to those of the Goliath of our antagonists,1 and who
still persists in ascribing all the evils, or even the principal evils of society, to
competition,--I may be pardoned for supposing that my reasonings can have little
effect in altering a conviction, which has been proof against those of Mr.
Thompson. I cannot however lose this opportunity of expressing my gratification
on finding that there is one person in this Society who does not see in us the
advocates of vice and misery, nor imagines that we must be the enemies of human
improvement, because we differ from this Society, with regard to the means by
which human improvement is to be attained. We are not the defenders of those
evils which Mr. Thompson so feelingly deplored. We are not the advocates of the
degradation of the working classes. We are not the advocates of negro slavery; nor
does Mr. Thompson himself lament more deeply than we, that miserable thraldom
in which the weaker half of our species are held, by the tyranny of the stronger,
aided and encouraged by their own abject and slavish submission, z But there is no
question, I believe, in this room, about these evils: let Mr. Thompson condemn
them as strongly as he will: he cannot condemn them so strongly that we shall not
go along with him. Unless therefore it can be shewn that these evils are necessarily
inherent in a system of individual competition, (which Mr. Thompson himself has
aelmowledged they are not) I shall take the liberty to dismiss them entirely from
my consideration as totally irrelevant to the question.
It seems to be allowed by the most intelligent members of the Society, that a
very great degree of happiness is attainable, under a system of competition: That it
is possible to attain a good government under a system of competition,--that it is
possible to obtain good laws, and a good administration of them; and lastly, that it
is possible, under a system of competition, to give to the whole human race, a high
degree of intellectual and moral education. It is also allowed, that under a system
of free competition, combined with good laws, government and education, and
with a due regulation of the numbers of the people, every labourer would enjoy the
whole produce of his labour, with the exception of what he might voluntarily give
up, to obtain a greater good: And this is the happiness which, by the admission of
our opponents, is compatible with individual competition. On the other hand, it
was asserted in my opening speech, 3and has not been denied, that the principle of
cooperation, considered merely in itself, and unconnected with those other great
changes to which I have alluded, would not afford an adequate remedy to one of
the great evils which at present afflict the human race. By the principle of
cooperation, I mean the commmunity of property; the fundamental principle of
Mr. Owen's plan, a and the only principle of that plan, to which I do not assent. The
Cooperative system might, and according to its supporters would facilitate the
attainment of good education, of good laws, and of good government, and
likewise the regulating of population: but yet, the Cooperative system is not the
same thing with good government, good education, good laws, nor a regulated
population, and whatever may be the effect of these, is not the effect of the
Cooperative system, farther than as the Cooperative system may render these
things themselves, more easy of attainment. The Cooperative system would not
take off the taxes; it would not take off the tithe; arrangements for education may
be combined with it, but it is not itself education. All which the Cooperative
system of itself can do, is to add to what the labourers already possess, the profits
of stock and the rent of land. Now I proved in my opening speech, on data the
correctness of which cannot be and has not been called in question, that rent and
profits, which in the present state of society, being collected into large masses,
make a vivid impression upon the imagination, and appear to be much greater than
they are, do not really exceed one tenth of the produce; and if divided among those
who already possess, with the exception of taxes, the whole of the other nine
tenths, would hardly suffice to make a perceptible addition to their comforts, even
if every man were to work as many hours a day as he does now, which it is not the
intention of the promoter of the scheme that he should.
All idea therefore of that great and immediate addition which we were at first
told was to be made to the comforts of every person, by going to live in a
community, seems now, among the more intelligent members of the Society to be
given up, and they rest their case chiefly upon the greater facilities which, in their
opinion, the Cooperative system affords to the attainment of good education and
government and to the regulating of population, and also upon the greater
happiness which, according to their ideas, it would afford the means of enjoying,
when good education and good government shall have been attained, and the
population regulated.
It is to the last of these topics that I shall in the In'st instance advert. Mr.
Thompson has favoured us with an enumeration of the evils which he considers to
be inherent in every system of competition. I know not whether it will be expected
that I should go over the whole list, anddrive him successively from every position
which he has taken up: but if I should not completely answer the whole of his
arguments, I hope it will not for that reason be supposed, that I am shirking or
evading any. An opinion, however erroneous, is much sooner stated than refuted.
To point out inconveniences, a superficial glance is commonly sufficient. To lay
open the mechanism by which those inconveniences may be remedied, or in their
turn rendered instrumental to the production of a greater good, not only more
labour, but much more time is requisite. And yet, Sir, if in addition to all the other
things which I have to do, I were to bestow on the examination of Mr. Thompson's
propositions only as much time as he occupied in stating them, I leave you to judge
when I should have done. I say this by way of apology for the imperfect state in
which my arguments will be presented to you, but I hope still that I shall be able to
give to those of Mr. Thompson's propositions which most require it, a full and
satisfactory reply.
He told us first that competition is incompatible with the full operation of the
principle of benevolence. His manner of proving this was a remarkable specimen
of the general mode of arguing which these gentlemen adopt. He seemed to think
that the principle of benevolence is discarded whenever any other principle is
brought to its assistance. The object, said he, of competition, is and must always
be, exclusively the pursuit of wealth. He will not allow that there can be
competition for any other purpose. And even your physician, horrible to relate!
when he administers a medicine, or attends the sickbed of a patient, thinks more of
the one, two, or three guineas which he is going to pocket, than of the honest fame
which he may earn, or the service which he may render to a suffering fellow
creature. There cannot be two stronger objections to aproposition, thanfirst, that it
is not true, and secondly that if true, it is nothing to the purpose. Both these
objections seem to me peculiarly applicable to the proposition before us. With
regard to its truth, I will appeal to an authority which Mr. Thompson cannot well
dispute, since it is no other than his own. It is one of the accidents to which a long
speaker is liable, that before he has got to the end of his speech, he occasionally
forgets the beginning and blurts out the direct contrary of that which he had
previously maintained with all imaginable emphasis, and with the fullest
confidence. Thus in the early part of Mr. Thompson's speech, it suited his theory,
thatthere should not be competition for any thing except for wealth. Towards the
close of his speech, when he came to treat of the supposed tendency of competition
to occasion wars, it suited his theory that there should be competition for a great
many other things besides wealth; because we know well that as every commercial
country is interested in the prosperity of its neighbours, competition for wealth
between two countries cannot exist. Competition, therefore, by his own admission
is not confined to wealth: the truth is, that there may be competition for every
thing--for good as well as ill: for fame and reputation, for the pleasures of
beneficence, as well as for the pleasures of wealth. But suppose that as Mr.
Thompson says, competition had for its object exclusively the pursuit of wealth.
Eating my dinner has for its object exclusively the satisfaction of my appetite: yet
is eating my dinner inconsistent with the practice of benevolence? Must we either
renounce our virtues or our meals? I confess I never heard that the smallest eaters
were observed to have the greatest share of benevolence, nor do I feel at all sure
that it would add much to the benevolence of mankind, though they should
unanimously detenrtine to keep a perpetual fast.
1825 Cooperation: Closing Speech 317
market was understocked with labour, and wages were high, all would find
employment with a very slight reduction. Where wages are low, they cannot bear
the slightest diminution--where they are high, the labourers can easily submit to a
temporary and trifling decrease for the sake of the great increase which is sure to
follow.
If there is one argument on which the gentlemen of this Society lay greater stress
than upon any other, it is the tendency of competition to make every man the rival,
and consequently, the enemy of every other man. If therefore I can shew that their
grand argument is good for nothing, absolutely for nothing whatever, it will
probably be admitted that I have done a great deal towards discrediting all the
others: Among the labourers who are the great mass of mankind, there would be no
rivalry whatever, if population were properly regulated, for there would be
employment enough for all much more than all could do: and it cannot be said of
the labouring man that he is like the dog in the manger, who envied others the
possession of that which could be of no use to himself. Among merchants and
other capitalists there would undoubtedly be under the best system of competition
a slight degree of rivalry. But it is proper that the gentlemen of the Cooperative
Society should know, that there are two sides to the question. Under the
Cooperative system, would there be trade, would there be interchange of
commodities, or would there not? If not you are reduced almost to primitive
barbarism. But if one Community trades, and exchanges its commodities with other
communities, there would still be eompetitionmand if competition must of
necessity be a cause of rivalry, there would still be rivalrymit would only change
its coursemman indeed would be no longer the rival of man, but one body of
men--one community would be the rival of another community. Mr. Thompson,
to whose candour we are indebted for some of the most important admissions
which ever were made by one antagonist in argument to another, has acknow-
ledged that there would be competition among communities--but observed that
such competition would produce but little rivalry because, said he, no one would
depend upon it for subsistence_every one would be able to gain an easy
subsistence by his labour. In these views I fully concur. I agree with Mr.
Thompson that where every one can gain an easy subsistence by his labour,
competition would very rarely produce such rivalry as could be a cause of mutual
hostility. But I humbly submit that the benefit of this admission is not confined to
Mr. Thompson. I too claim a part of it for my side of the question. Mr. Thompson
says, Under his system, every one could gain an easy subsistence by his labour,
and therefore there would not be rivalry. Well: under my system every one would
gain an easy subsistence by his labour, therefore under my system also there would
not be rivalry. And now I appeal to any candid bearer, whether there ever was a
more complete discomfiture than has been sustained by this unfortunate doctrine,
that competition is a cause of mutual hostility among mankind.
But ff all the evils attributed by these gentlemen to Competition were as real and
1825 Cooperation: Closing Speech 319
substantial as they are shadowy and chimerical, it is not by these alone that the
question is to be decided. Though one side of the question were apparently made
out to demonstration, it is not by looking only to one side of the question that truth
is to be attained. The question is not whether a state of Competition is exempt from
evil, for we know that evil is mixed up in every human lot; but whether
Competition or Cooperation on the whole affords the best chance for human
happiness: and it is not by a review of the evils of the Competitive system that this
great question can be decided, but by a fair comparison of the evils of the
Competitive and the evils of the Cooperative system.
If I were to deal with Cooperation as Mr. Thompson and the other gentlemen of
this Society have dealt with Competition--if I were to display and make the most
of every petty inconvenience which does or may under any circumstances flow
from it, I might easily make the catalogue appear as long as I pleased. As however I
do not consider this mode of treating the question to be quite fair, and as moreover
it is not every one who has either the physical power or the inclination to speak for
two hours, I shall content myself with recapitulating four of the principal
disadvantages to which the Cooperative system appears to me to be liable.
I object, then, to the Cooperative system,
First, because it prevents the powers of production which the society possesses,
from being called into full activity. It must be obvious that if at present, when a
man's whole happiness and even his very existence depends upon his labour, and
when his reward is in the exact proportion of his industry, there are yet so many
who are idle, it would be far worse when his subsistence would be nearly
independent of his labour--when he could live upon the labour of others, when his
reward would be equally great, whether he worked much or little, where he could
gain nothing by industry, attention and skill, and lose nothing by any degree,
except the greatest and most unusual excess of idleness, inattention and stupidity.
In such a state, the less any man individually worked, the more bitterly he would
inveigh against all others for not working enough, and the community would be a
scene of perpetual bickering among those who, idle themselves, would never fail
to discover that their neighbours were still more so. It is assumed, however, that all
this would be counteracted by public opinion--I say assumed because, although
all experience is against it,walthough there is not one of these Cooperative
gentlemen who in walking from Chafing Cross to Temple Bar with a silk
handkerchief in his pocket, would trust to public opinion to keep it there,wyet
nothing has been said to reconcile this startling assertion with probability, nothing
to gloss over its utter inconsistency with all that is known of human nature, except
merely that from the nature of the communities people would live together--as if
we had never seen such a thing as a town or a village. Injustice to the Cooperative
Society, I am bound to suppose, that it would not trust to public opinion
alonemthat there would be a graduated scale of punishments, from something
trifling, to expulsion from the society. In this manner, you might, it is true, compel
320 Journals and Speeches No. 12
them to work, but how? You substitute punishment for reward. For the cheering
and stimulating impulse of hope, you substitute the degrading and chilling
influence of fear. You would have none of that labour which is sweetened by the
consciousness that every moment of it adds something to the enjoyment of the
labourer. Your labourer would not labour that he might produce, and producing
might enjoy--he would labour that he might not be driven from the common table
of the community--that the society might not reject him from its bosom. His
labour would be like that of the slave, submitted to only because he dares not to
disobey, and quitted eagerly at the fast excuse, or opportunity for evasion. It is not
easy to calculate how great a deduction would be made from the sum of human
happiness by this one circumstance. After all, the power of punishment is limited.
The utmost that you could wring from him is the performance of a prescribed
taskua task which must be rated much below the capabilities even of the weakest
and most unskilful member of the community. It might be possible that by a
vigilant supervision,--the performance--the careless, indolent, and imperfect
performance--of such a task might be extorted from the unwilling labourer.
Beyond this there are a few whom no circumstances can cause to slacken in the
pursuit of great and commanding excellence. These might labour; they would
labour alone.
It will be said perhaps that this would only be true if they are ill educated and that
it is your intention that they should be well educated: to which I reply, My
argument does not suppose that they are ill educated, it only supposes, that they
love themselves better than they love the community of which they are members.
If you say that you have a plan of education by which they will be made to love the
public better than themselves, I have no objection whatever to your trying, though
I should be very much surprised if you were to succeed: but thus much is clear, If it
be possible to make men thus perfectly benevolent, it can then be of no
consequence what are their social arrangements, for they will be perfectly happy
under all---or if there be any difference, it will be in favour of that system which
leaves the greatest possible freedom of action. The best possible form of
government under such circumstances would be anarchy.
I object, secondly, to the Cooperative system, because it affords no sufficient
security for the good management of the concern. I have sbewn in what manner the
love of ease would operate upon the individual members of the community. The
managers of the concern, whether it be managed by the whole or by delegates from
the whole, would be as fond of their ease, as the individual of his. Nothing more is
necessary to render inevitable all the evils which the worst possible management
can entail. It is a well known proverb, that what is every body's business is
nobody's. Witness the most enlarged experience in the case of Joint Stock
Companies. Mr. Thompson rather injudiciously quoted these institutions as a
partial exemplification which modem times have introduced, of the cooperative
1825 Cooperation: Closing Speech 321
principle. He could not have hit upon a more unfavourable specimen of the
principle, since there is no experience more universal than that which proves, that
the affairs of a Joint Stock Company are always ill managed. Except when the
business to be performed is one of mere routine, or where, as in the case of
Assurance Companies, the guarantee of numbers is requisite, or where a larger
capital is required than it is usually in the power of individuals to command, there
never yet was a Joint Stock Company which stood its ground for any length of time
against individual competition.
I object, thirdly, to the Cooperative system, because in its very nature it is a
system of universal regulation. I am not one of those, who set up liberty as an idol
to be worshipped, and I am even willing to go farther than most people in
regulating and controlling when there is a special advantage to be obtained by
regulation and control. I presume, however, no one will deny that there is a
pleasure in enjoying perfect freedom of action; that to be controlled, even if it be
for our good, is in itself far from pleasant, and that other things being alike, it is
infinitely better to attain a given end by leaving people to themselves than to attain
the same end by controlling them. It is delightful to man to be an independent
being. The savage of the forest would be the happiest of men, could he reconcile
the comforts of civilized life with the preservation of his independence. This
indeed is impossible--he must sacrifice a part--but this sacrifice is an evil, and
can only be submitted to, for the sake of a greater good. So conformable is this to
the general sentiments of mankind that benevolent enthusiasts, in their plans for
new modelling society, have hitherto erred in giving too much freedom of action;
their day dreams have been dreams of perfect liberty. It was reserved for the
nineteenth century to produce a new sect of benevolent enthusiasts, whose day
dreams have been dreams of perfect slavery. If it be true of men, as Mr. Thompson
says of women, that they are not the less slaves, because they are well fed and
clothed, 61 have Mr. Thompson's authority for saying, that it does not follow, that
control is not an evil though it may be exercised for no purpose but for the good of
those who are controlled. In order to shew that control is an evil, it is only
necessary to shew that it is control--and this surely is an objection which it
requires very strong reasons, on the contrary side, to overrule.
Lastly, I object to the Cooperative system on account of the expense of the outfit
which, on the shewing of its supporters themselves, would amount, in buildings
alone, for Great Britain and Ireland, to upwards of 900 millions sterling. Even this,
it may be thought, is not too great a sacrifice for the happiness of eighteen millions
of human beings. Assuredly notnbut when there is a sacrifice to be made, it
becomes us to look round, and see in what manner that sacrifice may be made most
effective to the end: and to hesitate before we adopt a plan, which requires to be
6Thompson,Appea/, p. 67.
322 Journals and Speeches No. 12
sunk at the beginning a sum much more than sufficient to give the best possible
education to every inhabitant of the United Kingdom. 7
It now appearing that it is not possible to obtain under the Cooperative system
more happiness than is compatible with individual Competition it remains to
consider the other plea of its supporters--that it enables the same end to be attained
in a shorter time.
If it were true as Mr. Thompson says that under the Competitive system you
cannot raise the condition of any until you raise the condition of all, there would be
some foundation for this plea. But this is a mistake. It is true that if wages were
high in England, and low in Ireland, and you suffered the Irish to come into
England, they would prevent the English labourers from deriving any benefit from
their prudence. But the remedy is plain--keep the Irish out--I do not see any thing
in this proposal which can startle a member of the Cooperative Society. You would
keep all intruders out of your communities--You have only to suppose all England
covered with communities; foreigners would then be kept out as a matter of course,
unless in such numbers as the communities might fred it advantageous to admit.
Why then should you object to our doing what you would yourselves do without
hesitation? But you will perhaps tell me that if the labourers do not come to the
capital, the capital will go to the labourers. This would be true if it necessarily
followed, because the labourers in any country are ill off, that the profits of stock
are high, but experience shews that in those countries where the people multiply
without restraint, it is necessary for their food to cultivate such bad land that the
profits are reduced just as low as they are any where else, and the landlord alone
derives any benefit from the degraded state of the bulk of the population. In what
country are wages higher than in America? If it were true that capital moves from
the countries where wages are high to the countries where they are low,--we
should find it moving from America to all other parts of the world, instead of which
it moves from all parts of the world to America.
The supporters of the Cooperative system tell us, that they have the advantage
over us in this respect, that they make happy as many as they can get hold of
without waiting till prudential habits are become general. One thing, however,
seems to have escaped them, that in proportion as they make some happy, they
aggravate the misery of the remainder. The condition of the labourers depends
upon the ratio between population and capital: if therefore it be necessary for the
establishment of a community to take more from the capital of the country than you
do from the population you deteriorate the condition of the great mass of the
people. Now this is exactly what you must do. Two hundred thousand pounds are
said to be required for the establishment of a community. This capital previously
7Thepart of the manuscriptin the Mill-TaylorCollectionendshere with cancelled words
that run to the end of f. 12v: "It appears therefore to me conclusively established that the
Cooperative system has no pretensions"; the concluding part, in Connecticut College,
begins at the top off. 13r.
1825 Cooperation: Closing Speech 323
afforded annual subsistence to at least ten thousand labouring men and their wives,
and families. Unless therefore you can take all these into your community you will
inevitably throw a part of them upon the wide world. I believe it does not enter into
your plans to admit more than 2000 persons into a single community. You must at
once see, therefore, that you would absorb all the capital in the country, long
before you had provided for one third part of the labourers, and when Great Britain
at length should be covered with communities, two thirds of the population would
fred themselves left out--they would be forced into the sea, if they had not
previously died of starvation, or raised a rebellion, and subverted the establish-
ments of that system which may justly be denominated a plan for making one
portion of the community happy, at the expense of the remainder.
It is clear therefore that until the people shall fn'st have raised their wages by
limiting their numbers, it is impossible for the Cooperative system to have more
than an experimental existence: and the question is, whether a few experimental
communities would sufficiently secure the happiness of the very few persons who
could possibly take advantage of them. Provided then, that you could supply
motives to worklprovided that you could supply securities for the good
management of the concern; and provided you could be sure of placing at the head
of every one of your Communities a number of enlightened men by whose means
you could secure for your inhabitants a good education and without whom the
chances are that they would have a very bad one--Provided, I say, that you could
do all this, I grant that you would secure to the inhabitants of the community a very
great degree of happiness. But I cannot grant that the question turns upon these
considerations alone, and I cannot think that it would prove much in favour of the
Cooperative system, although you should be able to prove that by the aid of
enormous funds, and with the zealous assistance of a large number of individuals,
you could produce more happiness than we can produce without any assistance and
without any funds----or that it were granted to us to have under our direction for the
good of humanity a sum equal to that which must be squandered on the buildings
alone of one single commtmity--By the employment of such a sum partly in
education and partly in working upon the press, I would undertake in twenty years
to effect a reform in the government of my country--to effect a reform in its
laws--to effect a reform in its Church establishment--and to possess the whole of
its population with a knowledge of the means by which they might keep the market
constantly understocked with labour, and have the power of regulating their wages
as they pleased. I cannot but wonder that persons so benevolent as the promoters of
the Cooperative system undoubtedly are, should think of converting to the
exclusive and the very precarious advantage of a few, funds which are sufficient to
secure the greatest happiness to the whole--and still more am I surprised that
coming forward with such a proposition they should call themselves and fancy
themselves the friends of universal equality.
I should be sorry if it were thought that I am an enemy to Mr. Owen's system. I
324 Journals and Speeches No. 12
am an enemy to no system which has for its object the amelioration of mankind.
Destitute as it appears to me of all the securities which are necessary for the right
working of the social machine, I cannot but consider it to be a hazardous
experiment--yet hazardous though it be, if that chance, such as it is, were the only
chance for human nature; if there were not another and a far surer foundation for
our hopes, no childish dread of that which is new, merely because it is new, no
selfish anxiety to keep others miserable only that I myself might by comparison
appear more happy, should restrain me from devoting my whole life to the pursuit
of that one only chance--So long as the slightest glimmering of hope remained,
there is no exertion, no sacrifice which I would spare rather than renounce those
cheering anticipations of the indefinite improvement of mankind which I have
cherished from my cradle, and which it is probable I shall carry to my grave. But
this is neither the only nor the best chance--we are not yet forced upon such drastic
remedies. There is a principle in man, far more constant and far more universal
than his love for his fellows--I mean his love for himself: and without excluding
the former principle, I rest my hopes chiefly on the latter. Let self-interest be or be
not a principle which it is possible to eradicate from the bosom not of one man only
but of all: no one at least will deny that it is a powerful principle--in the present
state of things almost an all-powerful one; and if so it is surely not very wise to
court opposition from it, when you might have it on your side. Let things be so
arranged that the interest of every individual shall exactly accord with the interest
of the whole--thus much it is in the power of laws and institutions to effect; and,
this done, let every individual be so educated, as to know his own interest--Thus
by the simultaneous action of a vast number of agents, every one drawing in the
direction of his own happiness, the happiness of the whole will be attained. But the
Cooperative system--look at it on its best side--I can regard it only in the light in
which I should consider a man who with prodigious labour and at the peril of his
neck should employ himself in attempting to scale a twenty-foot wall, when by
casting his eyes about him he would have seen a wicket gate through which he
might have effected his passage without danger or difficulty.
As this is probably the last time that I shall open my lips in this Society, I am
anxious, before I sit down, to express my acknowledgments for the kind, indulgent
and courteous manner with which the members of the Society have listened to the
expression of opinions, which must at fn'st have appeared repulsive to their minds,
and which many of them, I am certain, at fh'st believed to be the opinions of none
but the lukewarm friends or concealed enemies of mankind. None of them I am
persuaded at this moment continue to think so. I am sure that we part in
kindness--I am sure that we all of us think better of one another than when we
began--and if this were the only good effect which the discussion produced--if it
had not, as I hope it has, added to our stock of knowledge, the time it has occupied
could not in any view be considered to be time thrown away. You will continue to
labour in your vocation; we shall labour in ours, and though we differ in the means,
we all have in view the same great end, the improvement of the human race. For
1825 Cooperation: Notes 325
myself, I shall always recur with pleasure to the thought that I may in some small
degree have contributed to set right in your estimation a science which does not
deserve the obloquy which you have too readily cast upon it: and to prove to you
that in the bosoms even of political economists there may burn as pure a flame of
benevolence as even the torch of Mr. Owen can have kindled in yours.
MS, Trinity College, Cambridge, Add. MS c. 8026. These notes seem most closely
connectedwith No. 12, though they bear on the whole issue between the Owenites and the
Bentharnites;perhaps they formed the basis of Mill's opening speech, of which only a
fragment(No. 10) remains.
tan Outline of the System of Education at New Lanark (Glasgow: Wardlaw and
Cunningham,1824), by Owen's son, Robert DaleOwen (1801-77), gives the detailsof the
system, founded on the belief that character is formed by circumstances, and directed
towardsassociating in the child's mind individual happiness and that of the community.
326 Journals and Speeches No. 14
9. Shew that the same system of education could be adopted now. E.g. infant
schools, and if adopted that it would give us all that we could have by Owen's
system and more: the pleasures and virtues of individual freedom of action. If then
Owen's system brings men more speedily to this state, let us have it, and when
brought let the comm. dissolve.
10. Shew that it cannot. Impr. in education why necessarily progressive:
Protract the evils to be gone through.
11. The end sooner attained without Owen's system, because education would
not have to struggle with self-interest.
12. Recapitulation and Conclusion.
MS, Mill-Taylor Collection, 1]/1/5. Inscribed in Mill's hand, "Speech on the Influenceof
the Aristocracy. / LondonUnion Society 9th December 1825" (at the head), and "Speech at
/ the London Union / 9th December 1825 / on the Influence / of the Aristocracy" (on f. 9,
otherwise blank). Typescript, Fabian Society. Edited by Harold J. Laski, as "Speech on the
Influence of the Aristocracy," Archiv far Sozialwissenschafi und Sozialpolitik, LXII
(1929), 239-50. This is Mill's first speech in the London Union Debating Society, renamed
the London Debating Society on 3 February, 1826.Mill opened for the negative in this, the
second debate of the Society, proposed by W.J. Walter, "That the Influence of the
Aristocracyin the Government of thisCountry is beneficial." The affurnativecarried, 63 to
17. As not published in Mill's lifetime, not listed in his bibliography.
excite. It is for the members of this Society to shew, by the mode in which they
carry on the debate that they are capable of discussing the most important interests
of their country, without departing from that calmness of temper which is alone
suitable to him whose sole aim is truth: that they can abstain from any unnecessary
introduction of topics calculated to rouse animosities, and from vague and
unmeaning vituperation of those whose sentiments are opposed to theirs; and that
every member is charitable enough to suppose it possible that his own side of the
question does not possess an entire monopoly of sincerity and good intentions. For
my own part, although I feel that confidence in the soundness of my opinions,
which is natural to one who has maturely considered them, I am perfectly ready to
abjure them, if they can be proved to be erroneous; and I beg of any gentleman who
may be inclined to treat me and my opinions with severity, to consider that I have
no interest in being in the wrong; and that therefore, if I am so, it is probably
because I cannot help it, and not because I am in love with error, or indifferent to
truth.
In the observations which I have to offer I shall endeavour to set the example of
confining myself strictly within the limits of the question: and with that view I wish
it to be distinctly understood, that, when I speak of the influence of the aristocracy,
I do not mean any kind of influence, but that kind of influence alone, which is
mentioned in the question. I shall not touch upon the moral influence of the
members of the aristocracy as individuals; not only because I think it extraneous to
the question, but also because it would be idle to enquire whether that be good or
bad in general, which is in no two individual instances the same; which varies with
the innumerable varieties of individual character, with the innumerable varieties of
individual pursuits, and with a hundred other ever varying elements, none of them
capable of being comprehended in one general expression: I shall therefore leave
this subject, first however taking the opportunity, as my subsequent remarks may
seem to bear hard upon the aristocracy, of testifying thus much in their favour: that
I think, in the matter of private character, they have not always had justice done
them; and that exception has been taken, a little too readily, to the nature of some
of their habitual occupations. Thus I have repeatedly heard it advanced as matter of
reproach against that respectable class of society the country gentlemen, that some
of them betray a stronger attachment to the innocent amusement of foxhunting,
than is consistent with the ideas which some persons entertain of perfect wisdom.
But I hold these strictures to be extremely illiberal: for I declare on my conscience
that I never heard of any person taking to foxhtmting as an occupation, who
appeared to me to be fit for any other: and if the case be so, they are surely
deserving of commendation rather than of blame, in having selected for
themselves the only employment, to which the wisdom of their Creator had
adapted them. An employment, too, so admirably fitted to keep their constitutions
in repair,--and themselves out of mischief: for I am persuaded that the whole
Society will agree with me in the opinion, that it is much better they should torment
328 Journals and Speeches No. 14
foxes, than men; and that hunting is a far more proper pastime for such persons,
than judging or legislating.
To confine ourselves, then, to the topic which is particularly under discussion, I
shall endeavour to shew, that the influence of the aristocracy in the government is
not only no benefit, but a positive evil. That there should be a class of rich men, I
care not how rich, if they become so no otherwise than by the natural operation of
the laws of property, is clearly not an evil. That this class should form a society of
their own, and should observe certain conventional forms in their intercourse with
one another; that they should be distinguished from one another by rifles, or any
other artificial distinctions of a merely honorary kind--all this, as it hurts no one,
no one is entitled to object to: and a class of persons thus circumstanced may call
themselves an aristocracy, or any word that is most agreeable to them: I do not
quarrel with a name. What I do object to, and very strongly, is, that any such body
should possess a monopoly of political power: or if the word monopoly be too
strong, I will say a predominance. So long as they are satisfied with pursuing their
own happiness in whatever way pleases them best, without interfering with that of
other persons, so long I have no quarrel with them; I complain of them only when
they seek for power, power to oppress others.
I do not think it necessary, for the purpose of the present debate, to enter very
deeply into the science of politics, or to lay down any new or alarming general
principle. If indeed I were to speak my entire sentiments upon the subject I should
say, that I do not think it desirable that an aristocracy, as such, should possess any
political power, or, in the words of the question, exercise any influence in the
government, beyond that to which their personal qualifications may entitle them:
but to narrow the discussion I will waive this point, and will concede that good
government is promoted by endowing the aristocracy with some portion of
political power. I know not what quantity some gentlemen may deem sufficient:
but I presume all will allow that there ought to be some limit to the quantity; and
this is the only principle to which I shall demand their assent. I lay down no other
postulate--I ask for no other admission at their hands: I shall be satisfied if they
will only grant that the power of the aristocracy ought to have a limit. This
admission however I do require: it is the foundation of my whole argument: and I
shall not be contented with a mere verbal assent: they must have a full and distinct
apprehension of the whole extent of the admission: they must be prepared to follow
it out even to its remotest consequences: their assent must be given, not to the
words alone, but to the sense; they must imbibe the whole spirit and scope of the
principle: they must not only confess it with their lips, but they must feel it in their
hearts.
There is no more common error among unthinking persons than to imagine, that
whatever is good in a certain quantity must be good in any quantity: and the
admirers of aristocratic rule, who are in general very little alive to any political
evils except those which emanate from a seditious rabble, are apt to imagine, or to
December 1825 Influence of the Aristocracy 329
talk as if they imagined, that we never could by possibility have enough of so very
good a thing. No doubt, they would be ready enough to say, that a pure aristocracy,
which is generally on these occasions called an oligarchy, is not exactly a good
thing: that is to say, that although it is not quite so bad as a pure monarchy, and a
fortiori not so bad as that monster which is not to be thought of without trembling,
a pure democracy, yet there is not very much to be said in its praise. That oligarchy
is one of the three simple, and therefore bad, forms of government, is a proposition
which people are accustomed to repeat (as they axe accustomed to repeat so many
other things) because they have heard it when at school: But all those associations
of badness, which are connected in their minds with the Greek word oligarchy,
depart when that hard word is banished and the more courtly term aristocracy
substituted in its place: Under this change of denomination, what had been so
loudly reprobated is as loudly applauded, and though oligarchy is no better than it
should be, aristocracy is every thing that heart can desire. If there be any persons of
this sort in the room, it may be of use to point out to them what are the
consequences of giving too much power to an aristocracy.
The materials of which a government is composed, are not Gods, nor angels, but
men. Now rather an extensive observation of the conduct of men in all ages has
shewn that, extraordinary instances of heroism excepted, which of course are not
to be reckoned upon, their actions are pretty constantly governed by their interests:
insomuch that if you know what it is a man's interest to do, you can make a pretty
good guess at what he will do. Now as men in power do not cease to be men, by
being in power, the same rules, which govern the conduct of other men, govern
theirs likewise: and therefore, when the interest of those who are placed under
them, clashes, as it is very apt to do, with their own, it is not difficult to see which
must give way to the other.
A few examples will shew in what a variety of ways the interest of a ruling few is
liable to be in opposition to the interest of the subject many.
It is the interest of the many that the taxes should be as light as possible: because
it is the many who pay them: of the few, that they should be as heavy as possible:
because it is the few who receive them.
It is the interest of the few that they and theirs should receive as much money,
and render in return for it as little service, as possible: and with this view, it is their
interest to create the greatest possible number of useless offices, in order that the
pretence of service may be rewarded with the reality of salary. It never can be the
interest of the many that any service should be paid for, which is not given; or
given, which is not required.
It is the interest of the few that all public situations should be held by their sons
and nephews, however unfit, to the exclusion of John Brown or Tom Smith or any
such vulgar person who has no other recommendation than his fitness. It is the
interest of the many that the best qualified person should in all cases be preferred,
whatever breed he may come of.
330 Journals and Speeches No. 14
It is the interest of the few to keep up an enormous army and navy, for the
twofold purpose of making incomes for sons and nephews, and forging chains for
the many. It is the interest of the many that neither army nor navy should exceed
the lowest scale consistent with security.
It is the interest of the few, to be engaged in continual wars: and this for more
reasons than one: 1st, for the glory of the thing, 2ndly for the power it gives them,
3rdly as an excuse for increasing the army and navy, and making more incomes for
sons and nephews; and lastly, because in time of war, people think so much of
doing harm to others that they have no leisure to think of doing good to themselves:
from which cause a period of war is a period of security for political abuses of all
sorts, sizes, and denominations. As for the many, it is scarcely ever their interest to
engage in a war; and never in any that is called a just and necessary one: by which,
so far as my observation goes, is always meant, a war that has for its object
something either contemptibly silly or detestably wicked: the honours of the flag,
the balance of power, or to prevent the establishment of free institutions in foreign
countries.
It is the interest of the few to assume to themselves, in the character of justices of
peace, unlimited power of vexing and annoying the many. It is the interest of the
many that no such power should be exercised over them by any persons.
Lastly, for although there is no end to the subject, it is necessary that there
should be an end to my enumeration; it is the interest of the few to enact corn laws
in order to raise their rents, game laws to protect their amusements, and vagrant
laws to punish those who, being guilty of poverty, obtrude the spectacle of their
misery upon the delicate senses of the few. _ Now it is not, nor can be, the interest
of the many, that any one of all these things should be done.
Of course I do not pretend that this picture of misgovernment has ever been
realized in any civilized country. I have only been speaking of what is possible, not
of what is real: and few will deny that even in the present state of the human mind in
Europe, an aristocracy might do all this without endangering its existence. But if
we look not to what any aristocracy is now, or is ever likely to be again, but to what
it has a constant tendency to become, and would actually be at this moment in
every country where it exists, were it not restrained by its fears; if in short we view
the sinister interest 2 of the ruling body in its fullest extent and endeavour to
conceive the effects of a perfectly unchecked aristocracy, the picture is far more
deplorable still.
It is the interest of an aristocracy to extract from the people in all ways, the
greatest possible quantity of money, and the greatest possible quantity of power.
When they have got this money and power it is of course their interest to keep it:
1Themost recent of the Vagrancy Laws (which go back to the mediaeval period ) were the
tempotm'yConsolidatingAct, 3 George IV, c. 40 (1822), and 5 George IV, c. 83 (1824).
2For the phrase, see No. 5, n7.
December 1825 Influence of the Aristocracy 331
which they have no chance of doing but by preventing the people from finding out
that it is their interest to take it away. Two modes of action present themselves as
conducive to this end: the one, calculated to operate upon the understanding of the
people, the other to operate upon their will. Upon their understanding by debasing
it down to the lowest stage of debasement by means of bad education, the fruits of
which are, bad morals, bad religion, and almost every thing that is bad under the
sun. Upon their will, by inspiring them with the greatest possible degree of terror,
which is only to be done by the greatest possible degree of cruelty. A despotic
aristocracy, therefore, would be exactly what a despotic monarchy, in its worst
shape, is: with this difference, that a despotic monarch, being one man, may be a
man of extraordinary virtue; but it would be worse than idle to expect extraordinary
virtue from a body of men, a whole class, an aristocracy.
If it be proved that any set of men, placed in the situation of an aristocracy, and
having power to oppress and misgovern, will oppress and misgovern, I presume an
exception is not to be made of the British aristocracy. They are not, I take it for
granted, cast in a different mould from the rest of their species, nor is their conduct
governed by a different set of principles from those which govern the conduct of
other aristocracies. I do not say that they are worse than other men: they may for
aught I know be better, but still they are men. I must deprecate, therefore, all
arguments in defence of the political power of the aristocracy, which are founded
upon the bright examples of individual virtue in their number. There are, in what
are called the higher classes, many excellent men, men whose influence as
individuals I should be extremely sorry to see diminished; but though they were
every one of them so many Cato's and Fabricius's, 3 1should still think it possible
that they might have too much power. I would not give absolute power even to one
man, because he was virtuous; unless I meant to corrupt and destroy his virtue: yet
it would be ten times more reasonable to give absolute power to one man, because
he is virtuous, than to a body of men because some of them are so. Individuals have
been known to make great sacrifices of their private interest to the good of their
country: but bodies of men, never. When the glory of doing right and the shame of
doing wrong are to be shared among so many that the share of each man is a trifle,
no principle remains of sufficient strength to counteract the united force of the two
great springs of human action, the love of money and the love of power. I say no
principle; for as to their morality, that is regularly pressed into the service of their
interest. When a set of men are numerous enough to keep one another in
countenance, and high enough to be above the necessity of regarding any body's
opinion but their own, they generally find little difficulty in manufacturing a
morality for their own private use: of which homemade morality the fundamental
principle is, that they are of such unspeakable importance to the whole
3MarcusPorciusCato (234-149 B.C. ) and GaiusLuscinus Fabricius (ft. 282 B.C. ) were
models of patrician integrity.
332 Journals and Speeches No. 14
community, that the community ought to be but too happy in suffering them to
take, at its expense, as much money and power as they have a mind to: and this
morality they preach to the people, aye! and believe it themselves, and teach it to
their children; for it is wonderful how easy a matter it is to believe that to be right
which we know to be pleasant.
I have now got through one half of my argument--and have shewn what sort of
a thing an unchecked aristocracy is, or would be, I should rather say, for no
aristocracy is, was, or ever will be totally unchecked. The worst government is
under some restraint; the fear of rebellion is always something; and there is no
government over which that fear has not some influence. This check, which exists
under the most odious tyrannies upon the face of the earth, is not, nor ever would
,be wanting in this country. It is even more of a check in this country than
elsewhere, because the British is a more determined and a better instructed people
than most, and therefore, when it does rebel, more likely to rebel with success.
While this is the case, and long may it continue so, we must be better governed
than other nations had we a Nero, or a Muley Ismael,4 for our absolute sovereign.
With the exception of this check, which exists alike under the best governments
and under the worst, I am prepared to maintain that the power of the British
aristocracy is totally unchecked.
For if it be checked, it is clear that there must be something to check it; and this
sometlfing, let us see what it is. According to the fashionable doctrine about the
British Constitution, 5there are two checks, two counterpoises; the influence of the
Crown, and the influence of the people. Let us examine these checks one after the
other: and we will begin with the last, because it is the most to the purpose.
If the people have any influence in the government of this country, the seat of
that influence must be the House of Commons; for that is always said to be the
democratic branch of our Constitution, being supposed to be chosen bythe people.
One thing, however, I take it for granted few will deny: that, in order to form a
counterpoise to the power of the aristocracy, or to be itself any thing but an
aristocracy, it is necessary not only that it should be supposed to be chosen by the
people, but moreover that it should actually be chosen by them. Now when I look
to things, which in general are of more importance than the names which they are
called by, I find that there are not more than four or five members of the House of
Commons, of whom it can be said with any colour of a'uth that they are chosen by
the people. A majority of that House, including the members for the greater part of
the counties, and for all the smaller towns, except those which are called rotten
burghs, are chosen by about 180 families, most of them great landed proprietors.
The remainder of the county members are chosen by the smaller landholders, and
the rotten burghs, which in my opinion are the least bad part of the system, are
disposed of by purchase and sale, to those who can afford to pay for them, the
electors selling their consciences once in seven years or oftener, at so much per
conscience. About 99 therefore out of every 100 members hold their seats either at
their own pleasure, or at the pleasure of a lord or country gentleman, or at the
pleasure of several lords or country gentlemen: they are either themselves a part of
the aristocracy, or they are the tenants at will, the mere servants of the aristocracy:
and to talk of them as a counterpoise to the power of the aristocracy in the state is
much the same sort of absurdity as if Mr. Canning's butler and footman were said
to be a counterpoise to him in the family.
Now, if I were acquainted with any arithmetical process by which 1 could be
proved to be greater than 99, or of any rhetoric by which the hundredth man in an
assembly could persuade the other ninety nine to act as he pleased, and not as they
pleased, I might admit that the influence which the people enjoy in the House of
Commons, by means of the five or six members whom they elect, is a_ufficient
counterpoise to the influence of the aristocracy: always supposing that those five or
six members were not, by reason of the long duration of parliaments, rendered
very nearly as independent of their constituents as those members who never had
any constituents at all. But until some such wonder working process be made
known to me, I hope to be pardoned for adhering to the opposite opinion.
As for the other supposed check, the influence of the Crown, it is but the
influence of the aristocracy in disguise. The King indeed is not responsible to
Parliament, but his ministers are; and he can do nothing without ministers. Can any
ministry stand against a hostile Parliament? No one now ever imagines that they
can. By offending the Parliament, a ministry incurs the risk of impeachment--that
however is a triflewbut at any rate the loss of their places--which is no trifle.
Now although, by means of what I believe are called the Treasury burghs, they can
put a certain number of members into Parliament, they cannot put many; 6 so that
their influence over the Parliament is in reality very small: and instead af being,
what they are so often represented to be, the masters of the Parliament, they are in
reality its slaves bound hand and foot and under an utter impossibility of acting
otherwise than according to the will of Parliament, that is, of its constituents the
Aristocracy. The power of the King is therefore subordinate to that of the
Aristocracy, and cannot be exercised except in subservience to them. What then is
the King? A mere officer of the Aristocracy: environed indeed by external
splendour, because his splendour is their splendour, but in reality nothing more
than a carver, who is permitted by them to carve the wealth and power which they
have jointly extracted from the people giving a piece to one, and a piece to another,
¢'Ina handfulof port towns, naval centres, and dockyard towns, the economic weight of
the Treasury or the Admiralty was sufficient to ensure government control of the
representation.
334 Journals and Speeches No. 14
and the large pieces to whomsoever he likes best. It is strongly the interest of the
aristocracy to have a carver. If they did not entrust the division of the precious
matter to some fixed individual,--if the whole were left to be settled by a general
scramble, the disputes and tumults and civil wars that would ensue would be
troublesome. This the aristocracy know; and they prefer to take their chance of
getting what they can from the carver: while those who are not served to their liking
rail at those who are, and call themselves a Constitutional Opposition.
For these reasons, the supposed balance of the British Constitution appears to
me to be a nonentity. For my part I never had much faith in these mathematical
governments. The hopes and fears of men, the materials of which political power
is made, do not admit of being cut out into equal parts, or measured out by a rule
, and a pair of compasses, with geometrical precision. Besides in the perpetual
mutability of human affairs, the nicest equilibrium of powers would require to be
readjusted before it had been established a twelvemonth. And after all--if the
balance be not really, what to me it appears, visionary and chimerical: it still
remains to be proved that it would be good. That a government compounded of the
three simple forms must unite all their excellencies, surely is not self-evident. It is
at least a possible case that it may unite all their defects. But it has usually been
deemed sufficient to point to the British Constitution, and to beg the three
following questions in relation to it: 1. that it is a balance, 2. that it is good, and 3.
that it is good, because it is a balance: which three premisses being taken for
granted, the conclusion, that a balance must be good, follows, it must be owned,
quite easily and naturally.
If I have succeeded in proving that as far as depends upon institutions, the
aristocracy of this country are possessed of unlimited power and that we are
indebted to their fears alone, to their fears of popular resistance, for that share of
good government which we enjoy, all that remains is to examine what this security
mounts to: and we shall not fail to perceive, that it amounts to very little. Any
resistance, short of a general rebellion, would expose the aristocracy to no material
danger. But those great convulsions which overthrow established governments;
those gigantic efforts of physical strength by which a people that has been sunk for
ages in slavery shakes off its fetters and rids itself of bad rulers and bad institutions,
are of rare occurrence and when they do occur, they are in general called forth by
striking instances of individual oppression, by those crimes which awaken
sympathy, and shake each man's confidence in his own personal security. From
such crimes it costs the aristocracy but little to abstain: and then, what has it to
fear? The people may cry, but if they only cry, who will attend to their cries? In this
country, fortunately, the fears of the aristocracy are out of all proportion to their
danger. They tremble at the very thought of facing public opinion. All their actions
prove how ill at ease they are when they fancy that public opinion is against them:
yet as often as the temptation is tolerably strong, they do encounter it point blank:
and their fears, on these occasions, make them only the more dogged in their
resistance. Of this we have a striking exemplification in the pertinacity with which
January 1826 Primogeniture 335
they cling to the Corn Laws and to the Game Laws. Public opinion is unanimous on
these two questions, or it never was unanimous upon any thing: and to make the
matter still more remarkable, there is not the same unanimity among the
aristocracy: for these laws are as obnoxious to the manufacturing and commercial
part of the aristocracy, as they are even to the people themselves. It is the landed
interest alone which upholds them. From this we learn the plenitude of the power
of the aristocracy, since even when they are divided, one portion is strong enough
to maintain these laws against the other portion and the body of the people
combined. The use they make of their power is also strikingly illustrated by these
same laws: in the one case, they tax the people to the extent of several millions a
year, for the disinterested purpose of putting a few hundred thousands of pounds,
for it is positively no more, into their pockets; in the other case, the amusements of
the aristocracy having to be protected, protection is afforded to them by
establishing in every village a nursery of crime where persons are ftrst made fit for
the gallows and then sent to it, besides stocking the hulks and the plantations,
which however as it is for the service of his Majesty is on that account the less to be
regretted.
Having pointed out, as I conceive, the nature and magnitude of the evil, I think it
best not to enter upon the controverted subject of the remedy. The discussion
would take up much time; and the present question may be fully and satisfactorily
answered without it. There is no one here, I imagine, who thinks that any
government can be good, which is purely aristocratic, without any mixture of
popular: Now it has been my endeavour to shew that our government is so:
whoever, then, disapproves of a pure aristocracy must disapprove of ours, if I have
made out my case. Everything turns upon the mere question of fact. I have
endeavoured to make that question as plain as I could: if I have failed, I have no
doubt that some gentleman will refute me: but ifI have succeeded, I hope to induce
the partizans of a mixed as well as those of a purely popular government, to join
with me in negativing the question.
15. Primogeniture
20 JANUARY, 1826
Typescript,Fabian Society, beaded: "Speech intended to have been spoken, and in part
actually spoken at the London Union, 20th January 1826." The Laws and Transactions
confirmthe date of this, the third debate, "That the Law and Custom of Primogeniture are
detrimentalto Society," proposedby Mill, whospoke thirdinthe affirmative, whichcarried
the vote, 16 to 12. As not published in Mill's lifetime, not listed in his bibliography.
I DONOTINTEND,Sir, to trespass very long upon your patience. The merits of the
question seem to be within a narrow compass. We have experienced this evening
336 Journals and Speeches No. 15
how obscure and intricate one of the simplest questions in ethics and legislation
may be made. If we look at the subject of property with the eyes of commonsense,
and without that kind of superstition which seems in this country to have stamped it
as one of those subjects to which commonsense ought not to be applied, we shall
see that there are two, and but two, great ends to be looked to by the legislator in
regard to property; the greatest possible production and the best distribution. By
establishing the laws of property, by securing to the possessor of it during his life,
and to those to whom he chooses to give it at his death, the full and unmolested
enjoyment of the advantages which it yields, the legislator gives encouragement to
the production of wealth. This done his next consideration is what distribution
conduces most to human happiness. This distribution it is his business to find out,
, and when found out, to encourage as far as is consistent with the other great object,
the encouragement of production.
I suppose I may be permitted to assume that the distribution which conduces
most to the general happiness is the distribution which the legislator ought to
favour, not but that there are gentlemen in this room who would gladly dispute it,
but because those gentlemen are probably not quite prepared to make answer to the
question what other end it is the business of the legislator to look to.
Now the proposition on which I am content to rest my opposition to the law and
custom of primogeniture is this; that the distribution of wealth which tends most to
the general happiness is that which approximates the nearest to equality. If this
proposition be true, it will follow as a consequence that the legislator ought to
favour the equal distribution of wealth in every way not inconsistent with that
security of property but for which there would be no wealth to distribute.
Everybody knows that the same sum of money is of much greater value to a poor
man than to a rich one. Give £10 a year to the man who has but £10 a year, you
double his income, and you nearly double his enjoyments. Add £10 more, you do
not add to his enjoyments so much as you did by the first £10. The third £10 is less
valuable than the second, and the fourth less valuable than the third. To the
possessor of £ 1,000 a year the addition of £ 10 would be scarcely perceptible; to the
possessor of £10,000 it would not be worth stooping for.
The richer a man is the less he is benefited by any further addition to his income.
The man of £4,000 a year has four times the income of the man who has but
£1,000; but does anybody suppose that he has four times the happiness?
Let us therefore put the case of a man who dies intestate leaving four sons and an
estate of £4,000 a year. Divide it equally among the four sons, and whatever
quantity of happiness a £1,000 a year are capable of yielding is produced four
times over. Will it be pretended that the whole £4,000 in the hands of one of the
brothers would produce anything like so great a sum of happiness? Where no
undue power is annexed to the possessor of wealth, the difference in point of
enjoyment between an income of£1,000 a year and an income of £4,000 is a trifle.
That the eldest brother may add this trifle to his enjoyments, are the remaining
January 1826 Primogeniture 337
three to be deprived of the whole of theirs? Not if the general happiness be the
proper end of legislation. To produce inequality where without infringing any
rights you might produce equality, to make one man rich where you might make
four men comfortable, is bad economy; it is squandering the means of happiness,
nor do you give the slightest additional stimulus to the production of wealth by thus
vitiating its distribution.
It is probable that some gentlemen may not relish this pounds, shillings and
pence mode of reasoning, this application of the rules of arithmetic to the
computing of human feelings. They may think all such calculations very dull: !
cannot help it. They will readily believe me when I declare that I should have been
very glad if what I say had been at once amusing and useful. There are many
persons I am aware whose zeal for truth is of that kind that they would rather at any
time abandon the search than pursue it at the hazard of being tiresome. For my part
I am very little accustomed to consider any means as dull which conduce to that
great end. I cannot follow some of the speakers of this evening in their flights. I
must go to work in my own way, and with my own instruments. With these
instruments, such as they are, I have satisfied myself that equal distribution,
failing special reasons to the contrary, is the one arrangement dictated by a regard
for the general happiness. Nor is this principle any secret to ordinary persons on
ordinary occasions.
A person who has ten loaves of bread to give away in charity, and ten persons
starving at his door, never thinks of singling out one of the ten, giving him the
whole, and leaving the other nine to perish. A father if he had a basket of oranges or
sugarplums to bestow upon a family of five children would never imagine that he
was best consulting the happiness of them all by giving the whole basket to one
child and none to the other four. People in general are in the habit of thinking, or at
least of saying, that when there is no difference in point of desert between two
sons, to make any difference in favour between them is injustice. Under what
limitations (if any) is this maxim to be taken true as applied to oranges, true as
applied to sugarplums, but false as applied to estates?
"Oh, but," say these gentlemen, "what would become of the large fortunes?
Where would be our Devonshires, where our Fitzwilliams? l But for the law and
custom of primogeniture all these princely fortunes would be broken down." So
they would, and it is this idea of breaking down a large estate which imposes upon
men's minds; their attention is wholly fixed upon the diminished grandeur of one
branch of the family, and the immense number of moderate fortunes which would
be cut out of these gigantic ones is entirely overlooked.
of intellect? Why should he take trouble? What has he to gain by it? Where is his
inducement? There are exceptions doubtless to this rule, but without wishing to
push it to any extravagant extent I think it must be allowed me that out of equal
numbers of persons born to £1,000 and of persons born to £20,000 a year, we
might expect a priori that the proportion of intellectual and instructed men would
be much the greatest in the former class, a conclusion which it is almost
unnecessary to say experience amply confirms. And if we add to this that every
large fortune would break down into several of that moderate extent which affords
the greatest possible combination of the means and the motives for the acquisition
of intellectual eminence, we shall see that under a system of equal distribution the
possessors of property, whether they would have more influence or not, would at
any rate deserve it more.
But if it he answered that the men of small fortunes, though abler and better
educated, would not carry with them that weight of influence which it is of
absolute necessity that the possessors of property should have, I beg leave to ask
what sort of influence it is that is meant. Since it is not the influence of superior
education and talent, is it the mere influence of a longer purse? Since it is not the
influence which works by reasoning and persuasion, is it the influence which
works by bribery and terror? If this he the sort of influence that is meant I must in
candour acknowledge that under bad institutions it is among the attributes of large
fortunes to carry this sort of influence along with them. At the same time I must he
permitted to doubt whether this he a sort of influence which deserves much
encouragement, or whether it be saying much in favour of primogeniture to say
that a sort of power of which bribes and threats are the instrument owes its
existence to that institution. Where such are the means I look with some suspicion
upon the end. I know we are taught to believe that we are greatly indebted to the
rich for being so kind as to bribe us and intimidate us for our good, to the end that
having by these means acquired a complete command over our acts they may with
paternal solicitude force us to pursue our own happiness which we should
otherwise be in danger of losing sight of. To expect any other than this dis-
interested fine of conduct from men who have a large stake in the country, 2 who
are interested in keeping all establishments on their bottoms, and in maintaining
the stability of the existing order of things; to expect anything but good from so
efficient a drag chain so admirably fitted to obviate all danger of too rapid a
movement on the part of the political machine would he jacobinism. A little
election bribery and a little election terrorism are a small price to pay for so much
stability.
MS. University of Toronto Library, MSS 3074. Headed in Mill's hand, "Speech /
deliveredat the / London Debating Society / Tuesday 28th Feby / 1826/ on the character of
Catiline." As there is no Fabian Society typescript, this is probably one of the two MSS that
Laski sold immediately after acquiring them in 1922.The Laws and Transacnons confu'ms
the date of this, the sixth debate, "That the Character of Catiline has been calumniated by
the Roman Historians." Roebuck proposed the subject and opened in the affirmative: Mill
replied. They are the only speakers listed in the debate, which was carried by the negative,
15 to 12. As not published in Mill's lifetime, not listed in his bibliography.
has any other purpose than by exemplifying the uncertainty which hangs over the
best established historical facts, to shake that unbounded confidence which we are
so prone to repose in whatever has been handed down to us under the name of
history, and send us back to rcperuse our books and reconsider our old opinions. If
this be his purpose, he has chosen his subject well, and the Society will I am sure
agree with me that the subject has not lost any thing, by his manner of treating it.
To me, who, in history as in most other things, look chiefly to that which is
practical, which bears upon the present situation of the human race, for which
alone I concern myself, questions of this sort, I confess, are not very interesting. It
is criminal in wives to murder their husbands, whether Mary Queen of Scots
murdered her husband or no; 4 and in forming a resolution to be an honest man, I
shall not wait till I have ascertained whether Catiline was a rascal. If therefore my
honourable friend had done no more than throw doubts upon the reality of the
criminal actions imputed to Catiline, I should have suffered his speech to produce
what effect it might upon the Society, and left it for other gentlemen to answer it if
they could. But he has done more than deny those actions; he has attempted to
justify them: and it is for this reason that I intend to oppose him. History, which
resembles a novel in so many other respects, resembles it also in this, that it matters
little wbether the actions which the historian or the novelist relates ever really
happened or not, but it matters very much that the moral judgment which we form
of those actions should be correct. It is of very little consequence whether Catiline
was a rascal, but it is of very great consequence that every rascal should be treated
as such, whether in the situation of Catiline or in any other; and consequently, that
a man who did what Catiline is acknowledged to have done, should be estimated as
be deserves. Without therefore touching upon those actions in the private life of
Catiline, the evidence of which may a_w, arquestionable, I shall confine myself to
the consideration of that one of his actions which can neither be denied nor
explained away: his conspiracy.
My honourable friend has contributed to our instruction and entertainment by a
dissertation on the vices of the aristocratic government of Rome. It is not my wish
to extenuate those vices; I do not fall short of my honourable friend in my contempt
of those shallow and superficial politicians who see no despotism but where they
see a single despot; who imagine that a government with popular forms must be a
popular government, and who when they have played off one turbulent faction
against another, imagine that they have secured liberty. I trust, Sir, that without
being numbered among such persons, I may be permitted to see more points for
consideration in this question, than my honourable friend seems to have been
aware of. I must acknowledge indeed that his argument is recommended, if not by
Mary(1542-87) marriedHenryStuart(1545-67), LordDarnley, in 1565. He
associatedwith rebels, and was subject to a secret sentenceof death when the house in
whichhe was recuperating(perhapsfrom poison) was blownup; his strangledcorpsewas
discoveredin the grounds.
February 1826 Catiline 's Conspiracy 343
its conclusiveness, at least by its beautiful simplicity: The Roman government was
not the best government conceivable: ergo, it was lawful to subvert it at any time,
by any means, and to substitute any other government in the place of it. t must
confess myself dull enough not to feel the force of this reasoning; and sufficiently
bigotted to certain notions of morality, to think that civil war is a tremendous evil,
and not to be hazarded but when the prospective good preponderates over the
immediate evil: and that the existence of abuses is no pretext for a revolution unless
it be the object of that revolution to remedy them.
There is one question which does seem to me to deserve more consideration than
my honourable friend has apparently thought necessary to bestow upon it: and this
is, what were Catiline's designs? The existing government was bad, we will grant:
but would Catiline have established a better? This to say the least my honourable
friend has not proved. He appears to have reckoned upon finding in us a disposition
to believe any thing in behalf of the unfortunate, and to have thought that our
imaginations could not harbour the idea of two parties cutting each other's throats,
and neither of them in the right. I grant that in reading the pages of history, which
are so often the annals of human misery and human guilt, it is with difficulty that
the lover of virtue can force himself to believe that all was equally black. It is
painful to dwell on the dull detail of crime after crime, and see nothing to love,
nothing to admire, but every thing to execrate. The imagination must have
something to sympathize with: and what it cannot find in the successful, it seeks in
the unsuccessful party. They at least were no tyrants: they have not shocked us by
their proscriptions and their confiscations: in our abhorrence of the crimes which
were perpetrated against them, we forget those which they sought to perpetrate, we
think only of the suffering of men who were more sinned against than sinning; 5and
vainly flatter ourselves that those virtues which we see but too clearly were not
found in the victors, would have been found in the vanquished if they had
prevailed. I might perhaps condemn this illusion of the imagination, if I myself
could boast of being free from it: but I still read the stories of Cato and Brutus 6with
the same intense interest as if I had not known them to have been among the most
selfish of mankind; and I bestow on an ideal Cato and Brutus that love and
admiration which I feel that the real Cato and Brutus did not deserve. I would
gladly ifI could, regard Catiline too in the light of a persecuted patriot, a hero and a
martyr: but my principles compel me to pass the severest condemnation upon a
man who would subvert an established government without substituting a better,
and plunge his country into the horrors of a civil war, for no nobler purpose than
the gratification of his own rapacity, or his own selfish ambition.
_¢¢illiamShakespeare (1564-1616), King Lear, III, ii, 59; in The Riverside Shake-
speare, ed. G. Blakemore Evans (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974), p. 1275.
6Marcus Junius Brutus (ca. 78-42 B.C.), assassin of Julius Caesar in 44 B.C.,
committed suicide after his defeat at Philippi, where he had been fighting to maintain the
relmblic.
344 Journals and Speeches No. 16
If Catiline had succe_led, he would have had his choice of three things. He
might have retained the old constitution, placing his own party in power, that like
Marius or Sylla he might have glutted himself and his followers with the blood and
riches of the opposite party: 7 or secondly, he might have established a military
despotism, or thirdly and lastly a good government. Let us examine into the
comparative probability of these three suppositions, beginning with the last.
I am ready to give Catiline all the advantage of the plea that what we know of
him comes to us solely from his enemies: but when we make all the deductions,
which this circumstance requires, from the value of their testimony, or even were
we to reject that testimony altogether, the utmost that we could conclude would be,
that there is no evidence against him. The absence of evidence against him is not
evidence in his favour: though it were not proved that his designs were bad, this is
no proof that they were good. My honourable friend will not probably carry his
disbelief in history so far as to contend that we ought always to believe the contrary
of what historians tell us, and to infer at once that Catfline was an honest man,
because Sallust says he was a profligate, s Now I ask, Is the thing itself so
intrinsically probable, that we should believe it without evidence? Is disinterested
patriotism so very co_ a thing, a quality of such vulgar, such every day
occurrence, that we should ascribe it without proof to a man of whose moral
character the very best that can be said is that we know nothing about it? My
honourable friend must have a very good opinion of mankind. He has surely lived
in some country where moral virtues are like blackberries, and patriots grow upon
every bush. It is not so I fear in London: I am sure it was not so in Rome: and till I
have some better evidence of Catiline's honesty, than his own word and my
honourable friend's, I will at the risk of sacrificing my own character for charity
and liberality, consider him as a knave.
But if, on the one hand, my honourable friend may with reason require of us to
make the due abatement from the degree of credit due to Catiline's enemies
because they were his enemies he should on the other hand reflect that this
abatement does not amount to a total rejection of their testimony, and that even a
man's enemies do not load him with accusations which every man has it in his
power to contradict. At the hazard then of incurring the contempt of my
honourable friend, I will say, that little as we know of Catiline, and that little only
from his enemies, we know enough to pronounce with some confidence that he
was every thing which a political reformer should not be. I see no reason to doubt
that he was a needy adventurer, reduced to penury by what to avoid the sarcasms of
my honourable friend I will call by no worse name than extravagance: that when he
had squandered his fortune, he still retained the habits which that fortune had
engendered, and though without the means of satisfying his natural wants, was still
tormented by artificial wants which it required a large fortune to supply: that he
was deeply in debt, that he had no honest means of livelihood, and that he had
gathered round him a multitude of men whose wants like his own were pressing
and their fortunes spent. Now there are many instances in history of conspiracies in
which such men have been the leaders: they are indeed the stuff of which
conspirators are made: but I do not think there is one instance of a conspiracy led by
such persons, which has had any righteous purpose or which has turned out well. A
man who has been ruined by his vices is not a man to reform the government of his
country. A political reformer should be a man who can resist temptation--who can
command his passions--who looks to distant and durable enjoyments rather than
to those which are immediate and transitory and who can toil half his life thankless
and unrewarded, undervalued and perhaps abhorred by the majority of mankind
with nothing to support him but the cheering consciousness that his labours and his
sacrifices will one day be appreciated. Can we expect this from a man who,
reckless of the consequences, is a slave to the pursuit of immediate gratifications,
neglecting all others? No: it is a fatal error to imagine that public virtue and private
vices are ever allied, or that he who has sacrificed fame, fortune and liberty to his
ungovernable passions, will have more regard for the happiness of his fellow
citizens than he has had for his own. It is too much to suppose that he who is an
enemy to himself, will be a friend to the rest of mankind, or that he whom prudence
cannot restrain from vicious indulgence will be restrained from it by forbearance
towards others or by love of his country.
I conclude therefore, that if Catiline had succeeded, he would either after a
series of massacres and proscriptions, have ended by leaving the government as it
was before, or he would have established a military despotism. I am sure there is
no one here who would have attempted to justify him, had he adopted the former
alternative. But as my honourable friend appears to have some hankering after a
military despotism, and to think that it would have been at least an improvement
upon the Roman aristocracy, I must not dismiss this part of the subject without
observation.
I am no very vehement admirer of an aristocratic government: and the Roman
aristocracyhad its full share of the vices to which that form of government is liable.
But an aristocracy, be it ever so bad, if composed of a considerable number of
members, seldom or never reduces the human mind so completely to the level of
the brutes, as a military despotism. An aristocracy--at least a numerous
aristocracywhas more points in common with the people: it has at least an interest
in establishing a regular government, and letting its subjects know all the evil
which they are liable to suffer at its hands. It is the interest of an aristocracy that
personal security should be inviolable; for their own persons may one day be in
346 Journals and Speeches No. 16
mistresses: the meanest of vices, those of a courtier, are unknown. Talents and
intellect are in honour, because these are the qualities which are really serviceable,
and because, where the possessors of power are too numerous to be acted upon by
private favour, the qualities that are really serviceable, are the qualities that are
preferred. And at Rome, where the lowest citizen, if a man of talent, was not
excluded by his birth from those public situations which are the proper reward of
talent, the human mind could not become utterly degraded. Where the great prizes
fell to a Marius or a Cicero, Marius's and Cicero's would not be wanting. Under a
despotism such men, if they had ever arisen, would have been crushed in the
beginning of their career. It has been remarked that nothing contributed so much to
the unequalled grandeur of the Roman state as the succession of great men who
ruled its councils and commanded its armies for century after century. 9 And to
what cause is it to be ascribed that a state which from so small a beginning had
raised itself to so much grandeur not suddenly and by the individual talents of one
great captain but gradually through a succession of ages and by a succession of
statesmen and warriors, should first have stopt short, then fallen gradually into
decay, until with the whole civilization of the world at its beck, it was unable to
defend its own existence against a few hordes of savages? Could this have
happened under a government under which merit was rewarded--under which it
was even tolerated--but it has been truly said by a historian whose authority
indeed does not go for much with my honourable friend, Regibus boni quara mali
suspectiones sunt, semperque his aliena virtus formidolosa est. lo
Bad then as the Roman aristocracy was (and I neither palliate nor deny its
badness) he who had sought to subvert it with the intention of erecting a military
despotism on its ruins, is not entitled to plead the end, in justification of the means,
and it is not any ordinary end which would justify such means. Though it would be
too much to say that civil war is the worst of evils, since the evil of misgovernment
is worse; there is scarcely an imaginable horror which is not included in it. Rapine
and murder on the largest scale and in the most aggravated form, are but a
specimen. There are occasions, it is indeed true, when humanity itself commands
us to risk even these evils to effect a greater good. But though the friend of
mankind may despise the pusillanimity or execrate the hypocrisy of those who
would persuade us to endure the perpetual evils of tyranny rather than expose
ourselves to the temporary hazards of a political convulsion; it does not become
him to give a handle to the eternal enemies of all reforms from the greatest to the
least for accusing him of insensibility to the tremendous evils by which such
convulsions are but too often accompanied. An indifference to those evils is
precisely what those who do not wish to see the people happy are in the constant
habit of charging upon those who do; and it is of the highest importance that the
9Montesquieu,Considerations, p. 3.
l°Sallust, "Bellum Catilinae," p. 12 (VII).
348 Journals and Speeches No. 17
language and conduct of the friends of freedom should be such as to give no colour
to so serious an accusation. Let them acknowledge that the man who like Catiline
produces these evils for his own selfish purposes, and with no intention of
effecting a permanent improvement, is a most atrocious criminal: but let them add
that there is a degree of guilt still more atrocious than his: it is the guilt of those who
by upholding bad institutions when the spirit of the age imperatively calls for
reform, expose their country to the same calamities for purposes equally selfish,
and if the extent of the evil sought to be produced be the test of wickedness, still
more detestably wicked.
Typescript, Fabian Society. Headed: "Speech, the latter part of which was spoken at the
London Debating Society in the Spring of 1826." The only relevant debate listed in the
Laws and Transactions is the eighth, on 7 April, "That the System pursued at our
Universities is adapted to the Ends of Education," proposed and opened by Octavius
Greene;Mill spoke fifth in the negative, which carried the debate 24 to 13. It seems likely
that No. 18 replaced the early part of this speech, with the "latter part" of this speech
(perhaps from 352.9) providing the conclusion. As not published in Mill's lifetime, not
listed in his bibliography.
As for discoveries, everybody knows whether or not it is from the senior wranglers
that they come. I believe in point of fact there is scarcely an instance of a senior
wrangler who has contributed anything worth speaking of to the improvement of
his own science. The men who during the last century have improved the science
of mathematics have been the Eulers, the Lagranges and the Laplaces. From the
time of Newton downwards our mathematical reputation has been declining, and
the few men who have prevented it from sinking into utter contempt have almost
without exception been educated in Scotland.3
It may however be thought that in studying the classics even as they are studied
at our Universities, it is difficult not to imbibe some liberality of sentiment and
some valuable information. So one would think, and if our Universities had not
existed it would probably to this day have remained a problem whether it was
possible for great bodies of young men to study the classics in such a manner as not
to derive one particle of advantage from them. Our Universities however have so
nearly succeeded in this attempt that the possibility of the thing is now placed
beyond the reach of doubt. So far indeed as regards Aristotle's Rhetoric and Ethics
it must be confessed that although nobody is required, or even encouraged, to read
them with any profit, there is nothing to hinder him from doing so if he be so
disposed; and so far as this goes Oxford is one degree above the zero of
Cambridge. Of Plato there are, I suspect, very few persons at either place who
have ever heard: certain it is that he is never read, which as he is a highly instructive
author is not at all surprising. As for the orators, I believe there have been a few
instances of late years at Oxford in which an undergraduate has chosen to be
examined in Demosthenes. Whether or not Cicero is read I am not informed.
Remain the poets and the historians. Of these the poets, being the least useful, are
the most cultivated, and as the dramatists are hardly of any use at all it may easily
be conceived with what ardour they are studied. The historical works, particularly
those of the Greek historians, possessing in themselves some natural aptitude for
being useful, the end would not have been attained if pains had not been taken to
neutralise whatever useful impressions those writings might, if left to themselves,
have been calculated to produce. For this end a happy resource presented itself. An
English antidote to the Greek poison--Mitford's History of Greece4--a work in
which, together with everything that is slavish in principle, everything that is false
in fact with regard to the history of Greece, is unremittingly inculcated; a work the
3Mill presumably has in mind John Playfair (1748-1819), who was educated at St.
Andrews and lectured at Edinburgh; Robert Simson (1687-1768), who was educated and
lectured at Glasgow; Matthew Stewart (1717-85), who was educated at Glasgow and
Edinburghand lectured at the latter; and John West, who was educated and lectured at St.
Andrews. Mill hadstudied works by them in his early years, indeed when he was "a boy of
fourteen."
4WilliamMifford ( 1744-1827), The History of Greece ( 1784-1818), 10vols. (London:
Cadell and Davies, 1818-20).
April 1826 The Universities [1] 353
and Latin: the poetry of these languages was what they chiefly cultivated, and the
reason is given in an admirable passage of a celebrated work, the Lettres Juives. 8
They knew that a man might read the ancient poets all his life and not have one idea
the more, nor the capacity of acquiring one; but the minds which had been
strengthened by the study of the orators and philosophers were likely to push their
enquiries into subjects with which it suited the Jesuits much better that they should
not meddle.
Typescript, Fabian Society. Headed: "Speech on the Universities, spoken in 1826." See
No. 17 for the date and the likely relation between the two texts. As not published in Mill's
lifetime, not listed in his bibliography.
ASl nAVENOT,like some of the gentlemen who preceded me, the advantage of a
practical acquaintance with the system pursued at our Universities, I shall not enter
into those minute details which I do not know, and which perhaps if known would
conduce but little to a correct estimation of the general effect of the system.
Happily this is not one of those questions of which no one but an eye-witness is
qualified to be a judge. The system of our Universities must be very good indeed if
we are obliged to look close in order to find the blemishes; and I will add, it must be
very bad indeed if in defending it against attack its partisans can only say that
certain of its minutiae are as good as could reasonably be expected.
In enquiring whether our Universities are or are not conducive to the ends of
education we are trying them, I must observe, by a very hard test, and perhaps not
altogether a fair one. It is fair to presume that the Universities are supported and
eulogized, and that young men are sent there for some end, and it is possible that
this end may be an extremely good one; and indeed I have no doubt of it as those
institutions are the objects of such unceasing eulogy to loyal and pious persons,
who to be sure can aim at no other than loyal and pious ends. But it is nevertheless
possible that these ends may not be the ends of education after all, and that our
Universities, though they may be something better than places of education, may
not be places of education. But whether they are places of education or no, they are
at any rate places where something is taught, or professed to be taught; and some,
thoughI believe but a small proportion of the young men who are annually sent
there, are sent in order that they may learn, or seem to learn. In common parlance,
to have received a good education means to have been at one or other University. If
to have been at the University be the end of education there is no doubt but that by
going to the University that end may be most effectually attained. It is probable
however that in the sense attached to the word education by the opener of this
question,_ a young man would not be considered to have received a good education
unless he had learned something though it were but to leap a five-barred gate. The
question is, therefore, whether those who go to our Universities learn anything,
and what they learn.
The only things which our Universities profess to teach are divinity, classics and
mathematics. I lay this down broadly without fear of contradiction. The
honourable opener has given us, it is true, a long list of lectures: he should rather
have said lectureships. Lectureships there unquestionably are; lectures in many
cases there are not: but suppose there were, what then, since nobody is obliged to
attend them, obliged nor even encouraged, since if a man knew everything which
these lectures or any other lectures in the world could teach him they would not
give him so much as a Junior Optime 2 nor even bring him the tenth part of a step
nearer to the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The lectures then may be divided into two
classes, lectures delivered and lectures not delivered. Those which are not
delivered of course are not attended: those which are delivered anybody may
attend if he choose, nobody unless he choose: that is to say, he can find instruction
if he wants it, which is exactly what he could do anywhere else, with this
difference, that in London or any other considerable place he would probably find
much better lecturers and much better lectures.
Divinity, classics and mathematics may therefore be considered to be the
substance of University education, as they are certainly the only studies that are
either exacted or encouraged. Of these three I shall confine myself to the two last.
The theological branch I do not propose to meddle with. It is sufficient for me that
it has the approbation of the Church of England which is the only proper judge in
these matters, and which must be presumed infallible, at least in its own sphere.
The system moreover of theological instruction at our Universities is all bottomed
upon the Thirty-nine Articles, 3 a subject on which I should be extremely sorry to
observe any scepticism, as I am informed that society would be in danger of
dissolution if there were only thirty-eight, or if any one of the thirty-nine were
altered from what it now is. Theology, however, is only for the clergy; at least it is
only the clergy who are expected to study it. The remainder of the young men who
tOctavius Greene, not otherwise identified, though possibly the author of The Pass of
Bonholmeand Other Verses (London: printed Cox, 1831).
third degree of honour in the Mathematical Tripos at Cambridge, after the
W_a_lers and SeniorOptimes.
articles of faith of the Churchof England, foundin the Book of Common Prayer.
356 Journals and Speeches No. 18
receive what is called their education at Oxford or Cambridge, that is to say the
future lawyers, physicians, surgeons, merchants, engineers, army and navy
officers, and idlers, are fitted for their several occupations by the study of Greek,
Latin and mathematics. It has been found out after some centuries that medicine,
law, commerce, are not to be learned either in Euclid or Euripides, and that
anybody who has anything to do, if he wants to learn how to do it, must begin his
apprenticeship after he leaves college. There are therefore only two pleas set up for
our University education; one is that however ill-calculated to be of use to those
who have anything to do, it is extremely well-adapted to the wants of those who
have not, and who are therefore called the higher classes. The other is that although
it does not give to professional men the sort of knowledge which is peculiarly
4"equisitefor their several professions, it gives them a sort of knowledge which is of
great use in forming their understandings, in purifying their taste and qualifying
them to acquire any knowledge and pursue any studies with success.
In this last proposition I so far agree as to think that a certain knowledge of the
Greek and Latin languages and of mathematics forms an important part of a liberal
education i but not, in my opinion, the most important part; and I also maintain that
the culture of these branches of knowledge, if exclusive and if carried to the length
to which they are carried at our Universities, has a tendency much rather to pervert
the underst_tnding than to improve it.
I will begin with mathematics, and allowing that Euclid's Elements, with
something of algebra and enough of the properties of curve lines to understand the
more common of their practical applications, should form part of every good
education. I think it will be allowed that here is no more than may be acquired by
any boy of ordinary capacity by the age of fourteen. If we suppose, as we
reasonably may, that his time has been profitably spent up to that age, the question
is whether a young man who is to pursue any profession, or even a young man of no
profession who does not mean to devote his life to the cultivation of the
mathematical sciences, can derive any advantage from pushing these studies
farther commensurate to the labour that it will cost. Practical utility the higher
branches of mathematics have none, unless in so far as they may lead to new
discoveries in physical science, and these are made by the philosopher who
devotes his life to such pursuits, not by the man who learns mathematics as a
branch of general education.
We are told, indeed very frequently, that mathematics teach men to reason; and
truly they do, but it is to reason on mathematics and nothing more. The truth is that
mathematical evidence and moral evidence are so entirely distinct from one
another that they are to be judged of by rules altogether different, and the man who
is most familiar with the one may be a mere child in the other. Nor is this less the
case with physical science. Both in the moral sciences and in the physical errors
arise from two causes, incorrect observation and ambiguities of language. To
neither of these errors is the mathematician less liable than the common man. He
April 1826 The Universities [2] 357
has not learned to observe, for his science is not a science of observation. He has
not acquired the faculty of detecting ambiguities of language since all his terms
being exactly defined that faculty has never been called into exercise. It is not
however his only disadvantage that his mathematics have not been to him a logic,
that sort of logic which is of use in common affairs. He is not simply on a level with
the ordinary man, he is below him. When he might have been acquiring the
knowledge that he needs he has been acquiring that which he needs not. That time
and labour which might have made him a reasoner have been spent in making him a
mathematician, and while he has been studying x's and y's, others have been
studying names and things; they have been learning to observe by observing and to
reason well by examining bad reasons as well as good. When it is said, however,
that the young men either at Cambridge or elsewhere learn to reason by learning
mathematics we are to understand, I suppose, that this is when mathematics are so
learned as to bring the reasoning faculty into play. Now this is certainly not the
case at Cambridge. It is universally known that the mathematical attainments to
which the honours of that University, from the senior wranglership downwards,
are directed, are very little more than exercises of memory. One man laboriously
gets up the demonstrations and calculations which another has invented, and when
he has done this his attainments stop. His greatest stretch of intellect is to be
dexterous in the application of certain technical rules. He can do the same process
over and over with fresh materials; so can a journeyman carpenter; and in repeating
in problem after problem the same series of operations he need know no more of
the general principles of his science than the journeyman carpenter need know of
his. A man utterly ignorant of mathematics would be as likely to make a new
discovery in that science as a senior wrangler who is but a senior wrangler: and I
believe in point of fact there is scarcely an instance of a senior wrangler who has
contributed anything worth speaking of to the improvement of his own science.
The men who during the last century have improved mathematics have been the
Euler's, the Lagrange's and the Laplace's. In our own country the few men who
have raised us to the little position of mathematical fame which we enjoy have,
since the time of Newton, almost without exception been educated in Scotland. 4
But after all, if the utility of the higher branches of mathematics as a branch of
education, and the excellence of the mode in which they are taught at Cambridge
were ever so unquestionable, how much of mathematics is really learned at that
University, learned I do not mean by the few who take honours, but by the many
who take their degree of B.A. and their degree of A.M. and go forth to the world
stamped with the mark of Alma Mater's approbation as men who have learned all
which she thinks it necessary that a well-educated man should know? I put the
question plainly; do the majority of these men know anything of mathematics
beyond what they can cram in the last month or six weeks of the three and a quarter
MSS, University of Hull Library, JK 318 M6 (main part), and University of Toronto
Library (conclusion). The Hull MS is headed in Mill's hand: "speech never spoken on the
British Constitution";the Toronto MS has upside down afterthe conclusion, in Mill's hand:
"Perorationwrittenfor a speech on radical reform." Typescript, Fabian Society, ofthe Hull
MS. The two MSS connect in mid-sentence at 369.32. The speech would appear to have
been prepared for the tenth debate at the London Debating Society, on 5 May, 1826, "That
the practical Constitution of Great Britain is adequate to all the Purposes of good
Government," proposed by J.H. Lloyd and opened by William O'Brien. The debate was
adjourned till the next meeting, at which Mill delivered a revised version (see No. 20).
Mill's references to the remarks of the opening speaker and to other speeches indicate that
this unspokenspeech was alsoprepared for the adjourned debate. As not published in Mill's
lifetime, not listed in his bibliography.
1Notidentified.
2john Horatio Lloyd (1798-1884), a friend of Mill and of Henry Cole.
3WilliamO'Brien, not otherwise identified.
May 1826 The British Constitution [I] 359
4Not identified.
_ARadical catchphrase, probably deriving from William Godwin (1756-1836), Things
As TheyAre; or, The Adventures of Caleb Williams (1794).
6Seethe opening of No. 14 above.
7Forthe term, see No. 5, n7.
8HenryGeorge Grey (1802-94), Lord Howick (later 3rd Earl Grey) was a candidate for
Winchelsea (which he represented 1826-30); these views are found in the report of his
Slaeeehof 11 April in "Newcastle Dinner to Lord Howick," Examiner, 23 Apr., 1826,
p. 258.
360 Journals and Speeches No. 19
no sinister interest: and the only persons who have no sinister interest are the
people. Dependance upon the people, therefore, is the only security. Let the House
of Commons be dependant upon the people, and I am satisfied.
If I be asked, whether with such a House of Commons there would be a king, I
answer that I neither know nor care. The difference between the words King and
President, or between a hereditary fLrStmagistrate and an elective one is hardly
worth disputing about. I do not think the quantity of power which the king now
possesses, as king, sufficiently great to be any obstacle to good government: and as
for the expense, I have little doubt that a competent person might be found to
perform all the duties of king for so very moderate a remuneration, that to an
otherwise cheap government it would be hardly worth saving. Or if any difficulty
,were felt in the matter, Mr. Maelzel has an automaton, 9 which I make no doubt he
might be induced to part with at a reasonable price, which might hold levees and
drawing rooms for the benefit of trade, and execute either in person or by
commission all the other functions of sovereignty.
I shall now examine the principal arguments which have been urged by the
supporters of our practical Constitution in this Society. They may be distinguished
into two classes; those which are relevant and those which are irrelevant: in other
words, those which have something, though but little to do with the question, and
those which have nothing to do with it at all. The former are drawn from the actual
composition of the House of Commons and I will enumerate them presently. The
latter belong to that class of arguments which would apply with as much propriety
to any other measure, as to parliamentary reform. And these I shall begin with. I
omit those arguments which seem to have a more immediate reference to persons
than to things, such as the accusation of being enemies to institutions, of being
theorists, and so on, and I shall merely touch upon the assertion that we have
flourished and are flourishing under the Constitution and in short that we are well
as we are.
Now as to former times, I cannot pretend to speak. I do not know whether our
grandfathers were well as they were, or what sort of persons those may have been
who flourished under our Constitution a hundred years ago. But I know very well
what sort of persons flourish under it now. The ministers flourish--they have
plenty of money, patronage, and power. The country gentlemen also flourish:
since they have not only plenty of money of their own, but a considerable quantity
of thatof other people, which they have contrived to appropriate to themselves, as
the legislators of the country, by means of the Corn Laws. Nor have I any objection
to concede to the honourable opener thatthe higher ranks of lawyers and clergy are
well as they are, since fees continue to flow in and tithes to be paid as usual: and as
for the lower ranks, the vulgar herd of both professions, they hope to be well,
which is nearly the same thing as if they were well. It cannot be denied therefore
that some of us have flourished, whatever may be said of the rest. But I would
suggest that there are perhaps some others who may have claims on our attention,
and that among these it is just possible there may be some who are not quite so
well. The tax-payers for instance do not always see the blessings of taxation in so
clear a light as the receivers, and the 5 or 6000£ which are wrung from the poverty
stricken million to pay some noble lord for doing nothing who is not fit for doing
any thing, may be less pleasant in the giving than it is in the receiving, l0 It may be,
too, that the old man who has pined in poverty all his days while the vultures of the
Court of Chancery have been preying upon the estate which his father inherited
when an infant, might wish that the country were a little less prosperous and that he
had bread to eat: and he who has been ruined by a lawsuit which he has gained with
costs may wish his money out of the pockets of the Lord Chancellor and his imps.
The peasant too, who has been torn from his family and sent to herd with felons in a
gaol, for breaking a twig of the value of two pence, or treading on a partridge's
egg,l i may peradventure be less satisfied than his game eating persecutor with the
order of things under which the latter tenders his services gratis to imprison the
former. When England, Sir, is called a free country, a slight mistake is made of a
part for the whole: we are free as Sparta was free: the Helots are overlooked.
If, Sir, I could overlook the whole of our peasantry, and all who are unhappy
enough to need any service at the hands of what are denominated courts of justice, I
might admit that we are on the whole subject to less oppression than any other
nation in Europe. But that this is owing to the nature of our Constitution is not only
a theory, but, I will take leave to say, a theory which has not been proved.
This may serve to shew what gentlemen mean, when they condemn theory.
Every general principle which they do not like they call a theory: and when they
have called it a theory, we, it is to be understood, are to reject it without
examination. Now the sort of theories which I condemn are those which are
founded upon an insufficient number of facts. I condemn the person who, on a
subject that supposes a knowledge of 100 facts, should generalize on ten or twelve.
I condemn still more the person who generalizes on five or six: and the theorists
who generalize on four, three, or two facts respectively, must be considered to be
characterized by the positive, comparative, and superlative degrees of imbecillity.
But what shall we say of him who generalizes on onemwho takes a single instance
for the foundation of a theory? who on a single coincidence grounds a general rule?
Surely he is the king of theorizers. Surely if any body is a visionary speculatist, he
is. That man is the honourable opener.
This country has a peculiar Constitution, it has also a great many other peculiar
m°Cf.Acts, 20:35.
HCf.No. 6, n27.
362 Journals and Speeches No. 19
things. This country has prospered in a peculiar manner, ergo, its prosperity is
owing to its Constitution, and to nothing else. Is this theorizing? Is the honourable
gentleman a theorist? Or is that appellation to be confmed to those who theorize on
evidence, reserving the praise of practical wisdom for him who theorizes without
evidence?
I too have a theory, and it is this: that the commercial prosperity of London is
owing to the Monument by which it is overlooked. As no powerful person has any
interest in upholding this theory, it will I doubt not be called a theory. Of the two
theories, however, this is considerably the more plausible: for if the Monument has
not done much good I do not think that it has done any harm, nor is it at all probable
that our commercial prosperity would have been greater, if the Monument had
, been built in a different shape, or of different materials. But there are persons who
think that with a Constitution of different shape and of different materials, we
should have been more prosperous.
I do not however charge the honourable gentleman merely with theorizing on
insufficient evidence, but with overlooking part of the evidence which exists.
Though our specific experience of the British Constitution is confined to a small
portion of the globe, it is not altogether so scanty as the honourable gentleman
would seem to make it; and although for reasons best known to himself, he has
thought proper to theorize upon one fact, the circumstances of the case happily
afforded two. Of the British isles, the only part of the empire which can be said to
be under the British Constitution; of these isles, though Great Britain is one,
Ireland, let me inform the honourable gentleman is another. It has sometimes been
disputed whether the evils of anarchy or those of despotism be the worst: but I
never heard it disputed that the two together are a greater evil than either of them
singly: From one half to the whole of Ireland has been suffering under the two
together, ever since it was admitted to the blessings of the British Constitution. 12
With all that insecurity of person and property which had been supposed peculiar
to a state of anarchy, is combined a degree of arbitrary power in the functionaries
of government which has scarcely been exceeded under the most absolute
monarchy. Yet Ireland is in full enjoyment of our excellent Constitution, and not
only of that but of an excellent system of law, enforced by an excellent unpaid
magistracy, all combined to uphold an excellent established Protestant reformed
church, _3 and an excellent landed aristocracy. I wonder why, having so many
excellent things in common with us, she should not be equally flourishing?
Perhaps it is because we have a better people: a more civilized, a more instructed,
and a more moral people; or perhaps it is to the greater awe which this people
inspires, that we are to look for the cause of our comparative exemption from gross
12Mill'sironic references cover centuries of English rule over Ireland, buttechnically the
BritishConstitution could be said to have included Ireland since the Act of Union, 39 & 40
George IIL c. 67 (1800).
_3Forthe statutes, see No. 5, n5.
May 1826 The British Constitution [1] 363
misgovernment. But if you wish to see the British Constitution in its unadulterated
state, read the Evidence before the Irish Committees, and see how Ireland is
governed. 14
It sometimes happens, Sir, that nobody cries stop thief, stop thief, louder than
the thief himself. It will now perhaps be admitted that the theorist himself was the
first and loudest to cry stop theory, stop theory.
I will do the honourable gentlemen opposite the justice to admit that they have
not confined themselves to such trashy arguments as this. They have advanced
others and much more plausible ones. But they have not stated them very distinctly
or explicitly or in a manner which indicated much confidence in them. They have
mixed up their propositions with their proofs, and one of their propositions with
another, and have skipped backwards and forwards from one part of the subject to
another without dwelling long enough upon any one to give us time to scrutinize it
accurately. As my object is not to confound them but to go to the bottom of the
question, I will do for the honourable gentlemen what they have failed to do for
themselves. I will attempt to separate their different arguments from one another,
and state them, fairly and distinctly one by one. It will then appear that their cause
is not so desperate as one would be led to suppose from their manner of defending
it: and the honourable opener may learn that even when he is in the wrong, a little
logic will do him no harm.
It is alleged, then, first, that if the right men get into the House of Commons, it is
of very little consequence how they come there: and that the right men do get into
the House of Commons, since it would be difficult to shew how a body of men
could be composed which should comprise a greater quantity of talent and
education. This is the first argument.
The second is, that to form a representative assembly, it is not necessary that the
representatives should be chosen upon any uniform plan: it is sufficient if every
interest has its representatives in the house: the landed interest, the mercantile
interest, the army, the navy, professional men, and so on. The great body of the
people, it is said, should have its representatives also, but these need not amount to
more than a small portion of the whole. It is contended that this state of things is
realized in our practical Constitution, and it is added that there is not a shade of
opinion, not a variety of political sentiment, which does not find advocates in the
House of Commons, which is quite sufficient for the ends of good government.
This is by far the most plausible argument which they have urged.
The third argument, and the last which I shall notice, is this: that our government
is a government of mutual check: that the people appoint some members of
parliament, the king and aristocracy others: that the people by means of the
members whom they elect, have just as much power as they ought to have, that is,
enough to keep the king and the aristocracy in check, while the king and
aristocracy have also power enough to keep the people in check, and prevent the
country from being brought to ruin, as it infallibly would be if the people had the
full control of the government. And hereupon we were entertained with a
multitude of accusations against the people, none of them it is true very specific,
which I shall for the present represent by the monosyllables fools and knaves, as
being the only words comprehensive enough to include them all.
There are the three arguments. There was a fourth, which is hardly worth
noticing: I mean, the division of the House of Commons into two parties, which
was treated as a conclusive proof that the supposed conspiracy against the people
did not exist. Surely nobody can be deluded by this appearance. It is nothing new
' that two dogs should fight, they always do wherever there is a bone. Even a band of
robbers always splits into parties, except when they are under the iron yoke of a
single leader: and I had an opportunity of shewing on a former occasion t5 that the
aristocracy has divided itself under the action of the same interests which divide
the robbers and the dogs. They too have a bone to pick: they too have booty to
divide: and the quarrel is to settle who shall have the picking of the bone, the
largest share of the spoil, and the division of the rest.
Without wasting more time on this argument, I will attempt to answer the three
others, as shortly as possible, for I have much to say.
We are told that there is talent and education in the House of Commons. And of
what use to the people are talent and education which are sure to be directed against
them? It is not customary for a player at cards to congratulate himself upon the
trump card in his adversary's hand. A man of talent in parliament is a trump card in
your adversary's hand, and your adversary is the borough holder, or if such be the
case, the county aristocracy, whose nominee he is, and whose game he is put there
to play. Talent, indeed, in such a situation there will be plenty: but what sort of
talent? Not that of taking an enlarged and comprehensive view of the bearing of
public measures upon the happiness of the bulk of his countrymen, for the bulk
of his countrymen are nothing to him, nor to his master the parliament maker: he
is not sent there to serve them and were he to serve them he would be sent there
no more. Occasionally, indeed, this sort of talent is accidentally met with in
the House of Commons and how is it treated? It is called theory--
abstraction--metaphysicswand the other cant words by which the many who do
not think are in the habit of expressing their contempt for the few who do. The
talent which abounds in the House of Commons is the talent of the advocate--the
talent of making out a case--of misstating a question, of making little things
appear great ones, and a part of the subject appear to be the whole, of taking the
greatest possible advantage of the oversights of an unskilful opponent, of battering
down with a tremendous logical artillery some inconsiderable outwork of his
tSSeeNo. 14.
May 1826 The British Constitution [1] 365
argument, and persuading your audience that you have driven him from the
stronghold. All the branches, in short, of the much cultivated and richly rewarded
art of misrepresentation, are carried to the highest pitch of perfection in the House
of Commons. And this, with the art of rounding a sentence and balancing a period,
of confounding your adversary by irony and sarcasm, of disguising the flaw in an
argument with the varnish of rhetoric, and dressing out assumptions in the tinsel
and frippery of the harlot eloquence, till the gaudiness without conceals the
rottenness within--this constitutes the sort of talent in which I am ready to admit
the House of Commons abounds. As for education, truth constrains me to admit
that most of the members have been taught, some time in their lives, to make
nonsense verses, though it must be said for their credit that they are in general wise
enough to forget that sublime art before they take their seats.
The second argument, about the representation of interests, comes next to be
considered.
That the House of Commons represents all interests, is in one sense true: but as it
is not true in the sense in which it is meant to be understood, whenever this
argument is used an imposture is practised by the common instrument of
imposture, an ambiguous term.
They tell us and truly that interests are represented, but they do not tell us, which
interests. Every man and every set of men have two sets of interests which are not
only different but incompatible: one interest which is common to them with the rest
of the community, the other which is not only not the same with the general interest
but opposed to it. An example may make this clear. A sinecurist, being a payer of
taxes, has an interest that the taxes should be no greater than the real purposes of
good government require, and thus far his interest corresponds with the general
interest. But inasmuch as a necessary condition of this state of things would be the
abolition of his sinecure, he has also a separate interest, opposed to the general
interest. A country gentleman, as a consumer of bread, has an interest in cheap
corn, but as a receiver of rent, he has an interest in dear corn, thus he too has his
separate interest and his share of the general interest. A lawyer, again in common
with the rest of the community, is liable to be under the necessity of seeking redress
at the hands of a court of justice, and he has therefore an interest, in common with
the rest of the community, in having a cheap and expeditious form of judicial
procedure. But in as much as such a form of procedure, if introduced, would dry up
most of the sources from whence lawyers' profit is drawn, he has also a separate
and sinister interest which impels him to resist any such innovation to the utmost of
his power.
Now the assertion that the House of Commons represents interests, is true in this
sense, that it represents the separate and sinister interests of an immense number of
classes: so much so indeed that there is hardly ever a job proposed for the benefit of
any set of persons at the expense of the community which does not find in that
assembly a large number of supporters. Sir, this is precisely what the reformers
366 Journals and Speeches No. 19
acknowledge and complain of. According to their notions, the House of Commons
ought to represent only one interest--the general interest--the joint interest of all
classes, not the separate interests of any.
As for the assertion that every shade of opinion finds an able advocate in the
House of Commons, this would be very well if the House of Commons were a
debating Society; I should be sorry if this Society were constituted as I think a
legislative assembly should be. No doubt, if every member consulted the public
interest exclusively, the debates would be much duller than they now are, and
many shades of opinion which now fred many advocates, might possibly not find
one. But the House of Commons is something more than an arena for discussion: it
is a legislative assembly: and it is amusing to be told that such an assembly is well
. constituted because there is no measure so bad as not to find somebody to support
it, as if security for their distinguishing the good from the bad, and adopting the
good, were nothing; it is plain that it is every thing. If the best measures were
always adopted, we need not care if there were nobody to advocate the bad ones.
The best measures, we know, cannot from the nature of man, be always adopted;
but they will at any rate stand a better chance of being adopted, by persons who
have no sinister interest, than by persons who have: and it is on this ground that I
place the question of parliamentary reform.
This brings me to the third argument of the defenders of our practical
Constitution, the necessity of a check upon the people, who are supposed to be
unfit to have a control over their own affairs. And because persons who have an
interest in good government are apt nevertheless to govern ill, the remedy is to give
power to persons who are interested in bad. The remedy, Sir, appears worse than
the disease. The many can act wrong only from mistake--they cannot act wrong
from design, because they have no sinister interest. The few have a sinister
interest, and therefore act wrong from design. The idea of checking the many who
may go wrong by giving power to the few who must go wrong, is a curious idea.
The absurdity of supposing that the few can have power enough to check the many
in doing wrong, without having enough to check them in doing right, is what I have
not time fully to expose. It is evident however that if the few nominate part of the
House of Commons and the many another part, the practical question is merely
this, which part is the most numerous: for whoever commands the majority
commands the government, and will exercise it for his own benefit as far as his
fears of a popular insurrection will let him. Who it is that commands the majority,
let the divisions on the Corn Laws tell. _6
From the length to which my remarks have already extended, I have left myself
but little time to comment on the assumptions which have been made against the
people, and popular governments: yet assumptions of this nature are so much the
16PD,n.s., Vol. 15,cols. 370-1 ( 18 Apr., 1826), and col. 1004 (8 May, 1826), record
the victories of the landed interest. For more detail, see No. 20, n18.
May 1826 The British Constitution [1] 367
ordinary weapons of the enemies of reform, that I cannot leave them altogether
without reply. In the language of the corruptionists, one always hears the many,
who have an interest in good government, represented as the enemies of good
government, and the only persons who are spoken of as its friends are the few, who
have an interest against it. There is a pretty large class of persons, who are always
fearing evil to the many from the many, never from the few. We are always ready
to believe what we fear, and if a man can but frighten us sufficiently, we are not
nice about his proofs. This is a great advantage to an orator. It is very convenient to
be believed upon our bare word. One of the advantages of being believed upon our
word is, that we are not compelled to be prolix. Assertion without proof, takes up
little time: misrepresentation is always beautifully brief. There are sentences in the
speech of the honourable opener each containing half a dozen assumptions, each of
which it would require a long train of reasoning or detail of facts to refute.
Thus when he talks of Athens or Rome, it would require a volume to prove that
the Athenian government was the best government of its time: yet the fact was so.
If honourable gentlemen who have such a horror of the Athenian democracy would
take the trouble to read its history, not in Mitford, but in the authors whom Mitford
quotes, 17 they will find that of all the governments of antiquity that in which
person and property were most secure was the Athenian democracy. Yet after all,
if the Athenian democracy had been ever so bad, what would it prove? Merely that
the people are not fit to act as a deliberative body, and manage the details of
government with their own hands. But nobody says they are fit for any such
purpose: it is only asserted that they are fit to chuse their governors not that they are
fit to govern. Yet surely if so ill constituted a popular government--a government
in which the people exercised a function for which it is on all hands acknowledged
that they are radically unfit--was yet, as it unquestionably was, the best
government of its time, the fact speaks volumes in favour of a well constituted
popular government. And so we shall find it in every age. Every thing that there
has been of good in any government has arisen from the share which the people
have had in it. In every stage of society the governments in which the people have
had most power have been the best governments which that stage of society has
afforded. The Grecian and Roman governments are cases in point. As soon as the
people ceased to have power the Grecian and Roman governments became the
vilest governments in the world. The Italian republics, and the free cities in
Germany, are an instance in one age; the United Provinces of Holland in another
age. Our own government is an instance: it has become better and better just in
proportion as the power of public opinion over it has become greater.
If those who are so much afraid of the people would tell us exactly what it is they
are afraid of, we should perhaps know how to meet their fears. Are they afraid that
the people would destroy property? then let them point out one instance, one single
instance in which the people have shewn hostility to the general laws of property.
Even amidst the excesses of the French revolution, with the exception of the
property of the emigr6s, no private property was touched. Do they say that the
people are turbulent, and fond of change? when if there is a single fact to which
history, and not history only but every day's experience, bears uniform testimony,
it is the rooted aversion of the people to change, and attachment to every thing that
they have been accustomed to from their infancy. Robertson speaks of abhorrence
of innovation and attachment to ancient forms, as strikingly characteristic of
popular assemblies, is Every Athenian orator whose speeches are preserved, 19laid
particular stress in addressing the people upon the wisdom of their ancestors, 20and
, the infinite superiority of every thing ancient, and particularly of ancient laws and
institutions, topics insisted upon with an earnestness and frequency which leave no
doubt that with the bulk of the people they were as popular as ever Lord Eldon
could have desired. 21 What is there to oppose to this mass of experience? The
excesses of the Parisian mob, in the crisis of a revolution and the bloody irregular
proceedings of the terrified Convention, when the knife was at their throats.
I do not find that those who think the people so bad act as if they had much desire
to make them better. I do not find that they exert themselves very much to inform
the people. We do not often find them establishing schools and colleges and
circulating cheap and useful publications among the mass of the people. Sir, it is
these things which are the test of sincerity. A man may doubtless be sincere in
thinking the people, as yet, unfit to manage their own affairs, and may resist
parliamentary reform from this motive. But if he be not foremost in every
undertaking the object of which is to make them fit, he has some other motive for
his resistance than the pure love of good government. Now everybody knows, that
those from whom these accusations against the people chiefly proceed are the same
who have opposed, and do oppose with an inveteracy and fury which has scarcely
ever been paralleled, every thing that has ever been proposed for making the
lsWilliam Rohertson (1721-93), The History of the Reign of the Emperor Charles V
(1769), in Works, 6 vols. (London: Longman, et al., 1851), Vol. III, p. 379.
19See,e.g., Isocrates (436-338 B.C.), ToDemonicus, in lsocrates (Greek and English),
trans.GeorgeNorlin, 3 vols. (London: Heinemann;Cambridge,Mass.: HarvardUniversity
Press, 1928), Vol. I, pp. 4-35; Aeschiues (ca. 390-338 B.C. ), Against Timarchus, in The
Speeches of Aeschines (Greek and English), trans. Charles Darwin Adams (London:
Heinemann; New York: Putnam's Sons, 1919), pp. 8-9; and Demosthenes, De falsa
legatione, inDe corona andDefalsa legatione (Greek and English), trans.C.A. and J.H.
Vince (London: Heinemann; New York: Putnam's Sons, 1926), pp. 420-6.
Z°Forthisterm, see No. 4, n3.
2tJohnScott ( 1751-1838), 1st EarlEldon, Lord Chancellor1807-27 and leaderof the
Ultra-Tories,frequently dwelt on the popularity of following tradition: see, e.g., his
speechesof 5 and 17May, 1825, and 7Mar., 1826,PD, n.s., Vol. 13,cols. 373-4 and 765,
andVol. 14, cols. 1156-7.
May 1826 The British Constitution [1] 369
people fit to manage their own affairs: and whose avowed object is to keep the
people in a state of intellect not superior to that of the beasts, on the express ground
that if allowed to attain any higher degree of intellect it would be impossible to
prevent them from being dissatisfied with existing institutions. They are to have
bad institutions because they are unfit for good; and they are to be kept unfit lest
they should desire better. One may fairly say, therefore, that if the people were not
unfit, those who complain of their unfitness would have taken much trouble to
little purpose.
For my part, I do not pretend to say, that those who profess to think the people
incapable really think the contrary. But one cannot help picking up a few
observations: and I observe that my Lord, though he is extremely ready to ease the
public from the management of the public estate, yet when it comes to the
management of his own, he invariably selects one of the people to manage it for
him. Of course this is not because he considers such a person more competent than
himself to the task, but because not being able to divide himself into two halves,
and to serve the public and himself at the same time, he generously offers himself
up a sacrifice to the public weal, and lets his private affairs go to ruin rather than
confide the helm of the state, to hands less trustworthy than his own. I observe
too--I do but throw it out as a casual remark--that although they always speak
their real sentiments, those sentiments somehow always conform themselves to
their interest. They can flatter as well as rail, when they have a point to gain.
Twenty or thirty ragamuffins from the lowest ranks of the people, are the worthy,
patriotic, and independent electors of a rotten burgh. When the high and the low,
the rich and the poor, the intelligent and the stupid, are spoken of collectively, then
it is that no expression of contempt is too strong.
Sir, it has been so much the practice of the powerful in all ages, to carry out the
proverb, Give a dog a bad name and hang him, to begin by defaming those whom
they seek to oppress; and the powerful have till lately been so exclusively in
possession of all the organs of public sentiment, that a general opinion against the
people, got up by such means, is very poor evidence against them. There is a
passage in Machiavel, so much to the purpose, and so concisely and forcibly
expressed, that I will even hazard the ridicule 22 of quoting it in the original:
"L'opinione contra al Popoli nasce, perch_ de' Popoli ciascun dice male senza
paura, 6 liberamente ancora mentre che regnano.'23 The opinion against the
people arises from this cause, that of the people every one may speak ill without
danger, even where the people reign. Most true it is that where the people reign,
they have never curtailed the liberty of speaking ill of themselves. At Athens
Aristophanes was permitted to hold up the collective body of the people, in the
character of Demos, to the most poignant ridicule on the stage, and with
impunity. 24 In this country there are gagging bills, z5 and penalties enough for
those who speak ill of the aristocracy, and places and pensions enough for those
who speak ill of the people. While railing against the people is rewarded as it is,
there will always be railers enough: but we must look not to what these railers
assert, but to what they prove, and by that standard we must try not only their aims
but themselves. To calumniate an individual, to cast imputations upon his
character, unsupported by evidence, for the purpose of taking away his liberty, is a
baseness which is in general estimated as it deserves. Every one is sensible of the
injustice of condemning an individual without proof. And is there no injustice in
condemning the great body of the people without proof?. Is there no baseness in
, calumniating them, in casting imputations upon their character, unsupported by
evidence, for the purpose of taking away their liberty? I leave it to honourable
gentlemen on the other side, to 26 find an answer to this question as they can.
1have now said, not all that I have to say, but all that I have time for: and I know
not how to excuse myself to the Society for the great portion of their time which I
have taken up. I am grateful, Sir, for the patience with which they have heard me:
the more so as I have spoken of persons and things in a manner which many of them
are but little accustomed to, and which I cannot expect that all of them will
approve. The occasion however was not of my seeking: we know from which party
the question came: and when it did come, I thought it best to appear what I am,
straightforward and uncompromising. It would have been easy for me no doubt, if
I had been so minded, to have done better for myself, though I might have done
worse for my cause. It would have been easy for me to have dealt in compromise,
and trimming, and equivocation, to have talked a little on one side of the question,
and then a little on the other. I might have conceded a point on this side and a point
on that; I might have given up half of every important truth; I might have made one
nice distinction after another, and offered to barter the whole inheritance of good
government for a little more of the forms. I might have frittered and refined away
every thing in parliamentary reform that is disagreeable to the ruling few, and have
made an attack upon the Constitution which should almost have been taken for an
apology. I might thus have had the satisfaction (if a satisfaction it could be deemed
when thus purchased) of hearing every tongue sound the praises of my moderation
and my candour: and I might have been pardoned even the odiousness of my
opinions in favour of the lukewarmness with which I had defended them. But
playing fast and loose with opinions is not to my taste; and it is an ill compliment to
any one who professes to serve the people, to be praised by those who if he had
served them effectually would have heaped curses on his name. If those who profit
by abuses are sometimes willing to gain the spurious credit of an easy liberality by
applauding those who have no objection to the existence of misgovernment but
find fault with the colour of its cloak, they know their own interest too well to
regard those who wage war against the monster misgovernment itself with any
feeling but that of the most deadly hatred: but I had rather be in the latter class even
at this price, than in the former.
I might, too, have followed the example of the honourable opener, and been the
indiscriminate and unblushing eulogist of things as they are. I should not have
despaired of acquitting myself tolerably well: to succeed in this line, transcendent
talents are not necessary. It only requires a tolerable command over the two great
instruments, assumption and abuse. Practice renders men singularly perfect in
these things, and after a twelvemonth's tuition under the honourable gentleman, I
have little doubt that I should even have rivalled my master. But I leave these
weapons to those who like them, or to those who can hope to be paid for them. I at
least shall be acquitted of having any thing to gain by my opinions: unquestionably
they are not the road either to preferment or to popularity. If we except men of
knowledge and intellect, who are never numerous, these opinions are no favourites
with any class except the lower; and to gain their favour would require habits and
pursuits very different from mine. The reward I look to, and it is no small one, is of
another kind--a kind which the honourable opener and his fellow labourers in the
same vineyard will never know: it is the consciousness that these opinions are daily
gaining ground; and that the time is approaching, though we who are now living
may not see it, when every intelligent and disinterested Englishman shall be a
radical reformer.
MS, Mill-TaylorCollection, II/1/6 (In'st part); typescripts, Fabian Society (three parts).
The MS and typescript of the first part are not headed; the typescript of the second part is
headed:"[A fragmentof one page]"; thatof the Finalpart is headed: "Speech on the British
Constitution/ containing an apologue against the class representation/ spoken in 1826."
Edited by Harold J. Laski: the first part is in his edition of Mill's Autobiography. pp.
275-87, entitled, "Speech on the British Constitution"; the third, with the same fl0e, in
Archiv.f_rSozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, LXII (1929), 460-6. This speech is a re-
vised versionof No. 19, both having evidently been prepared for the second session on 19
May, 1826, of the debate that began on 5 May, "That the practical Constitution of Great
Britainis adequate to all the Purposes of good Government." The text of No. 19, which
372 Journals and Speeches No. 20
containspassages parallelingall parts of No. 20, justifies, with the continuity of argument,
linking the three parts of the latter, which are joined at 380.2 and 380.21. The first version
(No. 19) was evidently not used, but this, the second, was delivered by Mill as the fourth
speakerin the negative; the vote was 9 to 9. Because the manuscript of the third part has not
been located,the typescriptand printedversions have been collated;so too has the portion
of the speech reprintedin Mill's "Rationaleof Representation,"London Review, I (July
1835), 29n-30n (CW, Vol. XVIII, pp. 44n-5n). As not published in Mill's lifetime, not
listedin his bibliography.
this word country, they always mean the aristocracy. Whenever they talk of the
prosperity of the country, it is the prosperity of the aristocracy that is meant. When
they say country read aristocracy, and you will never be far from the truth. They
tell you that the Constitution has worked well: you ask them particulars, and they
answer that it has brought us a great deal of money and a great deal of glory: So
much the better for those who have got it, I am sure we have got none: They may
talk as they please about our being the richest nation in the world. The richest
nation, in one sense of the word, we certainly are, but then it is like Mr. Alexander
Baring and me: between us, we certainly have a very handsome fortune. But what
illustrates more than any thing else the peculiar view which they take of national
prosperity, is their talk about military and naval renown. They have particularly
selected as a proof of good government exactly what I should have chosen as a
specimen of bad. I have as little respect, Sir, for a fighting nation as I have for a
fighting individual, and I am by no means anxious that my country should be
considered the Tom Cribb of Europe.
They talk of the last war, and seem to think it highly honourable to our
Constitution that having ftrst got us into what they call an arduous struggle, it
afterwards at the expense of many myriads of lives got us out again. But let me ask,
what was gained by the last war, and who gained it? We knocked down one despot,
and set up a score; this was their concern not ours. Then as to the substantial part of
the gain, the money and glory. The generals and admirals and colonels and
lieutenant colonels and all the rest of them got money, and most of them a little
glory, some a great deal. The poor privates who took the disagreeable part of the
business, and who were sent home when it was over to loiter about Chelsea
hospital with one leg 2 or follow the plough with two, they got no glory; any more
than those at home who paid the piper. The contractors who had the fmgermg of
the loans got no glory, but they got what was much better, many millions of pounds
sterling which made them very comfortable at our expense. Sir, I grudge nobody
his glory, if he would pay for it himself. I have a great respect for Sir Arthur
Wellesley, and ceteris paribus I would much rather that he should be, as he is, a
hero and a duke, than not: 3but when I consider that every feather in his cap has cost
the nation more than he and his whole lineage would fetch if they were sold for
lumber, I own that I much regret the solid pudding which we threw away in order
that he might obtain empty praise.
Those who have called in question the goodness of our Constitution never
thought of denying that it was good for some persons. The British Constitution is
the Constitution of the rich. It has made this country the paradise of the wealthy. It
ITomCribb ( 1781-1848) was afamed pugilist who kept apublic house after retirement.
Z'TheChelsea Royal Hospital for invalid soldiers, initiated by Charles II. was opened in
1694.
3ArthurWellesley (1769-1852), hero of the Napoleonic Wars, was created Duke of
Wellingtonin 1814.
374 Journals and Speeches No. 20
has annexed to wealth a greater share of political power, and a greater command
over the minds of men, than were ever possessed by it elsewhere. It has given us
rich merchants, and extensive landholders. It has given to those who have money
already, great facilities for making it more. It has produced a fine breed of country
gentlemen, and to support the breed, it has charged us with an additional 3d. on the
quartern loaf. All this, Sir, is very t-me, but I cannot help reflecting that the peasant
of Languedoc eats his three meals of meat a day and cultivates his vineyard, he has
cheap justice at his doors, he may go where he pleases, engage in any trade that he
pleases, and tread upon as many partridge eggs as he pleases, 4 and need not fear to
f'md himself next day on the treadmill, a victim of the unpaid patriotism of a
game-eating squire. We are a free country, Sir, but it is as Sparta was free: the
• Helots are overlooked.
Whenever the honourable opener 5 sees so much as a scrap of good, he gives the
credit of it to the Constitution. By this rule, we ought to impute to it our evils
likewise. I might say that our manufacturers are starving by reason of the
Constitution. I might say that our peasantry is the poorest in Europe, because our
Constitution is the worst. I believe a greater number of individuals suffer capital
punishment in this country than in all the rest of Europe put together, and I might
thence infer that our Constitution is a complication of all the vices of all the
Governments in Europe. But I do not think myself justified in reasoning unfairly
because the honourable opener has set me the example. I impute to the
Constitution no evils which do not naturally follow from the interests to which it
has given birth. But when there is an obvious connexion between the evil suffered,
and the interests of the governors, I think it reasonable to place the evil to the
account of the Constitution, because it is the Constitution which suffers the
interests of the governors to be paramount to those of the governed. Such is the
case with those evils which were depicted in perhaps more unmeasured language
than was necessary by my honourable friend opposite 6 on a former evening and ifI
were to swell the list as I might do I should perhaps be betrayed into language still
more intemperate than his. But as this part of our case has already been so well
stated, I shall allow it to rest upon his statements and proceed to another.
I thought, Sir, that the question related to the practice of the Constitution, but the
defenders of the Constitution have thought otherwise: they seem determined to
prove _ipr/or/the goodness of the Constitution, finding themselves unable to prove
it dposteriori: and they have been good enough to reveal to us their several theories
of the Constitution, with the view as I suppose of convincing us that if we are not
very well off, yet upon correct principles we ought to be. Now though I myself care
very little by what machinery my pocket is picked, the beauty of the machinery has
sometimes the effect of persuading people that their pocket is not picked when in
fact it is: and it may therefore conduce somewhat to the understanding of the
question if their theories be cleared away. The commonplace theories have all had
their supporters in the Society. We are told by one, that our Constitution is a
balance, by another that it is a representation of classes, by a third that it is an
aristocratical republic, sufficiently checked by public opinion. To this I will add
my theory, that it is an aristocratical republic, insufficiently checked by public
opinion. If I seem to dismiss these theories in a summary manner, want of time
must be my apology.
The class representation theory requires most words, as it is the most modern,
and the most plausible. It has been very fully, though not very distinctly, stated this
evening, and amounts to this, that if the landed interest, the mercantile interest, the
army, the law, the manufacturing interest, and all the other great interests are
represented, and the people represented, enough is done for good government, and
that under our Constitution this is actually the case.
Now it seems to be forgotten in this view of the subject, that every one of these
classes has two interests, its separate interest and its share of the general interest.
That which ought to be represented is the latter. What really is represented is the
former. Most true it is that the separate interests of a great number of classes are
represented in the House of Commons: and so perfectly is the system adapted to
ensure the predominance of these interests, that there is hardly any class of
plunderers (pickpockets and highwaymen excepted) which has not a greater
number of representatives in the House of Commons than the whole body of the
plundered. The consequence is that there is hardly ever a job proposed for the
benefit of any set of persons at the expense of the community, which does not find
in that assembly somebody or other who is interested in supporting it; and as there
is a natural alliance among jobs of every description, one interest plays into the
hands of another, hodie mihi cras tibi is the word, 7 and the upshot of it is, that
taking the great jobs with the little ones there is not on the face of God's earth such
another jobbing assembly as the House of Commons. Sir, this is the very thing we
complain of. The amount of misrule is not diminished by the multitude of the
sharers. According to our notions, the House of Commons should represent only
one interestmthe general interest. As for those particular interests which are
opposed to the general one, as nobody ought to attend to them, I suppose nobody
need represent them.
Fable, Sir, as we are taught by the ancients, sometimes throws light upon truth. I
will tell you a fable and you shall judge for yourself whether or not it is in point, g
Once upon a time there happened an insurrection among the beasts. The little
beasts grew tired of being eaten by the great ones. The _swinish, goatish and
sheepish _ multitude9 grew weary of the sway of the bintellectual and virtuous, b
They demanded to be governed by *just and* equal laws and as a security for
atbesea laws, to "be subject to e a representative government. The Lion, finding
himself hardpressed, called together the aristocracy of the forest, and they jointly
offered a rich reward to whoever could devise a scheme for extricating them from
their embarrassment. The Fox offered himself, and his offer being accepted, went
forth to the assembled multitude, and addressed them thus. "fSurely my friends
you would not deny to others the advantage which you seek to partake of
yourselves. The only true representation is representation by classes, f The tigrish
interest should be represented, the wolfish interest should be represented, all the
, other ginterests s should be represented, and the great body of the beasts should be
represented, h My royal master has an objection to anarchy, but he is no enemy to a
rational and well regulated Freedom: 'any other sort of representation he never will
agree to, but a class representation he consents to granti. ,, The people, delighted to
have got the name of a representation, quietly dispersed, and writs were issued to
the different interests to JchuseJ their representatives. The tigers chose six tigers,
the panthers six panthers, the thyaenas six hyaenas k and the wolves six wolves.
The remaining beasts, who were only allowed to chuse six, chose by common
consent six dogs. The parliament was opened by a speech from the Lion,
recommending unanimity. When this was concluded, the Jackal, who was
Chancellor of the Exchequer, introduced the subject of the Civil List: and after a
qong t panegyric on the royal virtues, proposed a grant, for the support of those
virtues, of "1,000 = sheep a year. The proposition was received with acclamations
from the ministerial benches. The Tiger, "happening to be in the n opposition,
made an eloquent speech, in which he enlarged °much ° upon the necessity of
to enter into the speculative question whether the balance is possible, or whether if
possible it would be good. Possible or not, at any rate it does not exist. If there be
any counterpoise to the power of the Aristocracy, it cannot come from within the
House of Commons, it must come from without.
With that class of the defenders of our Constitution, who consider public
opinion as expressed by petitions, public meetings, and a free press, as the one and
sufficient check, I am less widely at issue. The question between us is merely a
question of degree. We both allow that the House of Commons requires a check,
we both agree that public opinion is the proper check. They think that the check is
sufficient if the public are allowed to speak freely, I think that it is not sufficient
unless they are allowed to act as well as speak. Now I do not see how the question
between us can be tried, except by looking about us and seeing what this free
speaking has done. That it has done much I allow. It is probably the cause that we
are not at this moment the slaves of a military despotism. But has it abolished the
Corn Laws? Has it abolished the Game Laws? Did it prevent the Six Acts? Did it
prevent the Manchester Massacre12mor did it prevent the House of Commons
from approving of it? Has it cut down our civil, military, and naval establish-
ments? Has it reformed the Magistracy, the Church, and the Law? It has been said
by the gentleman who started this theory, that the laws of England are deserving of
absolute condemnation. If this be true, what a satire is it upon the Constitution
which he applauded! For my part, I do not think the laws of England deserving of
absolute condemnation, but I think that they require many and great ameliorations;
ameliorations which I am persuaded that none but a reformed parliament will have
the courage, I will not say the inclination to make.
What is the influence of public opinion? Nothing at bottom, but the influence of
fear. Of what consequence is it to a minister what the public say so long as they
content themselves with saying? When it comes to blows it becomes a serious -
matter. I do not deny the influence of character, of the opinion of others, even
independently of fear. The opinion of others is a powerful check upon every man,
but then it must he the opinion of his own class. Experience has shewn that there is
no action so wicked that even an honest man will not do, if he is borne out by the
opinion of those with whom he habitually associates. Was there ever a more
unpopular minister than Lord Casflereagh? 13Was there ever a minister who cared
so little about it? The reason was that although he had the people against him, the
predominant portion of the aristocracy was for him, and all his concern about
12SeeNo. 6, n4.
13RobertStewart(1769-1822), Lord Castlereagh, 2nd Marquis of Londonderry, leader
of the House of Commons, was exceedingly unpopular as the main instrument of the
repressive measures after the Napoleonic Wars, and as an instigator of the divorce
proceedingsagainstQueenCarolinein 1820;his demeanourwas notoriouslyunresponsive
andunf_ling.
May 1826 The British Constitution [2] 379
_he manuscript ends here, at the bottom of the page. The next two paragraphs are from
the second typescript.
_l'he second typescript ends here; the rest of the text is based on the third typescript.
_TEdwardKnatchbull ( 1781-1849), Tory M.P. for Kent 1819-30 and 1832-45, was an
opponent of corn-law reform and a leader of the Protestant resistance to Catholic
Emancipation.
"-aL] TS capet[transcriber'serror?]
May 1826 The British Constitution [2] 381
description. It is satisfactory to think that there are fewer of them now than
formerly. It is satisfactory to think that knowledge and intelligence are making
their way even to the lowest of the species, and that the time is coming, though I
fear it is far distant, when even the Irish peasant and his landlord shall partake of
the attributes of humanity. Until, however, this millenium shall arrive I fear we
must resign ourselves to be governed by incapables of some sort: do what we may,
our only choice is whether we will be governed by incapables who have an interest
in good govemnmnt, or incapables who have an interest in bad. Now I could point
out more than one reason for chusing rather to be governed by the former sort of
incapables than by the latter, by an incapable people than by an incapable
aristocracy. One reason is that an incapable people are in general guided by the
wisest persons among them; an incapable aristocracy never is. Nor is this
wonderful. The people are in earnest about the interest of the people. What a man
is really in earnest about, ff it be not very difficult, he generally succeeds in. To
chuse a good representative is not very difficult. The aristocracy are not in earnest
about the interest of the people, and they therefore have no occasion to look for that
wisdom by which the interest of the people may be served. It is enough for them if
they can hire a man of talent to make out the best case he can for them and their
abuses. Of any higher kind of talent than this they have no idea. It would be of no
use to them if they had it. Not being wanted, it is not produced; and if it grows up
among them by accident, it is not valued. The country gentlemen do not vote with
Lord Milton and Mr. Whitmore, they vote with Sir Thomas Lethbridge and Mr.
Holme Sumner. is
Another reason for preferring stupid, obstinate and ignorant persons who have
not a sinister interest, to stupid, obstinate and ignorant persons who have, is that
the former acting under the dictation of their interest will do as much good as their
limited faculties will permit, the latter as much harm. And though it requires some
capacity to do good, unfortunately it requires none to do mischief. The veriest
reptile that ever crawled can consume as much of other people's beef and bread,
turbot and turtle soup, as Solomon or Sir Isaac Newton himself. The most
drivelling dolt who can set a spring gun, or sign an order of commitment for a man
who is poor enough to be deemed a vagrant, has talents sufficient to be the tyrant
and the scourge of his neighbourhood. On the other hand the United States of
America are a standing proof that under democratic ascendancy a country may be
very well governed with a very small portion of talent. For all that I can learn of
that country leads me to the conclusion that the first men in it are far inferior to men
of the same relative superiority in this country. It requires but little talent to be
honest, and the cases are few in politics in which plain honesty is not a sufficient
guide. The man who aims steadily at the public good will rarely have much
difficulty in attaining it. The fundamental principles of politics lie on the surface,
and it requires no genius to apprehend them.
I have a third reason for preferring the government of the people, however
stupid and ignorant they may be. I am persuaded that a stupid and ignorant people
cannot be a happy one, and I am therefore desirous that they should be stupid and
ignorant no longer. There is a natural tendency in the human mind to improve, and
no government but the very worst can counteract this tendency altogether. But it is
easily proved that under an aristocratic government the progress of the human
mind must necessarily be slow.
It will not, I think, be disputed that those who acquire talent acquire it chiefly for
the consideration which it brings. But talent cannot be acquired without trouble.
Now it is with consideration as with most other things, the greater share of it a man
can get without trouble, the less trouble will he be disposed to take in order to get
more. Rank we know gives consideration. Property we know gives consideration;
and when these two sources of consideration, rank and property, carry along with
them the great source of consideration, political power, the consideration resulting
is in general sufficient to take off the edge of any ordinary appetite. When a man
can have as much consideration, without deserving it, as he could if he did, if his
stupidity is no bar to his consideration, depend upon it he will cling to both with
equal pertinacity. Now it is a fact, and a well-known one, that people who are not
stupid are not apt to have much consideration for people who are. When the great
body of the people emerge from stupidity their betters are obliged either to deserve
consideration or to sacrifice it. The latter alternative is mortifying; the former
troublesome. One might therefore predict without the gift of prophecy that if the
man of rank or property observes in the people any tendency to improvement, the
whole energies of his body and of whatever portion of mind he possesses, with
whatever other bodies or minds he can set in motion, will all be exerted to keep the
people stupid in order that he, on his side, may revel without disgrace in all the
luxury of stupidity. So accordingly it has been, and is to this day, and every step
which the people have gained in intelligence from one end of the world to the other
has been gained in spite of the most strenuous resistance which the stupid part, that
is the bulk of the aristocracy, could oppose.
Thus stands the case if the people are as bad as is represented. But the people are
not so bad as is represented, and this piece of imposture is exactly upon a level with
the rest. True, they are bigoted and prejudiced and stupid and ignorant enough.
With all the pains that have been taken to make them so, it would be wonderful
May 1826 The British Constitution [2] 383
indeed if they were not. But their prejudices, as might be expected from the tuition
which they have been under, are all of them on the contrary side to that which is
asserted. They are prejudiced in favour of things as they are, not prejudiced against
them. I deny that they have any of the mischievous propensities which are imputed
to them. I deny that the people of this country, or any country, have or ever had a
desire to take away property. If it be maintained that they had, let any one show me
one instance, as much as one single instance, in which such a desire has been
manifested by them. The gentleman 19who talked about the Agrarian law 2° only
showed his utter unacquaintance with history. The Agrarian law had nothing to do
with private property: it was a law for the resumption and division among the
poorer citizens of the property, the usurped property, of the public, the conquered
lands which by law ought to have been divided, and which by a flagrant violation
both of property and of law the patricians had taken to themselves. It is remarkable
too that even amid the horrors of the French Revolution, though blood was shed
like water, property was untouched. Except the property of the emigr6s, who
almost to a man had emigrated in order to make war upon their country, not a rood
of land, not a sixpence of private property was touched. So much for the hostility
of the people to property. It is the same with the other charges against the people.
They tell you that the people are jealous of rank and fortune, and I tell you that a
blind confidence in men of rank and fortune has always been the chief failing of the
people. Celebrated demagogues, from the Gracchi to Mirabeau, 2t have almost
always been men either of rank or fortune. In democratic Athens a rich man could
commit excesses which even in aristocratic England would drive him from
society. They tell you next that the people are prone to change and fond of
throwing down one thing and setting up another. I deny the fact. It is contrary to the
most extensive experience of human nature. In the crisis of a revolution the people
may be prone to change, because having once begun they are hurried on and know
not when to stop. But at all other times they are proverbially attached to old usages,
however absurd, and to everything which existed when they were born. Dr.
Robertson was aware of this. In his Charles V he speaks of attachment to ancient
forms and aversion to innovation as being strikingly characteristic of popular
_9Not,,identifi_d.
_The first AgrarianLaw in Rome, effect¢_lin 376 B.C., limited anyone's holding of
public land confiscated from an enemy to 500 acres. The most important of the laws,
institutedin 133B.C., was designed to counter the power of large landholders by enabling
freemen to cultivate holdings, which were more equitably distributed by appointed
commissioners.
2_Thebrothers, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (163-133 B.C.) and Gaius Sempmnius
Gracchus(153-122 B.C.) were both Tribunes of the plebeians who sought public favourby
liberal reforms such as the Agrarian Laws; both died in revolts against the civil power.
Honot_ Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau (1749-91), popular and violent orator,
atte_ vainly to guide the French National Assembly when the Revolution began in
1789.
384 Journals and Speeches No. 20
assemblies. 22Dr. Robertson lived before the days of Pitt and Burke and Wyndham
and the alarmists. 23In his time people had not been frightened into dishonesty, and
it was the fashion to speak the truth. Every Athenian orator whose speeches are
preserved was accustomed in addressing the people to lay particular stress upon the
wisdom of their ancestors, 24 and the excellence of their old laws and institutions;
topics insisted upon with an earnestness and a frequency which leave no doubt that
they were as popular as Lord Eldon himself could have desired.25 Those who think
the people fickle and inconstant have observed a mob and not the people. A mob is
fickle, unsteady, inconstant. The people individually are not so. And a multitude,
though it were composed of Newtons, must be a mob. There is not now time, nor is
it necessary, to enquire into that principle of human nature in consequence of
which men who individually seem so rooted in old habits that a tempest cannot
shake them are blown about by every breath of wind when assembled together. But
the fact is unquestionable. Let him who doubts it go among the people; let him see
them, hear them, talk to them. Let him try to persuade the Surrey peasant who
ploughs the sandy soil of the vale of Albury with three horses, that in Scotland they
plough with two, and if he succeed in convincing him that to plough as his
forefathers did is not a law of nature, an immovable part of the scheme of
providence, b I will say he is a conjuror. The people capricious!
For my part I do not say that those who think the people incapable think
themselves still more incapable. But one cannot help picking up a few
observations, and when one does, there is no harm in stating them. I observe then
that my Lord, though extremely ready to relieve the public from the management
of the public estate, yet when it comes to managing his own he invariably selects
one of the people to manage it for him. I do not pretend to say that it is because he
considers such a person more competent to the task than himself: of course he must
be aware that his own concerns, like those of the public, cannot fail of going to ruin
in such hands. But he is a disinterested citizen and knows how vastly more
important the public affairs are than his own, and how ill his abilities can be spared
from the management of these; and he generously consents, even at some risk to
himself, to leave his private affairs in the hands of the plebian while he
condescends to look after those of the state. I have made another observation on
these persons, which is that their sentiments seem to veer round with every turn of
their interest. They can flatter when they have a point to gain, as they can rail when
they have not. Twenty or thirty ragamuffins from the very dregs of the people are
the worthy, patriotic and independent electors of a Cornish burgh. While praise is
thus given to the worst of the people, the abuse and scorn are heaped upon the
people collectively.
Sir, it has been so much the practice of the powerful in all ages to carry out the
proverb "Give a dog a bad name and hang him," and the powerful have till lately
been so exclusively in possession of all the organs of public sentiment, that a
general opinion against the people got up by such means is very bad evidence
against them. There is a passage in Machiavel so much to the purpose that I will
quote it, though quotations have become so ridiculous that I shall not venture upon
the original. "The opinion against the people arises from this cause, that of them
everyone may speak ill without danger, even where the people reign."26 Most true
it is that where the people reign they have never curtailed the liberty of speaking ill
of themselves. At Athens Aristophanes was permitted to hold up the collective
body of the people, in the character of Demos, to the most poignant satire on the
stage, and with impunity. 27 In this country there are gagging bills 28 and penalties
severe enough for those who speak ill of the aristocracy, and places and pensions
enough, God knows, for those who speak ill of the people. And the consequence is
that men who have no other earthly merit daily make a merit of insulting the great
body of the people; and there is not so drivelling an idiot with a good coat upon his
back, though inferior in every valuable quality to the man who blacks his shoes,
who does not think himself entitled to sneer at a working mechanic. There will be
abundance of railers against the people where it is the fashion to rail, and where
railers are so well paid. But we must learn to look, not to what these railers assert,
but to what they prove.
_For the reference, see No. 19, n23. The quotation marks are added in ink to the
ty_e2
script; they appear in Archiv.
71:or me
- retenence,
. see No. 19, n24.
_For the references, see No. 19, n25.
386 Journals and Speeches No. 21
his historical details, but shall state as briefly as possible some general
' considerations which induce me to concur in his opinion.
The range of the question includes three of the great interests of a country, its
government, its morality, and its jurisprudence. That the influence of lawyers over
the jurisprudence of a country cannot be beneficial seems too obvious to be denied.
We cannot expect much aid in making good laws from those whose daily bread is
derived from the defects of the laws. If the law were so clear and intelligible that its
import could not be mistaken, and if the administration of justice were so cheap
and expeditious that no one could benefit himself by contesting a just claim,
lawyers must starve. This ideal perfection in a system of law may be attainable, or
it may be unattainable; but every improvement in the law is an approach to it, and
every improvement in the law so far forth as it is an improvement can scarcely fail
to encroach upon the profits of lawyers. In our own system of jurisprudence it is
now very generally admitted that the most flagrant abuses prevail: there is not one
of these from which the lawyers as a class do not derive enormous profits. The
uncertainty of the law is a source of endless litigation, and thereby of endless fees;
the same uncertainty gives an extensive latitude of discretionary power to the
judges who are a clan of lawyers, and whose stations most practising advocates
hope one day to fill: the same uncertainty gives rise and support to that flourishing
branch of our national industry, the opinion trade, or chamber practice, which
means paying a lawyer for making the best guess he can from previous decisions
which way a future judge will be most likely to decide. The needless and useless
expenses of the administration of justice even in the courts of common law, and
still more in the courts of equity, is made up of items almost the whole of which go
to fill the pockets of some description of lawyers. The delay of the administration
of justice conduces to their benefit by the numerous pretexts which it affords for
additional expense. The complicated and yet awkward and inartificial manner in
which the Statutes are worded, insomuch that while no mortal man can read them
through, a lawyer can put any one in the way of evading them who will come up to
_Notidentified, though Laski says (without giving his evidence) in a headnote to his
version that it was Thirlwall; Thirlwall was a member of the London Debating Society.
March 1827 The Influence of Lawyers 387
his terms, likewise conduces greatly to the advantage of lawyers. The Statute Book
swarms with bad laws, bad sometimes only because they are useless, but often
because they are highly oppressive, which partly by the litigation which they
occasion and partly by the absolute necessity of devising some means of evading
them, are a mine of profit to lawyers. Not a word is spoken or written in the course
of a suit at law for which some lawyer or another is not paid, and what is more, they
are paid for a much greater number of words than are actually spoken or written;
they are paid for pretending to speak or write something which is never spoken or
written at all, as for example when counsel are arced a for pretending to make
something which is called a motion of course, but which might with greater
propriety be denominated a sham motion. Yet if anyone were to suggest that
justice could possibly be administered without pretending to make these fictitious
motions he would be denounced as a visionary, a theorist and a madman, if not a
jacobin and a blasphemer.
But without dwelling upon the pecuniary advantages which lawyers derive from
all the vices of the law, sufficient reason for their constant opposition to all
improvement in it is to be found in that professional narrowness of mind which is a
uniform effect of the exclusive study of one system. When a man is accustomed to
see the ends of law and of civil society in some measure attained by one set of
means, and has never bestowed a thought on any other, it is quite vain to attempt to
persuade him that any other means can effect the same end effectually. A man who
has never seen a thing done but in one way learns to consider that as the natural
way, and every deviation from it as not only visionary and theoretical, but absurd.
A man who has never heard of any language but his own thinks that the natural
language, and regards all who talk any other as a sort of monster; like the man who
on landing at Calais expressed his surprise that the children in the street should talk
French, and another man I have heard of who never could comprehend how the
French could be so foolish as to say pain instead of saying bread like a Christian.
The Irish who had always been in the habit of tying the plough to the horse's tail
regarded the very idea of employing harness with horror. I heard lately of a
solicitor who I think is a fit companion for the Irishman. On learning for the first
time that in the Dutch law there was no distinction between real and personal
property, 2 be expressed his utter astonishment and could not conceive how the
people of Holland could possibly go on without it. Yet this man had the example of
Bank stock before his eyes as an example with how little of technical forms the
most valuable property might be secured; but he probably never thought of asking
unidentified solicitor had probably got his information from reports of Hugo de
Cnx_ (Grotius) (1583-1645), lnleiding tot de Hollandsche Rechts-geleerdheyd (1619-
21), II, iii, 4-6, and v, 9-13; in The Jurisprudence of Holland, trans. R.W. Lee, 2 vols.
(Oxford: ClarendonPress, 1926), Vol. I, pp. 82 and 96.
"-*L paid
388 Journals and Speeches No. 21
himself for a reason why a man's title to a farm might not be secured by a set of
formalities which were found sufficient to secure his title to the stock upon it. He
thought that the classifications in Blackstone were classifications in the nature of
things. 3 All who have studied only one system, be it a system of philosophy,
theology, or law, must feel more or less as this solicitor felt. Now the peculiar
misfortune of our law is that to be even moderately versed in it requires the study of
a whole life. It is but rarely therefore that an eminent lawyer has had time to extend
his knowledge °farther°, or to render himself capable of forming a judgment on
anything which is unlike his own system of technicalities. 4 He does not inquire
whether the diseases he meets cannot be cured, whether the objection cannot be
obviated; to suggest means for obviating it with the least possible prejudice to the
principle itself, all this requires a sort of wisdom which the advocate has not
cultivated, and which he lies under no motive to cultivate. It is not his business to
give arguments and objections their right value, but to make them appear either of
the greatest value or of no value at all, according as they make in favour of his side
of the cause or against it. There is a very happy expression of Locke which seems
to me applicable to the subject under discussion, and which I will therefore take the
liberty to mention. It is in one of his letters--I forget whether to Collins or
Molyneux, or to what other of those whose names have been immortalised by the
friendship which united them with that great man. "I am glad," said he to this
individual, "when my works fall into the hands of readers like you, for you seize
the scope of my speculations without sticking in the incidence. ,,5 These few words
seem to me to delineate with great force and exactness the habit of mind which
peculiarly distinguishes the statesman and the philosopher. The man who can seize
the scope of a speculation without sticking in the incidence is the only man whose
opinion of it can be trusted, whether it be a favourable or an adverse opinion. The
intellectual habits of a lawyer are the reverse of this; he can never seize the scope of
a speculation, he is always sticking in the incidence. A mere inaccuracy of
expression, a trifling error in any matter of detail, the employment of one
inapposite illustration are sufficient in his mind to decide the rejection of the most
valuable ideas. The merest petty cavil at some collateral and non-essential
appendage of a doctrine or plan, a cavil which any man of common candour who
was not a lawyer would be ashamed of, a lawyer urges in sober earnest and with an
air of triumph as decisive of the whole question, for he never had occasion to ask
3E.g., as in the titles of the four Books that make up Blackstone'sCommentaries: "Of the
Rights of Persons"; "Of the Rights of Things"; "Of Private Wrongs"; and "Of Public
Wrongs."
*The first typescript ends here; the following passage is found only in Economica.
_l'his passage from Locke's letter of 21 March, 1704, to his young disciple, Anthony
Collins (1676--1729) is in Works, Vol. X, p. 285. William Molyneux (1656-98), Irish
scientist, was another friend and correspondent of Locke's.
_-_L further
March 1827 The Influence of Lawyers 389
bim._elfwhat is essential and what not; his business was to make the most of all the
arguments which could be found in favour of that side of the case to which
considerations totally independent of its merits had previously determined him to
attach himself. We may judge how far the influence of such men is likely to be
useful in matters of government and general policy. That there is much
information necessary to the statesman which few besides lawyers can give, I am
far from disputing, nor do I deny that all their objections should be heard, provided
that there are wiser men to weigh them. I only contend that however useful to the
statesman in a subordinate capacity, they are not fit to be statesmen, or to be the
guides of statesmen. 6
c The terms of the question direct our attention to the influence of the lawyers on
the morality of the country as well as on its jurisprudence and on its government.
And here, although I say it with fear and trembling, I cannot give a verdict much
more favourable to the lawyers than on the two former heads. Without entering
into a very minute enumeration of the modes in which a particular class may
exercise an influence, beneficial or otherwise, upon public morals it will perhaps
be allowed me in the gross that the utility of the influence which they exercise in
respect of morality in some measure depends upon the degree in which their own
conduct is marked by an habitual observance of its precepts. Now it must be
allowed that the lawyers generally avoid very scrupulously all offences against
morality by the perpetration of which they would incur any danger of the gallows.
But a man who squares his conscience by the law '_would not be exacting; a and if
our standard of morality includes any of the more exalted virtues, it appears to me
as difficult for a lawyer to practise them as it is for a rich man to enter the Kingdom
of heaven: 7 there is no denying the possibility of both, but neither I am afraid is
often realised. We hear lawyers continually talking of themselves as the guardians
of justice, the defenders of h-mocence, and so forth, and they are right to put the
best face upon the thing as people usually do when they are giving an account of
themselves. It would not quite do to stand forward and say "I live by roguery." But
amid all this free language one thing is always forgotten, that to every cause there
are two sides, and that of these one only can be the right. At least one half therefore
of a lawyer's business is deception, and avowedly so. And even when they are on
the right side of the cause it is not their business to consider what arguments are
conclusive, but what will appear so; not what assertions are true, but what will
answer their purpose. Even when a cause is good a lawyer has not done his duty by
it unless he has given it all the gloss and varnish of which it is susceptible,
disguised all its weak parts and heightened its strong ones by artificial colouring.
passage unique to Economica ends here; the following section is taken from the
secondtypescript.
7Cf. Matthew, 19:24.
_L[noparagraph]
'f-aL] TS [gapasfor indecipherablewords]
390 Journals and Speeches No. 21
Not one half only but three-fourths at least of his business is deception. Sir, it is not
easy for a man who gets his bread by insincerity to remain entirely free from it in
his other concerns; it is not easy for him one half of whose life is spent in making
the worse appear the better cause, s and the other half in making the good cause
appear better than it is, to retain that simplicity and singleness of purpose, that
passionate love of truth and abhorrence of artifice and deceit without which, in my
estimation at least, there can be no perfect character. Supposing even the purity of
his intentions to remain unimpaired, yet the habit of making falsehood plausible
begets a coolness with regard to the interests of truth. The mind becomes pleased
with itself for the ingenuity with which it has made the rightful cause appear the
wrong, till eit at last e learns to take pleasure in the exercise itself. And when they
find, as they do by practice, that there is something plausible to be said in favour of
the worst cause however unfounded, while no part of their daily occupation tends
to strengthen those faculties of their minds which would enable them to distinguish
falsehood from truth, they soon begin to fancy that they cannot be distinguished,
that when we go beyond the immediate range of the senses one side of a question
may always be made as plausible as another, and that truth is placed beyond the
reach of the human faculties. This state of the intellectual part of their minds
co-operating with the diminished sensibility of the moral part, they soon learn to be
utterly indifferent what opinions they take up and advocate; and where their
interest is not concerned they are determined by mere vanity and choose that side
of a question which affords the greatest scope for their ingenuity in defending it,
that is most commonly the wrong side. It is not very favourable to the higher
moralities that their vocation brings them into close and constant contact with
human nature in its most degraded shape, with everything that is mean and selfish
and unfeeling and unprincipled in human conduct and in human character and
disposition, while it very rarely brings them acquainted with the best and most
exalted specimens of human nature, Generalizing, therefore, as almost all men do,
and as lawyers are peculiarly prone to do upon their own confined experience, it is
obvious that their situation is far from conducive to their forming that favourable
opinion of human nature which universal experience shows to be a necessary
foundation of all the active virtues. It is notorious that the doctrine of the universal
selfishness of mankind fmds the greatest proportion of its partisans among the
lawyers, in which respect I will not say they judge from themselves, but will treat
SThe wording is from John Milton (1608-74), Paradise Lost (1667), in The Poetical
Works (London: Tonson, 1695), p. 31 (II, 112); the idea is from Plato, Apology, in
Euthyphro, The Apology, Crito, Phaedo, Phaedrus (Greek and English), trans. H.N.
Fowler (London: Heinemann; Cambridge, Mass.: HarvardUniversity Press, 1914), p. 72
(1gel Mill's own translation of Plato carries the Miltonic echo: see CW, Vol. XI, p. 153.
"'L at lastit
March 1827 The Influence of Lawyers 391
them more charitably and say that they judge from that portion of mankind with
whom in their professional pursuits they are most peculiarly conversant.
Sir, I promised not to trouble you with many words, and I am afraid that I have
already broken my promise. I will therefore preclude myself from any further
violation of it by sitting down.
9But it is not only on these subjects with which they are professionally
conversant that the influence of lawyers is rather likely to mislead than to guide the
legislator and the politician. There seems to be something in the exercise of their
profession which renders them utterly incapable of taking a comprehensive view
of any subject. The habits of an advocate are admirably calculated to render a man
a dexterous controversialist wonderfully skilful in finding flaws, and starting
objections, to any doctrine or to any plan which is advanced: to weigh the validity
of an objection; to compare the difficulties on the one side with the difficulties on
the other; to distinguish whether the objection affects the doctrine or plan in whole
or only in part, in principle or only in detail, to consider whether the flaw _°
I COMEHEm_,Sir, with my mind not fully made up on this interesting question: but
as the balance of the evidence as far as I have examined it, seems to me to be on the
side of my honourable friend the proposer of the question 1 and as, though I may
perhaps hesitate to go the full length of the question on the paper, it is my decided
opinion formed on mature consideration, that the importance of history as a source
of political knowledge has been greatly overrated, I will briefly submit, if the
Society will honour me with their patience, the reasons which have led me to
embrace a sentiment so greatly atvariance with the received opinions of the world.
That common notions are on the other side, must be confessed; and though I may
surprise some honourable gentlemen by the assertion, I do think it prima facie
evidence against any opinion that it is paradoxical. But it is a common fate of
paradoxical opinions, to be thought much more paradoxical than they are: and I
think it must have already appeared to any one who has attentively listened to the
very luminous speech of the opener, that the opinion he maintains has more the
appearance of a paradox than the reality.
Sk-----weare not now assembled here to discuss, whether we ought to be guided
by experience. No one has yet appeared in this Society to deny that we ought to
judge of the future from the past. This remark is perhaps required, because several
of the defenders of history appeared to be of opinion that their opponents were
chargeable with some such doctrine--and it would seem that according to their
ideas the world is divided into two portions, whereof the one, the larger, and
therefore I need scarcely say the wiser are votaries of experience, while the rest are
followers of theory. Sir, if honourable gentlemen will point out in the whole world
a single individual who believes a theory for any reason except because he
considers it to be founded upon experience, the justness of this classification may
be admitted. No such theorist however can be pointed out, because none such
exists. All mankind recognize experience as the sole guide of human affairs, the
aNotidentified.
1827 The Use of History 393
past as our sole criterion for judging of the future, and if there were to be found a
man who thought otherwise which there is not even within the walls of Bedlam we
have something better to do than to give ourselves the trouble of refuting him. But
there is a right way of consulting experience, and there is a wrong way--And the
question now is, which is the right way, and which is the wrong. Our opponents
hold that the oracles of experience are written legibly in the page of history--we
say that they are not, or, if they are, that like other oracles they are so ambiguous
that they might be read to eternity and never understood. We may be wrong; but let
us not be accused of despising the precepts of experience, when our whole aim is to
discover the rightful interpretation of those precepts which are so much oftener
talked of than understood.
All arts have their instruments, and their materials: The instruments and the
materials of the art of the politician are the same: they are men. Whatever the
politician seeks to effect, on men, and b_ means of men, it must be effected. Now
as soon as this is stated, it appears self-evident, that the knowledge which is
necessary to the statesman is knowledge of men: that the experience which he
stands in need of, is experience of men: that he who knows mankind best, if he
have integrity of purpose, is the best qualified to be a statesman, and that the
volume which should be his guide is not the book of history but the book of human
nature. I do not here allude to that intimate acquaintance with the darkest recesses
of the human heart--that familiarity with the petty passions of petty minds, a
familiarity scarcely to be acquired but by him whose own heart reflects to him the
image of those secret workings which he seeks to penetrate--in short I mean not
what is termed a knowledge of the world by those slaves of avarice and ambition to
whom indeed no other world is known. Nor do I mean that nobler knowledge of
human nature which consists in a knowledge of the outward signs by which the
stronger passions display themselves and which gives to the dramatist all his power
over our emotions and to poetry itself the greater part of its charm. But I mean, a
knowledge of the causes, rules or influences which govern the actions of mankind,
since the actions of mankind are what it is the business of the statesman to regulate,
and of those other principles of human nature upon which depends the influence of
the social arrangements over their happiness. These principles are far from being
obscure or mysterious; they are such as a diligent study of our own minds, together
with a careful observation of a few others, are adequate to disclose to us. For it is
sufficient to him who designs laws and constitutions, to know well those things in
which all mankind agree: though to him who is to administer them and therefore to
accommodate his conduct to the peculiar dispositions of the men among whom he
is thrown, a knowledge likewise of the varieties of human character is essentially
necessary. But all this knowledge is the fruit of experience, and it remains to be
seen whether what honourable gentlemen can get from history is more truly the
result of experience than this, or safer in the application.
It is scarcely necessary to say that in history no one instance can be a rule for
394 Journals and Speeches No. 22
another. One instance might be a rule for another if all the circumstances were the
same: but they never are the same. Even those circumstances which we know to
exist are never in any two cases the same: and besides these there may be a hundred
others which we do not dream of. It may be said that though all the circumstances
be not the same, all the material circumstances may. But how can we ever know
this? We see the results, only in the gross: We see that under particular laws the
people are or seem contented and tranquil, that under particular systems of
commercial policy the country seems prosperous, under particular systems of
financial policy affluent. But do we see how many hidden causes have contributed
to this result, or is there any one circumstance in the physical moral or political
state of a nation which without other evidence than this we could boldly pronounce
' to be totally unconnected with it? The analogy which some honourable gentlemen
have attempted to find between a historical fact and a chemical experiment is more
plausible than well grounded. In a chemical experiment we can distinguish the
cause of an effect from what are merely the surrounding circumstances, for we can
alter the surrounding circumstances, and the effect is still produced. We know that
the action of the air has nothing to do with the freezing of water, for water will
freeze in vacuo. But can we try these experiments in the political world? Can we
place a nation in vacuo, and try whether our frigerific mixtures will freeze it and
dry it up? No, Sir, the great instrument by which we have penetrated the arcana of
the physical world fails us in the political, at least when history is our guide. We
cannot there combine and vary the circumstances as we will, we must rest content
with the few and unsatisfactory experiments which nature has made. There was a
time when our physical knowledge was thus boundedmwhen we studied outward
nature too by mere observation without experiment, when without any artificial
arrangement of circumstances we took things in the gross as the hand of nature had
left them, and drew from the pages of natural history the whole of our natural
philosophy. And what happened? Scarce one of the great laws of nature were
ascertained and all mankind floated in the regions of fancy from one airy
hypothesis to another, not interrogating nature but their own wild imaginations,
adopting and believing as truth anything which would plausibly explain the
phenomena which they beheld. So it was during a long succession of ages during
which not one spark of true philosophy glimmered on the earth. Then men
proceeded upon history. There is only one branch of physical science now in which
from the impossibility of experiment we have nothing better than history to go
upon, I mean geology: and accordingly there is scarcely one fact in it which is
precisely ascertained. It would be a great concession were we to allow to any
system of politics which has only history for its basis, as much certainty as is now
possessed by geology.
I have thus briefly set forth the grounds of the opinion which I professed in the
commencement--that the importance of history in a political point of view is
inconsiderable. Weighty however as these reasons appearmand to me they do
1827 The Use of History 395
appear weighty, weightier than the Society at the first glance, will probably esteem
them--notwithstanding these reasons, and notwithstanding all the other argu-
ments which were so ably set forth by the opener of the debate, he nevertheless
shall not have my vote. And the reason is that however much the political
importance of history has been overrated it appears to me utterly impossible to
overrate its moral importance.
It is history alone which preserves from oblivion the deeds of the great ones of
the earth, of all those who have exercised a direct influence over the destinies of
large masses of their fellow creatures. I need not say how vastly it imports those
who are subject to these men, those whose happiness depends upon the deeds of
these men, that their deeds should be good and not evil. All experience however
bears testimony to the extreme difficulty of supplying motives sufficient to keep
such men within the line of virtue--it is the grand problem of political science, a
problem which not more than two or three nations in the world were ever pretended
to have solved. What then would the difficulty be were it not for the consciousness
which these men cannot escape from--the consciousness that they live if I may so
speak in the presence of posterity? We do not live in so good a world, Sir, that any
of the existing inducements to virtue can be spared, nor is the conduct of the rulers
of mankind always so exemplary and pure, that we could do without any of the
motives which might render it more so. Sir, whatever may be the other failings of
statesmen and warriors, it cannot I think be justly complained that they are too
patriotic, too disinterested, too just, too modest, too indifferent to pleasure, to
power or to wealth. But if they cannot be accused of an immoderate share of virtue
although they know that their good and bad actions will be recorded and
remembered and that their vices will be detested or their virtues admired to the very
latest posterity, what would be their conduct if this check were taken off, if as soon
as they had ceased to live their deeds were to pass at once into utter oblivion? I may
be told, Sir, that I over-estimate the effect of these motives on bad men. I may be
told that such men are indifferent to posthumous fame, and that this delicate
sensibility to the opinion of future ages is not to be found in men who can disregard
those more palpable inducements to virtuous conduct which their own times
afford. Sir, I can afford to concede this point though it is not without many
deductions and modifications that I can concede it. I will give up the influence of
posthumous fame upon bad men. Upon the good however its influence is not to be
disputed. To them at least the esteem and veneration of an endless succession of
ages does appear a prize worth struggling for. Short and scanty is the catalogue
which history affords of human actions which were at once great and good, but of
these were we to omit all such as would not have been done if the doers had not
desired a reputation beyond the grave, the residue would be small indeed. Perhaps
it is not possible for us--who live in an age where that which deserves moderate
praise is generally certain of obtaining fully as much praise as it deserves, and few
of whom can probably boast the unenviable distinction of being before our age,
396 Journals and Speeches No. 22
with the consequent fate of being persecuted, spumed and treated as ruffians or
madmen for holding truths of which when the public mind has opened to receive
them some quack of a future century will possibly go down to posterity as the
discoverer--it is not for us I say to judge of the feelings of the great men of other
times. Most of the men to whom human nature is most deeply indebted, were far
above being influenced by the opinions of contemporaries who were unworthy of
them. Their reward was prospective--it was sufficient for them to know that one
day they would be appreciated, and their exertions were sufficiently stimulated by
the proud anticipation of the feelings with which we now regard them. This hope it
was which animated Bacon in the execution of his gigantic task--which sustained
Galileo in the dungeons of the Inquisition and would have sustained him at the
stake. 2
But it is not only in this point of view that history renders services to morality
which it would not be easy to compensate if history were to be annihilated. It is no
trifling aid to all the better principles of our nature to be brought acquainted with
those bright examples of sublime virtue joined to the rarest endowments of
intellect which, though in small number and at long intervals, history affords, and
which it can fall to the lot of few to know familiarly otherwise than in history. The
world perhaps has not produced twelve men who have attained to that exalted
degree of wisdom and virtue, of which I speak. Yet still it is unspeakably cheering
to know that there have been such men. But for them, we should never have known
of how high a degree of excellence our species is susceptible. But for them we
should never have known how much we have to be proud of, how much to love,
how much to admire. It matters not though the Swifts and Bolingbrokes 3 and
twenty other disappointed candidates for human grandeur, should vent their spleen
in reviling human nature because it had not given them all which their ambition
grasped at, and because it would not pardon their profligacy in favour of their
talents. The ravings of a hundred such men will not disgust the philosopher with
his species since it has produced a Turgot. 4 That sublime character, whose whole
soul was so strictly under the dominion of principle that he had not one wish which
did not center in the happiness of mankind--for whose elevated, comprehensive
and searching intellect no speculation was too vast, no details too minute, provided
they did but conduce to his great and generous purposes--who called from a
private station to the councils of his sovereign, sacrificed every personal object in
order to free his countrymen from the oppressions under which they groaned, and
who actually did more to free them from those oppressions during a few short
2Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was charged in 1633 by the Inquisition with having
transgressed against a decree of 1616 forbidding him to teach Copernican doctrines. Under
threat of torturehe recanted his views, but in fact was incarceratedforonly two days before
being released to live out his days in seclusion.
3HonrySaint-John,Viscount Bolingbroke (1678-1751), Tory pamphleteer and states-
mall.
4Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, baron de l'Aulne (1727-81), economist and financial
reformer who served as Comptroller-General for Louis XVI 1774-76.
June 1827 The Coalition Minist_ 397
months than they had ever before ventured even to wish for--who after bearing the
bitter and undissembled hatred of the privileged classes and what is yet more
difficult to bear, the clamours of a misguided people, rather than abandon those
measures which he knew to be good for that people--resigned his office when he
found those great objects unattainable, for the sake of which alone he had ever
desired it, and who after beholding the ruin of his own prospects with unwet eye
wept for the reimposition of the corv6e--is it a trifle to know that such a man has
been? But a small satisfaction to pay that reverence and adoration to his memory
with which he was regarded while living by all that was great and good among his
contemporaries? This man was hunted down by one of the most worthless
aristocracies which ever existed, as a visionary and a theorist--those epithets by
which presumptuous and besotted ignorance never fails to stigmatize all who are
wiser than itself, and political profligacy all who are more honest--those epithets
by which they who know nothing endeavour to make it appear that the mere fact of
knowing something renders a man unfit to be a statesman, and by which those who
hold that there ought to be no such thing as public virtue express their cool
contempt for those honest fools who are so extremely ignorant as to suppose that
there ought.
But I am wandering from my subject on which in truth I have little more to say.
But I must repeat that the favorable estimate which cannot but be formed of a
species to which such men belonged, is both an incentive to virtue and a source of
happiness which no true moralist or philosopher will despise. Imagine who will,
that mankind can be happy without thinking well of one another, or that all the
excitement which can be afforded by purely selfish pursuits is sufficient to render a
man happy who has no others. He who is just starting in his worldly career, and
before whose enraptured sight visions of earthly grandeur and the applause of men
are now for the In'st time floating, he may think that these things are sufficient for
happiness. But it is he who has obtained these things, or he who even without
having obtained them (and there are such men) has sickened of the pursuit, it is for
him to feel that it is all hollow, and that it is necessary to the happiness of human
beings to love human beings, and therefore necessary to think them deserving of
love.
IT APPEARSTOMEthat the time is not come for the decision of this question. The
evidence is not yet before us. Until I know upon what principles or with what
intentions the coalition was formed, I can neither approve nor condemn it.l
Coalitions in themselves are neither good or bad. Their merit or demerit must
wholly depend upon the mutual understanding which takes place among the parties
concerned, regarding the line of conduct which is to be pursued by them thereafter:
and as of this we can have no direct information whatever beyond what those
individuals think fit to afford us, it is their subsequent conduct which must itself
decide whether their personal animosities have been sacrificed to principle or to
place.
In this view of the question I have the fortune, whether good or ill, to differ from
all those gentlemen who have attacked the ministry in the last and present debates:
as well those, with the general tenor of whose political opinions I coincide, as
those, to whom I am diametrically opposed. They all of them appear disposed to
form their judgment of the coalition, not from the future conduct of the parties, but
from the past conduct: and their principle goes to this extravagant conclusion, that
any two persons who have ever differed on any important question of public
policy, can never honestly, at a subsequent period, become part of the same
ministry. Against this proposition, and any other approaching to it, I must enter my
entire and unqualified dissent. I contend, that there always ought to be, and that it
would be greatly to be regretted if there were not, a certain difference of opinion in
every ministry. Let any one consider, what the effect would be, if the contrary
maxim were received as a rule of political morality, and if it were thought
necessary that a ministry should consist of persons who were unanimous on all
questions. It is a mistake to say, that such a ministry could not be formed; no doubt
such a ministry could be formed; but of whom would it be composed? Among
hacks who would not scruple to sell their opinions for place, or tools who being
either too ignorant or too cowardly to think for themselves, pin their faith upon
IWhen the Tory Prime Minister, Robert Jenkinson, Lord Liverpool, had a stroke in
February 1827,his place was taken on 12 April by George Canning, who had been Foreign
Secretary and leader in the House of Commons. Several leading Tories, including Arthur
Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington, Robert Peel, and John Scott, Lord Eldon, refused to
serve under Canning. Consequently, some Whigs agreed to support Canning in a coalition:
they included Henry Peter Brougham (1788-1868); Henry Richard Vassall Fox (1773-
1840), Baron Holland; Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice (1780-1863), Marquis of Lansdowne;
and George Tiemey (1761-1830). Lord John Russell (1792-1878) and John Charles
Spencer (1782-1845), Lord Althorp, were also supportive of the coalition, but less
enthusiastic.
June 1827 The Coalition Ministry 399
some idol, whether that idol be a sect, a party, or an individual, this perfect
unanimity might be found. But men of knowledge and talent, men of stored and
cultivated minds, who avail themselves of the aids afforded by the understandings
of others without surrendering their own, men who inquire for themselves,
observe for themselves and judge for themselves, such men cannot, like mere
passive machines, be formed after a model. Such men will differ and must
necessarily differ, and a ministry, be it what it may, must either be composed of
persons who differ, or it cannot be composed of such men. The coincidence of
opinion which ought to be required in a ministry is not absolute coincidence; it is
sufficient if they coincide more nearly with one another than any part of them do
with their common opponents. That this degree of coincidence really exists
between Mr. Canning and his Whig colleagues, if it could be doubtful before, has
been made as I conceive tolerably clear by the recent divisions on the Corn Laws,
and the Dissenters' Marriage Bill. 2
Neither does it follow, as was asserted by an honourable friend of mine 3on the
former evening, that the two parties who have coalesced have either of them
sacrificed even the principles on which they differ. And here again I am at issue
with the new opposition though not more so, I will take leave to say, than they
themselves are at issue with their former professions. It is no new thing for two
cabinet ministers to speak and vote on opposite sides of the same question. Neither
Mr. Peel nor Mr. Canning, although colleagues in office, sacrificed their
respective opinions on the Catholic claims, nor, I will venture to affirm, will Mr.
Canning and Lord Lansdowne though colleagues in office, sacrifice their opinions
on the Test Act. 4 A gentleman 5 who spoke on the last night justly observed, that
this question must come on next year, and that neither the Whigs nor Mr. Canning
can sacrifice the opinions they have expressed, and therefore, said he, how can the
ministry hold together? I should rather ask, why should they not hold together? If
they cannot agree, why should they not agree to differ? Any ministry may hold
together, who prefer one another and whom the majority of the two Houses prefer
2The Whigs cooperated with Canning in supporting "A Bill for Granting Duties of
Customson Corn," 7 & 8 George IV (29 Mar., 1827). PP, 1826-27, I, 4! 3-18, which was
defeatedin the Lords. Subsequentlysuccessfully amended with Whig support was a motion
on cornlawsthat would havehad the same liberal effects as the Bill (PD, n.s., Vol. 17,col.
1339). The Whig measure, "A Bill for Granting Relief to Certain Persons Dissenting from
the Churchof England, in Respect of the Mode ofCelebrating Marriage," 8 George IV ( 14
May, 1827), PP, 1826-27, II, 21-4, was supported by Canning on 19 June, 1827 (PD,
n.s., Vol. 17, col. 1345), and passed the Commons, though it was not enacted.
3Not identified.
Test Acts, designed to ensure religious loyalty, were 25 Charles II, c. 2 (1672) and
30 Charles II, 2rid sess., c. 1 ( 1677 [ 1678]). For Canning's view that they should not be
tamperedwith, see his Speech on the New Administration (3 May, 1827), PD, n.s., Vol.
17, col. 541; Petty-Fitzmaurice's long-standing opposition is seen in his Speech on the
Roman Catholic Question (27 May, 1819), PD, 1st ser., Vol. 40, cols. 438-40.
5Not identified.
400 Journals and Speeches No. 23
to any other ministry which could be formed out of the existing materials; and it is
right that it should be so. The question is really too plain to stand in need of any
further argument. Without standing here as the advocate either of Mr. Canning or
the Whigs, and certainly differing most widely in my political principles from
either, I must say it seems to me quite ridiculous to suppose that the mere fact of
their coalescing as they have done implies any sacrifice of principle on either side.
Whether there has been any sacrifice of principle or not is a question fairly open
to discussion: a question, as I have already observed which their subsequent
conduct must determine. And it appears to me that in this view no part of their
subsequent conduct is immaterial. It is all evidence: evidence to sbew, on what
principles the government is hereafter to be conducted: and though the evidence is
' not yet complete, there is no harm in summing it up as far as it goes. aln foreign
policy, for example, Mr. Canning's earlier history suggests that he may go to a far
greater lengths than even the most liberal of their measures. Will the present
ministry imitate so noble an example? Will Mr. Canning and his friends maintain
the integrity of these principles inviolate? I confess my fears. Three months ago I
should have felt no doubt that they who had persevered so long would persevere
still. Up to this junction they have with a stedfastness and constancy most unusual
in public men, adhered to their principles, through good report and bad, in
defiance of the most bitter hostility from a large majority of that section of the
aristocracy which was then the predominant section, and with which they were
politically allied. 6 They have now, however, connected themselves with a party,
el'he textends mid-page; the nextfolio, 4r, which is cancelled by two vertical inked lines,
reads: "The Whigs never were this, and they may now plead their former demerits in
exculpationof theirpresent conduct. They did indeed prepare, under the prostituted name of
Parliamentaryreform, a scheme for giving more power to those who already have it almost
all,--the landlords: but I confess that, like Mr. Canning, I prefer Gatton and Old Sarum. 1
prefer the members who are accountable to nobody, above those who are accountable to
men who have an interest in misgovernment. I prefer the man who openly buys his seat
abovethe manto whom it is given on condition of being misemployed; I preferthe man who
maydo exactly ashe pleases, abovethe man who is allowed to do as he pleases only when he
pleases wrong, hAs I therefore prefer Mr. Canning's no reform above the mock reform of
the Whigs, I cannot but applaud them if they have really changed from the one to the other, b
But we are told that the Whigs have degraded themselves by a junction with Mr. Canning.
So far am Ifrom agreeing inthis opinion, CthatI must say, if there be any degradation in the
case, it is on the other side. c Mr. Canning and his friends will certainly never lose by a
comparison with the Whigs. They have done far more for the people than the Whigs would
have daredto do in their situation; and until this junction they have with a stedfastness and
constancy most unusual in public men, adhered to their principlesthrough good report and
bad, in defiance of the most bitter hostility from alarge majorityof the predominant section
of the aristocracy." The final word is on f. 4v, with two cancelled false starts, andthen the
text reSUlliCS.
"-"L] manuscript, TS [hiatus: the manuscript text ends at the bottom of a page and resumes in
mid-sentence on a torn folio]
b-b[ lightly cancelled in pencil in MS ]
c-_[ lightly cancelled in pencil in MS]
June 1827 The Coalition Ministry 401
which contains many men of talent, many accomplished men, many eloquent
men, and a majority, as I believe, in respect to personal objects, pure in intention:
but a party, however, whose leaders have this unfortunate infirmity, that they
never in their lives ventured except in an unguarded moment, to express more than
half a principle at a time--they never dared to utter a liberal or a generous
sentiment without qualifying it with something base and servile--their speech of
today always explains away the speech of yesterday--they now are by turns the
servants of God and of Mammon,7 and now endeavour to be both at once. It was to
be feared that when these two sets of men came together, the better of the two
would catch the infection from the worse. And so it has been. Whether truckling be
really infectious, or whether Mr. Canning and his friends are grown more afraid of
the aristocracy because they see that the aristocracy is more afraid of them, I know
not, but for some reason or another, their character is totally changed. When any
bad principlepany aristocratic principle--any principle favourable to abuses had
to be put forward, it has been uttered in a bold, unflinching uncompromising tone:
but as for principles of an opposite cast, principles to which those personages owe
all their reputation, and but for which they would not be at this moment in office,
since the late junction they have never been mentioned but to be compromised.
Lord Goderich, for example,--once the manly and straightforward Frederic
Robinson,--was so overcome by those brutal attacks at which, directed as they
were against the mildest and most inoffensive of men, every man of common
feeling must have been indignant, but which he would have treated as they
deserved by simply despising them--he felt these attacks so bitterly that he
condescended to make the most humble and submissive apologies for being in the
fight--hastened to explain away his high and honourable principles--reduced
free trade to a better sort of preventive service--a mere scheme for the suppression
of smuggling--and in terms with which even Sir Thomas Lethbridge 8 must have
been satisfied, declared his abhorrence of theory, that is of thought--of the
application of philosophy to politics--of all which distinguishes him and his
colleagues from the vulgar orators and vulgar statesmen of this and of former
days. 9Mr. Huskisson_°--but it will be better to begin at the beginning, and take a
view of the conduct of the new ministry, from their accession to office.
Let me observe, then, once for allmif I should be less warm in my eulogiums on
the present ministry, less indiscriminate in my panegyrics upon their wisdom and
virtue, than some of their old and some of their new friends, it is by no means to be
7Cf. Matthew, 6:24.
8For a bitter attack on the Coalition, see Buckler-Lethbridge's Speech on the New
Administration(11 May, 1827), PD, n.s., Vol. 17, cols. 745-51.
9The references are to such speeches by Frederick John Robinson, Lord Goderich
(1782-1859), as those on 2 and 25 May, 1827, ibid., cols. 472-9 and 984-99. He was
Secretaryfor Warand the Colonies in Carming's ministry.
l°WilliamHuskisson( 1770-1830), then M.P. for Liverpool, with a strong reputationas
a man of business, was President of the Board of Trade and Treasurer of the Navy in
Carming'sministry.
402 Journals and Speeches No. 23
imputed to any dislike of the individuals, and still less to any insensibility to the
services which they have already rendered. Those services would be inestimable,
were it only that they are the fLrstBritish ministers who have pronounced the words
improvement, reform, liberality, philosophy. Indeed Mr. Canning may be
convinced by the disapprobation with which the reformers now view some parts of
his conduct, of the sincerity of the praise which they have bestowed on him
heretofore. Most assuredly if that praise had emanated from the base motives to
which it has been ascribed; if as has been more than insinuated by men utterly
incapable of comprehending principles of action so greatly above their own
level--they had attacked the Whigs because they were not in place, applauded the
ministry because they were,--had such been their motives they would hardly have
, begun to qualify their applause from the time when the men whom they had
applauded became all powerful, and ceased to flatter as soon as their flattery might
possibly be profitable to themselves.
I would first advert to Mr. Canning's nonsensical declaration upon the subject of
Parliamentary Reform and the Test Act. 11I call it nonsensical because I know no
other term which will express its character so exactly. If Mr. Canning had said that
his opinion on these subjects was unchanged, and that while it was so he should
continue to act upon it as he had done previously,--however the fact might have
been regretted its avowal could have excited no disapprobation in any reasonable
mind. But to hear a man gravely pledge himself to be always of the same
opinion--bind himself by a solemn promise that the arguments which convince
him now, upon his honour shall convince him to his dying day--that what he
thinks advisable now he will think advisable always howsoever circumstances
may change, and although the evidence of the contrary should be as clear as
day,--as he promises what it is not in his or any man's power to perform, the
promise is utterly ludicrous. I wish I could say that it were not also something
worse than ludicrous. For although it is in no man's power to resolve before hand
that he will always be of the same way of thinking, it is in any man's power to
resolve to say he is of the same way of thinking, whether he is or is not. It is in any
man's power also to resolve to be disingenuous with himself--to resolve that he
will never look at the evidence but on one side--that nothing but what makes on
one side shall ever enter into his mind. But the man who can form such a resolution
is in a state of mind than which one more immoral is not to be found in human
nature. A resolution to be regardless of evidence implies on any subject,
indifference to truth. But indifference to truth where the alternative of truth or
falsehood involves that of justice or injustice, benevolence or cruelty, doing our
duty or not doing it--causing the happiness or the misery of our country, is
indifference to every human virtue. Parliamentary reform is a measure of which it
is not criminal in any one to disapprove. But it is a measure which sincere men,
I_Inhis speech of 3 May, 1827, already alluded to, Canning had declared that he would
always opposeboth.
June 1827 The Coalition Ministry 403
virtuous men, aye and wise men, have approved of; and most certainly, if it is to be
approved of, it is of such tremendous moment to the happiness and virtue of
countless myriads, that hardly any human interest can compare with it in
magnitude. And that this should be the question which a man chuses in order to
resolve that he will never grow wisermthat because he, a fallible man, thinks that he
is in the right, sooner than be convinced of the contrary he will practise every
species of dishonesty upon himself---that on this subject his intellect shall be
hood winked, his reason chained downmSir, I can never believe that this was what
Mr. Canning intended. The words must have been uttered in the warmth of the
moment, and without due reflection on their import. Not that I would assert that
such a declaration is viewed by general opinion in the light which it deserves.
Indeed were we to take our notions of right from what we see and hear, we should
suppose there was something heroic in swearing that if we were wrong, wrong we
always will remain, and that a man who pledges himself to adhere right or wrong to
the very opinions which correspond with his private interests, he is to be treated as
if he had nobly immolated himself to the welfare of his country.
Mr. Canning has declared his hostility to the repeal of the Test Act. But what is
become of those who called themselves the friends of that measure? Were they its
friends only when the agitation of it might befriend them? The more I reflect upon
the postponement of this question, the greater difficulty I find in attributing to it
any creditable motive. What is the reason assigned? It would embarrass the
government. _2Gentlemen were not wont to be so scrupulous about embarrassing
the government. If the repeal of the Test Act were like the Catholic question,--a
measure there was any chance that the government would ever support,--it might
he fairly said, Do not bring it on until the government can support it: but when the
head.of the government has positively declared his determination to oppose it, in
what way, I would ask, would its discussion embarrass the government, unless
exhibiting them in their true colours be the sort of embarrassment that is so
earnestly deprecated? It could not be carried this year. But does any man in his
senses suppose that it could be carried next year, or the year after? If it is not to be
discussed until it can be immediately carried, it is abandoned indeed. There seems
to be universally among public men a disposition to stave off discussion. They
always seem to think that by a free discussion it is truth which suffers, and not
error. They always clause rather to put their trust in tricks and stratagems for the
success of a good cause than the gradual effect of plain, open, manly and repeated
discussion, upon the reason of the well intentioned and upon the prudence of the
corrupt. This is a fatal weakness, but it is not a criminal one, and to this I am
12Russell,in his Speech on the Test and Corporation Acts (7 June, 1827), PD, n.s., Vol.
17, col. 1146, used this phrase. A meeting of the Protestant Dissenters' Committee for the
Repealof the Test andCorporation Acts on 28 May ( referred to below) had urged him not to
move a RepealBill on 7 June, as he had planned (ibid., 11 May, col. 744). See the leading
aaiele in The Times on the matter, 5 June, p. 2.
404 Journals and Speeches No. 23
disposed to ascribe the temporary abandonment of the Dissenters. But if this be the
motive, why not openly avow it? Why attempt to varnish it over by a flimsy, a
hypocritical pretext? Why seek to ward off the too plausible charge of
tergiversation by pretending that the Dissenters wished to postpone their claims,
and that the postponement was to please them? I admit that the body of Dissenters
did, at their meeting, yield a reluctant consent: but is it not known by whose
persuasions, by whose earnest entreaties--by whose threats that consent was
extorted? Is it any secret what distinguished member of the Whig party declared to
them that if they insisted on pressing their claims at this moment he himself in the
House of Commons would move the previous question; 13and what other member
of parliament, though this latter far from being a distinguished one, cried out with
' the air of a man astonished to find himself so important a personage, that he would
second it? _4Is it imagined that these things can be kept from the public? Do not at
this moment a large body of the Dissenters believe themselves to have been
sold--profligately bartered for place and power--sacrificed to appease those
whom no sacrifice ever appeased, the Church and the Aristocracy.--I differ from
them, as to the motives which they impute, and I am convinced that there is at
present no deliberate purpose of sacrificing them--but yet I cannot but expect the
Dissenters, if they expect to succeed, to trust to themselves, and not to men who
have played fast and loose with every cause which they ever undertook.
In justice to the noble Lord who gave notice of the motion, _51am bound to state
the profound respect with which his plain and straight forward conduct has
inspired me. It contrasts as strikingly with that of the men I have alluded to, as Dr.
Lushington's manly and honourable conduct on the Chancery question with that of
Mr. Broughaml6--a man whom I would not willingly mention in any terms but
those of praise--a man whose noble and disinterested services to the cause of
education acquit him of all errors except errors of judgment, and should induce us
the more readily to forgive his numerous failings, but not to overlook or disguise
them. But I need add nothing to what has been said of the conduct of the Whigs
both on this question, and on the Six Acts. 17On the latter question I must confess
that their conduct in some degree surprised me. I was little prepared to expect from
them any thing heroically disinterested, any very obstinate perseverance in the
right after their hopes and their fears began to point to the wrong. But I did expect
that the transition would have been more gradual. I did think that some little
respect would have been shewn to public opinion, some little pains taken to
smooth the downhill path that is trodden by reformed patriots whose exertions in
the cause of liberty have at length earned the well-merited reward of a place. But
no! they who had opposed the Act when the danger which it provided against was
real, have turned round and supported it when that danger is universally allowed to
be imaginary and when there is no longer the slightest pretext of its necessity. I
thank them for it! This single fact will do more to open the eyes of the people of
England than abstract truths though they were enforced by the eloquence of a
Demosthenes. Believe me, the people will not be turned round at their pleasure.
The people are generally in the main correct, in their judgment of public men, and
it would be very imprudent to let them suppose that the premier can find Whigs to
undertake any work which is too dirty for himself, even although it should be to
support a ministry which will go along, as Mr. Brougham says with the spirit of the
age, _8for which good end the Whigs are ready to run counter to that spirit every
day of their lives.
The conduct of the Whigs on this question has been censured, often, and
deservedly. But I have never heard Mr. Canning's speech on the same occasion, 19
properly commented upon. I am not disposed to scrutinize too closely all the acts
of a ministry, which is compelled as the condition of its existence to secure a
majority in two assemblies wholly independent of popular control. I can forgive so
much, that I can almost forgive the screening of Lord Charles Somerset, though to
my mind, there is scarcely a more humiliating spectacle than that of Mr. Wilmot
Horton, benevolent and patriotic as we all know him, upright and sincere,--as we
would so gladly believe him,--not only shielding from enquiry the conduct of that
individual, who if he be not the most criminal is certainly the most ill used of men,
but seeking a feeble protection for his client against the most serious charges by
endeavouring to excite a prejudice against his accuser, and carping like a mere
caviller against the time and manner of urging the accusations, instead of
17WhenJoseph Hume movedto repeal one of the Six Acts, 60 George III & I George IV,
c. 9, concerning blasphemous and seditious libels, the motion was lost for want of Whig
support,thoughthe Whigs had been loud in their opposition to the passing of the Six Actsin
1819. For Hume's speech of 31 May, 1827, see PD, n.s., vol. 17, cols. 1063-6; the
division is recorded ibid., col. 1083.
ISCf.Brougham, Speech on Trade with India (15 May. 1827). ibid., col. 841. For the
phrase, see No. 5, nS.
mCanning,Speech on the Publication of Libel (31 May, 1827), ibid., cols. 1077-81.
406 Journals and Speeches No. 23
ascertaining that the accusations themselves are ill founded. 2° Sir, 1can make so
great allowances that I would not condemn even this very severely. But if they are
compelled to do wrong, they are not compelled to defend by disingenuous
artifices, the wrong which they do. I would ask Mr. Canning--if I were at this
moment in his presence I would ask him whether it was worthy of his
character--worthy of his talents--worthy of his candour in replying to Mr. Hume
on the twopenny trash act, as it was formerly called, to affect to consider it as
aimed against blasphemous publications--an act which as every child knows was
enacted for the avowed purpose of putting down Cobbett21--an act which when it
was passed was expressly grounded upon the existing disaffection to government,
and which included all publications touching upon Church or State or any subject
, connected with them. Does Mr. Canning presume so much upon our want of
memory? Does he think that he can trifle with that to which he cannot but be
conscious that he owes his present elevation--public opinion? Let him not
presume too much upon his individual popularity; it will desert him as rapidly as
his former unpopularity, when he ceases to deserve it. Let him not place his trust in
newspaper praise--the hacks of the press always bow the knee to the idol in
vogue. Does he imagine that the Times newspaper, for example, which now
worships him as a God, 22 would not turn and exhort the people to imbrue their
hands in his blood if it thought that by so doing it would add 500 to its 15,000
subscribers?
But I must now pass to a still more painful subject. One week ago, the name of
Mr. Huskisson stood higher with the nation for honesty and courage, combined
with great talent, and the only really valuable knowledge, the knowledge of
principles, than any livingmI must almost say any minister. In the teeth of the
most rancorous opposition, he had adhered nobly to his own course, had braved
clamours, to which almost any other minister would have succumbed, and had
braved them successfully. Even his enemies--and few men had more enemies, for
few have so well deserved the enmity of the ignorant and the worthless--but the
honest even among his enemies, while they disapproved of his principles,
honoured the constancy with which he adhered to them. I use no rash expression
when I say that the character of Mr. Huskisson did more to give dignity and
_The conduct ofCharles Henry Somerset ( 1767-1831 ) as Governorof the Capeof Good
Hope had been impugned in a memorial to parliament in July 1825 by a banished settler,
Bishop Burnett (a retired Naval Lieutenant), and defended by Robert John Wilmot Horton
( 1784-1841 ), M.P. for Newcasfle-under-Lyme, on 8 May, 1826, PD, n.s., Vol. 15, cols.
964-5.
21Cobbett's WeeklyPolitical Pamphlet, a twopenny version of his Political Register, had
been labelled "twopenny trash" in a leading article in the ministerial Courier on 2 Jan.,
1817,p. 2; Cobbettgleefully seized on the label ( see, e.g., Political Register, 6 Jan., 1820,
col. 575). 60 George 11I& I George IV, c. 9, was designed to control such publications.
22See,e.g., "New Ministry and Mr. Canning," The Times, 4 Apr., 1827, p. 7, and 9
Apr., p. 2.
June 1827 The Coalition Ministry 407
respectability and public confidence to the ministry than any other single
circumstance. And now--one short month after the most signal of triumphs over
the strongest division of his opponentsE3--after having refuted every argument
and disproved every fact which they alleged--he has covertly, by a clause in the
new Customs Act, 24 conceded the whole of his principle together with much of its
practical results to these vanquished and prostrate adversaries. Where were the
Whigs then,--they who when credit was to be gained by it, claimed to themselves
the merit wh.ich they had not, of originating these measures--where were they,
that they did not resume their thunder when he who had usurped it had laid it down?
We are apt, Sir, to suppose public men wiser than they are, and then to suppose
them greater rogues than they are because we cannot otherwise explain how such
wise men come to do such foolish things. But I cannot pay so poor a compliment to
Mr. Huskisson's understanding as to suppose him unaware of any inconsistency
between his conduct now and on the reciprocity bill. No, it is truckling: it can be
nothing but truckling, and all that is left to his previously enthusiastic admirers is to
hope that although the instrument he is not the cause. But regarding it as the act of
the entire ministry, I would ask is this the course which they intend to persevere in?
Do they mean to undo when they have obtained power all the meritorious acts by
which they gained it? They cannot be so blind to their real situation as to suppose
that they were raised to their present elevation by any thing except public opinion,
or that they will keep it one week longer than while public opinion strongly
supports them. Do they suppose that they can ever be favourites with the
aristocracy? Do they really imagine that they can ever outstrip their competitors in
servility, or that men of genius can ever rival fools in self abasement? Do they
think that the awkward sycophancy of men conscious of superiority, of men fit for
and who have a taste for better things, men who detest the odious work, to whose
whole nature it is alien, can ever equal that of creatures to whose base souls it is
congenial, the hacks of office, the hirelings of power, who have not one idea that is
not commonplace, one purpose that is not mean, and who swallow servility with
greater gusto than their daily bread? No, to whatever degree these men may be so
unhappy as to degrade themselves, the Church and the Aristocracy will still find
others more degraded. Prostitution is not the game for them. It was no wisdom, not
even worldly wisdom, to throw away the high reputation for principle, which they
23"Ilaeshipping interest had attacked Huskisson for modifying the Navigation Laws, for
example by 6 George IV, c. 114 (1825), to which Mill refers below as the "reciprocity
bill" (see also CW, Vol. VI, pp. 123-47); Huskisson defended himself, disproving their
case that British shipping had declined, in his Speech on the Shipping Interest of the
Country (7 May, 1827), PD, n.s., Vol. 17, cols. 619-62.
24"ABill to Amend the Laws Relating to the Customs," 7 & 8 GeorgeIV (8 June, 1827),
maP,1826-27, II, 371-84 (enacted as 7 & 8 George IV, c. 56 [1827]). An unnumbered
clauseon p. 375 of the Bill added thirteen to the list of products that could be imported from
Europe only in British vessels or those of the nation of origin.
408 Journals and Speeches No. 23
had acquired, and which it is not yet too late to retrieve. But it is not to be
dissembled that a few more acts like this last will efface the distinction which the
public has hitherto made between them and their opponents. They are in a difficult
situation. The public already expected more from them than they could do, and had
they even done all that was in their power, it would have been difficult to keep alive
the enthusiasm which was at fast excited by the change of ministry, but which their
defeat on the Corn Bill alone retains in existence. 25And if once the people cease to
value them--if it once becomes a matter of indifference to the public whether they
are ministers or not,--their reign is over. The hatred of the Tory aristocracy
towards them is at this moment kept down only by their fears. Let those fears cease
and their majority in parliament will not stand by them for a month, they will fall,
' and we shall see rushing into office, the rabble rout 26 of Tories headed by an
apostate Whig. 27 The reign of dulness 28 will recommence: it will become the
fashion, (as before the late change it was rapidly becoming) to affiche 29
ignorance, and boast of it as if it were a merit--every thing which savours of mind
will again become an object of scorn and opprobrium--it will be criminal to
possess any knowledge except the knowledge of routine, or to aim at any thing in
public life except to make profit by pandering to the selfish and malignant passions
of others--and diligently will that war be prosecuted which a noble personage has
recently declared against the people in defence of the right and privilege of
spoliation, and the other rights and privileges of his order. 3° When this would be
the infallible consequence of the dissolution of the ministry, I need not say how
earnestly I desire that it may continue. To ensure its continuance nothing is
required but constancy. Let their actions be only worthy of their high character,
and that country for which they have hazarded so much will most assuredly stand
by them. The next session of parliament will finally decide their fate and ours: till
then I must delay forming a deliberate opinion, and till then, therefore, I must
decline voting upon the question before us. 31
25Anamendment against the principle of the Bill (see n2 above) having passed in the
Lords on 12 June, the government decided not to proceed to third reading (PD, n.s., Vol.
17, cols. 1238, 1258).
26Cf.The Two Noble Kinsmen, HI, v, 106; in The Riverside Shakespeare, p. 1661.
27ProbablyRichard Temple Nugent Brydges Chandos Grenville (1776-1839), Duke of
BuckinghamandChandos,political leader of the Grenvillites, afaction formerlyassociated
with the Whigs. Buckingham's hunger for high office was proverbial in political circles.
2SMillis usingterms employed by Alexander Pope ( 1688-1744) in TheDunciad ( 1728),
in Works, ed. Joseph Walton, et al., new ed., 10 vols. (London: Priestley, and Hearne,
1822, 1825), Vol. V, passim.
29Apencilled interlineation, contemporary but probably not Mill's, reads: "trumpet the
praises".
3°JamesEdward Harris (1778-1841 ), Earlof Malmesbury, Speech on the Game Laws
Amendment Bill (11 May, 1827), PD, n.s., Vol. 17, cois. 733-8.
31Hereappears in pencil, in the same hand that supplied the other comment: "General
Remarks--I have expressed to you before in conversation that although we do not differ
November 1827 The Present State of Literature 409
MS, University College London, C.K. Ogden Library. Published as "Speech on the
Present State of Literature," Adelphi, 1 (1923-24), 681-93. The manuscript, which is
incomplete, is written on the verso of sheets of one of Bentham's manuscripts of his
Rationale of Judicial Evidence (1827), which Mill had been editing in the preceding years.
It is headed in Mill's hand: "Speech on the present state of literature," and inscribed on the
last folio with the same title and "spoken in 1827/8." As the f'ast sentence indicates, Mill
had proposed and now opened the question; Henry Cole mentions Mill as speaking, and
gives the topic: "That the Literature of this Country has declined and is declining," debated
on 16 November, 1827, the first meeting of the London Debating Society in that session.
(Cole himself spoke for the fast time in this debate.) There being no Fabian Society
transcript, this may be the second manuscript sold by Harold J. Laski immediately after his
purchase; if so, he must have borrowed it back from C.K. Ogden, or else it was edited by
Ogden rather than Laski. The variants record alternative manuscript readings. As not
published in Mill's lifetime, not listed in his bibliography.
much in the essentials of our opinions as to Canning and the present administration, that we
differ in the quantums of praise which we ought to give to them--I should say--that the
style and tone of your language in the preceeding [sic] pages when applied to Canning
Huskisson, Robinson etc. leaves not enough of difference between them and the Hampdons
[sic?] Turgots in past times or the Humes Ricardos and Benthams at present--And it
appears to me that we have Evidence enough on which to form an opinion--and that you
have given this evidence in your speech--Don't you think that you have in some degree
admitted the usual party plea of the alternative in the last two pages--
Otherwise I think the speech very well calculated for its purpose--"
410 Journals and Speeches No. 24
whom his lot is cast. We all know the power of early impressions over the human
mind and how often the direction which they give, decides the whole character, the
whole life of the man. The greatest men of every age, generally bear a family
likeness to their contemporaries: the most splendid monuments of genius which
literature can boast of, bear almost universally in a greater or less degree the stamp
of their age..But over the vast majority of literary men the spirit of their age z rules
absolutely supreme, because they studiously endeavour to resemble it, and not
only imitate but are apt to caricature its leading peculiarities.
It is the demand, in literature as in most other things, which calls forth the
supply. Among mental as well as among physical endowments, that is most
cultivated which is most admired. When the public bestowed so much of its
admiration upon skill in cutting throats, that it had very little to spare for any thing
else, all the ardent characters betook themselves to the trade of blood, and made it
their pride to be distinguished chiefly by the warlike virtues. At other times, when
the chief source of reputation was oratorical or poetical merit, every body who
possessed, or thought he possessed genius, was an orator or a poet. There have
always been men, who without much aiming at reputation, wrote chiefly to please
themselves or to improve their readers. But the grand object of writers in general is
success. The qualities most calculated to ensure success, constitute the sole idea
they have of merit: they cultivate in their own minds a habit of being pleased with
that which they find pleases those to whom they address themselves: their aim is to
be read and admired, and the degree in which that aim is successful, is the test by
which they try their own merits, and those of others. The weaker minds cannot
resist the contagion of the common opinion or the common taste: and such of the
stronger as prefer the honour and profit of pleasing others to the satisfaction of
pleasing themselves, set the example to their numerous imitators of sailing with
the stream.
Assuming therefore.as an indisputable truth, that the writers of every age are for
the most part what the readers make them, it becomes important to the present
question to consider who formed the reading public formerly, and who compose it
now.
The present age is very remarkably distinguished from all other ages by the
number of persons who can read, and what is of more consequence by the number
who do. Our working classes have learned to read, and our idle classes have
learned to find pleasure in reading, and to devote a part of that time to it, which
they formerly spent in amusements of a grosser kind. That human nature will be a
gainer, and that in a high degree by this change, no one can be more f'mnly
convinced than I am: but it will perhaps be found, that the benefit lies rather in the
ultimate, than in the immediate effects. Reading is necessary; but no wise or even
sensible man was ever made by reading alone. The proper use of reading is to be
literary composition are such as cannot be apprehended and felt without the
exercise of the thinking faculty. I may instance the works of two of the most highly
gifted minds which their respective nations have produced, Demosthenes, and
Milton. Of these may indeed be affirmed what Quintilian has said with somewhat
less justice of Cicero: Sciat etc. 3In neither of them is there any thing to captivate a
vulgar mind: and if not overawed by their reputation, the dunces and coxcombs
would unanimously agree in voting Demosthenes common place, and Milton a
bore.
A literature therefore of which the chief aim is to be read and applauded by the
half instructed many, is altogether precluded from the higher excellencies both of
thought and of composition. To obtain the character of a sound or brilliant thinker,
and a fine writer, among superficial people, it is a very different set of qualities
which must be cultivated.
People are in general much better pleased with the man who persuades them that
they have always been right, than with the man who tells them that they are wrong.
No one except the very few with whom truth is a consideration paramount to all
others, is pleased with any person for convincing him that he has been in error: and
if to think is always, to most people, a labour too irksome to be borne, more
especially will they turn a deaf ear to the man who bids them think when the
consequence intended is their being disabused of their favourite opinions, opinions
too, which they perhaps have an interest in sticking to. There remain two paths to
reputation and success. One is, to advocate strenuously and if possible
enthusiastically the reigning opinions, all, but especially those in which any
influential part of the community has an interest: to heap insult and opprobrium on
all who dissent from those opinions, and to keep those who profess them well
supplied with reasons to make themselves and others still better satisfied with
those opinions than before. Of the class of writers who pursue this plan, a class
comprising the great bulk of our moral and political writers, the greatest living
example is Dr. Southey 4 The other, for there is another mode of obtaining among
half instructed persons, a reputation for talent, is by dealing in paradoxes. There
are two ways of being a paradox monger. One is, by professing opinions, which
were not likely to occur to any body. But a still better way, is by maintaining
opinions so perfectly silly, that they are at once rejected by every body. The source
of reputation in this case, besides the strangeness of the opinion, is the surprise
which every one feels on finding that there is any thing plausible to be said in
behalf of so very gross and palpable an absurdity. If a man shews any talent in the
defence of it, he is accordingly set down as at least a very clever and ingenious
person; and if he has managed well, and made choice of a paradox which flatters
3Qnintilian(b. ca. 33 A.D. ), Institutio oratoria (Latin and English), trans. H.E. Butler,
4 vols. (London:Heinemann;Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 1921), Vol. I,
p. 66 (I, iv, ll).
4RobertSouthey (1774-1843), the poet, made D.C.L. by Oxford in 1820.
414 Journals and Speeches No. 24
would have occurred to himself. A ranting player, who tears a passion to rags, is
generally more admired by persons unacquainted with the external indications of
real passion than a chaste and natural actor, because in him the art is not perceived,
his imitation of nature appears nature itself, and where they can perceive no
difficulty they ascribe no merit. So in stile, a half cultivated taste is always caught
by gaudy, affected, and meretricious ornament, contributing nothing either to the
clearness of the idea or the vividness of the leading image; the effusion of a mind
not in earnest; the play of an imagination occupied with every thing in the world
except the subject. The writers whom the vulgar admire are those who deal in
conceits with Mr. Moore, s or commonplace metaphors with Mr. Jeffrey, or
extravagant and farfetched metaphors with Mr. Hazlitt or the rev. Mr. Irving. 9
And those who do not aim at this kind of stile become careless, and aim at no stile
at all. We have at this time many tolerable writers, but scarcely one who has
attained distinguished excellence in stile. I must except indeed Sir W. Scott, 1owho
in his peculiar department, description of external nature, is without a rival,
though in descriptions of human emotions and passions Richardson far excels
him._l But whom have we to compare, in wit and idiomatic English with Dr.
South, in easy, quiet, unaffected humour with Addison and Goldsmith, in grave,
Cervantes-like irony with Fielding, in nervous simplicity and poignant satire with
Swift, in pathos though stained by much affectation with Sterne? 12Whom have we
who can equal Hume in graceful narrative, Bolingbroke in brilliant and animated
declamation, Mandeville in copious, and appropriate though homely illustra-
tion, 13 and which of our authors, can rank with Berkeley for the felicitous
expression of abstruse thoughts, or can match, in exuberance of fancy corrected by
the severest judgment, that wonderful master of figurative eloquence, Lord
Bacon. I say nothing of what are commonly called our old writers, because my
knowledge of them is not extensive, but the writers I have named are sufficient to
exemplify the superiority, in point of mere writing, of other ages to our own.
It remains to mention one feature which particularly marks the literature of the
present day, and which I think has contributed more than any other to its
degradation: I mean the prevalence of periodical publications. This has operated
unfavourably upon our literature in a variety of ways. In the first place periodical
works are written, more exclusively than any others, for the day. They are
therefore under still stronger inducements than other works, to chime in with the
tastes of the day, and the prejudices of the day. All other writers though they
cannot attain immediate, may hope for ultimate reputation and success by being
above their age. Periodical writers must have immediate success, or none at all. I
hate journals, says G6the, somewhere, because they are the slaves of the day: 14
and ample experience confirms the truth of the observation.
It has been said in favour of periodical publications, that they promote a taste for
reading,15 and this praise they undoubtedly deserve: but it may be doubted whether
they occasion the reading of much besides themselves. If they cause many to go on
to books, who begin with newspapers and reviews, they also induce many to
satisfy themselves with reviews who would otherwise have read books. And they
contribute much to diminish the number of good books. Formerly a young writer
appeared before the public under his own colours: if he made his way it was by
having sufficient merit to gain a reputation of his own, and he was therefore
anxious to make his productions as perfect as he was able before he suffered them
to see the light. In this manner the taste for literary distinction, not being early or
easily gratified, grew into a passion, became deeply rooted in his mind, and if he
really possessed talent, rendered him probably for the whole of his life a
distinguished literary character. But now every young writer who possesses the
moderate degree of cleverness necessary to enable him to compose a readable
article for a review, finds he can turn his small capital of intellect to so good an
account by writing for periodicals, that it would be labour lost to wait till he had
made that capital larger: especially as that accuracy of research, that depth of
thought and that highly finished style, which are so essential to a work destined for
posterity, would not only not contribute to his success, but would obstruct it, by
taking up his time, and preventing him from composing rapidly. Writing
anonymously, he is not afraid of compromising his reputation, and the first crude
offspring of his brain, poured forth in a style which will always be good enough if it
is grammatical and runs pretty smoothly, passes from hand to hand by virtue of the
reputation of the review, and if it have any merit at all gains for the writer such a
moderate portion of celebrity as generally appeases the first cravings of his
appetite, and leaves him lukewarm about the attainment of a higher degree of
distinction, and averse to the severe application which it would require. I cannot
help ascribing partly to this cause, the very small number of good prose works
which have been published for many years past, except indeed novels, a branch
of literature which pays so well that there is always a sufficient motive for pro-
ducing it.
16[I ha]ve a still heavier charge against periodical literature. [It is t]his which
has made literature a trade. Nothing else [could h]ave rendered the literary
profession sufficiently [lucra]tive, to tempt men into it for the mere sake of
pecu[nia]ryprofit. We read in Pope and our other satirists of many dunces whose
evil genius persuaded them to write, to the great grief of their relations, and injury
of their worldly concerns; and who, from a real fondness for the occupation,
preferred starving upon the scanty produce of their pen to earning a comfortable
livelihood in any honest trade. 17But we do not find mention made by these authors
of any, who chose authorship as an advantageous investment of their labour and
capital in a commercial point of view, contracted for a stipulated quantity of
eloquence and wit, to be delivered on a certain day, were inspired punctually by 12
o'clock in order to be in time for the printer's boy at one, sold a burst of passion at
so much per line, and gave way to a movement of virtuous indignation as per order
received. That a literary man should receive a remuneration for his labour is no
more than just, provided he writes in every respect as he would have done if he had
no remuneration to expect. But whatever is a gainful occupation becomes the
occupation of many who have nothing beyond the pecuniary gain in view. What is
carried on as a trade, soon comes to be carried on upon mere trading principles of
profit and loss. When literature is upon this footing, it is of all trades almost
without exception the most degraded and vile, on account of the insincerity and
hypocrisy with which it is necessarily connected. Written composition, like any
other form of human discourse, is only endurable so far forth as the opinions and
sentiments which it promulgates, are supposed to be the real opinions and genuine
sentiments of the writer. The hack author who considers not what sentiments the
subject ought to inspire, but only what are the sentiments which are expected of
him, and who after having on due enquiry and examination settled to the
satisfaction of his own mind which side of the question will be the marketable side,
proceeds thereupon to brandish his mercenary thunders, and burst forth into the
artificial transports of a bought enthusiasm; the occupation of a street walking
prostitute is surely far more respectable. The present times have brought forth a
plentiful harvest of this kind of handicrafts. It is fortunate indeed if scribes of this
sort do nothing worse than this, in the way of their profession. There are literary_8
16Thecorner of the folio being missing, the bracketed readings in the following three
sentencesare conjectural; they agree with those in the Adelphi (when the manuscriptmay
have been intact), except that Adelphi reads "would have" rather than the more likely
"could have".
17Forexample, following Pope's Dunciad, Edward Young ( 1683-1765) wrote on the
theme inTwo Epistles to Mr. Pope, Concerning the Authors of the Age (London: Gilliver,
1730); and, more recently, George Daniel (1789-1864) had published The Modern
Dunciad (London: Redwell and Wilson, 1814).
18Themanuscript ends at the bottom of the folio, and both the typescript and the version
inthe Adelphi end here.
418 Journals and Speeches No. 25
MS, Mill-Taylor Collection, II/1/9. Typescripts, Fabian Society: the text of the first
typescriptparallels that of the manuscript; the second, headed "[ A fragment of one page ]"
is evidently a passage for insertion, as the context indicates (421.27). Edited by Harold J.
Laski in his edition of Mill's Autobiography, pp. 310-25, who dates it to 1829. MS headed
in Mill's hand: "Speech on the Church." Undoubtedly prepared for the debate beginning on
1 February, 1828, describedby Henry Cole: "England derives no benefit from its Church
Establishment--[_] by Roebuck who made a mostexcellentspeech... Mr. Sterling
a new member.... "The debate was adjourned to the next meeting, 15 February, of which
' Cole says: "Continued Discussion upon the Benefits of Church Establishment;--Mssrs.
Mill, Ellis, Taylor, Shee, Smith and Conclusion by the Opener, Roebuck." As not
published in Mill's lifetime, not listed in his bibliography.
coming from the quarter it did and on the occasion on which it did, was one which
he had reason to be proud of. _ am thankful to the honourable gentleman for the
term--I invite the honourable gentleman to apply it to me--I should blush to be
that which the honourable gentleman would not call a friend of the impious. 2 I
thank heaven that my heart is not so hardened by bigotry nor my understanding so
perverted by lawyercraft but that I can sympathize with an oppressed man,
whatever may be his religious opinions. The man, be he Christian or Atheist who
endures torture and ignominy because he will not swerve from his convictions is to
me a martyr, and I should detest myself if I could not venerate him as he deserves.
What is it to me if Mr. Carlile is not a good reasoner? 31 never thought him a good
reasoner: but he is what I respect infinitely more, he is a man of principle, and a
man who will stand to his principles though he should stand alone, and though to
be merely supposed to sympathize with him is tantamount to an accusation of
impiety, shall I, because this man is not a good logician,--a man who is as ready to
die at the stake for what he thinks the truth, as any clergyman of the Church of
England can be ready for what he thinks the truth to conduct him thither,--shall I
knowing how few such men there are and how much is due to those few when they
arise, be deterred from expressing my disapprobation of their persecutors by a cry
of impiety? Let the honourable gentleman keep such stuff for the House of
Commons: there he will find in hundreds of bosoms a chord which will respond to
that which vibrates in his own: but I much mistake the tone of feeling in this
Society, if it contains one man, Tory or Churchman though he be, to whom such
feelings as the honourable gentleman gave utterance to, on the preceding evening,
are not entirely unknown.
With regard to the question in hand, it would certainly be a waste of words to
discuss, whether or not the Church of England is a persecuting church, with a
gentleman who thinks that to immure Mr. Carlile and about twenty of his
coadjutors in dungeons for terms of two, three, and five years is not persecution. 4
If a man squares his conscience by what the church does to him of course the
church can never be in the wrong; and if the good old practice of burning heretics
were revived, no doubt some persons would be still found who would maintain that
even this was not persecution. But my honourable friend who spoke fourth on the
preceding evening 5 is not of this stamp, and to him a somewhat different answer is
due. He had discretion enough to admit the iniquity of these persecutions but
affirmed that they are not imputable to the clergy of the Church of England. I am
glad, Sir, that this is the line of defence now resorted to by the more able advocates
of the Church of England because, in the first place, it shews that in their opinion
the time is now come when such proceedings as those which have taken place
against Mr. Carlile no longer admit of being openly defended: but further, I rejoice
to learn that these are the sentiments of my honourable friend, because as he seems
on this occasion to exculpate the church, not because such proceedings are
defensible, but because the church has no share in them, I am led to conclude that if
it could be proved to his satisfaction that these persecutions are in any degree
imputable to the church, he would no longer consider the church capable of being
defended on this ground. Now I shall easily be able to adduce evidence, which will
satisfy even my honourable friend's scepticism on this point. I do not pretend that
the church alone is to blame; there is enough of religious bigotry, God knows, both
in other professions and in other sects, although the existence of a powerful body
who are bound by interest to work up that baneful spirit, to the highest pitch cannot
have much tendency to mitigate it, at least: But there is a good deal to be said in
respect to the part which the Church of England has actually taken in the
persecution. My honourable friend in speaking on this subject, has shewn (to
parody an expression of Mr. Sheridan) a very pious ignorance on some topics: 6 he
has buried all transactions of this description, anterior to the late prosecution of the
Rev. R. Taylor, 7 in discreet oblivion. In that proceeding he says that Dissenters
were the chief agents, and seems not to be aware that the prime mover in the affair,
Mr. Alderman Atkins, is no Dissenter but a most orthodox highchurchman. 8
Although, however, my honourable friend cannot carry his recollection any
further back I can, and I can state for the benefit of his rather short memories, that
more than one-half of the prosecutions of Mr. Carlile, his family and his
coadjutors, were at the prosecution of the Society for the Suppression of Vice. 9
SNot identified, though this speaker, rather than the one previously mentioned, might be
Sterling.
t'Cf. Richard Brinsley Butler Sheridan (1751-1816), "Speech on Summing up the
Evidenceon the Second, or Begum Charge" (3, 6, 10, and 13 June, 1788), in Speeches, 5
vols. (London: Martin, 1816), Vol. II, p. 64.
7Robert Taylor (1784-1844), a Churchman converted to Deism, had been sentenced to
one year's imprisonment on 7 February, 1828, for blaspheming in a sermon preached in
Salters' Hallon 24 October, 1827. He had becomefriends with Richard Carlile and, starting
on 15 February, 1828, wrote a weekly letter to Carlile's Lion, a sixpenny weekly founded to
record Taylor's trial.
8JolmAtkins (ca. 1760-1838), a Tory merchant tailor, hadbeen alderman of Walbrook
Ward since 1808.
9Founded in 1802, the Society concerned itself mainly with prosecuting obscene and
blasphemouspublications, although it also, through vigilantemethods, attempted to control
prostitution. It had aristocratic, religious, and, it was said, governmental support.
February 1828 The Church 421
Now although I give my honourable friend credit for a very considerable degree of
ingenuity, I do not suppose him to possess so great a share of it as to be able to
explain away the list of subscribers to that Society: a list comprising nearly as great
a number of bishops, and dignitaries of the church as subscribed to that other
creditable establishment, the Bridge Street Association, _0 which last attempt to
revive the execrable tyranny over political opinion, the good sense and virtue of
this country crushed in the bud. As I have alluded to this final ebullition of feelings
which, though as far as ever from being extinguished, no man now dares avow, I
cannot help saying, that I find it difficult to decide which aspect of the affair tells
most against the reverend subscribers; the odiousness of the design, or the
contemptible imbecility of the execution. The whole funds of that Association
sufficed only for, I believe, nine prosecutions--and these in every, or almost
every instance, directed against mere accessories and not principals in what they
pretended to call an offence. But the Association is gone, where all such
Associations ought to go--gone, I should say for ever, were it not that clergymen,
who according to the well known remark of Lord Clarendon, understand the least,
and take the worst measure of human affairs, of all men who can read or write, _1
are likely enough to suffer themselves to be hoaxed out of a little more of their
money by some cunning attorney, who if he can succeed in persuading them that
his object in asking for it is to make use of it for the purpose of helping to degrade
the human mind, can make himself sure of raising, among a large portion of them
at least enough to make his own fortune by law expences, which is generally the
purpose of the more prominent agents in such transactions.
But if this institution is now no more, the Vice Society still exists; and by this
Society were most of the prosecutions against Carlile and his followers instituted.
Here introduce the _gloating a.
_Vly honourable friend has told me that the clergy gloated over his sufferings:
this was perhaps going a little too far since there are persons to be found, and very
likely some of them may be subscribers to the Vice Society, who, as is reported on
one occasion of Napoleon, can with maudlin sensibility weep for the evils they
inflict. 12This however is small consolation to the sufferer, b The very fact. that
l°Founded in 1821 and collapsing within the year, the Constitutional Association for
Opposing the Progressof Disloyal and Seditious Principles, often satirized by radicals as
the "Mock-Constitutional Association" or the "Bridge Street Gang," also instituted
prosecutions against libellous publications. It too had support from aristocrats and
churchmen.
ltCf. Edward Hyde (1609-74), 1st Earl of Clarendon, The Life of Edward, Earl of
Clarendon, 2 vols. in 1 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1759), Vol. I, p. 34.
12Reportedin Emmanuel Augustin Dieudonn6 Matin Joseph. comte de l..as Cases
( 1766-1842), Mdmorial de Sainte-Hdldne.Journal of the Private Life and Conversation of
the Emperor Napoleon at Saint Helena (1823), 8 pts. in 4 vols. (London: Colbum, 1823),
Vol. IH, p. 225 (19 Aug., 1816).
°-aL record [the word is difficult to read: TS has a gap; L,TS put the whole sentence m paren-
theses]
v'a[text from second typescript]
422 Journals and Speeches No. 25
13Notidentified.
1425CharlesII, c. 2 (1672); 30 Charles II, 2nd sess., c. 1 (1678); and 13 Charles II,
2nd sess., c. 1 (1661).
tSBlackstone,Commentaries, Vol. IV, pp. 57-8.
16johnArbuthnot( 1667-1735), The History of John Bull ( 1712), included in Jonathan
Swift, Works, Vol. VI, pp. 233-407.
17BothI Elizabeth, c. 2 (1558), and 13 & 14 Charles II, c. 4 (1662), were "celebrated"
Actsof Uniformity,though Mill is probablythinking of the latter,which modifiedthe Book
of Common Prayer and the forms of rituals and ceremonies.
ISl0 Anne, c. 2 (1711).
February 1828 The Church 423
thought that they could conscientiously attend it occasionally and thereby escape
the disabilities of the law--when I see all this and when I find him absolutely
astonished that Hume should be considered a good witness against the church, a
man who sold his conscience for them, a writer who violated every law of
historical veracity in order to screen the church,19--I am tempted to ask, under
what High Church Cparsonc, in what obscure comer of the kingdom remote from
all access of books and converse of men, the honourable gentleman imbibed his
knowledge of history. The battle of the church really is not to be thus fought--we
all know how great allowances ought to be made for an extemporaneous effusion
but it really is a fact, that some knowledge of the subject is necessary even to make
a defender of the church; and until the honourable gentleman shall have acquired
such knowledge or at least shall have it more under his command than he appeared
to have on the former evening, it would be much wiser in him were he to leave the
cause of the church in the hands of my honourable friend who so ably followed on
the same side. 2o
I have now concluded by far the greater part of what I intend to trouble the
Society with on this evening. It was in fact only in order to support and vindicate
my friend the proposer of the question, that I felt desirous of taking any part
whatever in the discussion, since I do not consider the question to be one which
admits of being discussed with much prospect of advantage in a debate, at least if
the end in view be mutual persuasion. The difference between us is too deeply
rooted, and is connected on both sides with too great a number of extensive and
important principles, each of them far more than sufficient to form in itself the
subject of an animated and protracted discussion. How, for instance, can we agree
in our estimation of the church in respect of the support which it lends to the
aristocratic institutions of this country, so long as there is one portion among us
who disapprove of these institutions, and think that every support which they
possess is one too many, while the remainder so far from thinking that any support
should be taken away, are of opinion that those institutions require, and ought to
have still stronger supports than they possess? Or how again can two of the ablest
speakers on the last evening, 2_ agree in their estimate of Hume's argument in
favour of a church establishment, that it diminishes the activity of the clergy; when
the one is a warm admirer and partaker of religious enthusiasm, and the other
condemns it under the name of fanaticism? There is a great deal more involved in
this question than can be stated in a debate, and I should despise the man who,
having previously been of a different opinion, could be convinced in an evening by
North America, there is, humanly speaking, no probability that these causes of
retrogression should ever again recur, and that from the increasing diffusion and
growing power of the two great instruments, education and discussion, it is to be
expected that the human mind in these countries will continue to advance, not only
with an unretarded, but as it has done during the last twenty years, with a rapidly
increasing pace.
Now it is to this great tendency of the human mind, and to education and
discussion as the promoters of it, that in my view of the matter, an established
clergy by a sort of moral necessity must be, and at any rate always is, the bitter
enemy. When I say an established clergy I mean any clergy, which is paid on
condition of teaching a particular creed, but more especially a clergy connected
with the governing powers of the state, and bound by that connexion to the support
of certain political tenets as well as religious ones.
If there were a corporate body of physicians or a corporate body of engineers,
paid by the state, rewarded with honours and wealth, on condition that they should
always teach a certain set of doctrines in physic or mechanics, it can scarcely be
doubted that such a body would be interested in preventing all improvement in
physic or mechanics, lest the public should get beyond their particular tenets, and
having done so should cease to regard these their teachers with due veneration.
Happily this is not the case. Neither the physician nor the engineer is bound down
to a particular set of opinions in their respective sciences; the clergyman is.
Wherever there is a hierarchy--wherever there is such a thing as church
government, adherence to certain tenets is the condition on which he holds both his
emoluments and his power. If there be not only a hierarchy but a hierarchy
connected with the ruling powers in the state, it becomes the interest of its
members to uphold the existing government with all the political and moral, as
well as religious prejudices, which may conduce to their holding that government
in veneration. It will perhaps be said, that these opinions are the right opinions.
This may be true; but it likewise may be false. It would be a considerable stretch of
arrogance in mankind to suppose that they had already attained the pinnacle of
knowledge either in religion or politics; it is highly probable that there is still room
for improvement in both: I am sure there is much need at least so long as our perfect
government finds it very difficult to prevent half our population from dying of
hunger and our perfect religion has not yet found the means of preventing our jails
from being constantly full. I shall not however chuse to rest my case upon any
argument which implies that it is possible for an established opinion to be wrong. I
will suppose that our clergy teach no opinions but such as are right, either in
religion or politics. It is not the less true that in the progress of human
improvement, every one of these opinions comes to be questioned. The good of
mankind requires that it should be so. The good of mankind requires that nothing
should be believed until the question be ftrst asked, what evidence there is for it.
426 Journals and Speeches No. 25
The very idea of progressiveness implies not indeed the rejection, but the
questioning of all established opinions. The human intellect is then only in its right
state when it has searched all things, in order that it may hold fast by that which is
good. Now when this spirit of universal enquiry arises, it must extend to those two
most important subjects: the experience of all ages warrants the assertion that when
the human mind once begins to improve, men will discuss religion and politics and
no force, which does not go the length of crushing the spirit of improvement
altogether, can prevent it. In consequence of this discussion persons are sure to
arise who dispute the established opinions. These persons are listened to, they are
allowed at least a patient hearing. This the clergy will never voluntarily allow. It is
of no use to say that the clergy may defend their opinions; so they may; and if the
opinions be true, and be defended with as much ability as they are attacked, they
will be defended successfully. But this would give an immensity of trouble. It is
well known that richly endowed bodies are never very fond of trouble: it is allowed
both by the friends and the enemies of opulent church establishments, that the love
of ease is always their predominant infirmity. Besides the trouble there is
moreover always a lurking apprehension, lest after all their endeavours to keep the
people in the right path should not succeed, or if it should, people should no longer
duly venerate their pastors for communicating to them truths which, as they had
examined into the evidence, they would seem to owe to their own understandings
alone. How much easier and how much safer would it be, if they could be
prevented from enquiring at all--if they could be made to regard the very act of
enquiry, nay the very thought of questioning an established opinion, as involving
the deepest guilt. It is true that they will not then hold these opinions like rational
creatures, but it is of no consequence to the clergy that they should hold them like
rational beings, provided they only hold them strongly enough: and no opinions
are held so strongly as those which we are taught that it is impious even to demand
a reason for.
Such are the motives which induce an endowed clergy to be the enemies of
discussion, and as discussion always accompanies improvement they are the
enemies of improvement. In order to prevent discussion, they have not scrupled
wherever they had the power to debase the human mind down to the level of the
brutes. In all countries where they could get the civil power to side with them, that
is in almost all the Catholic countries of Europe, they have succeeded in their
nefarious purpose, and mankind are still grovelling at their feet. It is very idle to
say that these are Catholic priests, and therefore not to be quoted against the
Church of England. That the Catholic priests perpetrated these things is not owing
to any peculiar perversity in the nature of the men, it is owing to their interests as
priests, aided by a religion which gave them more power to effect their purposes,
but did not give them a stronger motive. In England at the reformation it became
the interest of the civil power to raise public feeling against the church, and the
latter consequently had no longer much power either moral or political of effecting
February 1828 The Church 427
its ends, but as soon as, under Charles I, 22 it found the civil power ready to renew
the alliance, it re.commenced its war against the progress of the human mind, and
nearly succeeded in throwing us back to the condition of France and Spain.
Fortuaately the habit of free enquiry had in the preceding years been too strong to
be checked, and we were saved by a revolution from the double consummation of
civil and ecclesiastical tyranny. Though this grand conspiracy had failed the
Church of England has never ceased its resistance 23 in the detail. Not one step has
been made from persecution to religious liberty but in the teeth of their most
strenuous opposition; never have they suffered one particle of discussion in
religion and politics which it was in their power to prevent; not a step has been
taken with their good will for the diffusion of education. I speak of them as a body.
They have never originated any one plan for spreading or improving it--and
whatever plans have been prepared by others, from the Lancastrian and Infant
Schools up to the University of London 24 they have, as a body, most violently
opposed except that in most of these instances when they at last found that the thing
would go on in spite of their opposition, they have, as the next best thing to
preventing the improvement altogether, attempted to keep it in their own hands for
sectarian purposes. As people would read, they might read the Bible and the
Prayerbook: but as for reading the Bible without the Prayerbook, No, no, that was
not to be endured. Their only doubt was whether the persons who proposed it were
Atheists, Deists or Dissenters. The word of God was not fit to be read, unless that
of man was administered along with it: and their account of what God said, or what
in their opinion he should have said, was to be forced down the throats of babes and
sucklings 2s avowedly on the ground that unless a belief in it were firmly fixed in
the mind at an age previous to that at which the reasoning faculty begins to operate,
in all probability the habit would never establish itself at all. But I have exceeded
the time which I allowed myself for stating the grounds of my disapprobation of the
church. I have stated them sufficiently for purposes of information. It was not my
object to state them for purposes of argument--Here therefore I shall stop.
26. Perfectibility
2 MAY, 1828
visionary? I can assure honourable gentlemen that so far from being a proof of any
wisdom it is what any fool can do as well as themselves, and I believe it is the fools
principally, who have attached to that mode of proceeding the reputation of
wisdom. For as I have observed that if there is a man in public or private life who is
so impenetrably dull that reason and argument never make the slightest impression
upon him, the dull people immediately set him down as a man of excellent
judgment and strong sense, as if because men of talent and genius are sometimes
deficient in judgment, it followed that it was only necessary to be without one
spark of talent or genius in order to be a man of consummate judgment, because
people are sometimes deceived by rash hopes in the same manner. I think I have
observed that not the man who hopes when others despair, but the man who
despairs when others hope, is admired by a large class of persons as a sage, and
wisdom is supposed to consist not in seeing further than other people, but in not
seeing so far. I mean no disrespect to some highly estimable persons, who are of a
different opinion from myself on this question, but I am persuaded that a vast
majority of those who laugh at the hopes of those who think that man can be raised
to any higher rank as a moral and intellectual being, do so from a principle very
different from wisdom or knowledge of the world. 1believe that the great majority
of those who speak of perfectibility as a dream do so because they feel that it is one
which would afford them no pleasure if it were realised. I believe that they hold the
progressiveness of the human mind to be chimerical, because they are conscious
that they themselves are doing nothing to forward it and are anxious to believe that
great work impossible, in which if it were possible they know it would be their duty
to assist. I believe that there is something else which powerfully helps many
persons to the same conclusion, a consciousness that they do not wish to get rid of
their own imperfections, and a consequent unwillingness to believe it practicable
that others should throw off theirs. I believe that if persons ignorant of the world
sometimes miscalculate from expecting to find mankind wiser and better than they
are, those persons who most affect to know the world are incessantly miscalculat-
ing the opposite way, and confidently reckoning upon a greater degree of knavery
and folly among mankind than really exists. These last indeed differ from the
others in not being so ready to correct their error, since the same utter incapacity of
taking any generous and enlarged views which caused their mistake, prevents
them from discovering it, and makes them impute those effects of the better partof
man's nature which they did not calculate upon, only to a different species of
selfishness. I will even say, that so far from its being a mark of wisdom to despair
of human improvement there is no more certain indication of narrow views and a
limited understanding, cad that the wisest men of all political and religious
opinions, from Condorcet to Mr. Coleridge, l have been something nearly
approaching to perfectibilians. Nay further, that the anti perfectibility doctrine, far
from having the sanction of experience, is brought forward in opposition to one of
the clearest cases of experience which human affairs present, and that by all just
rules of induction we ought to conclude that an extremely high degree of moral and
intellectual excellence may be made to prevail among mankind at large, since
causes exist which have confessedly been found adequate to produce it in many
particular instances.
In the little which I intend to say, I shall attempt little more than to expand and
develope this last remark. There are others in this Society far more competent than
myself to discuss in detail the past progress of the human mind, and the stages
through which it is likely to pass in the road to further improvement. I leave it to
, them to point out how the difficulties are to be struggled with--it is enough for me
if I can establish, on the ground of solid experience, that these difficulties may be
overcome.
I shall conf'me myself in the first instance to the question of moral improvement.
I shall not ask you, Sir, to expect among mankind any degree of moral excellence
that is without parallel. My standard shall be one which we all know, which we all
believe in, with which we are all familiar in our own experience. I suppose it will
not be denied that there are and have been persons who have possessed a very high
degree of virtue. Now here I take my stand: there have been such persons. I do not
care how many; nor who they were. If I were to name any person, any historical
character, to whom I think the designation applicable, without doubt that person
might he cavilled at, and something raked up to throw a doubt upon his virtue, for it
is difficult to adduce evidence on such a point that shall leave no possibility of
cavil; but will those persons who say that this man or that man was not virtuous go
farther and say that nobody was ever virtuous? I should think not. All they can say
is that in the most virtuous there has been some frailty, some fault or weakness
which has rendered even the best of them less than perfect. Certainly all this may
be safely admitted. I shall not affirm that men in general can be made better than
the best men whom the human race has hitherto produced.
Well then, here is a fact: there have been virtuous men: Now, what made them
virtuous? I call upon the gentlemen on the other side to answer this question, for if
it should turn out that those who are virtuous are so from causes which though they
now act only upon a few, can be made to act upon all mankind, or the greater part,
it is within the power of human exertion to make all or most men as virtuous as
those are. I therefore challenge honourable gentlemen to say to what they attribute
the superior moral excellence of some persons. If they do not answer, I will. It is to
the original influence of good moral education, in their early years, and the
insensible influence of the world, of society, of public opinion, upon their habits
and associations in after life. Here then is specific experience. It is distinctly
proved that these two forces, education and public opinion, when they are both of
them brought fairly into play, and made to act in harmony with one another, are
May 1828 Perfectibility 431
capable of producing high moral excellence. And yet the greater part of the
arguments which have been advanced against us this evening are intended to prove
that moral education and public opinion are not capable of producing these effects.
Why then have these causes not produced the same effects upon all, which they
have upon some? Why but because they have not acted upon all. No pains have
been taken with the moral education of mankind in general. The great business of
moral education, to form virtuous habits of mind, is I may say entirely neglected:
the child is indeed punished for certain immoral acts, but as for going to the root of
the evil, and correcting the dispositions in which these acts originate, the thing is
never thought of, or if it is thought of, nothing can be more ridiculously
inefficacious than the means which are taken to effect it. And all this from sheer
ignorance: for it is not that people do not set a sufficient value upon those habits of
mind which lead to good habits of conduct; it is that they really do not know how
such habits are generated, what they depend upon, and what mode of education
favours or counteracts them. While that education which is called education is in
this deplorable state, that insensible education which is not called education is still
worse, for almost every where the great objects of ambition, those which ought to
be the rewards of high intellectual and moral excellence, are the rewards either of
wealth, as in this country, or of private favour, as in most others; and it is an
established fact in the nature of man that whatever are the means by which the great
recompenses of ambition are to be obtained, the person who possesses these
means, and can therefore pretend to those recompenses, is the person who
exercises influence over the public mind; he is the person whose favour is courted,
whose actions are imitated, whose opinions are adopted, and the contagion of
whose feelings is caught by the mass of mankind.
It is a very poor and ill divided public opinion, which can be formed out of an
aggregate so ill composed. And yet that public opinion which is the result of so bad
a moral education, is sufficient whenever it is combined with a better moral
education to produce all the virtue which we see realized in some individuals of
mankind as they now are.
It will of course be said that although good moral education and the operation of
public opinion produce so much excellence in some persons, it does not follow that
they can in all. I maintain on the contrary, that there is much less difficulty in
producing it in all than there has been to produce it in some. Whatever of moral
excellence now exists, has been produced in spite of a thousand obstacles: in spite
of systems of education which if the names were altered and they were reported to
us as existing in some far distant country would be considered incredible from the
absolute fatuity, the utter abnegation of intellect which they exhibit; in spite of
laws which in a hundred ways inflict evil upon one man for the benefit of another,
and generate a spirit of domination and oppression on one side, of cringing and
servility, mixed with bitter and vindictive resentment on the other; in spite of
systems of judicial procedure which seem devised on purpose to give right and
432 Journals and Speeches No. 26
wrong an equal chance, and in which every possible encouragement is held out to
the vice of insincerity--in spite of political institutions which in this at least, the
most civilized country in the world, render wealth the only acquisition which is
desired, poverty almost the only evil that is dreaded. All these evils might be
remedied by the hand of God. If notwithstanding all these things the best moral
education which the present circumstances of mankind admit of has produced, in
those to whom it is given, so much excellence, what may not be expected if we
remove these obstacles, and when they are taken away, give even as good a moral
education to the greater portion of mankind--why not to all mankind: for moral
excellence does not suppose a high order of intellectual cultivation, since it is often
found in greatest perfection in the rudest minds.
With respect to such doctrines as have been advanced this evening on the other
side, some of them I must confess have surprised me. We have been told that it is
impossible to diminish the amount of vice, because vice arises from the passions,
and it is impossible to vanquish the passions. Now, Sir, I demur to this, first, that it
is taking a very narrow view of the principles of morals and the nature of the human
mind to suppose that it is necessary for any good purpose to vanquish the passions.
There is not one of the passions which by a well regulated education may not be
converted into an auxiliary of the moral principle: there is not one of the passions
which may not be as fully and much more permanently gratified, by a course of
virtuous conduct than by vice. And if this be the case surely it would be the worst of
policy even looking to moral excellence without regarding happiness in the least,
to eradicate the passions, because it is they which furnish the active principle, the
moving force; the passions are the spring, the moral principle only the regulator of
human life.
But further, this very assertion that the passions cannot be vanquished may be
taken as a specimen of the shallow philosophy of these gentlemen and their very
superficial experience of mankind. They who profess to know human nature so
well, seem to be very little aware what it is capable of. Have we not seen that men
have lain for their whole lives upon beds of spikes; that they have stood all their
lives upon the tops of pillars; that they have remained all their lives without stirring
for one moment from a certain posture because they have willed it? Have they not
swung by hooks drawn through their backs, and suffered themselves to be crushed
by chariot wheels, and laid themselves voluntarily on funeral piles to be burned?
Have not these things been done not by heroes and philosophers, but thousands and
millions of common men, commonly educated? And then let gentlemen come and
give us arguments which, if they prove any thing, prove the impossibility of all
this. We could do none of these things: why? because we have never been
accustomed to fix our imaginations on these things long enough for our first horror
of them to wear off: but what caused these surprising achievements? It must have
been either religion, conscience, or public opinion; gentlemen may choose, it shall
May 1828 Perfectibility 433
be any one of the three: we have heard the force of each of the three separately
explained away, and very plausible arguments adduced to prove that no one of
them is strong enough to produce these effects. And yet the effects are produced.
And let me ask these gentlemen the reason why? I will give up any two of the forces
to them, if they grant me the third. If they ask, my own opinion is that all helped,
but that the proximate motive had most influence, that derived from public
opinion: and some honourable gentlemen who have sometimes wondered at
hearing public opinion spoken of in this Society as the immense force that it is,
may perhaps now see from these instances why it is so spoken of. (Introduce a
passage from Combe.) 2
But if such is the force of public opinion, what is wanting to produce that high
state of general morality which we aspire to? Simply that public opinion should be
well directed in respect of morality: that such a system of education should exist, as
will give to the mass of mankind, not learning, but commonsense--practical
judgment in ordinary affairs, and shall enable them to see that a thing is wrong
when it is wrong, as shall make them despise humbug and see through casuistry
and imposture, not to accept subterfuges and excuses for neglecting a duty, and not
think the same thing laudable under a fine name and blamable under a vulgar one,
for instance, not to think, like some persons in this room, that giving a man money,
or money's worth, for voting against his conviction, is criminal when called
bribery, but laudable when called legitimate influence of property: to judge of men
by the manner in which they act, not by the manner in which they talk; not to
estimate a man's moral excellence by the quantity of grimace which he exhibits in
his own person, or by the quantity of hypocrisy which he exacts from his family
and dependants; not to give men any credit for making great sacrifices at other
people's expense, or for being philanthropic at a distance and prudent at home; not
to think that charity consists in making laws to take away bread from the poor, and
subscribing a few pounds annually to some institution for giving it to them; and in
short not to see a great many other nice distinctions which the refined and
cultivated people of the present day are able to see, and very ready to act upon. And
there is another thing that is requisite--to take men out of the sphere of the opinion
of their separate and private coteries, and make them amenable to the general
tribunal of the public at large--to leave no class possessed of power sufficient to
protect one another in defying public opinion, and to manufacture a separate code
of morality for their private guidance; and so to organize the political institutions of
a country that no one could possess any power save what might be given to him by
the favourable sentiments, not of any separate class with a separate interest, but of
the people.
ZPossiblya referenceto GeorgeCombe ( 1788-1858); see, e.g., "Love of Approbation."
A System of Phrenology, 2nd ed. (Edinburgh: Anderson; London: Longman, et al., 1825).
pp. 165-73. The most likely passage for Mill to cite is on p. 168.
434 Journals and Speeches No. 27
l[First draft of the exordium:] Begin by remarks on the manner in which the debate has
been conductr,.d,and by reprehending any attempt to turn Wordsworth into ridicule: saying
to the person who attempts it,
1. Whether he imagines that the tone of mind which is constantly on the search for the
ridiculous and which in contemplating other human beings and their works takes delight in
picking out whatever is capable of being food for scorn,--is the proper tone of mind for
weighing great poets.
I must say that in a question between two poets, there is some presumption in favor of that
poetwhose advocatesin laying his pretensions before me, endeavourto bring my mind into
a state more capable of appreciating and feeling fine poetry--into a state, in short, a little
more like that state to which poetry addresses itself.
In Roebuck's speechlast evening I found very much to admire. I admired all thatpart of it
in which be addressed himself to the highest minds in the Society and to the highest part of
those minds, butI cannot admire that part where he seemed disposed to carrythe cause from
a better to a worse tribunal which he must have been conscious would produce a greater
effecton any mind, in proportion as that mind was farther removed from the highest class.
Formy part, I am perfectly willing to refer all my ideas on this subject to the verdict of those
January 1829 Wordsworth and Byron 435
side I mean to espouse can be sufficiently vindicated without it. This the more
necessary because at any rate I must call upon the Society to adopt what to many of
them is a new mode of judging of the merits of a poet. In most persons criticism is
not an affair of thought but of mere feeling: They read a writer and the one who
moves them most they pronounce the greatest poet. Therefore as it is in the nature
of different minds to be affected with any given emotion by different things, men
scarcely ever agree in their criticisms, and men generally despise all poetry but that
which is written for and addressed precisely to them. No doubt, the immediate
purpose of all poetry is to move: and no doubt also, that the merit of a poet, his
subject being given, is in proportion to the degree in which his means are well
chosen for that end. What I desire is, that men would not take their emotion in the
gross, and ascribe it to the poet, but would so far analyse it as to endeavour to find
out for how much of it they are indebted to his genius, and how much to the
previous state of their own minds. It is only thus that beauties, which depend upon
the casual and transitory associations of a particular nation or a particular age,
would be distinguished from those which derive their power to please, from the
original constitution of human nature itself. Persons habituated to this exercise,
would hesitate to treat as puerile and absurd, what other persons of minds equally
cultivated with themselves admire, until they had first considered whether it was
among my audience, and no doubt there are many, who are my equals or my superiors in
intellectualand moral cultivation. But I cannot consent [page ripped] those the judges of it,
whom I consider as my inferiors in both. My honourable friend must be aware that that
contemptuouslaugh with which some passages which he recited from Wordsworth were
_,.eived could only proceed from that portion of the Society whose suffrages a mindlike his
wouldleast desire to receive, that most of them probably were habitually and all of them at
that moment quite as incapable of comprehending the real beauties of Byron, as of
Wordsworth and that many passages from those parts of Wordsworth whom he has the
sense, taste, feeling, and virtue to admire, would have been received with the very same
laughif they had been recited in the same manner.
Shew how he disguised the real beauties of the poem of the Daffodils. ["1 wandered
lonely as a cloud" (1807), in Poetical Works, 5 vols. (London: Longman, et al.. 1827),
Vol. I1, pp. 77-8. ] Also what Wordsworth meant by it. As to the other poems, shew that
Wordsworthwrites every thing in verse if it is fit to be written at all. Wonderful if he did not
write some things which would be better in prose--but nothing ridiculous in it. They might
have chosen some more apparently ridiculous. "Alice Fell" [in Poems, 2 vols. (London:
Longman, et al., 1807), Vol. I, pp. 84-8; not in Poetical Works]--Compare it with
Parisina. [George Gordon Noel Byron (1788-1824), Parisina, in The Siege of Corinth: A
Poem. Parisina: A Poem (London: Murray, 1816), pp. 59-91. ]
With respect to myself have one request to make. I shall say a great deal which many of
them will think absurd, and which very possibly is absurd. When they are inclined to
condemn me for any errors I may commit, ask them to consider in what a very imperfect
state the science of criticism is--almost may be said to have commenced in this country
withWordsworth's prefaces. [To the Second Edition of Lyrical Ballads ( 1800), in Poetical
Works, Vol. IV, pp. 357-89; to Poems, 2 vols. (London: Longman, et al., 1815), pp.
vii-xlii (not in Poetical Works); and "Essay, Supplementary to the Preface" (1815), in
Poetical Works, Vol. II, pp. 357-91.] Beg them to apply the rule I apply.
436 Journals and Speeches No. 27
not possible that there might be some deficiency in their own minds which
prevented them from being affected by poetry of a particular kind: and on the other
hand, if on a close examination of that poetry which they most admired, they found
that a great part of the effect it produced upon them was the effect of a not very
enviable or creditable state of mind in themselves, they would perhaps find some
reason for suspecting, that the very cause, which made them so admire, must make
them incapable of feeling and appreciating the highest kind of poetry: for the
highest kind of poetry, is that which is adapted to the highest state of mind: as a
man of knowledge is superior to an ignorant one, a man of strong social affections
to a malevolent one, a gentle and modest to a proud and scornful man, a man of
regulated to a man of uncontrollable passions, a man of a joyful to one of a
melancholy disposition, in the same proportion the poetry which delights the one is
of a superior kind to that which is adapted to excite the emotions of the other.
By this test the superiority of Wordsworth obvious--but not fair to try by this
test because not the usual sense of the words great poet which refer to the degree of
power solely as the test of greatness without thinking of the kind. But Byron had
advantages which make him appear to have more power than he has. 1. The
prestiges of a story. Illustrate the immense effect of this--how it upheld Scott's
poems--upholds bad novels--believe the number of Byron's admirers swelled
immensely by those who think only of the story. 2. Next, the interest turns upon
the more intense feelings--with which we more readily sympathize than with the
calmer: and among these chiefly upon love--almost the only passion, not of the
selfish kind, which the present arrangements of society allow to attain its natural
growth. Proof of the effect of this--the poems from Giaour 2 to Parisina most
admired from Marino Faliero 3 downwards scarcely read. Wordsworth nearly
precludes himself from these.
Criticize Roebuck's method.
Now the test. Not to fetter myself by any arbitrary narrowing of the wordpoetry
I shall make it include all it ever includes. They may be judged by the mode in
which, 1. they describe objects. 2. feelings. 3. the felicitous expression of
thoughts. This poetry, provided the thoughts are of a nature to excite emotions, or
are made to do so by the manner in which they are expressed.
1. Describing objects. Here observe that describing objects is not poetry except
in so far as they are presented in some light or viewed in some manner which makes
them excite different emotions from what a naked delineation would. Example--
leaps the live thunder4--and the stockdove broods. 5
believe the Giaour pictures are entirely from imagination. Whether they are true or
not I say candidly I do not know--persuaded none of the Society do. In the South
there may be such persons--none here. No man in the Society will pretend he ever
was in the Giaour state--else he would have come to the same end as the Giaour.
Bums '22 love poems represent the passion better as it is in this country. But I am
sure it is very easy to paint all this from mere imagination--Easy to paint men of
one idea. You leave out all other ideas and then you have only to exaggerate--
which you may easily do--for we have all experienced enough of the same
feelings to have some notion of what they are, and we have only to magnify them.
Next as to the personages in his dramas. Dramatic poetry the easiest of all and
almost the only one in which men can be true to nature from mere observation--
People are made to shew their feelings by what they speak. Now all who have ever
experienced deep feelings of any kind, know that the least and most insignificant
part, the part nearest the surface, is all which shews itself in talk--at the same time
this part is that which most obviously appears to the observer.
There remains then, as the only feeling which Byron has painted with any depth,
the feeling of dissatisfaction with life and all which is in it: which feeling he has
painted in a great variety of forms--in one form and that a very weak and
commonplace and uninteresting one in Childe Harold and Don Juan--that is
obviously the form in which it existed in himself: the same feeling is delineated in
three other different shapes and in all these instances very powerfully, in Lara,
Manfred, 23 and Cain, in each of which he seems to have exceedingly skilfully
fixed and embodied in a permanent character, feelings which had only passed
through his own mind at certain times, but did not permanently exist in him, and it
is upon these three works, in my opinion, that his claim must rest to the honor of
having done what a poet cannot I think be called great unless he does, viz. to have
enlarged our knowledge of human nature. And those only who are or have been in
this unhappy state of mind can thoroughly sympathize in or understand these
poems.
We next see what are the feelings which Wordsworth has described and
Byron not.
Certain in the first place, that whatever he has described, he has felt. No poet in
whom you have the same certainty. Every poem of Wordsworth almost, except his
great one, 24 was written on the occasion of some thing or other which affected his
feelings at the time, and gave him a desire to fix and recal these feelings by putting
them into verse. Now he is a remarkable man and his feelings consequently of a
remarkable kind: and people who only read one poem only having a single case of
22RobertBums (1759-96), Works, new ed., 2 pts. (London: Tegg, et al.. 1824).
23Byron,Mantled, a Dramatic Poem (London: Murray, 1817).
241,e.,The Excursion, Being a Portion of the Recluse (Poetical Works, Vol. V); only this
partof Wordsworth's "great work," which was never completed, had yet appeared. Its first
part,composed in 1805, was publishedin 1850 as The Prelude.
440 Journals and Speeches No. 27
the feeling presented to them, cannot sympathize in it and think it mere affectation.
But this is a disadvantage which every poet who has feelings that are not common
ones, must labour under, viz. the necessity of in some measure educating his
reader's mind to make him susceptible of those feelings. For this reason no one can
appreciate him who does not read his writings consecutively.
Objected to Wordsworth that he represents feelings as excited by objects which
are not in themselves capable of exciting such feelings. Finds human sympathies
everywhere every object speaks to him of man and of his duties. That they do not
excite such feelings in all persons, and in very few in the same degree is true. I
cannot say they always excite the same feelings in me. But he who should
pronounce them unreal or unnatural on this account would prove himself to have a
,very conWacted knowledge of the powers of the human mind. Wordsworth is a
man of extremely meditative habits: and the habitual subjects of his meditations
are two: 1. natural objects. 2. the feelings and duties of man: shew how by
meditating on these two subjects and constantly as a poet illustrating the one by the
other each becomes capable of exciting the other. If people tell me then of his
exaggeration and mystification of this, his talking of holding communion with the
great forms of nature, his finding a grandeur in the beatings of the heart 25 and so
forth, I allow that this is nonsense but the introduction of this into the present
question is charging Wordsworth the poet with the faults of Wordsworth the
metaphysician. Shew the difference between describing feelings and being able to
analyse them--the tendency of a man who by a long indulgence of particular trains
of association, has connected certain feelings with things which excite no such
feelings in other men, if he then attempts to explain is very likely to go into
mysticism--to think that there is a natural connexion between those objects and
those feelings, and as he knows there is not in the objects as they appear to the
world, any thing to excite such feelings, he looks beyond them and conceives
something spiritual and ideal in them which the mind's eye only can see--wimess
the mysticism of devotion--communion with God etc.
What is bad then in Wordsworth's account of his own peculiar feelings is not
where he describes them, nor where he gives the history of them, but where he
philosophizes over them and endeavours to account for them as in certain parts of
the Excursion ,26and some of the published passages of the Recluse. 27 He must he
considered as having enlarged our knowledge of human nature by having
described to us most powerfully and movingly a state of feeling which very few if
any of us previously knew to exist. You may tell me that on my own shewing, as
these feelings can only exist in the mind of a person of very peculiar habits--and
scarcely in any but a poet--it is of very little importance and the knowledge of it
conduces very little to human happiness. I allow that there is much of it which can
hardly exist in the many, but there is much that can. I have learned from
Wordsworth that it is possible by adwelling on certain ideas a to keep up a constant
freshness in the emotions which objects excite and which else they would cease to
excite as we grew olderAto connect cheerful and joyous states of mind with
almost every object, to make every thing speak to us of our own enjoyments or
those of other sentient beings, and to multiply ourselves as it were in the
enjoyments of other creatures: to make the good parts of human nature afford us
more pleasure than the bad parts afford us pain--and to rid ourselves entirely of all
feelings of hatred or scorn for our fellow creatures. Immense importance of this
state of mind--difficulty of painting it because no prototype. My own change
since I thought life a perpetual struggle--how much more there is to aim at when
we see that happiness may coexist with being stationary and does not require us to
keep moving. This state of feeling to be looked to as an end, for I fear in the present
state of society something stronger is required. Quote Wordsworth's "Ode to
Duty. ,,28
This not the only state of feeling that Wordsworth has painted better than any
one else. He has painted all the successive states of his own mind. 1. the mere
animal delights received from the beauties of nature. 2. the decay of those feelings,
and their being replaced by those others which have been described. Quote from
his "Tintem Abbey ''29 and his "Intimations of Immortality." He has also painted
many other feelings but this will come better under the third head--because it is
the peculiarity of Wordsworth that his feelings are excited by thoughts more than
those of poets usually are--which is a test of the highest state of a mind.
3. Felicitous expression of thoughts which either are in themselves or are made
by the expression, capable of exciting emotions.
What valuable thoughts are there in Byron? All negative and therefore will cease
to be valuable. Wordsworth's thoughts comprise a better and a more comprehen-
sive morality than all other poets together--and alone of all poets he seems to be
able to make moralizing interesting. Other moralists merely tell you what not to be:
to avoid certain acts, or certain dispositions, and by way of directions as to what
you are to be they tell you something vague, to turn your heart to God and so on.
Wordsworth illustrates all the most important features of the happiest and most
virtuous character and unfolds most recondite truths in morals and mental
philosophy--while the poems in which he does this are by far the most delightful
as nmre poems that he ever wrote.
28. Montesquieu
3 APRIL, 1829
BEFORE l COMM_.NCE, it is proper to explain to those who were not present at the last
debate, the reasons which will induce me to occupy their attention with other
topics and in another manner than what the terms of the question would suggest, or
perhaps, in most cases, justify.
An honourable gentleman _ who spoke towards the conclusion of the previous
debate, and whose speech, I imagine, most of those who heard it will not easily
forget, has thought proper to ground his defence of the merits of Montesquieu
chiefly upon the demerits of those who have adopted a method of philosophizing
opposite to that of Montesquieu in politics and legislation. Whether this be the
proper basis to rest the discussion upon, is a question which will probably be
answered differently by different persons: at all events I do not mean to contend
that it is not, as it is my intention to imitate the honourable gentleman in making
this, whether it he a branch of the subject or a digression from it, the principal topic
of my speech. I am impelled to this by what, indeed, forms my only motive for
troubling the Society at all on this question, and especially for undertaking the
task, for which I feel myself wholly unfit, of opening the debate: I mean the desire
of taking with as little delay as possible what appears to me the proper notice of the
fierce attack which the honourable gentleman was pleased to make upon the
principles and practice of those who think as I do on this question. The honourable
gentleman was not content with stigmatizing their opinions as false. He ascribed to
IJohn Sterling.
44a, Journals and Speeches No. 28
moral tendency of our principles and of our minds. Above all, we do not discern in
him that calmness of temperament, that impartiality in collecting and care in
weighing evidence, that power of representing to himself the feelings and the ideas
of other men, or that accurate knowledge of the systems and opinions that he
condemns which are necessary for executing so high a judicial office faithfully.
I believe the honourable gentleman does not seek to conceal, that he once held
the opinions, which he now so strongly censures. Now I by no means wish to
insinuate, that these opinions, as they existed in his mind, may not have been
attended with every absurd and every immoral consequence which he deduces
from them. From the apparent incapacity of the honourable gentleman to rest any
where but in extremes, that was probably the case. But I would beg the honourable
gentleman to remember that if in his mind, these opinions were really as absurd
and as immoral as he represents them, the case is far otherwise in ours; and that we
do not think it absolutely necessary that we should be bound by his inferences from
our opinions: nay more: that we think ourselves fully as well qualified to judge
what are the legitimate consequences deduceable from our principles as he is.
having probably considered them much more; and that we do not precisely see why
our morality should be made responsible for the errors of his logic. It has probably
never aentered into the mind of a the honourable gentleman to reflect what a
blarg e b assumption in favour of his own Cdiscernment is involved in the assertion
that c any set of philosophical opinions a have a demoralizing tendency. For my
part, e I do not profess to understand all the bearings of an opinion, better than
those who hold the opinion, and who have therefore so much stronger an interest
than I have in discovering to what conclusions it leads. I know that those immoral
°-°RV occurred to
_-bRV remarkable
C-_RV understandinghe makes when he pronounces
'tRV to
_RV I have reflected on it so much, that I never but with the greatest hesitation presume to pass
sucha judgraent upon any set of philosophical opinions; for in the first place, I am very far from being
fully convincedthat any set whatever of opinions deserves it; on the contrary it appears to me that
reflectionof whateversort on the foundations of morals, cannot fail in mostcases towithdrawthe mind
atleast in some slight degree from the vulgar objects of selfishness, and by associating the feeling of
selfi_.-spectwith the practiceof some description of moral duties, which m all systems of morals yet
prolx_nded embrace the main essentials of homan life. to elevate the being at least a httle abovewhat
he wouldhave been, if he had never meditated on any theory of morals at all. Accordingly. there have
beenmanysystems, which professed in different ways to explain and analyse virtue some of which, no
doubt, havebeen better and others worse, but in one point, I believe, they have all agreed: and this is
that the lives of those who professed them, and who devoted any considerableportion of their lives to
the studyof them, have in the great majorityof instancesbeen pure, and thetr wands, m the scale of
moralexcellence, veryconsiderably abovethe averageof ordinary men.This istrue alike of Stoics and
of Epicureans,of the followers of Kant and of those of Locke.
But if I were ever so strongly persuaded that there were some systems of philosophy which were
essentiallydemoralizing, I should be slow to assert thisof any particular system. And this is. because I
have not so vain a confidence in my own superior discernment, as to supposethat 1understand all the
bearingsof an opinionbetterthanthose who [breaks off]
446 Journals and Speeches No. 28
consequences which may appear to me to follow from an opinion, may not follow
from it considered in itself, but only when combined with some other erroneous
opinion of my own. I know that there is no principle whatever which being
conjoined with a sufficient number of sufficiently important errors of fact will not
lead to immoral consequences. I know, that no conclusion can ever follow from a
single premise; that two at least are requisite, and that very probably those to whom
I am opposed may not acknowledge that other premise which is necessary to make
the immoral consequence follow; that very possibly it is one which no rational
person would acknowledge; and so the whole scheme of imaginary immorality
may be futile. But though there is so much assumption in pronouncing any
opinions to be essentially attended with immoral consequences, there is no
' assumption at all in supposing that an individual may have afforded ample
evidence, with what consequences they are attended in his mind. And I will tell the
honourable gentleman that if we are to judge what his opinions lead to, or what
would result from them in a mind of a more austere or supercillious disposition, by
the effect they seem to have produced even on a mind so much the opposite of those
bad qualities as his own, principles more calculated to make men bigots and
fanatics, and amidst the greatest external contempt for sects, to foster a spirit of
mere exclusive sectarianism, never were promulgated among men. The honour-
able gentleman may think this very extraordinary; but what is a bigot, or what is a
sectarian, except a person who is incapable of being just to men or opinions out of a
certain pale, and who is perpetually ascribing evil qualities to them without
ground? I am well aware that we are not entitled to impute these consequences to
the honourable gentleman's opinions, which may be very true and very useful
notwithstanding: and that all opinions have in themselves a certain tendency to
sectarianism. But yet, it does appear to me that if there be any difference according
to the nature of the opinion, that tendency must belong in rather a superior degree
to those opinions, be they true or false, which elevate and swell men with the idea
that they possess a superfine, a double-distilled virtue unknown to others, which
teaches them, let us understand, not to detest the vices of other people but to
despise their virtues as not being sufficiently lofty and refined. Enthusiasm we
know is a powerful principle: And Vanity also is a powerful principle: but when
Enthusiasm and Vanity are combined there is no limit to the lengths to which men
are hurried, or to that injustice which they are capable of doing to other people.
I imagine that it will hardly be required of me by the Society that I should enter
very particularly into the details of the honourable gentleman's charges of
immorality, but I shall advert to one of the most curious of them, not assuredly
with any purpose of repelling it, but because it illustrates a little of the nature of the
honourable gentleman's own ideals of virtue, and renders it pretty easy to see what
cause is likely hereafter to have the benefit of his support. He asserted with great
emphasis that there is hardly any thing which has so corrupting an effect upon the
mind as to be always looking with impatience and anxiety for some external
change, and to be unquiet and uneasy because it does not happen. Now he cannot
April 1829 Montesquieu 447
mean, that at no time, and in no place, and in no state of things is any external
change necessary. I should suppose even the honourable gentleman's ardent
optimism, his fervent liberality, will not carry him thus far: and indeed it does
appear to me that when people are without bread they are likely enough to imagine
that they would be the better for some external change which should feed them,
and that when men are in the dungeons of the Bastille or of the Inquisition it is not
unreasonable to suppose that they would be benefitted by any external change
which should have the effect of letting them out. We must therefore conclude that
in the honourable gentleman's opinion men may be suffering every extremity of
misery for want of some external changes, but that nothing can be more degrading
or more contrary to true virtue than to be rendered at all uneasy by the
contemplation of this misery. It is not the man who causes the misery, upon whom
the honourable gentleman's wrath is poured forth: he is protected by the
honourable gentleman's reverence for whatever is hoary and venerable, and
ancient of days, and there is nothing so ancient, nothing so hoary, and therefore I
suppose nothing so venerable as sin: accordingly it is not the sin which calls forth
the honourable gentleman's indignation, but the avenger. If this is to be the upshot
of the honourable gentleman's supersublimated virtue, if it is to render men
indifferent spectators of other men's misfortunes--if by its influence they shall not
suffer with those whom they see suffer, if the spectacle of men bowed down by
tyranny or worn out by privation is to give them no uneasiness and to inspire them
with no desire to behold the tyranny overthrown and the privations alleviated, then
it is impossible to conceive any system of morals more admirably adapted to serve
as a cover and an apology for the vilest of selfishness. This is at least a new view of
the nature of virtue, which places those who have too much feeling for other people
in the foremost rank of vice. It is most true that any more than ordinary sensibility
to the evils of others, or any very impatient anxiety for the amendment of the world
is sufficiently apt to sour the temper and embitter the existence of the disappointed
philanthropist, and that those who have spent their lives in protecting the feeble
and righting the wronged have commonly enough a thankless office: but it is
something new to hear them openly stigmatized as immoral themselves and the
causes of immorality in others. I shall not stop to enquire how far this is consistent
with the doctrines of One whom the honourable gentleman professes to reverence,
of Jesus Christ, nor whether it was under the influence of such opinions as these
that Howard spent his life in effecting external changes in the prisons of Europe 2
and Hampden and Sidney met their death by endeavouring to effect them in the
government of England. 3 I shall bring the honourable gentleman to a less high
standard by comparing him with himself. The time certainly was, nor is that time
long gone by, when the honourable gentleman thought that great external changes
were necessary. Does the Society remember the debate on the disfranchisement of
Penryn? 4 Does it remember the honourable gentleman's memorable peroration in
which he described to us one after another in sounding sentences and with the most
emphatic delivery, the great and crying evils of the external order of things in this
country, and closed each successive article of the long catalogue by contemptuous-
ly declaring, that as a cure for these evils, the government would disfranchise
Penryn? Nay, even the miserable contrivance of a ballot box did not in those days
seem to the honourable gentleman a security absolutely to be despised. Let me ask,
then, was it precisely from the honourable gentleman that those who held these
, same opinions were to expect a strain of intemperate abuse, on the same topics
precisely which are employed against them by the most vulgar hirelings of the
Tory faction? Those who think that the social arrangements of this country contain
much requiting amendment are well aware that they have to reckon upon the bitter
and unscrupulous hostility of all who make the vulgar objects of a low selfishness
the end of their lives, from the prime minister s down to him who furnishes penny a
line slanders to the Age newspaper. 6But how happens it that for some time past the
only persons towards whom the honourable gentleman has seemed to feel with any
bitterness are those who pursue the same ends with himself for different reasons?
What means this coalition in which he whose head rises so far above the clouds that
whatever he may perceive that is to us invisible of the pure resplendent aether
beyond, his vision as respects the affairs of this world seems to be sufficiently dim
and misty, is side by side and arm in arm with the reptiles who grovel upon the
earth? Is it the alliance--unnatural as some may esteem it, but as it appears to me
the most natural and legitimate alliance that ever existed, between the extreme of
spirituality and the extreme of worldlinesss, a virtue of pure speculation being the
only one which is compatible with the very furthest extremity of practical vice? Or
is it because one whose forte 7 lies in invective and declamation is in the long run
almost always found on the side of vulgar antipathy, because it is on that side
chiefly and almost entirely that invective or declamation tells? Or is it, as I fear it
is, because the pure light of transcendentalism, which had only dawned upon him
when he made his peroration on Penryn, having since illuminated his mind with its
meridian splendour, he has now become convinced that those external changes
which he formerly wished for are not necessary? If so, keenly as we must regret the
loss of the honourable gentleman's support to our cause, we perhaps ought to
congratulate him in a worldly point of view, that he no longer holds any opinions
which need at all stand in the way of his temporal advancement: that while his
premises have been constantly receding farther and farther from vulgar apprehen-
sion, his conclusions, like the other pole of the needle, have all the time been
veering round in the opposite direction, and that he now sees all practical questions
with the same eyes as the persons who have nothing but the light of their own
self-interest to guide them. It is true, that of the many points on which the
honourable gentleman once differed from that description of persons, he still
differs from them on one. He still thinks that Manchester and Leeds ought to be
represented, that is to say the property and intelligence of those places, words
which he habitually joins together, as if there were any connexion between the
two; as if intelligence, and what he calls property, that is to say large property,
were not much oftener found apart, than in combination. Now as I am sincerely
desirous of the honourable gentleman's worldly welfare, which even this solitary
relic of his former radical opinions may materially impede, perhaps he will permit
me to suggest to him that having proceeded thus far, he may just as well go one step
farther. It has been again and again unanswerably urged by Mr. Canning that the
property of Manchester and Leeds does not need representation; 8 it is already
virtually represented, a phrase which here at least involves no imposture. The men
of property in Leeds are represented by the representatives of the men of property
elsewhere between whose interest and theirs there is the most perfect identity.
Have we not the men of greatest wealth in leeds and Manchester already in
Parliament for other places? Who ever heard that the interests of Manchester had
been sacrificed to those of Liverpool, or that Manchester, meaning thereby the
men of property in Manchester, had ever suffered in the most minute particular for
want of a representative? All descriptions of property are abundantly, and more
than abundantly represented in the legislature, they have not only full protection
for themselves but a great deal of undue power over other people. It is the men of
no property as they are called who are not represented: it is the body of the people
who are the owners of the small masses of property which being nothing to their 9
superiors, and supposed to be nothing to them and who are not represented either
actually or virtually in the House of Commons, while all the interests most
decidedly opposed to them are. But it is not this portion of the inhabitants of
Manchester and Leeds, that the honourable gentleman would admit to the benefits
SSee,e.g, Canning, Speech on Sir Francis Burdett's Motion for a Reform of Parliament
(2 June, 1818), PD, 1st ser., Vol. 38, cols. 1170-3, where he uses the words "virtually
_gTheresented"
(col. 1170).
manuscript in the Mill-Taylor Collection breaks off here; the manuscript fragment
in the Universityof TorontoLibrary begins.
450 Journals and Speeches No. 28
of a representation. I trust therefore that on further reflexion he will see, that he and
his Tory allies are now quarrelling about a trifle, and that it is a pity such good
friends should be divided by a hair's breadth and that he will be induced by what I
have now said to review and alter this only survivor of his old opinions. He will
then be fully qualified as a candidate for that bad eminence which Burke attained
towards the end of his career when after having talked sense and virtue all his life to
the powerful classes with as little effect as sense and virtue usually have upon the
possessors of power, he all at once became their idol by furnishing them with a
theory to their practice, with a philosophy to the measure of their inclinations by
urging them for the love of virtue to do all manner of injury to those whom they
hated for the sake of vice, by giving them fine new reasons why they ought to do
those things to which they were already urged by every selfish and every malignant
passion in their nature. Such is likely to be the fate of the honourable gentleman.
He will never carry any person with him, but when he is attacking those whom his
audience have far more substantial reasons than any he gives them, to dislike. _o
With respect to the merits of Montesquieu, the honourable gentleman has told us
very little about them. But it appeared that the historical school of jurists, of which
he told us that Montesquieu was the founder, _ stood very high in his estimation;
not so much however for any thing which they did, but for something which they
have not done: they did not fall into the error, which he says has been committed by
Mr. Bentham, of imagining that there is a universal science of politics, applicable
with certain modifications to all countries. They think on the contrary that every
country ought to have its separate science of politics, founded on an attentive
consideration of its history, and in which the conservation of all the principal
institutions of that country and of all the habits and feelings of its people should be
received as a fundamental axiom.
Now, Sir, these may be the honourable gentleman's opinions but it is altogether
a mistake to suppose that they were Montesquieu's. Montesquieu did not
undertake to treat of the science of politics or of legislation. It is only incidentally
that we learn from his book any of his opinions on these subjects. Montesquieu's
book is essentially a treatise on a branch of the philosophy of history: he treated of
l'esprit des lois; 12i.e. the pervading principle of the laws of any country: his object
was to enquire what are the circumstances which give to the whole body of the
institutions of any country that peculiar character, which distinguishes them from
the institutions of other countries. In doing this he of course had frequent occasion
to shew not only why an institution had been established, but why it should be by
adducing the reasons of expediency which had led to its establishment in different
states: but what I wish to point out is that by the very nature of his design he was
days of his radicalism may not have had the egregious folly to think, that a good
government might be constructed out of negatives: but of this he may perfectly
assure himself that Mr. Bentham does not: that in Mr. Bentham's estimation, there
go some positive conditions to the making up of a good state of society as well as
some negative ones, and that the negative conditions are only required in order to
give to the positive conditions full effect. In order that the honourable gentleman
may be enabled better to comprehend the nature of the blunder which he has been
committing, I will beg him to suppose that he were a writer on medicine, of which I
dare say that he knows a great deal more than he does of Mr. Bentham's
philosophy; and that in this character he had composed and given to the world a
treatise on poisons: and suppose that having read this book, I were to walk up to the
, honourable gentleman, present him with a bag of sawdust and to say, "Look here.
Behold the type, the beau ideal of your system of diet. Observe this sawdust: there
is no arsenic in it, no verdigris, not one particle of corrosive sublimate is here, you
are bound to give this to all your patients and make it their daily food." Let the
honourable gentleman consider what answer he would give to a person who should
thus address him, and suppose himself answered in the same way.
With respect to universal suffrage and short parliaments which the honourable
gentleman has most unaccountably found among a people who have no
parliaments and no representative system at all, I will tell the honourable
gentleman that he has himself done precisely what when it is done by any other
person makes him so excessively indignant. He has taken the mere accidents of
Mr. Bentham's system, those very parts of it which Mr. Bentham himself would
allow ought to vary with difference of circumstances, and has insisted upon
judging of the whole system by those accidents, keeping its great and leading
principle wholly out of view. Universal suffrage and annual parliaments, let me
tell the honourable gentleman, are in Mr. Bentham's apprehension nothing more
than a particular set of means for giving effect to his system. The one great
principle of Mr. Bentham's system is, that that body which like the House of
Commons in this country, holds substantially in its own hands the governing
power, should be chosen by, and accountable to, some portion or other of the
people whose interest is not materially different from that of the whole. _3 Now
this, I am ready to maintain in the face of the honourable gentleman, is a universal
principle in politics, a principle which he may add if he pleases to the two other
principles respecting slavery and Christianity, which he says are not inconsistent
with any form of government which ought to exist. And Mr. Bentham, of whose
pretended universal science of politics the honourable gentleman has such a
horror, gives so moderate an extent to that science, that he does not require the
honourable gentleman to do more than add a third universal proposition to the two
which he has already conceded; for wherever this one principle is in operation,
there is Mr. Bentham's system: and in all the other parts of the social system the
honourable gentleman is perfectly at liberty as far as Mr. Bentham is concerned, to
determine himself by circumstances. Whether this principle is or is not in
operation among the North American Indians I am not sufficiently conversant with
that people to know. The honourable gentleman however might have found
another people in North America, on the banks of the Ohio, and likewise a people
on the other side of the British channel, in both of which, by various means, and
among others by the miserable contrivance of a ballot box, this sole principle of
Mr. Bentham's system has been brought happily into operation; and either of
which, I can assure the honourable gentleman is a much nearer approximation to
the beau id6al of Mr. Bentham's republic, than the example which he suggested to
us. And I am perfectly willing that the merits of Mr. Bentham's system should be
tried by the effects with which it is attended in either of these cases, being
persuaded, that these two nations considered as entire nations, are by many
degrees the happiest and the most virtuous nations on the face of the earth: and that
although the form of their government would not of itself have sufficed to make
them so, yet if it had not been for the form of their government those other
circumstances which have cooperated in producing the effect would many of them
never have had existence, and such as did exist being entirely controlled and
stripped of their beneficial effect might as well, for the happiness and virtue of the
people, have likewise been nonexistent.