DISTILLATION

TOWERS
Eng. Ahmed Deyab
Fares
Senior Process Engineer
Special thanks to: Eng. M. Abd El-Raof

Ahmed Deyab

Senior Process Engineer

Deliver Several Training Courses & Consultancy for process enginee

rs from several Oil, Gas & Petrochemicals companies in Egypt & Gul
f countries.

Contact details:
Mobile (Egypt): +20 1227549943
Mobile (Saudi Arabia): +966500297503
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.adeyab.com

:Courses Conducted to engineers from

Contents
Fundamentals of Separation
Tower Internals
Crude Distillation
Trouble Shooting

FUNDAMENTALS OF
SEPARATION
IN TOWERS

Distillation
Separation by distillation implies a difference in
boiling points of two or more materials
We

separate

many

things

by

detecting

difference in a physical properties

color, size, weight, shape

The components or compounds making up crude oil are

numbered in thousands
Many

of

these

components

have

similar

physical

properties including boiling points that may differ by

only a few degrees. Therefore, it is difficult to separate
some

pure

compounds

from

the

complex

mixture

of

components in crude oil by distillation alone

There are other methods of separation used in a
refinery

for

example,

extraction

with

solvent,

crystallization, and absorption

Fortunately, rarely need pure compounds and it is often
enough to separate groups of compounds from each other by

If we separate many compounds in crude

oil into groups we find that these groups
have characteristics that make them
considerably more valuable than the whole
crude of
oilthese groups are products
Some
Some may be feedstock to other processing
units where they are chemically changed
into more valuable products
These products, in turn, are
separated or purified by distillation

usually

rinciples Of Distillation
The basic principle of distillation is
simple
When a solution of
components is boiled

two

or

more

The lighter component (the one most

volatile or the one with the greatest
tendency
to
vaporize
)vaporizes
preferentially

Tow component mixture is contained in a vessel

When heat is add until the more volatile material
( red dotes ) start to vaporize. Now the vapor
contains a higher proportion of red dots than dose
the original liquid

10

It is important to note that an equilibrium in composition will

be established
at a given temperature and pressure
By equilibrium we mean there is a given concentration as red
dots" in the vapor and in the liquid depending upon the
original concentration of each component in the liquid and
their respective properties in relation to each other

This results in the vapor above the liquid being

relatively rich in the lighter ( more volatile material )
And the liquid is left with proportionately more of the
less volatile ( heavier liquid )
Thus a separation, to some degree, has taken place
Now, let's develop this simple distillation
concept into a practical operation as it is used
in the refinery
First , lets separate and remove the product

By cooling the over head

vapor, we condense and
remove it from the original
mixture
Thus to have made a partial
separation, partial because
you will note that there are a
few blue dotes" in the
distillate product

This has occurred because at the temperature and

pressure we are conducting the distillation, the
heavier component still vaporizes to some extent
This is because the components of interest in a given
distillation usually have fairly close boiling points

Therefore, to purify the

distillate product, we
may have to conduct
a second distillation
as shown
Obviously,
continue

we
to

can

cascade

these simple distillations

until

we

achieve

the

desired purity of product

The distillations depicted so far are those we call

patch, and normally practical in the refinery,
although it is done frequently in the laboratory
Let us make our distillation equipment look
more like refinery pieces of equipment and
let us make continuous instead of patch
operation

This
is
called
Flash
Vaporization As shown.
The liquid is pumped
continuously through a
heater and into a drum
where the pressure is
lower
The lighter material flashes
instantaneously (vapor and
liquid flow from the drum
continuously)
The
same system is shown
7/4/16
diagrammatically in the in

Suppose we have 50% of the charge taken overhead

That is, we set the temperature and the pressure of the
system in such a way that half the charge is boiled off
And further, suppose the resulting overhead product
does not contain the desired concentration of the
lighter product
As we have seen before, we can increase the purity by
adding a stage of distillation

Suppose we add two

more
stages
of
distillation
Although
this
is
accomplishing
our
goal of increasing
the purity of the
light friction, we are
also
making
large
amounts
of
the
intermediate product,
each
of
which
contains the same
light friction
19

An obvious simplification in equipment can be made

if we allow the hot vapor from the stage above the
next higher (the intermediate product)
This eliminates the need for the intermediate
condensers and heaters
Now we have the continuous, multi-stage
distillation

Tower Sections
We have described staging
for
the
purpose
of
concentrating
the
lighter
component in the overhead
The same principles apply to
concentrating the heavier
component in the bottom
product
The upper stages are called
rectifying stages
These below the feed are
called stripping stages

The upper rectifying section increases the

purity of the overhead product.
The lower stripping section increases the
recovery of the overhead product.
In many cases, the bottom product is the
one of primary interest
For the bottom, or heavy, product the
rectifying section improves recovery

Equilibrium Stage
A stage, or more specifically, an equilibrium stage,
is defined as :
Any portion of the distillation column such
that the liquid and vapor leaving it have
composition in equilibrium with each other.
By definition, then, a stage should be designed in
such a way as to provide intimate contact, or
mixing, of the rising vapor and the descending
liquid. The concept of an equilibrium stage is
converted to an actual mechanical separation tray
by using an efficiency factor which is less than one
and depends on the tray design.

:Column Internals
The plates or trays are contacting devices and used to hold up the liquid to
.provide better contact between vapour and liquid, hence better separation

2. PackingsTrays /Plates . 1
TRAYS
P A C K IN G

T R A Y S W IT H D O W N C O M E R
VALVE TRAYS
S IE V E T R A Y S

R AN D O M

BUBBLE CAP TR AYS

S TR U C TU R ED

T R A Y S W IT H O U T D O W N C O M E R
DUAL FLO W TRAYS

I G E N E R A T IO N

II G E N E R A T IO N

III G E N E R A T IO N

BAFFLE TRAYS
D IS C & D O N U T T R A Y S
R IP P L E T R A Y S
M ULTI DO W NCO M ER TRAYS
P R O P R IE T A R Y D E S IG N S (M V G , S U P E R F R A C )
T R IT O N , P R O V A L V E
NYE TRAYS
C O L L E C T O R / C H IM N E Y T R A Y S
N O N - F R A C T IO N A T IO N T R A Y S

R A S C H IG
L E S S IN G
C R O S S P A R T IT IO N R IN G
BER L SAD D LES

P A L L R IN G
H YPAK
IM T P
C M R
N U T T E R R IN G

G EM PAK
M ELLAPAK
IN T A L O X
PARLPAK

Sieves

Sieve Tray

This tray is a sheet of light metal with a large number of holes dril
led through it.

Vapor rising through the holes keeps the liquid on the tray and b
ubbles up through it.

The overflow weir keeps a constant depth of liquid on the tray.

A sieve tray is:

Inexpensive,
Easy to clean, and
Maintains good liquid and vapor contact
as long as it is operated at its design load.
Because the sieve tray has fixed openings
and does not have covers over the holes, it
does not perform well if tower loads are
constantly changing.

Bubble Cap / Valve trays

In valve trays / Bubble Cap trays, perforations are covered
by liftable caps. Vapor flows lifts the caps, thus self creati
ng a flow area for the passage of vapour. The lifting cap
directs the vapor to flow horizontally into the liquid, thus
providing better mixing

Valve Trays
Sieve Trays
Bubble Cap

Valve Tray

Valve Tray
A valve tray has a variable opening for vapors to flow
through.
The hole has a cover
that consists of a cap
held in place by guides
which go down through
the plate, or tray and
hook underneath it.

When there is no vapor flow, the caps sits over the

hole and close it.
Under low pressure
the cap start to rise.
As the flow of vapors
increases, the cap rise
until it is stopped by
the guide tabs.

The valve tray is similar to the babble cap tray.

Both are more adaptable to variations in tower
loads than a sieve tray.
The valve trays and bubble cap trays are designed
to perform well with variable tower loads.

Trays
Bubble Cap Tray
The vapor is broken into small bubbles which
increases the surface area for vapor-liquid contact.

The bubble cap sits on top of a riser.

The riser channels vapors into the bubble cap.

65

Selection of Tray Type

The principal factors to consider when comparing
the performance of bubble-cap, sieve and valve
trays are:
Cost,
Capacity,
Operating range,
Maintenance and
Pressure drop.

Cost:
Bubble-cap trays are appreciably more expensive
than sieve or valve trays.
The relative cost will depend on the material of
construction used;
For mild steel the ratios,
bubble-cap: valve: sieve, are approximately

3.0 : 1.5 : 1.0

Capacity:
There is little difference in the capacity rating for the
three types (the diameter of the column required for
a given flow-rate).
The ranking is:

sieve, valve, and bubble-cap

Operating range:
This is the most significant factor.
By operating range is meant the range of vapour and
liquid rates over which the plate will operate
satisfactorily (the stable operating range).
Some flexibility will always be required in an
operating plant to:
Allow for changes in production rate, and
Cover start-up and shut-down conditions.

Bubble-cap trays have a positive liquid seal and can

therefore operate efficiently at very low vapour
rates.

Sieve trays rely on the flow of vapour through the

holes to hold the liquid on the tray and cannot
operate at very low vapour rates, but, with good
design, sieve trays can be designed to give a
satisfactory operating range;
Typically, from 50 to 120 % of design capacity.
Valve trays are intended to give greater flexibility
than sieve trays at a lower cost than bubble-caps.

Maintenance:
For

dirty

services,

bubble-caps are not

suitable as they are most susceptible to

plugging. Sieve trays are the easiest to
clean.

Pressure Drop:
The pressure drop over the trays can be an important
design consideration, particularly for vacuum
columns.
The trays pressure drop will depend on the detailed
design of the tray but.

In general,
sieve plates give the lowest pressure drop, followed by
valves, with bubble-caps giving the highest.

Summary
Sieve trays are the cheapest and are satisfactory for
most applications.
Valve trays should be considered if the specified
turn-down cannot be met with sieve trays.
Bubble-caps should only be used where:
Very low vapor (gas) rates have to be handled
and
A positive liquid seal is essential at all flowrates.

Typical
Typical Tray
Tray Section
Section
Inlet Weir
Outlet Weir

Downcomer
Trays
Seal Pot

Inlet Weirs
These contribute to the uniform distribution of
liquid as it enters the tray from the down comer.
It is not recommended for
fluids that are dirty or tend
to foul surfaces.
If a more positive seal is
required at the downcomer at
the outlet, an inlet weir can
be fitted or a recessed seal pan
used.
83

Downcomer sealing can be achieved primarily by 2 means:

(1) inlet weirs
(2) recessed seal pan.

These devices provide a positive

seal on the tray. The disadvantage is that they create a pocket of s
tagnant liquid where dirt, sediments, etc can build up. A large a
mount of such build up can restrict the downcomer outlet area a
nd lead to premature flooding. Thus, the use of these devices is n
ot recommended in fouling or corrosive services.

Outlet Weirs

The function of a weir is to maintain a desired liquid leve

l on the tray , thus insuring bubbling of vapors through li
quid. Typical weir height is between 2 - 4 inches. Low w
eirs are frequently used in low pressure or vacuum colu
mns. Notched (rectangular or V-shaped) weirs are com
monly used for low liquid loads

Downcomers
Reflux flows down from one
tray to the next through
downcomers.
Downcomers must be large
enough to allow for drainage
from one tray to the next or
flooding might occur on some
of the trays.
Downcomers can be designed in
several different ways to provide
smooth flow from tray
to tray.

The straight, segmental, vertical downcomer is widely us

ed as it provides good utilization of column area for do
wnflow and has cost and simplicity advantage. Sloped d
owncomer can be used if vapour-liquid disengagement i
s difficult (e.g. due to foaming). Sloped downcomer also
provide a slightly larger active area for vapour-liquid con
tact, but it is also more expensive.

A downcomer must be sufficiently large to allow liquid to

flow smoothly without choking. Sufficient time must also
be provided in the downcomer to allow proper vapour dis
engagement from the down-flowing liquid, so that the liq
uid is relatively free of vapour by the time it enters the tra
y below. Inadequate downcomer area will lead to downc
omer choking, whereby liquid backs up the downcomer i
nto the tray above and eventually flood the column.

Weep Holes
Holes for drainage must be adequate to drain the tower
in a reasonable time, yet not too large to interfere with
tray action.
Draining of the tower
through the trays is
necessary before any
internal maintenance
can be started.
The majority of the holes are placed adjacent to the
outlet or down comer weir.

Bottom Strainer
During the operation of a tower:
The bubble caps,
Bolts, and
Other foreign objects
may be dislodged and carried along with bottom
stream.

To prevent these objects leaving the tower and

damaging pumps, a strainer is installed in the
bottom outlet line.
Strainers must have openings
small enough to catch small
objects, but large enough
not to hinder the flow of
liquid, or product, or oil
out of the tower.
The holes in the strainers must be kept open so that
the flow of liquid out of the tower will not be
stopped, or hindered.

Reflux distributor
Reflux entering the top of the tower should be
spread evenly across the top tray to avoid dead spots.
One way to disperse
reflux is to place a
reflux distributor in
front of the inlet line.

A reflux distributor is simply a plate or baffle that

prevents liquid from spraying across the tray.
Reflux entering the
tower is forced to flow
under the baffle so that
the liquid is distributed
evenly across the tray.

Top Tower Demister

Sometimes small drops of liquid suspended in vapor
are carried up from one tray to the next or into the
overhead vapor line.
This is called entrainment.
When the overhead product must be a dry vapor or
gas, entrainment is a more serious problem.
Entrainment between trays can usually
prevented by controlling vapor velocity.

be

Entrainment at the top of a tower can be cut down

by placing a demister on the vapor outlet line.
Demisters are constructed
of fine-gauge wire knitted
into mesh.
Demisters must be kept
clean of dirt and foreign
matter, or the flow of
vapor will be restricted, or stopped.

103

Classification of Trays

Based on the Number of liquid paths

1. Single Pass
2. Two Pass
3. Three Pass
4. Four Pass

Packing

:Packing
1. Random Packing
2. Structured Packing

INTALOX SADDLE
RASCHIG RING

PALL RING

Structured
Packing
Structured packing are considerably more expensive per
unit volume than random packing. They come with
different sizes and are neatly stacked in the column.
Structure packing usually offer:
- less pressure drop and
- have higher efficiency and capacity than random
packing.

Reflux & Reboiling

Reflu
x reflux is defined as "flowing
The word
back
Applying it to distillation tower, reflux is
the liquid flowing back down the tower
from each successive stage

Kinds of Reflux
Cold Reflux
Cold reflux is defined as liquid that is supplied at temperature a
little below that at the top of the tower
Each pound of this reflux removes a quantity of heat equal to the
sum of its latent and sensible heat required to raise its temperature
from reflux drum temperature to the temperature at the top of the
tower
A constant quantity of reflux is recirculated from the reflux drum
into the top of the tower
It is vaporized and condensed and then returns in like quantity to
the reflux

Hot
Reflux
It is the reflux that is
admitted to the tower at
the same temperature as
that maintained at the
top of the tower
It is capable of removing
the latent heat because
no
difference
in
temperature is involved.

Internal Reflux
It is the liquid that
overflow from one plate
to another in the tower,
and may be called hot
reflux because it is
always substantially at
its boiling point
It
also
capable
of
removing the latent heat
only
because
no
difference
in
temperature is involved.

Circulating Reflux
It is also able to
remove
only
the
sensible heat which is
represented
by
its
change in temperature
as it circulates
The reflux is withdrawn
and is returned to the
tower
after
having
been cooled

Reflux Ratio
It is defined as the amount of actual
reflux divided by the amount of top
product
It is denoted by R which equals L/D

The Importance of Reflux Ratio

In general, increasing the reflux
Improves overhead purity and
Increases recovery of the bottom
product
The number of stages required for a given
separation will be dependent upon the reflux
ratio used

Two points to consider

1. A minimum number of plates

(stages) required at total reflux
2. There is a minimum reflux ratio
below which it is impossible to
obtain the desired enrichment
however many plates are used

Total Reflux
Total reflux is the conclusion when all the
condensate is returned to the tower as
reflux, no product is taken off and there is
no feed
At total reflux, the number of stages
required for a given separation is the
minimum at which it is theoretically
possible to achieve the separation
Total reflux is carried out at :

1. Towers start-up
2. Testing of the tower

Minimum Reflux
At minimum reflux, the separation can
only be achieved with an infinite
number of stages
This sets the minimum possible reflux
ratio for the specified separation

Optimum Reflux Ration

Practical reflux ratio will lie between
The minimum for the specified separation and Total
reflux
The optimum value will be the one at which the
specified separation is achieved at the lowest annual
cost
For many systems, the optimum value of reflux ratio
will lie between
1.2 to 1.5 times the minimum reflux ratio

Reboiling
In all distillations processes
Heat been added by
Means the feed
Means of a reboiler

COLUMN REBOILERS

Types of reboilers
The most critical element of reboiler design is the selection of th
e proper type of reboiler for a specific service. Most reboilers ar
e of the shell and tube heat exchanger type and normally steam
is used as the heat source in such reboilers. However, other hea
t transfer fluids like hot oil or Dowtherm (TM) may be used. Fue
.l-fired furnaces may also be used as reboilers in some cases

Many factors influence reboiler type selection . In the end, all these factors
reduce to economics. Every plant will weight the trade-off between these
factors differently. No one-size fits all selection exists. Major factors includ
e:

Plot space available

Total duty required

Fraction of tower liquid traffic vaporized

Fouling tendency

Temperature approach available

Temperature approach required

Kettle reboilers

Thermosyphon reboilers

Fired reboiler

Forced circulation reboilers

Forced circulation reboilers are used for reboiler duties where viscous
and/or heavily contaminated media are to be expected in the botto
m product.

High liquid velocities in the tubes and the resulting shearing forces e
nsure that this type of heat exchanger is operated within its optimu
m performance range, while keeping fouling to a minimum. Pump s
election influences performance and efficiency. Forced circulation re
boilers can be designed for either horizontal or vertical installation.

1 = Column
2 = Trays
3 = Downcomer
4 = Reboiling
circulation line
5 = Manhole
6 = Forced
circulation
reboiler
7 = Steam inlet
8 = Baffles
9 = Heating tubes

The Reboiler is a heat exchanger through

which the bottom liquids circulate
Heat is transferred to the bottom materials
which cause vaporization of the lighter
components
This vapor travels up the column to provide

The stripping action and

The additional heat necessary to
vaporize the down coming reflux

3. CRUDE DISTILLATION

The purpose of crude oil

distillation

is primarily to split the crude into several

distillate fractions of a certain boiling range

Sharpness of fractionation is of secondary

importance
A crude distillation tower, producing 6
fractions has 40 to 50 trays

into
gasoline,
naphtha,
kerosene,
diesel oil,
gas oil, and other products, by
distillation

at

atmospheric

7/4/16

147

Process Description
Crude is generally pumped to the unit
directly from a storage tank, and it is
important that charge tanks be
drained completely free from water
before charging to the unit
If water is entrained in the charge
It will vaporize in the exchangers and
in the heater, and cause a high
pressure drop through that equipment

Desalting
Most crude contain traces of salt which can
decompose
in
the
heater
to
from
hydrochloric acid and cause corrosion of the
fractionator's overhead equipment
In order to remove the salt, water is injected
into the partially preheated crude and the
stream is thoroughly mixed

The mixture of oil and water is

separated in a desalter, which is a
large vessel in which may be
accelerated by
the addition of
chemicals or by electrical devices
If the oil entering the desalter is not
enough heated, it may be too viscous
to permit proper mixing and complete
separation of the water and the oil,
and some of the water may be carried
into the fractionators
150

If, on the other hand, the oil is too hot,

some vaporization may occur, and the
resulting turbulence can result in
improper separation of oil and water
The desalter temperature is therefore
quite critical, and normally a bypass is
provided around at least one of the
exchangers so that the temperature
can be controlled

The optimum temperature depends upon

The desalter pressure and
quantity of light material in the crude
but is normally about 120C
10C

being lower for low pressure and light

crudes
The average water injection rate is
3-5% of the charge

Heat Exchange
In order to reduce the cost of operating a
crude unit
As much heat as possible is recovered from
the hot streams by heat exchanging them
with the cold crude charge
The number of heat exchangers within the
crude unit and cross heat exchange with
other units will vary with unit design

Crude Flashing (Furnace)

Desalted crude is heat exchanged against what ever
other heat sources are available to recover
maximum heat before crude is charged to the
heater, which ultimately supplies all the heat
required for operation of the crude unit
The heater transfer temperature is merely a
convenient control, and the actual temperature,
which has no great significance, will vary from 325C
to as high as 430C, depending on
The type of crude and
The pressure at the bottom of the
fractionating
tower

Fractionation
Crude entering the flash zone of the fractionating
column flashes into:

The vapor which rises up the column and

The liquid residue which drops downwards
This flash is a very rough separation
The vapors contain appreciable quantities of heavy
ends, which must be rejected downwards into
reduced crude, while the liquid contains lighter
products, which must be stripped out

Product
Stripping
Strippers)

(Side

The flashed residue in the bottom of the

fractionators and the side cut products have
been in contact with lighter boiling vapors
These vapors must be removed to meet flash
point specifications and to drive the light
ends into lighter and more valuable products
Steam, usually superheated steam, is used to
strip these light ends

Generally only enough steam is

used to meet a flash point
specification
While further increases in the
quantity of steam may raise the
IBP of the product slightly

All the stripping steam is condensed in

the overhead receiver and must be
drained off
Refluxing
water
fractionators

will

upset

the

If the endpoint of the overhead

product is very low, water may not
pass
overhead,
and
will
accumulate on the upper trays
and cause the tower to flood

Product Disposal
All products are cooled before being
sent to storage
Light products should be below 60C
to reduce vapor losses in storage, but
Heavier products need not be as cold

If a product is being charged to another

unit, there may be an advantage in
sending it out hot
A product must never leave a unit at
over 100C
If there is any possibility of it entering a
tank with water bottoms
The hot oil could readily boil the
water and blow the roof off

Product Specifications
The composition of a distillation product is
determined

by

performing

laboratory

tests on samples of that product.

These test results are then compared with
product specifications or standards that
have been set for the product

If the product is meeting specifications, column

operations do not have to be adjusted
But, if the products are off-specification, a change
in column operations must be made
One can see that the control of the tower is a
rather

complicated

simultaneous

material and heat balances

solution

of

Material Balance
At each draw we must draw the quantity of
material in the crude that boils within the
specified boiling range
If we draw too much, or too little, the
product above or below will have to shift by
that amount, thereby possibly putting it off
specification
To stay on specifications
balance must be maintained

the

material

Heat Balance
Must be solved so that the right
product appears at the right tray with
the proper degree of fractionation
However, crude vary, product
requirements
vary,
and
the
refinery must manipulate the heat
and material balance to draw the
right amount of product, with the
proper distillation range or other
product specifications
7/4/16

Initial Boiling Point (IBP)

Is the temperature at which the
first
drop
of
condensate
is
collected
during
a
laboratory
distillation test
In a mixture of hydrocarbons, the
first molecules to vaporize are the light
ones
So, the IBP test is used to check for
light hydrocarbons that are present in
a product

Suppose specifications on the bottom

product call for an IBP between 100110F
Lab tests show an IBP of 95F
You know that light material boils at
lower
temperatures
than
heavy
material

So, the bottom product in this example

contains material that is too light

In order to raise the IBP of a product,

we must make the product heavier
One way is to strip some
components off with steam

light

Another way is to increase the

temperature of the feed or the
reboiler temperature so more light
components are vaporized

End Boiling Point (EP)

Is the temperature at which the last
drop of liquid vaporizes during the test
In a mixture of hydrocarbons, the
last molecules to vaporize are the
heavy ones
So, the EBP (EP) test is used to check
for heavy hydrocarbons that are
present in a product

Specifications call for an overhead

product with an EP between 150-160
F
Lab results indicate an EP of 170 F

You know that heavy material boils at

higher temperatures than light material
So, the top product does not meet
specifications because it contains material
that is too heavy

In order to lower the EP of a product,

we must make the product lighter
One way is to decrease the feed or
reboiler temperature so that fewer
heavy components vaporize
Another way is to lower the top
temperature by increasing the reflux
rate

Flash Point
Is the temperature at which a petroleum
product generates ignitable vapors
Light hydrocarbons tend to flash more
easily than heavy hydrocarbons
A sample that contains traces of light
hydrocarbons
flashes
at
a
lower
temperature than a sample without these
traces

A side draw product carries flash point

specifications of 125-130 F
The lab test shows a flash point of
110 F

The sample contains material that is too light

We can bring the product back to specification by
decreasing the reflux rate, or
using more stripping steam, or
increasing the reboiler temperature

API Gravity
Is used to designate the "heaviness" or
"lightness" of products
Kerosene is measured at about 42 API
Gasoline is measured at about 60 API
The lighter the oil, the higher API
gravity

o Crude oil API gravities typically range from 7 to 52 corresponding

to about 970 kg/m3to 750 kg/m3,
o But most fall in the 20 to 45 API gravity range.
o Although light crude (i.e. 40-45 degrees API) is considered
the best, lighter crude (i.e., 46 degree API and above) is generally
no better for a typical refinery.
o As the crude gets lighter than 40-45 degrees API, it contains
shorter molecules, which means a lower carbon number. This also
means it contains less of the molecules useful as high octane
gasoline and diesel fuel, the production of which most
refiners try to maximize.
o If a crude is heavier than 35 degree API, it contains longer and
bigger molecules that are not useful as high octane gasoline and
diesel fuel without further processing.

Suppose specifications call for a

product with an API gravity of 30-35
The product sample tests 28
The product is too heavy

Color
Light hydrocarbons are light colored
while Heavy hydrocarbons are dark in
color
A light hydrocarbon product that is dark
colored probably contains too many heavy
molecules
Excessive vapor rates can cause small
drops of liquid to become entrained in the
vapor and be carried up the tower

Entrainment of heavy materials may

contaminate the overhead product
and make it too dark in color
Hydrocarbons will decompose and
change
color
at
very
high
temperatures
So, an off-color product may
indicate that a tower is operating at
too high a temperature

CRUDE DISTILLATION OPERATIO

QUESTION
Reflux
Rate(1)
Changing
Suppose the reflux rate is increased
from 1,000 to 1,200 barrels per hour,
and
the
other
tower
operating
conditions are held constant which of the
following will occur
A. Lighter overhead, bottom, and side draw
products.
B. Heavier overhead and side draw products.
C. Heavier bottom product.
193
D. More overhead product.

This extra reflux flowing down the tower

causes the temperature on each tray to
decrease

Some of the heavier hydrocarbons in the upward

flowing vapors will now condense and fall back down
the tower
The extra reflux flowing down the tower reduces the
temperature of the liquid at the bottom of the
column.

When the bottom temperature decreases,

the amount of light material vaporized out of the

liquid at the bottom of the tower is decreased
Because fewer vapors are now going overhead, the
amount of top product formed is decreased, or less.
Lighter overhead, bottom, and side draw products
7/4/16

195 the reflux rate

are produced by increasing

QUESTION (2)
If we decrease the reflux rate
from 1,000 barrels to 800
barrels,

The cut point changes are reversed. The

temperature on each of the trays increases,
and a higher tower temperature mean
heavier products. So overhead, bottom,
and side draw products become heavier.
The amount of overhead product produced
increases and the amount of bottom
product formed decreases

Operation Problems

Flooding
Occurs when the pressure drop across a tray is so high
that the liquid cannot flow down the tower as fast as
required.
The pressure drop across the tray increases to very
high values, and the tray efficiency drops markedly.
When the froth and foam in the down comer back up
to the tray above and begin accumulating on this tray.

Flooding is brought about by excessive vapour

flow, causing liquid to be entrained in the vapour up
the column. The increased pressure from excessive
vapour also backs up the liquid in the downcomer,
causing an increase in liquid holdup on the plate
above. Depending on the degree of flooding, the
maximum capacity of the column may be severely
reduced. Flooding is detected by sharp increases in
column differential pressure and significant decrease
in separation efficiency.

Entrainment Flooding - For a constant liquid rate, increasing

the gas rate results eventually in excessive entrainment and flooding.
At the flood point it is difficult to obtain net downward flow of liquid,
and any liquid fed to the column is carried out with the overhead gas.
Furthermore, the column inventory of liquid increases, pressure drop
across the column becomes quite large, and control becomes difficult.

Downflow Flooding - Flooding may also be brought on by

increasing the liquid rate while holding the gas rate constant. Excessive
liquid flow can overtax the capacity of downcomers or other passages,
with the ultimate result of increased liquid inventory, increased
pressure drop, and the other characteristics of a flooded column.

Weeping/Dumping
This phenomenon is caused by low vapour flow. The
pressure exerted by the vapour is insufficient to hold up the
liquid on the tray. Therefore, liquid starts to leak through
perforations. Excessive weeping will lead to dumping. That
is the liquid on all trays will crash (dump) through to the
base of the column (via a domino effect) and the column
will have to be re-started. Weeping is indicated by a sharp
pressure drop in the column and reduced separation
efficiency.

Weeping/Dumping
Occurs at:
High liquid rates, and
Low vapor loads.
Some of slots or holes will dump liquid instead of
passing vapor, resulting in poor tray efficiency.
For towers with conventional down comers,
dumping usually occurs at the upstream raw of caps
or holes, where the liquid has the largest head and
kinetic energy.

Foaming
Foaming refers to the expansion of liquid due to passage of
vapour or gas. Although it provides high interfacial liquidvapour contact, excessive foaming often leads to liquid
buildup on trays. In some cases, foaming may be so bad
that the foam mixes with liquid on the tray above. Whether
foaming will occur depends primarily on physical
properties of the liquid mixtures, but is sometimes due to
tray designs and condition. Whatever the cause, separation
efficiency
204 is always reduced.

Coning
Occurs at low liquid rate or seals.
The vapor pushes the liquid back from the slots or
holes and passes upward with poor liquid contact.
This causes poor tray efficiency.

Puking
Usually occurs at:
High liquid rate and
Low gas rate.
At high liquid rate the liquid level on each tray will
rise.
As the level rises, the flow of gas up the tower is
restricted.
The gas pressure in the bottom of the tower will begin
to rise.
It will reach the point that a surge of a gas will
suddenly move up the tower with enough velocity to
carry206
the liquid with it.

Reducing the liquid flow rate will usually eliminate

puking.
Puking should not be confused with carryover.
Puking occurs almost instantaneously.
Furthermore, if the liquid rate is not reduced, the
tower will puke again when the liquid stacks up.
Carryover is usually caused by a high vapor flow rate
(It happens continuously, whereas puking is an
intermittent thing).

Operating Range
Satisfactory operation will only be achieved over a
limited range of vapour and liquid flow rates.

208

The upper limit to vapour flow is set by the condition

of flooding.
At flooding there is:
A sharp drop in plate
efficiency and
Increase in pressure drop.
Flooding is caused by either:
Excessive carry over of liquid to the next
by entrainment, or
Liquid backing-up in the down comers.

plate

The lower limit of the vapour flow is set by condition

of weeping.
Weeping occurs when the vapour flow is insufficient
to maintain a level of liquid on the plate.
"Coning" occurs at low liquid
rates, and is the term given
to the condition where the
vapour pushes the liquid
back from the holes and jets
upward, with poor liquid contact.

Thank You