ICE Engine

Reciprocating Internal
Combustion Engines
Michele Manno
Department of Industrial Engineering
University of Rome Tor Vergata
Last update: October 30th, 2015
Internal Combustion Engines
Contents
1. General remarks and engine classification
2. Main operating parameters
3. Air intake
4. Supercharging and turbocharging
5. Fuel metering in spark ignition engines
6. Fuel injection in compression ignition engines
7. Operating characteristics and performance maps
8. Load matching: torque and rotational speed requirements
9. Pollutant formation and control
General remarks and engine classification

Engine components
Image sources:
(left) M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, S.E. Gay, A. Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid
Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, CRC Press LLC, New York, 2005.
(right) J.B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGrawHill, New York, 1988.

Engine classification
1. Method of ignition
a) Spark Ignition, SI (Otto engines)
b) Compression Ignition, CI (Diesel engines)
2. Working cycle
a) full cycle in 4 piston strokes (four-stroke engine, 4S)
b) full cycle in 2 piston strokes (two-stroke engine, 2S)
3. Fuel
gasoline, fuel oil (diesel), natural gas, liquid petroleum gas (LPG), alcohols (methanol, ethanol)...
4. Air intake
a) Naturally aspirated engine
b) supercharged engine
c) turbocharged engine
5. Air/fuel mixture preparation
a) Carburetion
b) Indirect fuel injection
c) Direct fuel injection
6. Application
Propulsion (automobile, truck, light aircraft, marine), portable power systems, power generation

Engine classification
Method of ignition
Spark ignition engines
A mixture of air and fuel (usually gasoline) vapor is ignited by an electrical discharge (spark) across
the spark plug.
Compression ignition engines
The fuel is injected directly into the engine cylinder just before the combustion process is required to
start. The liquid fuel jet is atomized into tiny droplets, and evaporates inside the hot compressed air;
after a short delay period, the air/fuel mixture spontaneously ignites, because temperature and
pressure are above the fuels ignition point (thanks to high compression ratios).
Working cycle
o Four-stroke engines
the working cycle takes four piston strokes, or two crankshaft revolutions, and more than half is
dedicated to exhaust gas expulsion (scavenging) from the cylinder and to fresh mixture intake inside
the cylinder: the working fluid is thus replaced efficiently at each cycle.
o Two-stroke engines
the working cycle takes just two piston strokes, i.e. one crankshaft revolution: power density is
therefore higher than in 4S engines, but the scavenging process is less efficient.

Geometric and kinematic parameters
Bore (cylinder diameter)
Crank radius
Connecting rod length
Piston stroke
Unit displacement
Displacement
( : number of cylinders)
=2
=
=
Minimum chamber volume

Volumetric compression ratio
=(
Working cycle frequency

(2S: = 1; 4S: = 2)
= /
Rotational speed
=2
Crank angle
Mean piston velocity
=2
)/
TC or TDC: Top Dead Center

BC or BDC: Bottom Dead Center
=2
Image source: R. Stone, Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines, Palgrave Macmillan, 2012

Geometric and kinematic parameters
Typical values of geometric and kinematic parameters:
= /
Ratio of cylinder bore to piston stroke
= /
Ratio of connecting rod length to crank radius
0.8 - 1.2
3.0 - 4.0
Volumetric compression ratio (SI engines)
8 - 12
Volumetric compression ratio (CI engines)
12 - 24
Mean piston speed
8 - 15 m/s
1.8
1.6
1.4
up /
up
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
R = 3.0
R = 3.5
R = 4.0
0
45
90
[deg]
135
180

Four-stroke engine working cycle
1. Intake stroke: fresh mixture is drawn into the cylinder
by the depression induced by the piston stroke.
To increase the mass inducted, the inlet valve opens
shortly before the stroke starts and closes after it ends.
2. Compression stroke: air (or air/fuel mixture) is
compressed to a small fraction of its initial volume,
reaching pressure and temperature levels that depend
on initial pressure and volumetric compression ratio .
Toward the end of the compression stroke, combustion
is initiated and the cylinder pressure rises more rapidly.
3. Power stroke: high temperature and pressure gases
push the piston down, forcing the crank to rotate.
As the piston approaches BDC the exhaust valve opens
to initiate the exhaust process and drop the cylinder
pressure to close to the exhaust pressure.
4. Exhaust stroke: exhaust gases exit the cylinder, first

spontaneously because the pressure inside the cylinder
is higher than inside the exhaust manifold (blowdown
process), then because they are displaced by the piston
as it moves toward TDC. As the piston approaches TDC
the inlet valve opens, and just after TDC the exhaust
valve closes, so the cycle starts again.
Image source: R. della Volpe, Macchine, Liguori Editore, Napoli, 2011

Two-stroke engine working cycle
I. Compression stroke: as the piston moves toward
TDC, the mixture inside the cylinder is
compressed, while at the same time the pressure
inside the crankcase decreases, so fresh air is
drawn as soon as the inlet ports (2) are uncovered
by the piston. As the piston approaches TDC,
combustion is initiated.
II. Power (or expansion) stroke: all ports are closed
by the piston in the first part of the stroke, then the
exhaust ports (1) are first uncovered, and most of
the burnt gases exit the cylinder in an exhaust
blowdown process. Then the transfer ports (3) are
uncovered and fresh charge, which has been
compressed in the crankcase during the
compression stroke, flows into the cylinder. The
piston and the ports are generally shaped to deflect
the incoming charge from flowing directly into the
exhaust ports, so as to achieve effective
scavenging of the residual gases.
Image source: (top) R. della Volpe, Macchine, Liguori Editore, Napoli, 2011

Naturally aspirated SI 4S engine cutaway
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Air filter
Carburetor
Engine head
Exhaust pipe
Cylinder block
Piston
Alternator
Connecting rod
9. Crankshaft
10.Sump
11.Oil pump
12.Camshaft
13.Pushrod
14.Coil ignition
15.Spark plug
16.Exhaust valve
17.Rocker arm
10

3-cylinder SI 4S engine cutaway
Image source: MTZ worldwide, February 2013
11

Naturally aspirated CI (Diesel) 4S engine cutaway
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Engine head
Piston
Cylinder block
Connecting rod
Crankshaft
Sump
7. Oil pump
8. Oil filter
9. Injection pump
10.Glow plug
11.Injector
12.Camshaft
12

Combustion process in SI engines
the fuel is completely vaporized before the start of combustion,
thanks to its high volatility: therefore the fuel/air mixture is physically
homogeneous (gas mixture);
the fuel/air mixture does not ignite spontaneously, because pressure
and temperature are below auto-ignition values;
the combustion is started by a spark, which provides the necessary
activation energy to the fuel/air mixture surrounding the spark plug;
after the ignition, the flame propagates regularly to the whole mixture;
the required activation energy is provided to the unburnt fuel/air
mixture by the flame itself;
flame propagation requires that air/fuel ratio is homogeneous in the
combustion chamber, and close to stoichiometric, otherwise the
flame could be extinguished;
the process is fast because it is controlled by chemical reaction rates
and turbulence -> high rotational speeds are possible; the ideal
representation is a constant-volume process in the Otto cycle.
Image: typical flame propagation images in the combustion chamber at 1000 rpm (ASOS: After Start of Spark; fuel: iso-octane)
Source: Merola, Vaglieco, Optical investigations of fuel deposition burning in ported fuel injection (PFI) spark-ignition (SI) engine, Energy 34 (2009) 21082115.
13

Combustion process in CI engines
the combustion process starts after liquid fuel is injected, and air is at
temperature and pressure high enough for auto-ignition;
there is no premixing of air and fuel: the fuel must first vaporize and
diffuse through the surrounding air, in order to create a locally
stoichiometric air/fuel mixture that can ignite spontaneously
(diffusive combustion);
the overall air/fuel mixture can be lean (combustion is based on autoignition rather than flame propagation);
the combustion process is controlled both by physical (fuel
vaporization and diffusion) and chemical parameters (reaction rates):
hence it is slower than in spark ignition engines and the ideal
representation is a constant-pressure in the Diesel cycle.
Images: (right) conceptual schematic of conventional diesel combustion, from John E. Dec, Advanced compression-ignition enginesunderstanding the incylinder processes, Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 32 (2009) 2727-2742; (bottom) visible flame images at several crank angles at 1500 rpm, from
Mancaruso, Vaglieco, An experimental comparison of n-Heptane, RME and diesel fuel on combustion characteristics in a compression ignition engine, Fuel
Processing Technology 107 (2013) 44-49.
14

Comparison between SI and CI engines
CI engine limitations:
o heavier weight, due to higher compression ratios necessary to reach pressures and temperatures
required for fuel auto-ignition;
o lower specific power (with reference to engine displacement), and consequently higher footprint
for the same power, due to lower rotational speed;
o higher noise level, because of the different nature of the combustion process.
CI engine advantages:
o higher overall efficiency, thanks to higher compression ratios, which in SI engines are limited in
order to avoid combustion anomalies (knocking);
o better part-load performance, thanks to the different power control system (no need to throttle air
in the intake manifold: partialization is obtained simply through the control of the total amount of
fuel injected);
o lower quality fuel required (even though emission regulations have increased manufacture
costs).
15

Comparison between 4S and 2S engines
2S engine limitations:
o lower efficiency, because work is not delivered during the whole expansion stroke, but only
during the first part of it, before exhaust ports are uncovered to allow exhaust gas blowdown and
scavenging;
o worse exchange of working fluid -> higher pollutant emissions;
o higher thermal and mechanical stresses, because every stroke (compression and expansion) is
marked by high pressures and temperatures, while in 4S engines two strokes out of four are
dedicated to the gas exchange process (air induction and exhaust gas expulsion), which takes
place at low pressures and temperatures.
2S engine advantages:
o higher specific power: theoretically double than 4S engines, because in 2S engines there is a
power stroke at every crankshaft revolution; in practice, specific power is only about 5060%
higher due to worse gas exchange process;
o simpler construction, because ports or automatic valves can be used to control air intake and
exhaust discharge, rather than cam-controlled valves necessary in 4S engines;
o more uniform torque, in particular for low-power engines, because a useful work phase takes
place for every crankshaft revolution.
16
Operating parameters
Ideal thermodynamic cycles
Constant-volume
Otto
Thermodynamic processes
1-2 Adiabatic compression
2-3 Heat input:
Otto: constant volume
Diesel: constant pressure
Sabath: mixed (isochoric 2-3, isobaric 3-3)
Constant-pressure
Diesel
Limited-pressure
Sabath
Ideal cycles parameters

Volumetric compression ratio:
Heat input ratio at constant volume:
Heat input ratio at constant pressure:
/
/
/
3-4 Adiabatic expansion

4-1 Constant volume heat rejection
17
Ideal cycle analysis
Heat input:
=
Rejected heat:
=
Cycle efficiency:
=1
Reversible adiabatic compression:

=
Isochoric heat input:
=
Isobaric heat input:
Reversible adiabatic expansion:

=
18
Ideal cycle efficiency
Sabath cycle efficiency:
=1
1
1
1+
0.9
Otto cycle efficiency:
Otto
Diesel
0.8
=1
0.7
0.6
=1
1
1
id
Diesel cycle efficiency:

0.5
0.4
Ideal cycle efficiency:
0.3
depends on fluid properties though the ratio of specific
0.2
heats
0.1
increases with volumetric compression ratio ,

because it increases the average temperature of heat input
decreases as the ratio
k = 1.4
b = 2.0
8
12
16
rv
20
24
increases
19
Fuel/air cycle efficiency
In order to take into account the real
thermodynamic behavior of the working fluid,
a fuel/air cycle is defined. Its characteristics are:
air and combustion products are perfect gases,
with specific heat ( , ) and specific heat
ratio dependent on temperature;
the combustion process is complete and
instantaneous;
no heat transfer takes place with engine walls;
reversible compression and expansion.
The fuel/air cycle efficiency
(or / ) is
thus defined as the ratio between the work output
of such a cycle and its heat input:
=
/
The plot on the right shows the influence of volumetric compression ratio
on fuel/air cycle efficiency
for different equivalence ratios
(defined later as
/ ), in the case of a constant-volume (Otto) cycle.
is the absolute humidity; the fraction of exhaust gas residuals.
Image source: R. Stone, Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines, Palgrave Macmillan, 2012
20
Air/fuel cycle vs real thermodynamic cycle
Further differences between air/fuel cycle and real cycle are due to:
Finite combustion time: the combustion process usually lasts at least 50 crank angle degrees
Incomplete combustion and chemical dissociation
Heat transfer between burned gases and cylinder walls and between air and intake manifold
Crevice effects and leakage
Exhaust blowdown loss due to anticipated opening of exhaust valve
Pressure losses at intake and exhaust valves: in naturally aspirated engines, this means in
particular that work must be done by the piston on the gas during the intake and the exhaust
processes (pumping work)
Finite valve opening and closing time
The real working cycle is defined as indicated cycle (see the following slide), so an
indicated thermodynamic efficiency may be defined as the ratio of the actual work output and the
work output of a corresponding fuel/air cycle:
=
21
Indicated cycle
The real working cycle and engine performance are
measured with a dynamometer: the engine is clamped on
a test bed and the shaft is connected to the dynamometer
rotor, which is coupled to the stator by electromagnetic,
hydraulic or mechanical (friction) means.
The force required to balance the stator gives the
engine torque:
=
Engine power is then given by the product of torque and
rotational speed
=
This is the usable power that is delivered by the engine to

the load, which is in this case a brake (brake power):
hence the suffix b.
Besides, pressure inside the engine is measured by
sensors called indicators (hence the definition of
indicated cycle) as a function of crank angle and,
consequently, cylinder volume .
22
Real (indicated) cycle
Pressure vs. crank angle ( - ) diagram
Start of combustion (SOC)
Exhaust valve opening (EVO)
Exhaust valve closing (EVC)

TDC
BDC
TDC
BDC
IVO
Intake valve closing (IVC)
Exhaust
Intake
EVO
Expansion
IVC
Intake valve opening (IVO)
EVC
Compression
TDC
Indicated cycle
(pressure vs cylinder volume diagram, - )
Left: indicated cycle of a 4S, SI engine
Right: indicated cycle of a 4S, CI engine
23
Indicated cycle
Indicated work per cycle (per cylinder)
Indicated mean effective pressure (imep)

=
bmep is the work available per cycle and unit

displacement
Friction mean effective pressure (fmep)
=
Indicated fuel conversion efficiency

=
Brake mean effective pressure (bmep)
fmep is here defined to include work spent to

drive accessories
Indicated cycle power output

=
=
/ =
Mechanical balance in terms of power

=
Mechanical efficiency
=
is the fraction of the engine power needed

to drive accessories and overcome friction
Mechanical balance in terms of effective

pressures:
=
=
24
Overall fuel conversion efficiency and specific consumption
Overall fuel conversion efficiency must take into account energy losses due to friction and work
necessary to drive accessories, so it is defined in terms of brake power:
=
It is therefore the product of indicated fuel conversion efficiency and mechanical efficiency:
=
The specific fuel consumption is, by definition, the fuel mass flow rate that must be burned in the
engine to obtain a unit power output: thus, it is given by the inverse of the product of fuel conversion
efficiency and heating value. It is usually expressed in [g/kWh]:
=
25
Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric efficiency is used to measure the effectiveness of an engines induction process, and is
that effectively flows into the intake system divided by the mass of air
defined as the mass of air
that would fill a volume equal to the displacement at inlet air conditions (inlet air density ):
=
In naturally aspirated engines volumetric efficiency is lower than 1 because of pressure losses in the
intake system (distributed losses in the intake manifold and concentrated losses in the intake valve).
Typical maximum values are in the range 8090% for SI engines, and somewhat higher in CI
engines (because there are no throttling losses, which in some measure are always present in SI
engines even at full load).
In supercharged and turbocharged engines inlet air density is higher than the ambient value, so
volumetric efficiency is higher than 1 (and for this reason it is not totally appropriate to talk about
efficiency in this case).
Inlet air mass flow rate can be expressed as follows:
=
26
Air/fuel ratio, torque and power output
An obviously important parameter for the
combustion process is the air/fuel ratio :
=
The energy input into the system per unit time

can thus be expressed as:
=
The fuel/air equivalence ratio is an even

more informative parameter for defining
mixture composition, because it compares the
stoichiometric air/fuel ratio to the actual one:
/ =
Power output:
=
Brake mean effective pressure
=
=
Its inverse is the relative air/fuel ratio :
Torque is proportional to bmep and engine
displacement:
=
According to these definitions:
o for fuel-lean mixtures:
< 1,
>1
o for stoichiometric mixtures:
= 1,
=1
o for fuel-rich mixtures:
> 1,
<1
=
=
27
Thermal energy balance
Fundamental energy balance equation:
=
Heat flux absorbed by refrigerating fluid and lubrication oil:

=
+
Heat flux rejected as sensible heat in the exhaust gases:
Other forms of heat dissipation (
):
o incomplete combustion;
o radiation.
Spark Ignition Engines
Compression Ignition Engines
20 30%
28 40%
16 33%
15 37%
30 50%
24 40%
4 20%
4 12%
Source: R. della Volpe, Macchine, Liguori Editore, Napoli, 2011
28
Influence of rotational speed on efficiencies
Taking into account indicated thermodynamic efficiency
working cycle gets shorter, so:
, if rotational speed increases the
leaks of working fluid and heat transfer between fluid and engine walls both decrease
energy losses due to imperfect and incomplete combustion increase
On the other hand, the air/fuel cycle efficiency
slightly increases with the rotational speed because
of higher dilution of fuel (the amount of residual gas is higher) and thus lower temperatures (which
reduce the effect of the specific heats variability).
In the case of mechanical efficiency
, if rotational speed increases:
friction losses and pumping work also increase

Therefore, varying rotational speeds:
indicated thermodynamic efficiency has a maximum, albeit with only a slight variation
mechanical efficiency decreases as rotational speed increases
fuel conversion efficiency
has therefore a maximum, but with a significant decrease only at
high rotational speeds, due to the marked drop in mechanical efficiency
29
Influence of air/fuel ratio on efficiencies in SI engines
Fuel/air cycle efficiency
: for fuel-rich mixtures ( <
,
> 1) a fraction of the fuel cannot burn, so it decreases almost
,
linearly with the air/fuel ratio, for fuel-lean mixtures, ( >
< 1), there is a slight increase due to higher dilution
=1
and
).
Rich mixture
Lean mixture
Air/fuel ratio
Image source (bottom): G. Ferrari, Motori a combustione interna, Il Capitello, Torino, 1996
30
Overall fuel conversion efficiency [%]
(because
Specific fuel consumption [g/MJ]
does not depend on air/fuel

Friction mean effective pressure
ratio: mechanical efficiency thus depends on air/fuel ratio only
through its influence on imep, and therefore it varies as the
indicated efficiency does
Equivalence ratio
Specific power output [kW/dm3]
: it is highly dependent
Indicated thermodynamic efficiency
on air/fuel ratio because of its influence on reaction speed. For
air/fuel ratios markedly higher or lower than the stoichiometric
value the speed of the chemical reactions decreases
significantly, bringing about higher energy losses and therefore
efficiency losses.
Maximum reaction speeds are obtained with slightly rich
mixtures ( 0,9); reactions are effectively frozen for < 0,5
or > 1,5.
Influence of air/fuel ratio on efficiencies in CI engines
Since CI engines work exclusively with lean mixtures
( 0,7), increasing air/fuel ratios is always beneficial
with reference to dissociation and incomplete
combustion, so the indicated thermodynamic
increases.
efficiency
The different combustion mechanism makes the effects
related to reaction speeds much less important.
Only with extremely lean mixtures the indicated
thermodynamic efficiency drops significantly.
Regarding the influence of air/fuel ratio on mechanical
efficiency, the same considerations apply to CI and SI
engines, but the mechanical efficiency curve for CI
engines is different than for SI engine because imep
behaves differently.
31
Typical design and operating data for internal combustion engines
Source: J.B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988.
32
Air intake
Polar valve timing diagram
Intake Valve
Intake valve opens (IVO) before TDC in order to have the valve completely open when the
induction stroke begins, so as to maximize air induction into the cylinder.
Intake valve close (IVC) after BDC in order to take advantage of kinetic energy of exhaust gases in
the intake manifold, so as to achieve a good air induction, thanks to inertial effects, even after BDC.
Image sources:
(left) R.N. Brady, Internal Combustion (Gasoline and Diesel) Engines, In: Encyclopedia of Energy, Elsevier, New York, 2004, Pages 515-528, ISBN 9780121764807.
(right) A. Paul, P.K. Bose, R. S. Panua, R. Banerjee, An experimental investigation of performance-emission trade off of a CI engine fueled by dieselcompressed natural gas (CNG) combination and
dieselethanol blends with CNG enrichment, Energy, Volume 55, 15 June 2013, Pages 787-802, ISSN 0360-5442, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.04.002.
33
Air intake
Polar valve timing diagram
Exhaust Valve
Exhaust Valve Closes (EVC) after TDC in order to take advantage of the inertia of the exhaust
gases, which draw even more fresh air into the cylinder thanks to the overlap period (time while
intake and exhaust valve are simultaneously open).
Exhaust Valve Opens (EVO) before BDC so as to discharge initially the burned gases due to the
pressure difference between the cylinder and the exhaust system (blowdown); after BDC the
cylinder is scavenged by the piston as it moves toward TDC (displacement process).
Advanced EVO allows to reduce pumping work (pressure decreases in the cylinder) but it also
reduces the power stroke, so an optimum value exists as a compromise between these effects.
Image sources:
(left) R.N. Brady, Internal Combustion (Gasoline and Diesel) Engines, In: Encyclopedia of Energy, Elsevier, New York, 2004, Pages 515-528, ISBN 9780121764807.
(right) A. Paul, P.K. Bose, R. S. Panua, R. Banerjee, An experimental investigation of performance-emission trade off of a CI engine fueled by dieselcompressed natural gas (CNG) combination and
dieselethanol blends with CNG enrichment, Energy, Volume 55, 15 June 2013, Pages 787-802, ISSN 0360-5442, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.04.002.
34
Air intake
Intake and exhaust valves
Volumetric efficiency increases as the cross-section
available to induced air and to exhaust gases
increases.
The influence of intake cross-section is much more
pronounced than that of the exhaust cross-section, by
a factor equal to (because it affects the fluid filling
the whole cylinder, and not only the dead volume).
In order to increase intake and exhaust cross-sections,
it is obviously better to adopt multivalve systems
rather than increasing the size of a single valve.
Therefore the following systems are commonly used:
o
3 valves (2 intake and 1 exhaust)
(anyway, exhaust valves are usually smaller)
35
Air intake
Phenomena influencing gas exchange processes
In naturally aspirated engines, the volumetric efficiency is
lower than 1 because of several phenomena taking place
in the gas exchange process. The most important are:
2. Pressure losses through the intake valve: when the

induction stroke ends, pressure inside the cylinder is
lower than atmospheric pressure ( < ) because of
energy losses taking place as the fresh air (or mixture)
flows through the valve, so the air density is also lower
than atmospheric air density ( < ).
Intake
Exhaust
Pressure [kPa]
1. Exhaust gas expansion: at the end of the exhaust

stroke, the dead volume is filled with exhaust gases,
whose pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure
( > ): these gases expand as the induction process
begins and the pressure in the cylinder decreases, and
occupy a volume larger than the dead volume.
Volumes
3. Heat exchanges between engine walls and induced air

also make airs density lower than atmospheric density.
Image source: G. Ferrari, Motori a combustione interna, Il Capitello, Torino, 1996
36
Air intake
Volumetric efficiency: quasi-static effects
Fuel vapor (and also water vapor) reduces the air partial pressure
below the mixture pressure. If is the mixture pressure (at the
beginning of the compression stroke), then = , + , + ,
(a -> air, f -> fuel, w -> water). Partial pressure of air is given by:
,
= 1+
This effect can be quite large for gaseous fuels.

Fuel vaporization: the mixture temperature decreases as liquid fuel is
vaporized. The temperature difference that occurs after evaporation is:
,
=
, + , /
with: fraction of fuel evaporated; , enthalpy of vaporization.
For isooctane, at = 1, 19 K; for alcohols, given their large
enthalpy of vaporization, the effect can be quite large ( 128 K
for methanol) and compensate for the reduction in air partial pressure.
As the pressure in the exhaust manifold increases, the volume
occupied by the residual gas in the cylinder also increases, so the
volumetric efficiency decreases.
Image source: J.B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988.
37
Air intake
Volumetric efficiency: influence of ambient and refrigerant temperature
= 302,4 K
Volumetric efficiency ratio
Volumetric efficiency increases with ambient

temperature (according to a power 0,5),
because less heat is exchanged between
mixture and walls. In any case, the mass of
induced air decreases as ambient
temperature increases:
Refrigerant temperature affects wall

temperature and thus heat transfer during
the gas exchange process: therefore,
volumetric efficiency slightly increases as
refrigerant temperature decreases.
Ambient temperature [K]
= 363 K
Refrigerant temperature [K]
38
Air intake
Volumetric efficiency: influence of rotational speed
Volumetric losses due to charge heating
decrease as
(and therefore ) increases
because the time available for heat exchange
between fluid and engine walls also decreases.
The effect of friction, both at the intake and at
the exhaust, is proportional to
at low-medium
speeds, and increases even more strongly with

at high speeds, when sonic flow conditions
(choking) are reached at the intake valve.
Backflow: because the inlet valve closes after
the start of the compression stroke, a reverse
flow of fresh charge from the cylinder back into
the intake can occur as the piston moves
toward TDC. This flow is larger at lower speeds.
Dynamic effects: inertial effects and wave
effects (tuning).
Image source: J.B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988.
39
Air intake
Volumetric efficiency: effect of valve timing
EVO point
(degrees before BDC)
Pressure [MPa]
Early Exhaust Valve Opening (EEVO)

If the exhaust valve closes much earlier than BDC,
energy losses for incomplete expansion increase,
but the blowdown process is more effective, thus
reducing the work in the exhaust stroke.
Therefore, a compromise value must be sought.
TDC
BDC
Cylinder volume
Late Intake Valve Closing (LIVC)

As the difference between BDC and intake valve
closing increases, the volumetric efficiency vs
engine speed curve shifts towards higher rotational
speeds. With fixed valve timing, this also means
that backflow increases at low speeds.
Volumetric efficiency
[rpm]
IVC point
(degrees after BDC)
Engine speed [rps]
40
Air intake
Volumetric efficiency: inertial effect
The pressure in the inlet manifold varies during each cylinders
intake process due to the piston velocity variation, and the unsteady
gas-flow effects that result from these geometric variation.
At higher engine speeds, the inertia of the gas as the intake valve is
closing increases the pressure in the inlet port and continues the
charging process as the piston slows down around BDC and starts
the compression stroke. The inlet valve is closed some 40 to 60
after BDC, in part to take advantage of this ram phenomenon.
Pressure oscillations increase volumetric efficiency when the intake

systems natural frequency is twice the rotational speed: 2 .
Therefore, given the geometry of the intake system, the rotational
speed that maximizes volumetric efficiency is:
The fluid filling intake manifold and cylinder can be approximated as

a 1-degree of freedom oscillator (Helmholtz resonator), whose
natural frequency is:
Frequency ratio
41
Air intake
Volumetric efficiency: wave effects (tuning)
Pressure oscillations due to wave propagation in the
intake system influence the gas exchange process.
If the reflected wave reaches the intake valve in the

second half of the induction phase (about 90 after TDC),
pressure at the valve increases just as the intake stroke is
almost complete, aiding the induction process.
In this case the intake system is said to be tuned.
Pressure [MPa]
When the intake valve opens, a rarefaction wave

propagates upstream; it is then reflected back as a
pressure wave at the first discontinuity.
Resulting pressure
Reflected
wave
TDC
BDC
LIVC
EIVO
Without reflection
Crankshaft angle [deg]
The time required for a wave to travel along the system is

= / , which, in terms of crankshaft angle, is:
=2 =2
/
The system is tuned if: 2 /2
Given actual values of sound speed , an intake system is

usually tuned at high rotational speeds; it could also be
tuned at relatively low speeds with very long pipes.
42
Air intake
Supercharging and turbocharging: layouts
a) Mechanical supercharging
b) Turbocharging
c) Engine-driven compressor and turbocharger
d) Two-stage turbocharging
e) Turbocharging with turbocompounding
f) Turbocharger with intercooler
C Compressor
E Engine
I
Intercooler
T Turbine
Image source: J.B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988
43
Air intake
Supercharging: Roots compressor (positive displacement)
Image source:
(right) R. della Volpe, Macchine, Liguori Editore, Napoli, 2011
(left) P.W.Wetzel, J.P.Trudeau, New supercharger for downsized Engines, MTZ worldwide, February 2013
44
Air intake
Turbocharger
Image source: E. Chebli et al., Development of an exhaust-gas turbocharger for HD Daimler CV engines, MTZ Worldwide, February 2013
45
Air intake
Turbocharging with intercooler
46
Air intake
Turbocharging
pressure
Adiabatic expansion
TDC
BDC
Volume
Turbocharging is based on the residual energy of the exhaust gases

Backpressure increases as exhaust gases flow through the turbine
Area 2-3-4-5 represents the energy related to a spontaneous discharge in atmosphere, and it is the
maximum energy that could theoretically be extracted from the exhaust gases in an ideal impulse
layout (where each cylinder is directly connected to the turbine inlet)
In a constant pressure system, each cylinder discharges to an exhaust manifold that is large enough
to dampen pressure oscillations; kinetic energy is then lost while exhaust gases expand to pressure
(2-3 process), with an increase in total enthalpy and temperature
47
Air intake
Supercharging vs. turbocharging
For positive displacement compressors, pressure ratio is almost independent on the engines
rotational speed: therefore, good performances can be achieved even at low rotational speeds and
when accelerating from low speeds.
The turbocharger on the other hand provides increasing pressure ratios as the engine speed
increases: inlet pressure may be either insufficient at low speeds or too high at high speeds.
The turbocharger is more reliable; installation and maintenance are easier.
The turbocharger weighs less and is smaller than a supercharger, other things being equal
(in particular, for the same pressure ratio and air flow rate).
Pressure ratio is approximately up to 3 for a turbocharger and up to 2 for a Roots compressor.
Mechanically driven
Torque
During transient response, turbochargers do not respond as fast

as mechanically driven compressors (turbo lag), due to the time
needed for the exhaust system and turbocharger to generate
the required boost.
Inertia, friction, and compressor load are the primary contributors
to turbo lag.
The mechanically driven compressor has a faster response
because its rotational speed is directly coupled to the engines speed.
Turbo
Naturally Aspirated
Time [s]
48
Air intake
Turbocharging: applications
Spark Ignition engines:
o The degree of supercharging in SI engines is mainly limited by the knock: supercharging reduces
ignition delay which increases the knocking tendency.
o Before the advent of direct injection systems, turbocharging required a decrease of the
compression ratio in order to reduce the risk of knocking -> higher specific fuel consumption.
o With the advent of direct injection systems and the availability of better fuels (higher octane
numbers), turbocharging could be more easily adopted, because fuel vaporization, together with a
wide use of charge cooling, allows to avoid the need to reduce compression ratios.
Compression Ignition engines:
o Since in CI engines there is no risk of knocking, supercharging is limited only by the maximum
permissible mechanical and thermal loads. Indeed, supercharging has even a positive influence on
the combustion process.
o Therefore, turbocharging is extensively used in CI engines, and it makes their performance reach
the same level of naturally aspirated SI engines.
49
Air intake
Turbocharging: exhaust gas by-pass valve
Turbocharger
Exhaust gas
Fresh air
Turbine
Discharge
Inlet
Engine
Bypass valve
The turbocharger is sized in such a way that it can

provide maximum supercharging pressure at
4050% of the maximum rotational speed, in order
to achieve good torque output even at low speeds.
At high rotational speeds, the excess exhaust
gases are discharged through a bypass valve.
50
Air intake
Turbocharging: variable geometry turbine
As an alternative, in order to achieve
good performances on a wide range
of rotational speeds, a variablegeometry turbine can be used, which
is equipped with variable-pitch nozzle
blades.
51
Fuel metering in SI engines

Requirements of a 4S, SI engine
Rich mixture
Lean mixture
Overall fuel conversion efficiency [%]
Mixture homogeneity
The air/fuel mixture must be homogeneous, in
order to burn fuel rapidly and completely.
Specific fuel consumption [g/MJ]
Air/fuel ratio
The metering system must provide the
appropriate quantity of fuel, so as to obtain the
required air/fuel ratio for every operating point.
Equivalence ratio
Specific power output [kW/dm3]
Fuel volatility
Fuel must be premixed with air, before the
spark starts the combustion process.
Air/fuel ratio
52

Carburetor
1. Air filter
2. Carburetor
3. Throttle valve
4. Intake manifold
5. Fuel tank
6. Fuel filter
7. Cam
8. Diaphragm pump
53

Elementary carburetor
Fundamental components:
Venturi (convergent-divergent nozzle)
In its throat the depression originated by the
inlet air flow draws fuel from its tank.
Air
Fuel Pressure
equalizing
passage
Float
chamber
Fuel discharge tube

Connects the fuel tank to the Venturi throat.
The fuel flow is metered by a calibrated orifice.
Fuel discharge
nozzle
Venturi
throat
Calibrated
orifice
Throttle
plate
Float chamber
The fuel level is maintained at a constant
height in a float chamber: a pressure
equalizing passage makes the pressure inside
the float chamber equal to air pressure at the
Venturi inlet. Thus, hydrostatic pressure on the
calibrated orifice depends only on the flow rate
of air.
Throttle valve
It controls air flow rate, and as a consequence
power output, acting on volumetric efficiency.
54

Carburetor vs. injection systems
Limits of carburetors
Advantages of fuel injection
It is difficult to control precisely the required

air/fuel ratio in different operating conditions
better control on air/fuel ratio, both in terms of

precision and repeatability, in all operating
conditions; more uniform distribution among
cylinders; consequently, positive influence on:
Pressure loss in aspiration

It is difficult to control its operation in transient
conditions, due to the inertia of the fuel mass
Significant variation of specific fuel
consumption with load, particularly pronounced
in case of frequent transient operating conditions
It is necessary to heat the intake manifold in
particular operating conditions, with the
consequent decrease in volumetric efficiency, in
order to avoid that fuel condenses on engine walls
Limited control on pollutant emissions in the
whole operating range
o specific fuel consumption

o performance
o pollutant emissions
better transient operation, because of lower fluid
volumes in the system (lower fluid inertia)
higher volumetric efficiency, thanks to lower
pressure losses and no intake manifold heating
it makes possible to increase compression ratio,
because the fuel/air mixture has less time
available for autoignition, or alternatively to use a
fuel with lower octane rating
55

Classification of injection systems
Position of fuel injectors
o Indirect injection (IDI): it takes place in the intake manifold
o Direct injection (DI): fuel is directly injected inside the cylinder
Control of injectors
o Mechanical injection: an engine-driven pump pressurizes the fuel and meters the injected volume
by means of an automatic mechanical injector
o Electronic injection: an electromagnetic fuel injector is used; metering and control of injection are
bestowed upon the ECU
Distribution among cylinders (only for indirect injection)
o Single-point systems: only one or two fuel injectors meter the fuel into the air flow directly above
the throttle body
o Multipoint port injection: a fuel injector is used for each cylinder; fuel is injected into the intake
port of each cylinder
56

Injection systems
Direct Injection (DI, left)

and Indirect Injection (IDI, right)
1. Injector
2. Intake manifold
3. Intake valve
Bosch Electromagnetic Injector

(electronic injection system)
1. Filter
2. Electric wire
3. Winding
4. Winding armature
5. Needle valve
6. Needle tip
7. Fuel pipe
8. Tightening ring
9. Seal ring
10.Seal ring
57

MultiPoint Fuel Injection (MPFI)
1. Fuel tank
11.Throttle switch
2. Fuel pump
12.Air flow sensor
3. Fuel filter
13.Air temperature sensor
4. Pressure regulator
14.Lambda sensor
5. Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
15.Coolant temperature sensor
6. Ignition coil
16.Auxiliary air device
7. HT distributor
17.Crankshaft angle sensor
8. Spark plug
18.Battery
9. Injector
19.Ignition and starting switch
10.Throttle valve
20.HVAC switch
58

Direct injection system (Bosch)
Solenoid (HDEV5) and piezo (HDEV 4.1) injectors
Metering accuracy 2 mg/inj
up to 3 injections per cycle (up to 5 inj/cycle for
stratified-charge combustion)
HDEV5
HDEV4.1
Source: A. Heinstein et al., High-pressure Direct Injection Systems for Gasoline Engines , MTZ Worldwide, March 2013
59

Direct vs. Indirect injection systems
Problems arising with direct injection systems:
Higher mechanical and thermal stress
The injectors must withstand pressure and temperature levels that are reached inside the cylinder;
furthermore, they are subject to dirt and soot particles originating from the combustion process.
Installation complexity
Direct injection requires that the injector be mounted directly on top of the cylinder, where spark plug
and intake and exhaust valves are placed too.
Higher injection pressure
Direct injection systems need at least 3540 bar in order to achieve the correct fuel vaporization and
mixing with the air inside the cylinder (modern injection systems reach pressures up to 200 bar).
In the case of indirect injection systems, an injection pressure of 45 bar is good enough.
More difficult mixture homogenization
In order to achieve a mixture homogenization comparable to indirect injection systems, the air intake
system needs to be more sophisticated, so as to increase turbulence (through swish, squish and
tumble motions): a high degree of turbulence speeds evaporation of fuel, enhances air-fuel mixing
and increases combustion speed and efficiency.
60

Advantages of direct injection systems:
Evaporative cooling
In indirect injections systems, fuel vaporization takes place in the intake manifold and it subtracts
heat from the manifold walls and from the intake valve; in direct injection systems, on the contrary,
fuel vaporization takes place inside the cylinder, so that it cools the induced air, with a double
benefit:
o higher density -> higher volumetric efficiency: torque output increases by approximately 56%;
o lower temperature -> lower risk of detonation (knocking) -> compression ratio can be increased
(by approx. 20%) -> significant improvements in efficiency and fuel consumption are possible.
Cold start and transients
Direct injection removes the problem of fuel condensation on the intake manifolds walls or on the
intake valve, which is particularly important during transient behaviors and at cold start: both fuel
consumption and CO and HC pollutant emissions are reduced.
Longer valve overlap period possible
Fuel injection is carried out when both valves are closed, so the induced air does not contain any
fuel, and thus in the overlap period there is no risk of fuel flowing back to the intake manifold (with
the possible risk of backfire) or of fuel loss with exhaust gases.
61

Indirect
injection
Direct
injection
3498
3498
10,7
12,2
[bar]
45
200
[kW]
200
215
[rpm]
6000
6400
[bar]
11,4
11,5
[kW/l]
57,2
61,5
[Nm]
350
365
[bar]
12,6
13,1
100,0
104,3
[g/kWh]
240
235
[g/kWh]
360
290
[cm3]
[Nm/l]
n [rpm]
,
(part load)
62
Fuel injection in CI engines

General remarks
The air/fuel ratio must be close to the stoichiometric

value only locally, i.e. close to the injector; overall,
the fuel/air mixture can be lean, which allows to
control power output just through the mass of fuel
injected, without the need of controlling also the
mass of air induced.
On the other hand, the fuel/air equivalence ratio
cannot exceed threshold levels given by the
following reasons:
Brake mean effective pressure (bmep) [MPa]
CI engines use low-volatility fuels: the fuel must

therefore be injected into the induced air in the form
of droplet spray, and the drops should be as
small as possible.
Power
o pollutant emission
rps
o mechanical stresses
o thermal stresses
Rotational speed n
rpm
63

Indirect injection (prechamber) and direct injection
Indirect injection (prechamber)

1. Injector
2. Prechamber
3. Glow plug (used as a cold-starting aid)
Direct injection
Reduction of heat losses (no heat exchange
with the prechamber walls) -> increase in fuel
efficiency
On the other hand, injection pressure must
be significantly higher
64

Common Rail Fuel Injection System
65

Common Rail: injector
Open injector
Fuel leak back
(return)
Closed injector
Electrical
connection
High pressure
fuel inlet
High pressure
fuel inlet
Solenoid
actuator
Solenoid
actuator
Two-way valve
Two-way valve
Injector valve
open
Solenoid energized
Fuel pressure is relieved above
the valve control plunger
Balance of forces: Fa > Fc+Fe
Nozzle open
Injector valve
closed
Solenoid not energized

Fuel pressure is the same above
and below the valve control plunger
Balance of forces: Fa < Fc+Fe
Nozzle closed
66

Common Rail: injector characteristics
Source: D. Schppe et al., Servo-Driven Piezo Common Rail Diesel Injection System, MTZ Worldwide, March 2012
67

Common Rail: multiple injections
68

Common Rail: application examples
Cursor 11 Euro VI engine series, used for commercial truck propulsion (FPT Industrial)
69

Common Rail: application examples
Vector V20 engine series, used in power generators (FPT Industrial)
70
Operating characteristics and performance maps

Power, torque and fuel specific consumption curves
Performance maps are usually drawn with reference

to full-load operation (full-load performance maps)
and represent power, torque and fuel consumption vs.
rotational speed.
Torque depends on
and , so its maximum lies
where volumetric efficiency is highest, and falls
rapidly because of the decrease in mechanical
efficiency.
Beyond a particular value of rotational speed, the

speed increase cannot compensate the decrease in
mechanical and volumetric efficiency: therefore that
) corresponds to the maximum
operating point (
power output of the engine.
The operating range of the engine is usually limited to
only slightly higher than
a maximum speed
, because there is no point in using the
decreasing part of the power curve.
Fuel specific consumption depends only on the

overall fuel conversion efficiency .
Power
Fuel specific consumption
Torque
71

Power, torque and brake mean effective pressure curves of a SI engine
This chart shows the performance map of a
naturally aspirated 4S SI engine
(displacement 2525 cm3).
The brake mean effective pressure curve has
the same shape of the torque curve, because:
Curves do not start from zero power output

but from a minimum speed, below which
excessive vibrations and irregular operating
conditions would arise.
The operating range goes from the minimum
speed up to a maximum speed slightly higher
than the maximum power operating point.
72

Power and torque of a turbocharged SI engine
Source: The New BMW Inline Six-cylinder Gasoline Engine, MTZ worldwide, October 2015
73

Performance map of a CI engine
Engine characteristics:
Turbocharged
Direct injection
Displacement
= 4134 cm
The torque rises very fast at low speeds,

then it is maintained constant over a wide
range of speed, and finally decreases at high
speeds. This behavior depends on:
the turbocharger characteristics;
the limits on the fuel/air equivalence ratio.
n [rpm]
74

Influence of displacement and number of intake valves
The chart on top shows the performance map of two

similar SI 4S naturally aspirated engines of different
displacement.
Displacement does not affect bmep
(there is only a marginal influence on the volumetric
efficiency related to valve area).
Therefore, torque and power output increase linearly
with the increase in displacement, on the whole
operating range.
The bottom chart shows the performance map of two

CI 4S engines, same displacement ( = 2500 cm3),
different number of valves.
The volumetric efficiency increases significantly in the
4-valve engine: this results in a higher torque output.
The increase in power output is even more
pronounced because the 4-valve engine has a wider
speed range (the valves are smaller and lighter, so can
withstand higher velocities).
75

SI automotive engine performances
Year
[cm3]
Supercharging
Injection
2001
2006
2002
2002
2005
2006
2007
1998
1598
1796
1796
1390
1798
2979
Turbo
Turbo
Mech.
Mech.
Mech. + Turbo
Turbo
2 Turbo in //
Indirect
Indirect
Indirect
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
8,8
8,8
8,7
10,5
10,0
9,4
10,2
120
120
150
200
[bar]
[kW]
140
132
141
125
125
118
225
/ [kW/l]
70
82,6
78,5
69,6
89,9
65,6
75,5
5400
5500
5800
5300
6000
5000
5800
250
230
260
250
240
250
400
/ [Nm/l]
125,1
144
144,8
139,1
172,7
139
134,3
(max) [bar]
15,7
18,1
18,2
17,5
21,7
17,4
16,8
(min) [g/kWh]
239
[rpm]
[Nm]
< 250
< 235
Design characteristics and performance of some SI 4S supercharged engines for automotive applications, built by European companies from 2001 to 2007
76

CI automotive engine performances
1
10
11
12
13
1999
2001
2002
2003
2004
2004
2004
2004
2005
2005
2005
2005
2006
3900
1995
2148
3936
2460
2967
2497
1991
1493
2993
2987
4134
3996
Turbocharging
2
Turbo
in //
Turbo
Turbo
2
Turbo
in //
Turbo
Turbo
Turbo
Turbo
Turbo
2
Turbo,
series
Turbo
2
Turbo
in //
Turbo
Injection
CR
I gen.
CR
II gen.
CR
II gen.
CR
II gen.
CR
II gen.
CR
II gen.
CR
II gen.
CR
II gen.
CR
CR
III gen.
CR
III gen.
CR
III gen.
18
17
18
17,3
17,1
17
18
18
16,5
18
16,5
17
[bar]
1350
1600
1600
1600
1600
1600
1600
1600
1600
1600
1600
n. of injections
1 pilot
up to
5
2 pilot
2 pilot
>1
2 pilot
2 pilot
2+1+2
[kW]
175
110
110
202
128
171
130
103
70
200
165
240
231
/ [kW/l]
44,9
55,1
51,2
51,3
52,0
57,6
52,1
51,7
46,9
66,8
55,2
58,1
57,8
) [rpm]
4000
4000
4200
3750
3500
4000
4200
4000
4400
3800
3750
3600
560
330
340
650
400
450
400
300
210
560
510
650
730
/ [Nm/l]
143,6
165,4
158,3
165,1
162,6
151,7
160,2
150,7
140,7
187,1
170,7
157,2
182,7
) [rpm]
17502500
2000
2000
18002500
2000
14003250
2000
16003000
18002800
2000
16002800
16003500
2200
[bar]
18,0
20,8
19,9
20,8
20,4
19,1
20,1
18,9
17,7
23,5
21,5
19,8
23,0
[g/kWh]
207
202
205
198
202
202
206
208
Year
[cm3]
[Nm]
18
202
Design characteristics and performance of some CI 4S turbocharged engines for automotive applications, built by European companies from 1999 to 2006
77

Performance of 4S, 4-cylinder automotive engines
Fuel
[cm3]
Turbocharging
10
Gasoline
Gasoline
Gasoline
Gasoline
Gasoline
LPG
Diesel
Diesel
Diesel
Diesel
1368
1368
1368
1368
1742
1368
1598
1956
1956
1956
Turbo,
intercooler
Turbo,
intercooler
Turbo,
intercooler
Turbo,
intercooler
Turbo,
intercooler
Turbo,
intercooler
Turbo,
intercooler
Turbo,
intercooler,
var.
geom.
Turbo,
intercooler,
var.
geom.
Turbo,
intercooler,
var.
geom.
Multiair*
Multiair*
Air inlet
Injection
MPFI
MPFI
MPFI
MPFI
DI
MPFI
Multijet 2
Multijet 2
Multijet 2
Multijet 2
9,8
9,8
9,8
9,8
9,25
9,8
16,5
16,5
16,5
16,5
1600
1600
1600
1600
[bar]
[kW]
77
88
125
125
173
88
77
103
125
125
/ [kW/l]
56,3
64,3
91,4
91,4
99,3
64,3
48,2
52,7
63,9
63,9
) [rpm]
5000
5000
5500
5500
5500
5000
4000
3750
4000
4000
206
206
250
250
340
206
320
350
350
350
/ [Nm/l]
150,6
150,6
182,7
182,7
195,2
150,6
200,3
178,9
178,9
178,9
) [rpm]
1750
1750
2500
2500
1900
1750
1750
1500
1750
1750
18,9
18,9
23,0
23,0
24,5
18,9
25,2
22,5
22,5
22,5
[Nm]
[bar]
* Direct control system of valve opening, with no throttle valve.

Design characteristics and performance of the Alfa Romeo Giulietta engines.
Source: http://www.alfaromeo.it/it/Documents/schede-tecniche/GiuliettaSchedaTecnica-ConsumiPrestazioniEmissioni.pdf (last retrieved December 2013).
78

Fuel economy characteristics
Naturally aspirated SI engine, direct injection,

displacement =
Turbocharged CI engine, direct injection,

displacement =
Full-load performance map: see Direct vs. Indirect injection systems
Full-load performance map: see Performance map of a SI engine
bmep
bmep
Rotational speed [rpm]

Rotational speed [rpm]
79
Load matching
Typical applications
1.
Load requiring constant rotational speed

(as in the case of an electric generator, with the rotational speed linked to the grid frequency):
as a consequence, torque output depends on the external load.
In this case, in order to contain as much as possible any speed fluctuation, power output is divided
among many cylinders and a flywheel with a large moment of inertia is used.
Furthermore, it is possible to optimize the performance, in terms of fuel specific consumption, for
the required operating conditions, taking into account possible load variations.
2.
Load requiring torque output increasing as the square of the rotational speed ):
the engine is thus matched to a fluid machine such as compressors, pumps, aeronautical or
marine propellers, etc.
In this case the engine speed at design operating conditions should be as close as possible to the
optimal one for the external load, in order to reduce the size of the gearbox, or if possible avoid
altogether its use. For large marine 2S CI engines, engine speed has even been reduced down to
12 s-1, so as to couple directly the engine to the propeller.
3.
Load requiring a wide range of operating conditions, both in terms of speed and torque.
It is for example the case of ground propulsion.
80
Load matching
Power generation: example of state-of-art engine performance
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81
Load matching
Power generation: example of state-of-art engine performance and dimensions
18V48/60TS engine
Operation mode
Performance data
Unit
Power per cylinder
kW
1050
1100
1150
1200
Tot. engine power
kW
18,900
19,800
20,700
21,600
Tot. el. genset power
kW
18,428
19,305
20,183
21,060
g/kWh
171
172
174
177
kJ/kWh
7,305
7,350
7,430
7,560
Spec. fuel oil consumption

acc. to ISO 3046, without pumps,
mech. Power output, +5% tolerance
Heat Rate
acc. to ISO 3046, without pumps,
mech. Power output, +5% tolerance
NOx emissions (dry at 15% O2)

Mean effective pressure
Spec. lube oil consumption
Dimensions (mm)
Dry mass (t)
mg/Nm3
1850
1740
1580
1480
bar
23.2/22.6
24.3/23.7
25.4/24.7
26.5/25.8
g/kWh
0,60
0,60
0,60
0,60
9625
5410
24510
9023
4694
407
407
407
407
407
82
Load matching
Power generation: example of state-of-art engine performance and dimensions
With generator (genset)
Without generator
In-line engine L32/44CR
GenSet dimensions
A
mm
7,470
8,530
7,055
8,315
9,575
mm
4,328
4,328
4,376
4,376
4,376
mm
11,795
12,858
11,431
12,691
13,951
6L32/44CR
7L32/44CR
mm
2,676
2,676
4,200
4,260
4,260
mm
4,975
4,975
5,000
5,200
5,200
Dry mass
84
97
117
144
172
Engine type
No. of cyl.
L
mm
L1
mm
W
mm
H
mm
Weight
t
6,312
5,265
6,924
5,877
2,174
4,163
39.5
2,359
4,369
8L32/44CR
7,454
6,407
2,359
4,369
44.5
49.5
9L32/44CR
7,984
6,937
2,359
4,369
53.5
10L32/44CR
10
8,603
7,556
2,359
4,369
58.0
Engine type
No. of cyl.
L
mm
L1
mm
W
mm
H
mm
Weight
t
12V32/44CR
12
7,195
5,795
3,100
4,039
70
14V32/44CR
14
7,970
6,425
3,100
4,262
79
16V32/44CR
16
8,600
7,055
3,100
4,262
87
18V32/44CR
18
9,230
7,685
3,100
4,262
96
20V32/44CR
20
9,860
8,315
3,100
4,262
104
V-engine V32/44CR
All weights and dimensions are for guidance only and apply to dry engines without flywheel. Masses include built-on lube oil automatic filter, fuel oil filter and electronic equipment.
Minimum centreline distance for twin engine installation: 2,500 mm (L32/44CR), 4,000 mm (V32/44CR). More information available upon request.
83
Load matching
Power generation: plant layout
Representation of the IPP3 plant in Jordan. Source: Wrtsil
84
Load matching
Power generation
Facilities of 80 MW or more, operating or under construction
Name
Location
Aratu, Salvador
Brazil
Capacity MW
Fuel
Year1
Conguration
E/G supplier
1056
Diesel
U/C
120 x 18V32/40 in 6 units
MAN Diesel & Turbo
IPP3
Jordan
573
Tri-fuel
2014
38 x 50DF
Wrtsil
Quisqueya I+II
Dominican Republic
431
HFO, nat gas
2013
12 x 18V50DF + 12 x 18V50DF
Wrtsil
21 x SG
Wrtsil
17 x 20V46F
Wrtsil
Boyuk Shor
Azerbaijan
Suape II
Brazil
Sammarah
Iraq
Geramar I+II
Brazil
384
Nat gas
Unknown
382.5
HFO
2011
341
HFO
331.8
HFO
2010
20 x 18V46
Wrtsil
38 x 20V32
Wrtsil
18 x 16.6 MW 50DF
Wrtsil
Sangachal
Baku, Azerbaijan
306.8
FO, nat gas
2012
Coloane, Macau
China
271.4, CC
HFO, diesel
1978-97
Aliaga Alosbi-II2
Izmir, Turkey
270.6, CC
HFO, nat gas
2007
4 x 18V46, 28 x 20V34SG,
2 x 13.5 MW steam
Wrtsil
Pavana III
Honduras
267.2
Oil
2004
16 x 18V46
Wrtsil
27 x W20V34DF
Wrtsil
14 x 18V48/60
MAN Diesel & Turbo
2x24, 2x38.6, 2x53.1, +2x20 ST MAN DT, Peter Brotherhood
Kiisa ERPP 1 & II
Estonia
250
Nat gas, LFO
2014
Choloma I, II, III
Honduras
250
HFO
2003-5
IPP4
Jordan
240
HFO, DFO, gas
2014
16 x 50DF
Wrtsil
241.5
HFO
1994
21 x 16ZA40S
Sulzer, Alstom
Bauang La Union
Philippines
3
Plains End, Colorado
USA
231
Nat gas
2002, 2006
STEC Red Gate, Texas
USA
225
Nat gas
2014
12 x 50SG
20xW18V34SG, 14xW20V34SG Wrtsil

Wrtsil
Atlas
Pakistan
225, CC
Furnace oil
2009
11 x 18V48/60
MAN Diesel & Turbo
Port-Est
Reunion
222
HFO
2010
12 x 18V48/60
MAN Diesel & Turbo
Port Westward Unit 2
Oregon, USA
220
Nat gas
2015
12 x 50SG
Wartsila
Kribi
Cameroon
216
Nat gas/LFO
2013
Pearsall, Texas
USA
202.5
Nat gas
2010
24 x 20V34SG
Wrtsil
Linhares
Brazil
204
Nat gas
2010
24 x 20V34SG
Wrtsil
Pesangarran, Bali
Indonesia
205
Nat gas, HFO
2014-5
Nishat
Pakistan
201, CC
HFO
2010
Pernambuco III
Brazil
200.8
HFO
Nishat Chunian
Pakistan
200
HFO
2010
11 x 18V46
Wrtsil
Vasavi
India
200
HFO
1998
4 x 12K90MC-S
MAN D&T, Hyundai, ABB
Abidjan
Cte dIvoire
200
Nat gas
2010-13
Garabito
Costa Rica
200
HFO
2010
11 x 18V48/60
MAN Diesel & Turbo
Wrtsil
12 x 50DF
Wrtsil
11 x 18V46C, 1x14 MW ST
Wrtsil, Peter Brotherhood
23 x W20W32
Wrtsil
Aggreko, rental
United Ashuganj
Bangladesh
200
Gas
Liberty Power Tech
Pakistan
200, CC
HFO
Arun
Indonesia
184
LNG
2015
19 x 34SG
Wrtsil
Ressano Garcia
Mozambique
176
Nat gas
2014
18 x V34SG
Wrtsil
Viana
Brazil
175
HFO
2009
20 x 20V32
Wrtsil
La Paz (Baja California Sur)
Mexico
173
Diesel oil
2005-13
4 units, CC plant
Man Diesel & Turbo
Eklutna, Alaska
USA
171
Nat gas, LFO
2014
10 x W18V50DF
Wrtsil
Cear
Brazil
168
HFO
2010
8 x 20V46F
Wrtsil
Clifton Pier
Bahamas
165
HFO
1963
1 x 6 MW, 4 x 10 MW, 2 x 26.5

MW, 2 x 33 MW
Sulzer, MAN Diesel & Turbo
Rio Negro
Brazil
164.9
HFO
10 x 18V46
Wrtsil
Campina Grande
Brazil
164
HFO
2010
20 x 20V32
Wrtsil
King Salmon
California
163
Nat gas, diesel
2010
10 x 18V50DF
Wrtsil
Planta Arizona
Guatemala
160
HFO, LFO
2003
10 x 18V46
Wrtsil
Sapugaskanda
Sri Lanka
160
HFO
1984
16 x 10 MW
SEMT, MAN D&T, Siemens
Attock
Pakistan
160
HFO
2008
9 x 18V46
Wrtsil
Bangkanai
Indonesia
155
Nat gas
2015
16 x 34SG
Wrtsil
Samsun I
Turkey
150
HFO, nat gas
2003
18V46s + 1x18V50SG, CC, CHP Wrtsil
2010
20 x W20V34SG
Wrtsil
11 x 18V46, CC plant (1xST)
Wrtsil
Source: extract from The largest recip-based power plants worldwide, Modern Power Systems, February 2015, pp. 12-15.
85
Load matching
Diesel Combined Cycle (DCC)
&%%4GHGTGPEG#VNCU2QYGT
*GCVDCNCPEGQHC&%%RTQEGUU
Chimney
'PIKPGRTQEGUU
HWGNGPGTI[
Air cooled condenser
%CDNGVTCHQNQUUGU
#WZKNKCT[RQYGT
'ZJCWUVICUJGCV
'NGEVTKECNRQYGT
'NGEVTKECNRQYGT
'NGEVTKECNRQYGTVQITKF
6TCPUHQTOGT
UVCVKQP
Exhaust steam duct
4CFKCVKQPKPEN
IGPGTCVQTNQUUGU
Steam turbine
Gearbox
Condensate tank
Condensate pump
.6EQQNKPIYCVGT
LP steam
LP steam drum
HP steam drum
*6EQQNKPIYCVGT
HP steam
Alternator
*6EQQNKPIYCVGT
Silencer
5VGCO
RTQEGUU
Exhaust gas boiler

Boiler bypass
LP feed water pump
HP feed water pump
.QUUGU
HT cooling water
ed water tank
'ZJCWUVICUJGCV
To radiator
#WZKNKCT[UVGCO
Engine
From radiator
Condensate pre-heater
4GEQQNKPI
4GHGTGPEG2TQLGEV
'ZCORNGHQTC&%%RQYGTRNCPV
CP[QVJGTGPIKPGEQPIWTCVKQPKURQUUKDNG
0QCPFGPIKPGV[RG
5KPINGE[ENGPGVRNCPVQWVRWV
5KPINGE[ENGPGVGHEKGPE[
5VGCOVWTDKPGIGPUGVRQYGT
&%%PGVRNCPVQWVRWV
&%%PGVRNCPVGHEKGPE[
9CVGTEQQNGFEQPFGPUGT
8
M9

M9
M9

%WUVQOGT
#VNCU2QYGT
#RRNKECVKQP
$CUGNQCFRQYGTRNCPV&KGUGN%QODKPGF%[ENG
.QECVKQP
.CJQTG2CMKUVCP
0QCPFGPIKPGV[RG
8 UVGCOVWTDKPG
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/9
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&GEGODGT
1RGTCVKQP
/CKPVGPCPEG
1/EQPVTCEVHQT[GCTU
86
Load matching
Combined Heat and Power generation (CHP)
*QVYCVGTIGPGTCVKQPHQTFKHHGTGPVCRRNKECVKQPU
'PGTI[QYFKCITCOHQTJQVYCVGTCRRNKECVKQPU
Fuel Input 100%
%#%
*6*GCV
4GEQXGT[
%#%
&KUVTKEV
*GCVKPI
0GVYQTM
Electricity to
Grid 45.5%
Low temperature
heat 5%
Losses 9.2%
9*4$
High temperature
heat 39.5%
$[RCUU
Plant auxiliaries,
trafo losses
0.8%
'NGEVTKEKV[
Electrical
output 46.3%
%JKOPG[
Heat to heat
consumers 44.5%
$CEMWR
%QQNGT*6
.WDG1KN*GCV
4GEQXGT[
&KUVTKEV*GCVKPI9CVGT
'PIKPG.WDG1KN
'PIKPG,CEMGV %#%
'PIKPG'ZJCWUV)CU
$CEMWR%QQNKPI
$CEMWR
%QQNGT
.WDG1KN
Total CHP efciency 90%

$CUGFQP8)+51EQPFKVKQPUCPFGHEKGPEKGUXCNKFHQT
4GVWTPNKPGVGORGTCVWTG%
5WRRN[NKPGVGORGTCVWTG%
87
Load matching
CHP systems: example of state-of-art engine performance
Key Performance Data
Ins
Performance Data
J920
(50Hz / 1,000 rpm)
J920
(60Hz / 900 rpm)
Electrical Output
9,500 kW
8,550 kW
En
Ge
Electrical Efficiency 48.7%
48.7%
Heat Rate
7,392 kJ/kWh
7,392 kJ/kWh
Thermal Output
8,100 kWth
7,300 kWth
Total Efficiency
90%
90%
TC
Output and efficiency at generator terminals, ISO 3046,

Nat. Gas MN >80, Power Factor 1.0, 500 mg/Nm3 (@ 5% O2) NOx, Efficiency at LHV
Installed Dimensions
Engine
Length
Width
Height
Weight
8.4 m
2.9 m
3.3 m
87 t
Generator
5.2 m
2.5 m
2.9 m
54 t
TCA Module
3m
6.4 m
3.4 m
36 t
GE Power & Water, J920 FleXtra Jenbacher
88
Load matching
CHP systems: example of state-of-art engine performance
technical data
Configuration
Bore (mm)
Stroke (mm)
Displacement/cylinder (lit)
Speed (rpm)
Mean piston speed (m/s)
V 60
190
220
6.24
1,500 (50 Hz); 1,500 with gearbox (60 Hz)
11 (1,500 1/min)
Generator set, cogeneration system,
containerized package
Scope of supply
Applicable gas types
Natural gas, flare gas, biogas, landfill gas, sewage

gas. Special gases (e.g., coal mine gas, coke gas,
wood gas, pyrolysis gas)
Engine type
No. of cylinders
Total displacement (lit)
J612 GS
12
74.9
J616 GS
16
99.8
J620 GS
20
124.8
J624 GS*
24
149.7
Dimensions l x w x h (mm)1
Containerized package
Generator set
J612 - J620 15,000 x 6,000 x 7,300

J612 GS 7,600 x 2,200 x 2,800
J616 GS 8,300 x 2,200 x 2,800
J620 GS 8,900 x 2,200 x 2,800
J624 GS* 12,100 x 2,450 x 2,900
J612 GS 7,600 x 2,200 x 2,800
J616 GS 8,300 x 2,200 x 2,800
J620 GS 8,900 x 2,200 x 2,800
J624 GS* 12,100 x 2,450 x 2,900
Cogeneration system
Weights empty (kg)1

J612 GS
20,600
21,100
Generator set
Cogeneration system
J616 GS
26,000
26,500
J620 GS
30,700
31,300
J624 GS*
49,900
49,500
1) Dimensions and weights are valid for 50 Hz applications.

*J624 with 2-stage turbocharging
outputs and efficiencies

Natural Gas
NOx <
500 mg/m
3
N
250 mg/m3N
1,500 rpm | 50 Hz
1,500 rpm | 60 Hz
Type
Pel (kW)1
el (%)
Pth (kW)
th (%)
tot (%)
Pel (kW)1
el (%)
Pth (kW)
th (%)
tot (%)
612
616
620
624*
612
616
620
624*
2,004
2,679
3,352
4,313
2,004
2,679
3,352
4,313
44.8
44.9
44.9
46.1
43.5
43.6
43.7
44.3
1,883
2,510
3,110
3,931
1,932
2,575
3,211
4,101
42.0
42.0
41.7
41.6
42.0
41.9
41.8
42.1
86.8
86.9
86.6
87.7
85.5
85.6
85.5
86.4
1,984
2,652
3,319
44.3
44.4
44.5
1.902
2.535
3.141
42.5
42.5
42.1
86.8
86.9
86.6
1,984
2,652
3,319
43.1
43.2
43.2
1.952
2.601
3.244
42.4
42.4
42.3
85.5
85.6
85.5
Type
Pel (kW)1
el (%)
Pth (kW)
th (%)
tot (%)
Pel (kW)1
el (%)
Pth (kW)
th (%)
tot (%)
612
616
620
612
616
620
1,818
2,433
3,044
1,818
2,433
3,044
42.8
42.9
43.0
42.3
42.4
42.5
1,787
2,385
2,982
1,805
2,405
3,008
42.1
42.1
42.1
42.0
42.0
42.0
84.9
85.0
85.1
84.3
84.4
84.5
1,800
2,408
3,013
1,800
2,408
3,013
42.4
42.5
42.6
41.9
42.0
42.1
1,805
2,409
3,012
1,823
2,429
3,038
42.5
42.5
42.5
42.4
42.4
42.4
84.8
85.0
85.1
84.3
84.4
84.5
*J624 with 2-stage turbocharging
Biogas
NOx <
500 mg/m3N
250mg/m3N
1,500 rpm | 50 Hz
1,500 rpm | 60 Hz
1) Electrical output based on ISO standard output and standard reference conditions according to ISO 3046/I-1991 and p.f. = 1.0 according to VDE 0530 REM with respective tolerance;
minimum methane number 80 for natural gas
All data according to full load and subject to technical development and modification.
GE Power & Water, Jenbacher Type 6 Gas Engines
89
Load matching
Ground propulsion: ideal performance characteristics
In order to make the best use of the power available on the
whole operating range, the ideal performance map requires:
o constant power output
o torque decreasing (with a hyperbolic law) with the
rotational speed
At low speeds, before reaching maximum power output, the
performance map should have the following characteristics:
o constant torque (limited by tire-ground adhesion conditions)
o power linearly increasing with rotational speed
In order to approximate the ideal characteristic as much as
possible, a gear shift (and a clutch) is needed in order to
change the speed ratio between engine shaft and wheels:
the plot on the right shows the use of a discontinuous fourspeed gearbox
Force transmitted to the wheels is proportional to torque
Image source: M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, S.E. Gay, A. Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, CRC Press LLC, New York, 2005
90
Load matching
Ground propulsion: vehicle resistance
Vehicle resistance is caused fundamentally by
4 phenomena:
1. tire rolling resistance (
2. grading resistance (
3. aerodynamic drag (
4. acceleration (
cos )
sin )
)
d /d )
Taking into account constant cruising speed

conditions ( = 0), rolling and grading
resistance do not depend on vehicle speed
(at least if the influence of on is neglected),
while aerodynamic drag increases with the
square of the vehicle speed:
=
Engine power output thus depends on vehicle

speed according to the following equation:
+
=
91
Load matching
Ground propulsion: vehicle resistance
Aerodynamic resistance (drag)
=
High pressure
Rolling resistance
=
+
Low pressure
P
Moving direction
Moving direction
Moving direction
r
rd
Vehicle Type
Coefficient of Aerodymanic Resistance
Px
z
Open convertible
0.50.7
Van body
0.50.7
(a)
Ponton body
0.40.55
FIGURE 2.2
Tire deflection and rolling resistance on a (a) hard and (b) soft road surface
Wedge-shaped body; headlamps

and bumpers are integrated into
the body, covered underbody,
optimized cooling air flow
0.30.4
Headlamp and all wheels in

body, covered underbody
0.20.25
K-shaped (small breakway

section)
0.23
Optimum streamlined design
0.150.20
Trucks, road trains

Buses
Streamlined buses
Motorcycles
(b)
Rolling Resistance Coefficients
0.81.5
0.60.7
0.30.4
0.60.7
Conditions
Rolling resistance coefficient
Car tires on concrete or asphalt

Car tires on rolled gravel
Tar macadam
Unpaved road
Field
Truck tires on concrete or asphalt
Wheels on rail
0.013
0.02
0.025
0.05
0.10.35
0.0060.01
0.0010.002
Source: M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, S.E. Gay, A. Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, CRC Press LLC, New York, 2005
92
Load matching
Ground propulsion: specific consumption at constant speed
Top chart shows that with a given power
output (corresponding to a given vehicle
speed), the fuel consumption is usually
lower at low engine speed than at high
speed.
The bottom chart shows the operating
points of an engine at constant vehicle
speed, with the highest gear and the second
highest gear.
The engine has a much lower operating
efficiency in low gear than in high gear.
Therefore, the fuel economy of a vehicle
can be improved with more gear
transmission or continuous variable
transmission.
93
Pollutant formation and control

SI engines: formation mechanisms
Oil layers absorb HC
NO forms in high-temperature
burned gas
CO present at high T
or with fuel-rich mixtures
As burned gases cool,

first NO chemistry, then CO chemistry
freezes
Outflow of HC
from crevices;
some HC
burns
Deposits
absorb HC
Oil layers
desorb HC
Piston
scrapes HC
off walls
Entrainment of
HC from wall into
bulk gas
Unburned mixture
forced into
crevices
COMPRESSION
Deposits desorb HC
COMBUSTION
EXPANSION
EXHAUST
94

SI engines: influence of air/fuel ratio
Carbon monoxide (CO) increases rapidly
as the excess air decreases (rich mixtures);
it is very low for lean mixtures.
Nitrogen
oxides
Fuel
consumption
Fuel consumption [g/MJ]
Lean
mixture
Carbon monoxide CO [%]
Unburned hydrocarbons [ppm as C1]
The formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx)

is facilitated by high temperatures and high
oxygen content: maximum emissions are
found for slightly lean mixtures ( 0,9).
Rich
mixture
Nitrogen oxides [ppm as NO]
Unburned hydrocarbons (HC) too are high

for rich mixtures, and decrease as the
air/fuel ratio increases even beyond the
stoichiometric ratio, up to a threshold level
beyond which a fraction of the HC are not
oxidized during the final part of the working
cycle due to the decrease in temperature.
Air equivalence ratio
Unburned
hydrocarbons
Carbon monoxide
Air/fuel ratio
95

SI engines: typical emissions with no control system
Operating mode ->
Idle
Acceleration
Constant speed
Deceleration
CO2 [%]
9,5
10,5
12,5
9,5
CO [%]
2,0
2,0
0,4
2,0
4000
2500
2000
20000
100
1500
1000
100
HC [ppm as C1]
NOx [ppm as NO]
Values given as volume fractions on a dry basis.

All main pollutants are emitted in significant quantities in all operating modes.
Therefore, a pollutant control system that can operate at the same time on CO, HC, NOx is needed.
Source: G. Ferrari, Motori a combustione interna, Il Capitello, Torino, 1996
96

SI engines: pollutant emission control
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
It allows to control NOx formation by
diluting the mixture with inert gases,
thus achieving the same result given
by an increase in air/fuel ratio
without the corresponding increase
in oxygen available.
Air intake
Recirculation
valve switch
Control unit
Three-way catalytic converter

It performs the oxidization of CO, HC and
the reduction of NOx at the same time,
thanks to catalysts (noble metals such as
platinum for oxidization or rhodium for
reduction) capable to promote chemical
reactions even at relatively low
temperature.
EGR
Recirculation
valve
Oxygen
sensor
Fuel
pump
Fresh mixture
Exhaust gas
Three-way
catalytic converter
Exhaust
97

SI engines: pollutant emission control
1. air intake; 2. electronic control unit; 3. oxygen sensor; 4. three-way catalytic converter; 5. silencer;
6.pollutant inlet; 7. honeycomb ceramic monolith; 8. reactor casing; 9. exhaust gas outlet; 10. schematic of the catalysis process
98

Conversion efficiency for all three main
pollutants depends heavily on the
equivalence ratio.
The effect of air/fuel ratio on efficiency in
NOx reduction and in CO and HC
oxidization is opposite.
Conversion efficiency [%]
SI engines: three-way catalytic converter effectiveness
Operating
range
Rich mixture
Therefore, it is necessary to control the

air/fuel ratio within a very small range
of the stoichiometric ratio.
In order to control the air/fuel ratio an
oxygen sensor in the exhaust gas flow is
required (lambda sensor).
Lean mixture
Air/fuel ratio
Air
Air
Platinum
electrodes
Ceramic
Exh.
gas
Cathode
Anode
Zirconia
Exhaust
gas
99

CI engines: formation mechanisms
Zone A: partial oxidation products (especially HC)
Zone B: complete oxidation products
Injection tail
Injector
hole
Zone C: at part-load, complete oxidation products

and NOx; at full load, partial oxidation products and
particulates
Zone D: partial oxidation products and particulates
Image source:
G. Ferrari, Motori a combustione interna, Il Capitello, Torino, 1996 (top)
J.B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988 (bottom)
100

CI engines: typical emissions with no control system
Operating mode ->
Idle
Acceleration
Constant speed
Deceleration
CO2 [%]
1,0*
11,0
7,0
--
CO [%]
0,4
0,2
0,04
--
1000
600
400
1000
100
2500
1000
100
HC [ppm as C1]
NOx [ppm as NO]
Values given as volume fractions on a dry basis.

CO and HC emissions in CI engines are particularly low (comparable to those of a large SI engine
equipped with a three-way catalytic converter), thanks to the high air/fuel ratio.
On the other hand, particulate emissions are very high, so that specific particulate traps are needed,
and also NOx emissions are on the same level of SI engines; NOx emissions can be controlled in CI
engines by means of specific catalytic converters (SCR, Selective Catalytic Reduction).
Source: G. Ferrari, Motori a combustione interna, Il Capitello, Torino, 1996
101

CI engines: particulate filter
A particulate filter is usually based on ceramic
honeycomb monolith traps: a ceramic monolith is
divided into a high number of parallel channels (cells),
alternately blocked and separated by a thin porous
wall (~0,3 mm), with pores having average size of 12
35 m. Exhaust gas is therefore forced to flow through
the porous walls, which carry out the filtering function.
Characteristics of this filter:
high efficiency (> 90%)
low pressure loss
(from 2 kPa when clean up to 20 kPa when dirty)
high mechanical and thermal resistance
It is necessary to regenerate periodically the filter: it
cleans the filter by means of an ad hoc, local
combustion process, which can be activated by
different means, such as an auxiliary burner, or a late
injection of fuel (post-injection in multijet systems).
Exhaust gas
inlet
Exhaust gas
outlet
Burner
Exhaust
gas
1st step:
soot
deposits
2nd step:
regeneration
starts
3rd step:
flame
propagation
Clean filter
102

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Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

General remarks and engine classification

Internal Combustion Engines

General remarks and engine classification

General remarks and engine classification

Internal Combustion Engines

General remarks and engine classification

Minimum chamber volume

Working cycle frequency

Mean piston velocity

TC or TDC: Top Dead Center

Internal Combustion Engines

General remarks and engine classification

Ratio of cylinder bore to piston stroke

Ratio of connecting rod length to crank radius

Volumetric compression ratio (SI engines)

Volumetric compression ratio (CI engines)

Mean piston speed

Internal Combustion Engines

General remarks and engine classification

4. Exhaust stroke: exhaust gases exit the cylinder, first

Internal Combustion Engines

General remarks and engine classification

Internal Combustion Engines

General remarks and engine classification

Image source: R. della Volpe, Macchine, Liguori Editore, Napoli, 2011

Internal Combustion Engines

General remarks and engine classification

Image source: MTZ worldwide, February 2013

Internal Combustion Engines

General remarks and engine classification

Image source: R. della Volpe, Macchine, Liguori Editore, Napoli, 2011

Internal Combustion Engines

General remarks and engine classification

Internal Combustion Engines

General remarks and engine classification

Internal Combustion Engines

General remarks and engine classification

Internal Combustion Engines

General remarks and engine classification

Ideal cycles parameters

Heat input ratio at constant volume:

Heat input ratio at constant pressure:

3-4 Adiabatic expansion

Internal Combustion Engines

Reversible adiabatic compression:

Isobaric heat input:

Reversible adiabatic expansion:

Internal Combustion Engines

Otto cycle efficiency:

Diesel cycle efficiency:

Ideal cycle efficiency:

depends on fluid properties though the ratio of specific

increases with volumetric compression ratio ,

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines