The Manufacture of Chemicals by Electrolysis
The Manufacture of Chemicals by Electrolysis
The Manufacture of Chemicals by Electrolysis
THE
MANUFACTURE OF CHEMICALS
B Y E L E C T R O L Y S I S
A R T H U R J. H A L E , B . S c , F . I . C
CHIEF ASSISTANT IN THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT, CITY AND GUILDS TECHNICAL
COLLEGE, FINSBURY
LONDON
C O N S T A B L E & COMPANY LTD
ORANGE STREET, W.C.
1919
EDITOK'S PREFACE.
A . J. H .
LONDON,
January, 1919.
vi i
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER L
ELECTROLYTIC HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN. OZONE.
PAGE
General principles. PLANT AND APPARATUS FOR THB ELECTROLYSIS OF
WATER : Apparatus of D'Arsonval—Apparatus of Latchinoff—
Apparatus of Renard. MODEBN PLANT: Schmidt process—
Schoop's plant—Process of Garuti—Schuckert process—Hazard-
Flamand process—Cell of International Oxygen Company.
Modern filter-press oells. Electrolytic production of ozone 1
CHAPTER II.
PRODUCTION OP PER-SALTS AND HYDROGEN
PEROXIDE.
Persulphates and persulphurio acid. Hydrogen peroxide. Peroar-
bonates. Perborates. Potassium permanganate. Potassium
ferricyanide. Electrolytic sulphuric acid. Sodium selenate . 17
CHAPTER III.
NITRIC ACID. HYDROXYLAMINE. HYDROSULPHITES.
FLUORINE.
Nodon's process for nitric acid. REDUCTION OF NITRIC ACID: Hy-
droxylamine—Nitrites. Sodium hydrosulpbite. Electrolytic
production of fluorine 30
CHAPTER IV.
ELECTROLYTIC PREPARATION OF PIGMENTS AND
INSOLUBLE SUBSTANCES.
PRECIPITATION OF METALLIC OXIDES: Work of Lorenz—Luckow's
improvement—Lead chromate—Lead sulphate—Lead peroxide—
White lead—Zinc white. Separation of rare earth oxides. Pyro-
phoric alloys. Tungsten bronzes 40
ix b
X CONTENTS,
CHAPTER V.
ELEOTRO-OSMOTIO AND ELEOTRO-COLLOIDAL
PROCESSES.
PAGE
General. Dehydration. Separation of constituents of glue. Tan-
ning of skins. Purification of silicic acid. Alumina. Eleotro-
lytio lixiviation. Principles-of electro-osmosis . . . . 49
CHAPTER VI-
ELECTROLYTIO REDUCTION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS.
Introductory. REDUCTION OP NITBO-COMPOUNDS : Aminophenols—
Chloranilines—Amines—Benzidine—Azoxybenzene—Azobenzene
—Hydrazobenzene—Importance of electrode potential-i-Catalytic
action of cathode—Overvoltage—Reduction in aqueous-alkaline
emulsions—Production of aminophenols. Hydrazines. REDUC-
TION OP THE OABBONYL GBOUP : Secondary alcohols—Pinacones—
Deoxycafieine. Hydrogenation of quinolines. Indigo white.
j?-Rosaniline 53
CHAPTER VII.
OXIDATION AND SUBSTITUTION OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS.
OXIDATION PEODUCTS : Oxidation of aromatic side chains—Quinone—
Basic dyes—Purpurogallin—Anth raquinone—Vanillin—Saccha-
rin. Oxidation of aloohols. ELECTBOLYTIC SUBSTITUTION:
Iodoform — Bromoform — Chloroform — Chloral — Diazo-com-
pounds—Azo-dyes — Substituted phenols. CONDENSATION BY
ELEGTEOLysis: Esters of dicarboxylio acids. EfEect of super
imposing alternating current on direct current. . . . 65
APPENDIX 75
NAME INDEX 77
SUBJECT INDEX 79
ABBREVIATIONS EMPLOYED IN THE
REFERENCES.
Amer. Ohem. J. . American Ohemioal Journal.
Annalen . . . . Justus Liehig's Annalen der Ohemie.
Ber Berichte der Deutschen ohemisohen Gesell-
schaft.
Bull, de l'Assoc. Ing. Elect. Bulletins de l'Association des Ingenieurs
Electriques.
Chem. Zeit. Chemiker Zeitung.
Oompfe. rend. Oomptes rendus hebdomadaires des Stances
do l'Acadomie des Sciences.
D.RP Deu baches Reich spatent.
Eleotrochem. Ind. Electrochemical Industry.
Electrochem. Eeview . Electrochemical Review.
Eleotroohem. Zeitarch. Elektrochemische Zeitsohriffc.
Bug. Pat English Patent.
Fr. Pat French Patent.
Int. Gong. App. Ohem. International Oongress of Applied Chemistry.
J. Amer. Chem. Soc. . Journal of the American Chemical Society.
J. Physical Chem. Journal of Physical Chemistry.
J. pr. Ohem. Journal fur praktisohe Ohemie.
J. Soc. Ohem. Ind. . Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry.
Met. Ohem. Eng. Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering.
Monatsh Monatshefte fur Chemie und verwandte
Theile anderer Wissenschaften.
Bee. trav. chim.. Becueil des travaux ohimiques des Pays-Bas
et de la Belgique.
Trans. Amer. Electrochem. Transactions of the American Electro-
Chemical Society.
Trans. Ohem. Soc. Transactions of the Chemical Society.
Trans. Farad. Soc Transactions of the Faraday Society.
U.S.Pat United States Patent.
Zeitsch. angew. Ohem. Zeitschrift fur angewandte Chemie.
Zeitsch. anorg. Ohem. Zeitschrift fur anorganische Chemie.
Zeitsch. Elektrochem. Zeitschrift fiir Elektroohemie.
Zeitsch. physikal Ohem. . Zeitsohrift fiir physikalische Ohemie.
C H A P T E E I.
ELECTBOLYTIC HYDROGEN AJSD OXYGEN. OZONE.
T H E electrolytic decomposition of water provides a suit-
able introduction to the manufacture of chemicals by
electrolysis. Many of the processes described herein de-
pend upon the employment of electrolytic hydrogen and
oxygen, and the electrolysis of water furnishes a convenient
subject with which to introduce certain fundamental prin-
ciples and electrical quantities.
Since 1895 several forms of apparatus and plant have
been on the market for providing hydrogen and oxygen by
electrolysing water. They are largely employed in ac-
cumulator works where the oxy-hydrogen flame is needed
for lead-welding, and'also in metallurgical processes where
a high temperature flame is necessary for melting refrac-
tory metals such as platinum.
The production of these two gases by electrolysis for
storage and transport can only be commercially successful
when the cheapest power is utilised, because there are
established economical processes for making both oxygen
and hydrogen.
Pure water is practically a non-electrolyte, and in order
that it may become a conductor, a small quantity of acid,
alkali, or soluble salt must be dissolved in it. On passing
(1) 1
2 THE MANUFACTTJBE OF CHEMICALS BY ELECTKOLYSIS
FIG. I.
FIG. 2.
channels W W for supplying water are connected with a
main pipe A, and at the other end of the unit the gas
channels ho communicate with the washing chambers H
and 0 . The stopcock a, shown in the diagram of a com-
plete Schmidt apparatus (Fig. 3), is for emptying the ap-
paratus. The electrolyte recommended is a 10 per cent,
potassmm carbonate solution, and is probably preferred to
the corresponding sodium salt on account of its freedom
from chloride, which exerts a corrosive action upon the
iron-work of the apparatus.
ELECTROLYTIC HYDEOGEN AND OXYGEN. OZONE 7
A voltage of 2*5 volts is maintained between adjacent
electrodes, and the energy efficiency is stated to be ap-
proximately 54 per cent. The hyitfogen generated has a
purity of 99 per cent, and the oxygen purity is 97 per cent.,
but this can be raised to over 99 per cent, by passing the
gas over platinum at 100° 0.
Standard types of plant are manufactured for working
~1 -,- A
H
L a
FIG, 3.
at a pressure of 65 or 110 volts. The quantity of water
decomposed per K . W . H . is about 130 c . c , and this loss
must be made good continuously to prevent the electrolytic
gases from collecting in the cells. A Schmidt plant for
generating 33 cubic metres of oxygen per twenty-four
hours costs about £6000, and for immediate use without
compression the cost of the electrolytic gas per cubic metre
(35 cubic feet) is approximately 5d. to 6d.
The conductivity of an alkalme electrolyte is lower than
8 THE MANTJFACTUEE OF CHEMICALS BY ELECTROLYSIS
that of 20-30 per cent, sulphuric acid, but it has the great
advantage t h a t it is without corrosive action on iron, and
therefore plant can be constructed of iron or steel with
electrodes of the same material "when an alkaline liquid is
employed.
Moreover, when lead is used for the electrodes, as it must
be with a sulphuric acid electrolyte, considerable over-
voltage occurs at the electrodes; hence, in spite of increased
conductivity the economy in energy is negligibly small.
Great difficulty has been experienced by all inventors in
constructing a cell which will effectually prevent any
mixing of t h e gases evolved and the formation of a danger-
ously explosive mixture. This point, it will be observed,
receives special attention in all the cells described.
SCHOOP'S P L A N T . 1
/t\
7
^ J
°o 0& 0° OA
ill i|i
~0° ~ On
I I
I " 00" "V"
FIG. 4.
The apparatus can be constructed wtih rion eelctrodes
for use wtih an alkaline electrolyte, and the worknig
votlage is then about 2*25 volts as compared wtih 3'8 vo
for suplhurci acd
i and eelctrodes of lead.
The foolwn ig costs are quoted by the makers for paln
wtih acd i electrolyte: One HP . . hour gives 975' litres o
hydrogen and hafl this amount of oxygen; or, stated in
another way, 1 cubci metre of the mxied gases requries
10 THE MANUFACTUEE OP CHEMICALS BY ELECTROLYSIS
T
_ " _vm
FIG. 5.
12 mm. apart, and the lower edge of each is 12 cms. from
the bottom of the tank. Each diaphragm d has a zone of
perforations 4 cms. wide running parallel with and about
r
FIG. 6. *
7'5 cms. above the lower edge. Anode spaces open at the
top, on one side, into the bell 0 which receives oxygen, and
in a similar manner the cathode spaces open on t h e other
side to the bell H which collects hydrogen (see 3?ig. 5).
12 THE MANUFACTURE OF CHEMICALS BY ELECTKOLYSIS
T H E SCHUCKERT PEOCESS. 1
HAZAED-FLAMAND PEOCESS.1
T h i s p r o c e s s h a s b e e n w o r k e d s u c c e s s f u l l y for s o m e y e a r s
by the Soci6t6 A n o n y m e l'Electrolyse Fran?aise. Glass
or p o r c e l a i n d i a p h r a g m s a r e e m p l o y e d t o e n s u r e c o m p l e t e
s e p a r a t i o n of o x y g e n a n d h y d r o g e n , a n d t h e p u r i t y of t h e
generated o x y g e n is said to be 99 per cent.
T h i s c e l l c o n s i s t s of a n i r o n t a n k a c t i n g a s c a t h o d e , a n d
from t h e cover is suspended a perforated anode box m a d e
of l o w - c a r b o n s t e e l t o p r e v e n t t h e f o r m a t i o n of s p o n g y r u s t .
The anode and cathode are separated by an asbestos
sack suspended from t h e cover.
E a c h c e l l t a k e s a b o u t 3 9 0 a m p s , a t a p r e s s u r e of 2*61
v o l t s , a n d t h e w o r k i n g t e m p e r a t u r e is 30° C. T h e purity
of t h e o x y g e n i s s a i d t o b e 98*3 .per c e n t , a n d e a c h cell
gives over 3 cubic feet per hour.
A cell s o m e w h a t similar t o t h i s i n d e s i g n i s t h e H a l t e r 3
cell. A n iron t a n k forms the cathode, and in this an in-
v e r t e d f u n n e l or b o x - s h a p e d a n o d e of i r o n i s s u s p e n d e d ,
1
Electrochemist and Metallurgist, 1903, 3, 887.
* Jftfe. and Chem. Eng., 1911, 9, 471; 1916,14,108,
'U.S. Pats. 1172885,1172887 (1916).
ELECTEOLYTIC HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN. OZONE 15
B B\
FIG. 7.
compartments; 1 kilogram of permanganate requires about
0*7 K.W.H. and the voltage is about 2*8 volts.
The G-riesheim Elektron Company2 use a closed dia-
phragm cell for preparing metallic permanganates, which
is fitted with tubes for the escape of electrolytic gas. Their
method for preparing the calcium salt is as follows : The
cathode compartment contains caustic potash solution, and
the anode compartment is j&lled with saturated manganate
2
*D.R.P. 101710 (1898), J&R 145368(1904).
PEODUCTION OF PEE-SALTS AISTO HYDEOGEN HEEOXIDE 27
FIG. 8.
encase a packing of limestone c which surrounds each
earthenware anode cell.
The resistance of the peat electrolyte is approximately
FIG. 9.
32 THE MANUFACTURE OF CHEMICALS BY ELECTROLYSIS
3 ohms per cubic metre, and the pressure required per cell
is 10 volts. The optimum temperature at which the
bacteria convert the maximum amount of nitrogenous
matter into nitrate is 25° C , and at this temperature 2 per
cent, of the available nitrogen is converted into nitric
acid. The limestone filling which encircles each earthen-
ware pot serves to prevent the peat itself from becoming
acid.
On one deposit, which had an average depth of 6 feet, a
yearly output of 800 tons of nitrate was obtained at an
approximate cost of one penny per 1b.
HYDROXYLAMINE.
T H E PRODUCTION OF N I T E I T E FEOM N I T E A T E .
The reduction of nitrate to nitrite can be accomplished
satisfactorily, and the process is the subject of a recent
patent. 1 I t has been shown (Miiller and "Weber) 2 t h a t in
a divided cell, smooth platinum or copper cathodes reduce
nitrate to nitrite and ammonia, but platinised platinum
gives much ammonia and little nitrite. A spongy copper
or silver cathode was found to give the best results. With
3
a current density of 0*25 amps, per dm. and a concentration
of 2*3 grams of sodium nitrate per litre, a current efficiency
of 90 per cent, was obtained. The current efficiency with
an amalgamated copper cathode was found to diminish
when 50 per cent, of the nitrate had been changed.
Considerable care is evidently needed to prevent the forma-
tion of ammonia, since it has been shown by W . H. E a s t o n 3
1
Eng. Pat. 16643 (1915); 25415 (1913).
*Zeitsch. Elektrochem., 1903, 9, 955, 978 ; 1905,11, 509.
8
J". Amer. Chem. Soc, 1903, 25,1042.
ETDBOSULPHITE 35
FLTJOBLNE.
1
D.B.P. 276058, 276059 (1912); 241991 (1910).
2
Ibid. 278588 (1912); Eng. Pat. 13901 (1913).
s
Pr. Pat. 467443 (1914).
38 THE MANUFACTURE 0# CHEMICALS Bt ELECTKOL^SIS
F- •H
F i g . 10.
1
Zeitsch. EUktrochem., 1900, 7 , 1 5 0 .
FLUORINE 39
2
Trans. Amer. Electrochem., 1904, 5, 230; U.S. Pat. 644779 (1900).
ELECTEOLYTIO PEEPABATION OP PIGMENTS 43
PYROPHORIC ALLOYS.
TUNGSTEN BRONZES.
. 233281 (1910); Eng. Pats. 11626 (1911), 6995 (1914); Fr. Pat.
439271 (1912).
2
Eng. Pats. 12431 (1900), 22301 (1901).
(49) 4
50 THE MANUFAOTUBrE OF CHEMICALS BY ELECTEOLYSIS
T H E KEDTJCTION OF NITRO-COMPOTJNDS.
.P. 130742(1901).
2
Lob, Zeitsch. Elelctrochem., 1902, 8, 778.
3
D.E.P. 121899,121900 (1899).
4
Zeitsch. physical. Chem., 1904, 47, 418.
B
Zeitsch. EUMrochem., 1898, 4, 506.
6
Zeitsch. amrg. Chem., 1002, 21> 289; Zeitsch. Elektrochem^ 1906, 12,
58 THE MANUFACTURE OF CHEMICALS BY ELECTROLYSIS
/ 2
C tf H 5 . N H C O C H 3 -> CfiH4<
N
C H 2 . CH 3
I n the reduction of pyridine and quinoline compounds,
hydrogenation generally occurs. 2
An interesting application of electrolytic reduction to
vat-dyeing is the process of the Farbwerke vorm. Meister
Lucius and Briming, in which alkali sulphite is electro-
lytically reduced in the presence of indigo. I n an acid
3
solution, indigo white is precipitated.
^-Rosaniline 4 can be obtained by the electrolytic reduc-
tion of p-nitrodiaminotriphenylmethane.
W h e n nitro-group and keto-group are both present in
t h e compound to be reduced, the former is preferably
attacked so that azo-, azoxy-, or amino-keto compounds 5
result.
*Ber., 1899,32, 68.
2
D.R.P. 104:664 (1898); Zeitsch. Elekfrochem., 1898, 2, 580.
"D.B.P., 139567 (1902). 'Ibid. 84607 (1894).
B
Elbs and Wogrinz, Zeitsch. EleJctrochem., 1903, 9, 428.
CHAPTEE VII.
OXIDATION AND SUBSTITUTION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS.
ALTHOUGH many substances have been produced by
oxidation methods: anthraquinone, vanillin, saccharin;
oxidation is not so easily graduated as the reduction pro-
cesses. The overvoltage of oxygen is relatively high at most
anodes, and frequently the compound to be oxidised is
decomposed during treatment and carbon dioxide formed.
Generally, conditions can be devised for oxidising
alcohols to aldehydes and to acids, and the substituent
side chains of aromatic compounds can be converted into
aldehyde (OHO) or carboxyl (GOOH) groups.
For example o-cresol yields salicylic acid :—*
X)H .OH
C6H4<; -> C6H4(
X N
CH 3 COOH
2
g. Pat. 103709 (1917). D.B.P. 117129 (1900).
3
J. Amer. Ghmi. Soc, 1900, 22, 723.
* Trans. Farad. Soc, 1904,1,1; 1905,1, 251.
(65)
66 THE MANTTFACTTJEE OF CHEMICALS BY ELECTEOLYSIS
1 2
D.B.P. 117129 (1900). Ibid. 100556 (1897).
3 4
Trans. Chem. Soc, 1904, 85, 243. D.B.P. 152063 (1904).
5
Electrochem. hid., 1904, 2, 249.
c
D.B.P. 103860 (1899); Zeitsch. MeWochem., 1900, 6, 290, 3Q8t
OXIDATION AND SUBSTITUTION OF OEGANIC COMPOUNDS 67
1
Zeitsch. Elelcfrockem., 1905,11, 863; 1913,19, 344,
2 p,K.P. 172654(1906),
68 THE MANUFACTURE OF CHEMICALS BY ELECTROLYSIS
CONDENSATION BY ELECTROLYSIS.
/COOK CH 2 -COOC 2 H 5
2CH/ = I + 2CO2 + 2K.
N
COOC 2 H 6 CH 2 • COOC 2 H 6
1 a
D.B.P. 64405 (1891). Ibid. 108838 (1899).
3
Annalen, 1891, 261,107 ; 1893, 274, 41.
4
Amer. Chem. Journ., 1893,15, 323 ; 1894=, 16, 569.
6 6
Ber., 1895, 28, 2427, 3488. D.B.P. 147943 (1904).
OXIDATION AND SOTSTITUTION OF OEGANIC COMPOUNDS 73
/ 2
2C 6 H,< = N H , • CfiH4 • CGH4 • N H 2 + 2CO 2 .
N
COO
ELECTEOLYSIS WITH ALTEBNATING CURBENT.
(75)
INDEX OF AUTHOES AND NAMES OF FTEMS.
ARCHIBALD & Warfcenburg, 16. JELLINEK, 36.
Askenasy, 27.
BACKER, 62. KsUUm.47.
Bancroft, 52.
Boehringer & Sohne, 33, 56, 62. LATCEINOFF, 4.
Briggs, 52. Law, 65.
Browne, 44. Le Blanc, 43.
Brown & Walker, 72. Leriche, 46.
Brunner, 68. Levi, 19.
Burgess & Hambuechen, 44. Lewis, 51.
Byers & Walter, 52. Lob, 53, 55, 57, 71.
Lorenz, 27, 40.
COHEN, 52. Luckow, 42.
Consortium fur Elektrochemie, 20.
Constam, 22. MARSHALL, 17, 18.
Moeat, 69.
D'ARSONVAL, 4. Moissan, 37.
Dary, G.f 30. Moller, 62.
Del Proposto, 10. Muller, 18,19, 29, 34, 67.
Dennis, 46.
EASTON, 34. NATIONAL Oxy-hydric Co., 15.
Elbs, 17,18, 36, 55. Kewbery, 58.
Engels, 48. Nodon, 30.
Noyes & Clement, 55.
FARADAY, 2.
Farbwerke vorm. Meister, Lucius
und Bruning, 64. PBRKIN, F. M., 46, 65.
Friedberger, 18. Pompili, 10.
Pouleno Freres, 38.
GARDNER, 43. Pritchett, 33.
Garuti, 10.
Gattermann, 54.
Gesellsohaftfiir Elekfcro-Osmose, 49. , 5.
Griesheim Elektron Co., 26.
HABER, 57, 59. SALZBERGWBRKE, 26.
Hansen. 22. Schering, 25.
Hayek von, 28. Schmidt, 5.
Hazard-Flamand, 14. Schonherr, 18.
Schoop, 8.
INTERNATIONAL Oxygen Co., 14. Schuckert, 13.
Isenberg, 45. Smith, 65.
(77)
78 THE MANUFACTUBB OF CHEMICALS BY ELECTROLYSIS
Soci6t6 TOxyhydrique, 12. VABHILLE, 15.
Society of Chemical Industry,
Basle, 61.
WlNSSINGER, 12.
TAIPEI., 32, 33, 57, 63. Woltereok, 44.
Thompson, 28.
SUBJECT INDEX.
AOETANILIDE, reduction of, 64. FmcER-press cells for electrolysis of
Alcohols, oxidation of, 68. water, 5, 15.
Aldehydes, formation of, 68, 69.
Alloys, pyrophoric, 47. Fluorine, production of, 37.
Alternating current, use of, 16, 73. Formaldehyde, production of, 68.
Alumina, purification of, 51. GARDNER process for white lead, 43.
Aminophenols, formation of, 54, 61. Garufci cell for electrolysis of water,
Ammonium persulphate, 19, 21. 10.
Aniline, formation of, 55, 61. Glue, separation of constituents of,
Anthracene, oxidation of, 66. 50.
Anthraquinone, 67. Glycerol, oxidation of, 69.
Aromatic side chain, oxidation of, 65. Glycol, oxidation of, 69.
Azo-compounds, formation of, 56, 59,
60. HYDRAZINBS, formation of, 62.
Azo-dyes, production of, 71. Hydrazo-compounds, formation of,
Azoxy-compounds, production of, 59. 59, 60.
Hydrogen, eleotrolytic production
BBNZIDINE, formation of, 56, 60. of, 2.
Bromofonn, formation of, 71. Hydrogen peroxide, 21.
Browne process for white lead, Hydrosulphite, formation of, 35.
44. Hydroxylamine, formation of, 32.
CADMIUM sulphide, formation of, INDIGO, reduction of, 64.
42. Iodoform, production of, 70.
Oarbonyl group, reduction of, 63. LANTHANUM, separation of, 46.
Catalytic electrodes, 57, 67. Lead ohromate, 43.
Chloral, formation of, 71. — peroxide, 43.
Ohloranilines, formation of, 55. — sulphate, 43.
Chloroform, formation of 71,
Chrome yellow, precipitation of, 43. MANGANESE salts, use of, in oxidation,
Chromic acid, regeneration of, 66.
Condensation by electrolysis, 72. 66.
Current concentration, 36. Mannitol, oxidation of, 69.
DECOMPOSITION voltage, 2. Methyl alcohol, oxidation of, 68.
Dehydration by electro-osmosis, 50. Misoh metall, preparation of, 47.
Deoxycafieine, formation of, 63. NAPHTHALENE, oxidation of, 67.
Dibasic esters, formation of, 72. Nitric acid from peat, production of,
Diazotisation by electrolysis, 71. 30.
Nitrites, formation of, 34.
ELECTRO-OAPILLARY processes, 51. Nitrobenzene, reduction of, 54.
Electrodes of alloy, 27, 61. Nitro-compounds, reduction of, 54.
Electrode potential, 57, 59. Nodon's process for making < nitric
Electro-osmosis, 49, 52. acid, 30s
(79)
80 THE MANUFACTUKE OF CHEMICALS BY ELECTEOLYSIS
OVBRVOLTAGE, 58, 65. SACCHARIN, formation of, 68.
Oxygen, electrolytic production of, Schmidt cell for electrolysis of water,
Ozone, production of, 15. Schoop cell for electrolysis of water,
8.
PEAT, dehydration of, 50. Schuckert cell for electrolysis of
— nibric acid from, 30. water, 13.
Perborates, formation of, 23. Silicic acid, purification of, 51.
Percarbonates, formation of, 22. Sodium hydrosulphifce, production of,
Permanganates, formation of, 25. 35.
Persulphuric acid, formation of, 17. — perborate, production of, 23.
Phenanthrene, oxidation of, 66. — selenate, formation of, 29.
Potassium ferrioyanide, 28. Sugar liquors, purification of, 50.
— percarbonate, preparation of, 22. Sulphides, preparation of, 42.
— permanganate, preparation of, Sulphuric acid, preparation of, 28.
25.
— persulphate, preparation of, 19. TANNING of skins by electro-osmosis,
Power utilised in electrolysis of 50.
water, 3. Toluidines, formation of, 56.
Pyridine, reduction of, 64. Triphenylmethane dyes, 66.
Pyrophoric alloys, deposition of, 47. Tungsten bronze, formation of, 48.
64 VANADIUM, catalytic use of, 67.
Vamlhn
, 66T67. ' P ^ a t i o n of, 68.
WATHE, electrolysis of, 2.
EARS earth oxides, separation of, White lead, production of, 43.
46.
p-Bosaniline, formation of, 64. ZINC white, production of, 46.