Reference Guide To Fiber Optic Testing - Vol1
Reference Guide To Fiber Optic Testing - Vol1
Reference Guide To Fiber Optic Testing - Vol1
Product specifications and descriptions in this document subject to change without notice. 2010 JDS Uniphase Corporation
SECOND EDITION
SECOND EDITION
30149054.002.0710.FIBERGUIDE1.BK.FOP.TM.AE
Asia Pacific
Tel: +852 2892 0990
Fax: +852 2892 0770
EMEA
Tel.: +49 7121 86 2222
Fax: +49 7121 86 1222
www.jdsu.com
Volume 1
North America
Toll Free: 1 866 228 3762
Tel: +1 301 353 1560 x 2850
Fax: +1 301 353 9216
Volume 1
Volume 1
By
J. Laferrire
G. Lietaert
R. Taws
S. Wolszczak
Contact the authors
JDSU
34 rue Necker
42000 Saint-Etienne
France
Tel. +33 (0) 4 77 47 89 00
Fax +33 (0) 4 77 47 89 70
Stay Informed
To be alerted by email to availability of newly published chapters to
this guide, go to www.jdsu.com/fiberguide2
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Principles of Light Transmission on a Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1
Optical Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2
Fiber Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3
Transmission Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1
Light Propagation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2
Velocity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.3
Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4
Types of Fiber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4.1
Multimode Fiber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4.2
Single-mode Fiber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.3
1.5
Light Transmission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.5.1
Attenuation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.5.2
Dispersion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5.3
1.5.4
Nonlinear Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.5.5
1.6
1.6.1
International Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.6.2
National Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.6.3
1.6.4
iii
2.2
Transmission Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2.1
Measurement Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2.2
Measurement Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.2.3
Field Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3
2.3.1
Light Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.3.2
Power Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.3.3
2.3.4
Attenuators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.3.5
2.3.6
2.3.7
2.3.8
2.3.9
Introduction to OTDR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.2
Fiber Phenomena. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2.1
3.2.2
iv
3.3
OTDR Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.1
Emitting Diodes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3.2
3.3.3
Photodiodes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.3.4
3.4
OTDR Specifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.4.1
Dynamic Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.4.2
Dead Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.4.3
Resolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.4.4
Accuracy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.4.5
Wavelength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.2
Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
Range. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.2.5
Averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.2.6
4.3
Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.3.5
4.3.6
Reflectance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.3.7
4.4
4.4.1
Ghosts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.4.2
4.5
4.5.1
4.6
4.6.1
4.6.2
4.6.3
4.6.4
4.6.5
4.6.6
4.7
4.7.1
4.7.2
4.7.3
4.7.4
vi
Core
Cladding
Plastic Coating
Core
Cladding
Full Acceptance
Cone
n1
n2
1.3.1.1 Refraction
Refraction is the bending of a ray of light at an interface between
two dissimilar transmission media. If > 0, then the ray is fully
refracted and is not captured by the core.
n1 sin i = n2 sin r
n2
n1
r
Refraction of light
1.3.1.2 Reflection
Reflection is the abrupt change in direction of a light ray at an
interface between two dissimilar transmission media. In this case,
the light ray returns to the media from which it originated.
If < 0, then the ray is reflected and remains in the core.
i = r
Reflection of light
n2
n1
Glass
Vacuum
km/s
100,000
200,000
300,000
n = 1.468 at 1550 nm
n = 1.469 at 1625 nm
n = 1.471 at 1310 nm
n = 1.470 at 1550 nm
1.3.3 Bandwidth
Bandwidth is defined as the width of the frequency range that can
be transmitted by an optical fiber. The bandwidth determines the
maximum transmitted information capacity of a channel, which
can be carried along the fiber over a given distance. Bandwidth is
expressed in MHzkm. In multimode fiber, bandwidth is mainly
limited by modal dispersion; whereas almost no limitation exists for
bandwidth in single-mode fiber.
dB/km
Step-index
multimode fiber
Graded-index
multimode fiber
Single-mode fiber
100
10
1
0.1
MHz
1
10
100
1000
10,000
100,000
1x10
10
Multimode
Step-Index
Single-mode
Graded-Index
Cladding Diameter
125 to 140 m
Coating Diameter
250 m
The composition of multimode fiber
11
Refractive
Index Profile
Input
Signal
Output
Signal
12
Refractive
Index Profile
Input
Signal
Output
Signal
13
14
An overfilled launch condition occurs when the launch spot size and
angular distribution are larger than the fiber core (for example when
the source is a light-emitting diode [LED]). Incident light that falls
outside the fiber core is lost as well as light that is at angles greater
than the angle of acceptance for the fiber core.
Light sources affect attenuation measurements such that one that
underfills the fiber exhibits a lower attenuation value than the actual,
whereas one that overfills the fiber exhibits a higher attenuation
value than the actual.
Underfilled/OverfilledWhat is the best?
15
16
Characteristics
Wavelengths
Applications
G.651.1
ISO/IEC 11801:2002 (OM1) amd 2008
G.651.1
ISO/IEC 11801:2002 (OM2) amd 2008
G.651.1
ISO/IEC 11801:2002 (OM3) amd 2008
Laser optimized;
GI multimode fiber;
50/125 m maximum
VCSELs optimized
G.651.1
ISO/IEC 11801:2002 (OM4) amd 2008
17
Network Application
(IEEE 802.3)
Nominal Transmission
Wavelength
10BASE-SR/SW
850 nm
10BASE-LX4
1300 nm
300 m
300 m
18
Wavelength
(nm)
10GBASE-SX
850
10GBASE-LX4
1300
2.5
2.0(5)
2.0
6.6
(1) Application specifies 62.5 m fiber with 200/500 MHzkm bandwidth at 850 nm
(2) 2.6 dB for fiber with 160/500 MHzkm modal bandwidth
(3) Application specifies 50 m fiber with 500/500 MHzkm bandwidth at 850 nm
(4) 2.2 dB for fiber with 400/400 MHzkm modal bandwidth
(5) 2.0 dB for fiber with 400/400 MHzkm modal bandwidth
19
Cladding Diameter
125 m
Coating Diameter
250 m
Cladding
The MFD of single-mode fiber
Core
Cladding
20
Larger mode field diameters are less sensitive to lateral offset during
splicing, but they are more sensitive to losses incurred by bending
during either the installation or cabling processes.
Effective Area
Effective area is another term that is used to define the mode field
diameter. The effective area is the area of the fiber corresponding to
the mode field diameter.
Effective Area
Core
Cladding
21
Wavelength Coverage
Applications
G.652.A
G.652.B
G.652.C
G.652.D
G.653.B
Characteristics
Wavelength Coverage
Applications
1550 nm
1550 nm
G.655.B
G.655.C
Characteristics
Wavelength Coverage
Applications
C bands
From O to C bands
22
Wavelength Coverage
Applications
Supports both CWDM and DWDM systems throughout
the wavelength range of 1460 and 1625 nm.
G.657: Characteristics of a bending loss insensitive single-mode fiber for access network
G.657.A
G.657. B
Characteristics
Wavelength Coverage
Applications
Single-mode
Cost of fiber
Expensive
Less expensive
Transmission equipment
Attenuation
High
Low
Transmission wavelengths
850 to 1300 nm
1260 to 1650 nm
Use
Distances
Bandwidth
Conclusion
23
24
Transmitted Light
Scattered Light
Backscattered Light
Attenuation
(dB/km)
Rayleigh Scattering
4
OH- Absorption Peaks
3
2
1
Low Water Peak Fiber
Wavelength (m)
0
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
25
26
Impurities
Coupling
Loss
Input
Injection
Loss
Junction
Loss
Output
Absorption
Loss
Scattering
Loss
Heterogeneous
Structures
Scattering
Loss
Macro
or
Micro
Bending
Loss
27
Loss
(dB)
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
R = 20 mm
R = 25 mm
Wavelength (m)
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
For example, the signal loss for a fiber that has a 25 mm macro bend
radius will be 2 dB at 1625 nm, but only 0.4 dB at 1550 nm.
Another way of calculating the signal loss is to add the typical fiber
attenuation coefficient (according to the specific wavelength as
indicated below) to the bending loss.
dB/km
Micro Bending
3
Unbent Fiber
Macro Bending
Wavelength (nm)
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
28
Modal
Dispersion
Chromatic
Dispersion
Polarization Mode
Dispersion
29
Pulse Spreading
Pulse Spreading
Spectrum
30
The CD of a given fiber represents the relative arrival delay (in ps) of
two wavelength components separated by one nanometer (nm). Four
parameters to consider:
CD value of a given wavelength, expressed in ps/nm (CD may
change as a function of wavelength)
CD coefficient (referred as D)the value is normalized to the
distance of typically one kilometer, expressed in ps/(nm x km)
CD slope (S)Represents the amount of CD change as a
function of wavelength, expressed in ps/nm
CD slope coefficientthe value is normalized to the distance of
typically one kilometer, expressed in ps/(nm x km)
The zero dispersion wavelength 0, expressed in nm, is defined as a
wavelength with a CD equal to zero. Operating at this wavelength
does not exhibit CD but typically presents issues arising from the
optical nonlinearity and the four-wave mixing effect in DWDM
systems. The slope at this wavelength is defined as the zero
dispersion slope (S0).
Both the dispersion coefficient (standardized to one kilometer) and
the slope are dependent on the length of the fiber.
CD primarily depends on the manufacturing process. Cable
manufacturers consider the effects of CD when designing different types
of fiber for different applications and different needs, such as standard
fiber, dispersion shifted fiber, or non-zero dispersion shifted fiber.
1.5.2.3 Polarization Mode Dispersion
Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is a basic property of singlemode fiber that affects the magnitude of the transmission rate.
PMD results from the difference in propagation speeds of the
energy of a given wavelength, which is split into two polarization
axes perpendicular to each other (as shown in the diagram below).
The main causes of PMD are non-circularities of the fiber design
and externally applied stresses on the fiber (macro bending, micro
bending, twisting, and temperature variations).
31
V1
DGD
V2
PMD (or differential group delay) effects on a fiber
1.5.3.1 Definition
ORL represents the total accumulated light power reflected back
to the source from the complete optical span, which includes the
backscattering light from the fiber itself as well as the reflected light
from all of the joints and terminations. ORL, expressed in decibels
(dB), is defined as the logarithmic ratio of the incident power to the
reflected power at the fiber origin.
P
ORL = 10Log e
( 0)
Pr
Where P0 is the emitted power and Pr the reflected power, expressed in
Watt (W)
32
33
dB
20
40
60
80
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
km
ORL at 1550 nm for
a terminated fiber
ORL at 1550 nm for
a non-terminated fiber
34
35
312,132
123,213
113
112
223
321,231
221
223
331
SPM is the effect that a signal has on its own phase, resulting in
signal spreading. With high signal intensities, the light itself induces
local variable changes in the refractive index of the fiber known as
the Kerr effect. This phenomenon produces a time-varying phase in
the same channel. The time-varying refractive index modulates the
phase of the transmitted wavelength(s), broadening the wavelength
spectrum of the transmitted optical pulse.
36
Red Shift
The wavelength shifts that SPM causes are the exact opposite of
positive CD. In advanced network designs, SPM can be used to
partly compensate for the effects of CD.
Cross Phase Modulation
XPM is the effect that a signal in one channel has on the phase of
another signal. Similar to SPM, XPM occurs as a result of the Kerr
effect. However, XPM effects only arise when transmitting multiple
channels on the same fiber. In XPM, the same frequency shifts at
the edges of the signal in the modulated channel occur as in SPM,
spectrally broadening the signal pulse.
37
38
Causes
Attenuation
Critical Power
per Channel
Effects
Compensation
Material absorption/system
Chromatic Dispersion
(CD)
Wavelength-dependent
group velocity
Polarization Mode
Dispersion (PMD)
10 mW
Intensity-dependent
refractive index
10 mW
Stimulated Raman
Scattering (SRS)
1 mW
Stimulated Brillouin
Scattering (SBS)
5 mW
39
40
41
42
43
44
46
47
Geometrical Tests
Optical Tests
Transmission Tests
Traction
Torsion
Bending
Temperature
Concentricity
Cylindricity
Core diameter
Cladding diameter
Index profile
Numerical aperture
Spot size
Bandwidth
Optical power
Optical loss
Optical return loss
Reflectometry
Chromatic dispersion
Polarization mode dispersion
Attenuation profile
48
49
Absolute Power
1W
+30 dBm
100 mW
+20 dBm
10 mW
+10 dBm
5 mW
+7 dBm
1 mW
0 dBm
500 W
3 dBm
100 W
10 dBm
10 W
20 dBm
1 W
30 dBm
100 nW
40 dBm
Power Loss
0.10 dB
2%
0.20 dB
5%
0.35 dB
8%
1 dB
20%
3 dB
50%
6 dB
75%
10 dB
90%
20 dB
99%
50
51
52
53
LEDs
Lasers
Output power
Current
Threshold current: 5 to 40 mA
Coupled power
Moderate
High
Speed
Slower
Faster
Output pattern
Higher
Lower
Bandwidth
Moderate
High
Available wavelengths
0.66 to 1.65 mm
0.78 to 1.65 mm
Spectral width
Fiber type
Multimode only
Ease-of-use
Easier
Harder
Lifetime
Longer
Long
Cost
Low
High
54
Responsivity A/W
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Silicon
Germanium
InGaAs
Wavelength (m)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
55
The cut back method is the most accurate measurement, but it is also
destructive and cannot be applied in the field. For this reason, it is
not used during installation and maintenance. Testing using the cut
back method requires first measuring the attenuation of the length
of fiber under test. Then, a part of the length of the fiber is cut back
from the source, and the attenuation is measured as a reference.
Subtracting the two values provides the attenuation of the cut fiber.
Insertion Loss Method
56
Measurement P1
Power Meter
Fiber Under Test
Measurement P2
Power Meter
Total attenuation of the link
A (dBm) = P1 (dBm) P2 (dBm)
The insertion loss method uses two steps to measure the attenuation along a fiber link
57
With a bidirectional LTS, the light source and power meter are
connected to the same output port. An additional external power
meter enables using these test sets as stand-alone instruments.
Bidirectional LTSs usually offer two ways of referencing the test
jumpers for all available wavelengths:
The side-by-side referencing method connects the two LTSs
together using the two test jumpers (see figure that follows).
The loopback referencing method connects one test jumper from
the light source to the external power meter of the same instrument.
Although the side-by-side referencing method increases accuracy,
the loopback method allows referencing both instruments
independently when not collocated. Connecting both LTSs to
the fiber link eliminates further manipulation to carry out the
bidirectional measurement.
58
Light Source
Light Source
FUT
Power Meter
Reference Fiber
Power Meter
T-BERD/MTS-6000
59
2.3.4 Attenuators
A fiber optic attenuator is a passive optical component that is
intended to reduce the propagation of optical power in the fiber. It
can provide either fixed or variable attenuation. An attenuator is
ideal for simulating cable loss for the testing of link power margin. A
variable attenuator can be set to any loss value within the operating
range using a light source and a power meter.
Light Source
Power Meter
FUT
Attenuator
The use of an optical attenuator in optical testing
60
Network
Tx
Rx
Pt max
Pt min
Optical
Power
(dBm)
Pr max
Optical Loss Budget:
Maximum Loss (dB)
Pr min
Calculating the optical loss budget
61
Optical loss budgets must consider the power margins of the cable
and equipment, which cover allowances for the effects of time
and environmental factors (launched power, receiver sensitivity,
connector, or splice degradation). Calculating the optical loss budget
uses typical values of attenuations of the different fiber components.
0.2 dB/km for single-mode fiber loss at 1550 nm
0.35 dB/km for single-mode fiber loss at 1310 nm
1 dB/km for multimode fiber loss at 1300 nm
3 dB/km for multimode fiber loss at 850 nm
0.05 dB for a fusion splice
0.3 dB for a mechanical splice
0.5 dB for a connector pair
3.5 dB for a 1 to 2 splitter (3 dB splitting loss plus 0.5 dB excess loss)
After completing the calculation of the overall optical loss budget,
the cable can be installed.
Example of a typical optical loss budget calculation
Network
Short Haul
Medium Haul
Long Haul
Distance (km)
30
80
200
0.25
0.22
0.19
7.5
17.6
38
Number of splices
15
40
50
0.1
0.1
0.05
1.5
2.5
Number of connectors
0.5
0.5
0.5
TOTAL LOSS
10
22.6
41.5
62
CW Stabilized
Light Source
P0
ORL REF
Display
PREF
Process
Power Meter
Controller
Coupler
Non-Refelective
Termination Plug
63
ORL
Display
DUT
Termination
Plug
POUT
Process
Power Meter
Controller
Display
Process
Photodector
Controller
Setup using the OTDR method
DUT
64
OCWR
Spatial resolution
No
Yes
Accuracy (typical)
0.5 dB
2 dB
Dynamic range
Up to 70 dB
Typical applications
Strengths
Weaknesses
OTDR
65
66
Test Parameters
Measurement Tools
Connector Inspection
OFI module
OTDR module
Connectors/splice measurements
OTDR moduleg
Reflectance measurements
OTDR module
ORL measurements
OFI module
PMD measurements
PMD analyzer
CD measurement
CD analyzer
AP measurements
Spectral analyzer
Test Parameters
Measurement Tools
Connector Inspection
PMD measurements
PMD analyzer
CD measurement
CD analyzer
AP measurements
Spectral analyzer
67
Main dispersion thresholds according to the transmission rate (NRZ coding format)
Bit Rate per Channel
SONET/SDH
Maximum CD @ 1550 nm
2.5 Gbps
OC-48/STM-16
40 ps
18000 ps
10 Gbps
OC-192/STM-64
10 ps
1176 ps
40 Gbps
OC-768/STM-256
2.5 ps
74 ps
10 GigE
5 ps
735 ps
68
69
Bulkhead inspection
Patch cords are easy to access and view compared to the fiber inside
the bulkhead, which is frequently overlooked. The bulkhead side
may only be half of the connection, but it is far more likely to be
dirty and problematic.
Inspecting BOTH SIDES (male and female) of a fiber interconnect
is the ONLY WAY to ensure that the mated connection will be free
of contamination.
70
71
As more stages in the fiber optic product life cycle are outsourced
to disparate vendors, the standard takes on renewed importance in
ensuring the optimized performance of todays fiber-dense networks.
Component Mfg.
System Test
System Assembly
Installation
Receiving & QC
Troubleshooting
& Maintenance
Network Test
Connector
Inspection Tip
Probe Microscope
Display
72
73
74
A fiber identifier
75
At the heart of an RFTS is the central server database that stores and
manages all the system information.
Data pulled from RTUs in the field is mapped to the central database
and combined with routing records and geographical information,
enabling maintenance teams to access precise fault location details.
Client Stations
76
Dark Fiber
Network
Transmission
Equipment
Network
Transmission
Equipment
Cable Under Test
77
Test
Wavelength
Division
Multiplexer
Network
Transmission
Equipment
Test
WDM
WDM or
Blocking Filter
Network
Transmission
Equipment
78
Central Office
Serving up to 10,000 customers
1310 nm
1490 nm
OLT
WDM
1xn
OLT
WDM
1xn
Reflective Filter
ONT
Switch
OTDR
16xx nm
80
81
82
83
Scattering loss is the main loss mechanism for fiber operating in the
three telecom windows (850, 1310, and 1550 nm). Typically, a singlemode fiber transmitting light at 1550 nm with a fiber scattering
coefficient (s) of 0.20 dB/km will lose 5 percent of the transmitted
power over a 1 km section of fiber.
The fiber backscattering factor (S) describes the ratio between the
backscattered power and the scattered power. The S factor is typically
proportional to the square of the numerical aperture (NA).
Depending on the fiber scattering coefficient (s)and the fiber
backscattering factor (S), the fiber backscatter coefficient (K) is
the ratio of the backscattered power to the energy launched into
the fiber. The logarithmic value of the fiber backscatter coefficient,
normalized to a 1 ns pulse duration, is given by:
Kns (dB) = 10 Log K(S-1) 90 dB
When Kns is 80 dB, then for a 1 ns pulse duration, the backscatter
power is 80 dB below the incident pulse peak power.
It is important to note that 80 dB at 1 ns is equivalent to 50 dB at
1 s.
K-S (dB) = Kns (dB) + 30 dB
The Rayleigh scattering effect is similar to shining a flashlight in
the fog at night. The light beam gets diffused, or scattered, by the
particles of moisture. A thick fog will scatter more of the light
because there are more water particles to obstruct it.
The backscattering effect depends on the launched power P0 (W),
the pulsewidth t (s), the backscattering coefficient K(S-1), the distance
d (m), and the fiber attenuation a (dB/km).
Backscattering = P0tK10-xd/5
84
Rayleigh Scattering
4
OH- Absorption Peaks
3
2
1
Low Water Peak Fiber
Wavelength (m)
0
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
Pr
n1
Pi
n2
85
Fresnel Reflection
Glass-to-air
14 dB
PC-to-PC connector
35 to 50 dB
APC-to-APC connector
55 to 65 dB
86
Fiber
Under Test
Coupler
Photodiode
Detector
Amplifier
Time Base
Control
Unit
Sampling
ADC
Averaging
Processing
87
88
The Fabry Perot (FP) laser is the most common type of laser
diode used in OTDR design. It is cost-effective and can deliver a
high output power level. It is mainly used in single-mode OTDR
applications at 1310, 1550, and 1625 nm wavelengths. FP lasers emit
light at a number of discrete wavelengths, delivering a spectral width
between 5 and 8 nm.
Power (W)
End Mirror
Active Region
End Mirror
Active Region
Bragg
A schematic diagram of a DFB laser
89
LEDs
Lasers
Output power
Current
Coupled power
Speed
Output pattern
Bandwidth
Available wavelengths
Spectral width
Fiber type
Ease-of-use
Lifetime
Cost
90
domain. The power level of the backscattered signal and the reflected
signal is sampled over time. Each measured sample is called an
acquisition point, which can be plotted on an amplitude scale with
respect to time relative to the timing of the launch pulse. The OTDR
then converts this time domain information into distance, based
on the user-entered refractive index of the fiber, which is inversely
proportional to the velocity of propagation of light in the fiber.
The OTDR uses this data to convert time to distance on the OTDR
display and divides this value by two to factor in the round-trip (or
two-way) travel of light in the fiber. Incorrect or inaccurate userentered refractive index can result in distances displayed by the
OTDR to be inaccurate.
Velocity of propagation, or group delay, of light in a fiber:
8
V = c/n 310 /1.5 = 2108 m/s
Where V is the group delay, c is the speed of light in a vacuum
(2.99792458 m/s), and n is the refractive index.
OTDR time to distance conversion (round trip):
ct
L = Vt/2 = = 108t
2n
Where L is the distance (m), V is the group delay, t is the pulsewidth
(s), c is the speed of light in a vacuum (2.99792458 m/s), and n is the
refractive index.
Example: For a 10 ns pulsewidth, L = 108 10 ns = 1 m
3.3.3 Photodiodes
OTDR photodiodes are specifically designed to measure the
extremely low levels of backscattered light at 0.0001 percent of
what the laser diode sends. Photodiodes must be able to detect the
relatively high power of reflected pulses of light, which can cause
problems when analyzing the results of an OTDR.
91
92
L
n
T0
T0+t
T0+t1
T0+t2
T0+t3
T0+t4
T0+t5
pl
Distance (km)
nd
be
rE
Fi
ec
ha
ni
ca
en
d
be
rB
Fi
Attenuation (dB)
lS
ai
r
rP
to
ec
Co
nn
n
sio
Fu
Co
nn
ec
to
Sp
rP
lic
e
ai
r
ice
93
94
dB
Measurement
Range
IEC Dynamic
Range
RMS Dynamic
Range
~ 6.6 dB
1.56 dB
(SNR = 1)
km
The RMS (root mean square) dynamic range, also termed SNR=1,
is the difference between the extrapolated point of the backscatter
trace at the near end of the fiber (taken at the intersection between
the extrapolated trace and the power axis) and the RMS noise level.
If the noise is Gaussian, the RMS value can be compared to the IEC
61746 definition by subtracting 1.56 dB from the RMS dynamic range.
N=0.1 dB
95
End Detection
96
Specified Value
Pulsewidth
Receiver
Recovery Time
Dead Zone
97
ADZ
0.5 dB
ADZ
Sp
lic
e
Fu
sio
n
Pa
ir
Co
nn
ec
to
r
Sp
lic
e
Fu
sio
n
Co
nn
ec
to
r
Pa
ir
The ADZ depends on the pulse width, the reflectance value of the
first reflective event, the loss of this event, and the distance. It usually
indicates the minimum distance after a reflective event where a nonreflective event, a splice for example, can be measured.
ADZ
98
For a reflective event, the event dead zone (EDZ) is defined as the
distance between the two opposite points that are 1.5 dB (or full
width at half maximum [FWHM]) down from the unsaturated peak
of a single reflective event.
EDZ
1.5 dB
99
Non-Reflective Events
0.1 dB
1 dB
EDZ
0.1 dB
The EDZ of a non-reflective event
The EDZ depends on the pulse width and can be reduced using
smaller pulse widths. The effects of the front-end EDZ can also be
reduced using a launch cable.
Pa
ir
Pa
ir
Co
nn
ec
to
r
Co
nn
ec
to
r
Co
nn
ec
Co tor
Pa
nn
ir
ec
to
rP
ai
r
EDZ
EDZ
100
3.4.3 Resolution
The four main types of resolution parameters are display (cursor),
loss (level), sampling (data point), and distance.
3.4.3.1 Display Resolution
The two types of display resolution are readout and cursor. Readout
display resolution refers to the minimum resolution of the displayed
value. For example, an attenuation of 0.031 dB will have a resolution
of 0.001 dB. The cursor display resolution refers to the minimum
distance, or attenuation, between two displayed points. A typical
cursor display resolution value is 1 cm or 0.001 dB.
3.4.3.2 Loss Resolution
The resolution of the acquisition circuit governs the loss resolution.
For two similar power levels, it specifies the minimum loss difference
that can be measured. This value is generally around 0.01 dB.
3.4.3.3 Sampling Resolution
Sampling (or data point) resolution refers to the minimum distance
between two acquisition points and can be within centimeters,
depending on pulse width and range. In general, the more data
points, the better the sampling resolution. Therefore, the number of
data points that an OTDR can acquire is an important performance
parameter. A typical high-resolution OTDR may have a sampling
resolution of 1 cm.
3.4.3.4 Distance Resolution
Distance resolution is very similar to sampling resolution. The
ability of the OTDR to locate an event is affected by the sampling
resolution. If the OTDR only samples acquisition points every 4 cm,
it can only locate a fiber end within 4 cm. Similar to the sampling
resolution, the distance resolution is a function of the pulse width
and range. This specification must not be confused with distance
accuracy, which is discussed next.
101
3.4.4 Accuracy
The accuracy of a measurement refers to its capacity to be compared
with a reference value.
3.4.4.1 Linearity (Attenuation Accuracy)
The linearity of the acquisition circuit determines how close an
optical level corresponds to an electrical level across the entire range.
Most OTDRs have an attenuation accuracy of 0.05 dB/dB. Some
OTDRs can have a higher attenuation accuracy of 0.03 dB/dB. If an
OTDR is nonlinear, the section loss values will change significantly
for long fiber.
3.4.4.2 Distance Accuracy
The distance accuracy depends on parameters such as group index,
time base error, and distance error at the origin.
Group Index
Time base error is due to the inaccuracy of the quartz in the timing
mechanism, which can vary from 10-4 to 10-5 seconds. In order to
calculate the distance error, the time base error must be multiplied
by the measured distance.
Distance Error at the Origin
102
3.4.5 Wavelength
OTDRs measure according to wavelength. The main wavelengths
for OTDR are 850 and 1300 nm for multimode fiber and 1310, 1550,
and 1625 nm for single-mode fiber. A 1625 or 1650 nm laser diode
can be used for testing networks with live traffic, commonly referred
to as in-service testing and used for remote monitoring systems
or in fiber-to-the home (FTTH) passive optical network (PON)
applications. The purpose of using the 1625 or 1650 nm wavelength
is to avoid interference with traffic at 1310 nm and around 1550 nm.
Other wavelengths used for fiber characterization:
1383 nm wavelength used for attenuation measurements around
the main fiber absorption peak
1420, 1450, and 1480 nm wavelengths used for Raman-amplified
systems
1490 nm wavelength used for FTTH systems
1271 to 1611 nm coarse wavelength division multiplexing
(CWDM) wavelengths used for OTDRs dedicated to CWDM
system turn-up and troubleshooting
Some OTDRs display the exact laser wavelengths used for measurement.
Generally, though, only the generic wavelength is provided.
104
105
106
4.2 Acquisition
Most modern OTDRs automatically select the optimal acquisition
parameters for a particular fiber by sending out test pulses in a
process known as auto-configuration. Using the auto-configuration
feature, technicians select the wavelength (or wavelengths) to
test, the acquisition (or averaging) time, and the fiber parameters
(refractive index, for example, if not already entered).
Three major approaches used when configuring an OTDR:
1. Technicians simply allow the OTDR to auto-configure and accept
the acquisition parameters the OTDR selects.
2. More experienced technicians allow the OTDR to auto-configure,
then analyze the results briefly and change one or more acquisition
parameters to optimize the configuration for the particular test
requirements.
3. Experienced technicians choose not to use the auto-configuration
feature altogether and enter the acquisition parameters based on
experience and knowledge of the link under test.
Typically, when testing multi-fiber cables, once the appropriate
acquisition parameters are selected, they are locked in. The same
parameters are then used for every fiber in the cable. This feature
dramatically speeds up the acquisition process and provides
for consistency in the data, which is helpful when analyzing or
comparing fibers.
The following subsections discuss various acquisition parameters
and their effects on the resulting OTDR trace.
4.2.1 Injection Level
The injection level is defined as the power level in which the OTDR
injects light into the fiber under test. The higher the injection level, the
higher the dynamic range. If the injection level is low, the OTDR trace
will contain noise, and measurement accuracy will be diminished.
107
108
109
Loss (dB)
1310
0.013
0.5
0
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
(nm)
Loss (dB)
1310
0.0051
0.5
0
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
(nm)
110
The OTDR graph shows a bend located at 3040 m at 1550 and 1625 nm
The bending effect is not a new phenomenon. In the past, when the
1550 nm wavelength was first introduced and added to the 1310 nm
transmission wavelength, the bending effect was analyzed. For
example, many optical fiber reports were generated comparing
1550 nm splice losses to 1310 nm splice losses in order to detect
possible bending effects. Now that OTDR technology has moved
into the 1625 nm wavelength area of the spectrum, the same analysis
of bending effects must occur.
4.2.2.2 When to Test Links at 1625 nm
Networks do not always need to be tested at the 1625 nm wavelength.
Three key circumstances require conducting 1625 nm testing.
1. Upgrading of current networks: This is especially important
for dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) network
upgrades that will use or plan to use the L and U bands.
2. Installation of new fiber networks: With todays testing tools, the
added time required to perform testing at 1625 nm compared to
current 1310/1550 nm has become negligible. This decrease in
testing time has pushed installers to perform testing at all three
wavelengths, essentially future-proofing their networks.
111
Test + Traffic
Tx
Rx
112
10 ns
3 s
100 ns
1 s
300 ns
2n
Where c is the speed of light in a vacuum (2.99792458 108 m/s),
T is the pulse duration in ns, and n is the refractive index.
113
5 ns
10 ns
100 ns
1 s
10 s
20 s
0.5 m
1m
10 m
100 m
1 km
2 km
4.2.4 Range
The range of an OTDR refers to the maximum distance from which
the OTDR can acquire data samples. The longer the range, the
further the OTDR will shoot pulses down the fiber. The range is
generally set at twice the distance to the end of the fiber. If the range
is set incorrectly, the trace waveform may contain measurement
artifacts, such as ghosts.
4.2.5 Averaging
The OTDR detector functions at extremely low optical power levels
(as low as 100 photons per meter of fiber). Averaging is the process
by which each acquisition point is sampled repeatedly, and the results
are averaged in order to improve the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
Selecting the time of acquisition or the number of averages gives
technicians control over the process of averaging within the OTDR.
The longer the time or the higher the number of averages, the more
signal the trace waveform will display in random noise conditions.
The relationship between the acquisition time (number of averages)
and the amount of improvement to the SNR is expressed by the
following equation:
SNR = 5 Log10N
Where N is the ratio of the two averages.
Note: The noise distribution is considered random for this formula
114
115
116
4.3 Measurement
Most modern OTDRs perform fully automatic measurements with
very little input from technicians.
4.3.1 Event Interpretation
In general, two types of events occur: reflective and non-reflective.
4.3.1.1 Reflective Events
Reflective events occur where discontinuity arises in the fiber,
causing an abrupt change in the refractive index. Reflective events
can occur at breaks, connector junctions, mechanical splices, or
the indeterminate end of fiber. For reflective events, connector loss
is typically around 0.5 dB. For mechanical splices, though, the loss
typically ranges from 0.1 to 0.2 dB.
Connector
Reflection of light
caused by the connection
of the two fibers at this
distance point
Point attenuation
(insertion loss)
If two reflective events occur very close together, the OTDR may
have problems measuring the loss of each event. In this case, it
displays the loss of the combined events, which typically occurs
when measuring a short fiber length, such as a fiber jumper.
117
Connector Connector
Reflection of light
caused by the connection
of the two fibers at each
distance point
Cumulative attenuation
of both connectors
(insertion loss)
In the case of a fiber end, the reflective event will fall into the noise
and prevent taking the attenuation measurement.
Fiber end
118
Attenuation at this
distance point
Event loss
A non-reflective event
For non-reflective events, the event loss can appear as an event gain,
displaying a step-up on the OTDR trace.
4.3.2 OTDR Measurements
An OTDR can perform the following measurements:
For each event: Distance location, loss, and reflectance
For each section of fiber: Section length, section loss (in dB), section
loss rate (in dB/km), and optical return loss (ORL) of the section
For the complete terminated system: Link length, total link loss (in
dB), and ORL of the link
119
120
121
4.3.4 Slope
Measure the slope (in dB/km), or fiber linear attenuation, using
either the 2-point method or the least squares approximation (LSA)
method. The LSA method attempts to determine the measurement
line that has the closest fit to the set of acquisition points. The LSA
method is the most precise way to measure fiber linear attenuation,
but it requires a continuous section of fiber, a minimum number of
OTDR acquisition points, and a relatively clean backscatter signal,
which is free of noise.
1.0 dB/div
0.02 km/div
A
B
122
123
124
0.051 dB
10120.34 m
0.195 dB/km
1
0.197 dB/km
2
5
3
4
125
4.3.6 Reflectance
The reflectance of an event represents the ratio of the reflected
power to the incident power at a discrete location on the fiber span.
Reflectance is expressed in decibels (dB). A small negative value
indicates a higher reflection than a large negative value. That is, a
reflectance of 33 dB is larger than a reflectance of 60 dB. A larger
reflectance will appear as a higher peak on the trace waveform.
Reflectance measurement
126
127
Pbs
A0
128
P0
K
Pbs(z)
Ai
A0
Cursor 1
Section ORL measurement
Cursor 2
129
Ghost
130
131
Splice
B, Kb
OTDR
S= Splice Attenuation
132
Splice
B, Kb
OTDR
S1
Ka<Kb
Ka-Kb=K
S1=S+K
B, Kb
Splice
A, Ka
OTDR
S2
Ka>Kb
Kb-Ka=K
S2=S-K
133
134
4.5.1
Fusion
Splice A
Connector O
Fiber 1
Fiber 2
Connector E
Fiber 3
Fiber 1
Fiber 2
Fiber 3
For this example, the OTDR displays the effect of the backscatter
mismatch as 0.05 dB. Note that the effect will appear as a gain when
going into Fiber 2, but it will appear as a loss when exiting Fiber 2.
0.05 dB
Fiber 1
0.05 dB
Fiber 2
Fiber 3
This span has been fusion-spliced, and the actual fusion-splice loss is
0.03 dB at splice A between Fibers 1 and 2 and 0.07 dB at Splice B
between Fibers 2 and 3. For this discussion, a minus sign represents
a loss and no sign represents a gain.
135
Connector O
Connector E
-0.03 dB
Fiber 1
-0.07 dB
Fiber 2
Fiber 3
Connector E
OTDR
-0.02 dB
+0.12 dB
Splice A
Splice B
136
Connector O
Connector E
OTDR
+0.02 dB
+0.08 dB
Splice B
Splice A
Actual Loss
OE
EO
Sum
Average
Splice A
-0.02
0.08
0.06
0.03
0.03
Splice B
0.12
0.02
0.14
0.07
0.07
The results from the table now accurately represent the actual splice
losses of the two events.
137
138
Receive Cable
Fiber Under Test
OTDR
It is important to note that the fiber used in the launch and receive
cable should match the fiber being tested, such as type and core size.
In addition, the cable connectors should be of high quality.
139
140
Noise Floor
141
142
143
144
145
OTDR Base
Optical
Communication
Port
OTDR Base
Dedicated
Fiber for Communication
OTDR Test
Optical
Communication
Port
OTDR Test
OTDR
Patchcord or
Launch Lead
146
147
148
Using the data from the OTDR traces in both directions, enables
event locations to be adjusted on the fiber creating a template.
149
This template is then used as a reference for all the other fibers in the
cable, thus ensuring that the splice points are correctly located and
recorded for the entire cable. An update of the bidirectional analysis
status prevents incorrect results.
The template is applied to all the fibers using JDSU FiberCable software
150
151
152
Glossary
Chapter 5
154
155
ADM
Add/Drop Multiplexer
ADZ
APC
APD
Avalanche Photodiode
ASE
AWG
BER
BR
Back Reflection
BW
Bandwidth
C-Band
Conventional Band
CD
Chromatic Dispersion
CNR or C/N
Carrier-to-Noise Ratio
CW
Continuous Wave
CWDM
dB
Decibel
DCF
Dispersion-Compensating Fiber
DCM
Dispersion-Compensating Module
DCU
Dispersion-Compensating Unit
Demux
Demultiplexer
Dense WDM
DFB
DST
Dispersion-Supported Transmission
DUT
DWDM
E-Band
Extended Band
EDFA
EDZ
ELED
E/O
Electrical-to-Optical Converter
156
EMD
FBGs
FC
Fixed Connection
FP
Fabry-Perot
FTTC
Fiber-to-the-Curb
FTTN
Fiber-to-the-Node
FTTH
Fiber-to-the-Home
FTTP
Fiber-to-the-Premises
FTTx
Fiber-to-the-x
FUT
FWHM
FWM
GRIN
Gradient Index
HCS
HFC
IDP
Integrated Detector/Preamplifier
IIN
ILD
InGaAs
InGaAsP
InP
Indium Phosphide
IR
Infrared
IRED
L-Band
LD
Laser Diode
LEAF
LED
MFD
MM
Multimode
MMF
Multimode Fiber
157
MQW
Multi-Quantum Well
MRN
MUX
Multiplexer
NA
Numerical Aperture
NDSF
Non-Dispersion-Shifted Fiber
NEXT
Near-End Crosstalk
NZ-DSF
OADM
O-Band
Original Band
OCH
Optical Channel
OCWR
ODC
ODN
O/E
Optical to Electrical
OLT
OLTS
OMS
ONI
ONT
ONU
OOI
ORL
OSA
OSNR
OTDR
OXC
Optical Crossconnect
PC
PCS Fiber
PD
Photodiode
PFM
158
PMD
RIN
S-Band
SBS
SC connector
SE
Slope Efficiency
SLED
SLM
SM
Single Mode
SMLD
SMF
Single-Mode Fiber
SNR or S/N
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
SOA
SPM
Self-Phase Modulation
SRS
ST Connector
TICL
U-Band
UV
Ultraviolet
VCSEL
VECSEL
VFL
WDM
XC
Crossconnect
XPM
Cross-Phase Modulation
XT
Crosstalk
Index
Chapter 6
160
161
Accuracy
Attenuation (Linearity)
Distance
121122
122123
OTDR Measurement
Full-Automatic
Ghosts
Manual
Non-reflective Events
Reflective Events
Refractive Index
Semi-Automatic
Splice Gain
119
129
120
118
116117
142143
119
130
Attenuation
Attenuation Dead Zone (ADZ)
101
101
12
9798
B
Backscatter coefficient
Bandwidth
Bending
Bidirectional Analysis
Brillouin Scattering
83, 115
9
7, 20, 2627, 30, 41, 108, 110, 118, 130
133136
34
C
Chromatic Dispersion (CD)
IEC / TIA / GR Standards
Coefficient of dispersion
Continuity (verifying)
2930
3943
30
139140
D
Dead Zone
Definition
9698
8889
Diodes
8788
Dispersion
Dynamic Range
9, 28
9396
E
ETSI
Event Dead Zones (EDZ)
Non-Reflective Events
Reflective Events
See Standards
9899
99
9899
F
Fiber Identifiers (FIs)
Fiber Inspection Microscopes
Fiber Spectral Attenuation
Fresnel
74
See Probe Microscopes
2325
84
G
Ghost Channels
Ghosts
3435
129
L
Launch Cables
Light Sources
Linearity
Link Loss Mechanisms
Loopback Measurement
Loss Test Sets (LTS)
Bidirectional
137139
10, 16, 29, 33, 38, 52, 55-58, 62, 63,
65, 74
See Accuracy: Attenuation
25
145
57
M
Modal Dispersion
Multimode Fiber
28
1013
30
42
Power Meter
Cut Back Method
Detector Specifications
Dynamic Range
Insertion Loss Method
Standards
Use
55
5354
5455
55
4142
53
Probe Microscopes
6871
Propagation Principle
R
Raman Scattering
Rayleigh Scattering
Reflection
Refraction
Refractive Index
Resolution
Display
Distance
Loss
Sampling
RMS
34
2324
7
7
3435, 84, 90, 106, 142143
100
100
100
100
94
S
Scattering Phenomena
Scopes
Single-mode Fiber
37
See Video Inspection Scope
1622
Slope
121122
Span
Splice Gain
Theory
Standards
CD Test
European Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI)
Fiber Optic
Generic Test
OTDR Calibration
PMD Test
Telecommunication Industries
Association/Electronic Industries
Alliance (TIA/EIA)
130
131
43
40
41
41
41
42
40
31
3233
33
6263
OTDR
Acquisition
Backreflection
Bidirectional Analysis
Fault Location
Measuring ORL
Power Reflection Factor
Standards
Technology
P
Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
IEC / TIA / GR Standards
106
8485
133136
140141
126127
85
4142
86
Talk Sets
73
Tests
Commissioning
Installation
Maintenance
51
51
51
TIA/EIA
Troubleshooting
See Standards
51
V
Video Inspection Scopes
68
73
Product specifications and descriptions in this document subject to change without notice. 2011 JDS Uniphase Corporation
SECOND EDITION
SECOND EDITION
30149054.002.0111.FIBERGUIDE1.BK.FOP.TM.AE
Asia Pacific
Tel: +852 2892 0990
Fax: +852 2892 0770
EMEA
Tel.: +49 7121 86 2222
Fax: +49 7121 86 1222
www.jdsu.com
Volume 1
North America
Toll Free: 1 866 228 3762
Tel: +1 301 353 1560 x 2850
Fax: +1 301 353 9216
Volume 1