LESSON11

NOZZLES,FIRESTREAMS,ANDFOAM
OUTLINE
Objectives
Introduction
DefinitionofFireStream(NFPA1001:33.6,33.7,33.9,33.12)
Nozzles(NFPA1001:33.9,43.2)
OperatingHoselines(NFPA1001:33.9)
StreamApplication,Hydraulics,andAdverseConditions(NFPA1001:33.7,33.9,43.2)
TypesofFoamandFoamSystems(NFPA1001:43.1)
FoamCharacteristics(NFPA1001:43.1)
ClassificationofFuels(NFPA1001:43.1)
ApplicationofFoam(NFPA1001:43.1)
LessonsLearned
KeyTerms
ReviewQuestions
Endnotes
SuggestedReadings

CLASSASSIGNMENT
Priortothislesson:

ReadFirefighter'sHandbook,Chapter11,
pages265290
Length:
3hours
Equipment/Supplies: Courseoutline
TransparencymastersChapter11
PowerPointPresentationChapter11
Overheadprojector,slideprojector,orLCDdisplay
Instructor'snote:Beforeteachingthislesson,makesureyouarecomfortablewiththebasic
conceptsandformulasdealingwithhydraulicsthatarepresentedinthislesson.

OBJECTIVES
Aftercompletingthislesson,studentsshouldbeableto:
Defineafirestream.
Identifythepurposesofafirestream.
Identifythevarioustypesoffirestreams.
Identifythetypesofnozzles.
Explainthepatternanduseofeachtypeofnozzle.
Demonstratetheoperationofthevarioustypesofnozzles.

Explaintheoperationandcharacteristicsofthevarioussizes(diameters)offirestreams.
Explainthereachandapplicationofvarioussizesoffirestreams.
Identifythethreetypesoffireattack.
Explainthefactorsinchoosingthetypeoffireattack.
Identifyandexplaintheprinciplesofhydraulicsrelatingtofirestreams.
Defineandexplainfrictionloss.
Defineandexplainnozzlepressuresandreactions.
Defineandexplainelevationsasafactorinfirestreams.
Explainadversefactorsintheoperationoffirestreams.
Explaintheselectionfactorsforfirestreamsinoverallfireoperations.
Definefoam.
Identifythetypesoffoam.
Explaintheprinciplesoffoamandfiresuppression.
Explaintheoperationoffoammakingequipment.

INTRODUCTION
Firefighter'sHandbook,page267
Time:10minutes

KeyPoints

Firesareusuallyextinguishedusingwatertocooltheheatproduced.

Foamisusedtoextinguishfuelswherewaterisineffective.

Waterandfoamaredeliveredattheproperquantityusingnozzlesandfirestreamstoreach
theseatofthefire.

Selectionofthepropernozzlegivestheattackcrewthetoolsneededtosuccessfullyfightthe
fire.

DEFINITIONOFFIRESTREAM
Firefighter'sHandbook,page267
Time:5minutes

KeyPoints

Afirestreamiswateroranotheragentasitleavesthenozzletowardthefire.

Properlydevelopedandaimedfirestreamsaresuccessfulinextinguishingfires.

Poorlydevelopedorimproperlyaimedfirestreamsallowthefiretocontinuetoburn.

Aproperfirestreamisonethathassufficientvolume,pressure,anddirectionandreachesthe

targetinthedesiredshapeorformandpattern.

Firefightersneedtounderstandfirestreamsandhowtheyareappliedtovariousfirefighting
situations.

NOZZLES
Firefighter'sHandbook,pages267274
Time:30minutes

KeyPoints

Nozzlesaretheappliancesthatapplythewaterorextinguishingagent.

Therearetwobasictypesofnozzles.

Asolidborenozzleisalsocalledasmoothbore,straightbore,orsolidtip.

Theothertypeofnozzleisthefognozzle.

Bothtypescomeindifferentstyles.

Combinationnozzlesarecapableofprovidingstraightstreamandspraypatterns,whichcan
beadjustedandvaried.

Firefightersshouldbeawarethateachtypeofnozzlehasitsadvantagesanddisadvantages.

Importantfactorsinnozzleselectionarethenozzle'spressure,flow,reach,reaction,and
streamshape.

Nozzlepressureisthepressurerequiredforeffectivenozzleoperationandrelatestoflowand
reach.

Nozzlesaredesignedtooperateatcertainpressures,usuallybetween50and100psi.

Nozzleflowistheamountorvolumeofwaterthatanozzlewillprovideatagivenpressure.

Flowismeasuredingallonsperminuteorlitersperminute(gpmorlpm).

Nozzlereachisthedistancewaterwilltravelafterleavingthenozzle.

Reachismeasuredinfeetormeters.

Reachisaffectedbytheshape,pressure,winddirection,gravity,andfrictionoftheair.

Theangleofthenozzlecanalsoaffectthereach.

Maximumhorizontalreachisoptimumat32degrees,whilemaximumverticalreachis
obtainedat65to70degrees.

Astreampatternisthearrangementorconfigurationofwaterdropletsorfoamastheyleave
thenozzle.

Theshapeofthepatternhelpsdeterminethereachofthefirestream.

Nozzlereactionistheforceofnaturethatmakesthenozzlemoveintheoppositedirectionof
thewaterflow.

Thenozzleoperatormustcounteractorfightthebackwardthrustexertedbythenozzleto
maintaincontrolofthenozzleanddirectittothecorrectlocation.

Nozzlepressureandstreamshapewillaffectnozzlereaction.

SolidTiporStream

Solidtip,solidstream,orsmoothborenozzlesdeliveranunbrokenorsolidstreamofwater
atthetipandtowardthefire.

Thesolidstreamnozzlecandeliveritswaterasasolidmassorconeofwateror,when
bouncedoffaceiling,wall,orotherobject,aslargewaterdroplets.

Thissolidmassbreaksorshearsapartthefartherthewatertravels.

Thesolidstreamnozzle'sflowisafactorofthetipsizeatacertainnozzlepressure.

Excessiveorreducednozzlepressureshaveadverseeffectsonstreamperformance.

Handlinesusetipsfromto1inchesat50psiandmasterstreamsusetipsizesof1
inchesandlargerat80psi.

Solidstreamhandlinescanreachover70feetandmasterstreamsabout100feet.

Theyhavetheabilitytopenetratethroughthefire'sheatwithoutabsorbingtheheatbefore
reachingthetarget.

Asolidstreamhaslesseffectonaroom'sthermalbalance.

Asolidstreamhasgoodpenetrationintopilesofmaterialstoquenchthefire.

Disadvantagestoasolidstreamarethatthereisnovolumecontrolandthereisahigher
nozzlereactionatthesamepressurethanafognozzle.

Fog

Fognozzlesdelivereitherafixedspraypatternoravariablecombinationpattern.

Fixedspraypatternnozzlesareoftheimpingingdesigninwhichthenozzlehasaseriesof

holesattheendthatcreatesawaterspray.

Variablefogpatternsvaryfromthestraightstreampatterntoawideanglefogpatternofat
leastonehundreddegrees.

Theconstantorsetvolumenozzlehasonesetvolumeatasetpressureandtheonly
adjustmentisthepattern.

Variable,adjustable,orselectablegallonagenozzlesallowthenozzlepersontoselectfrom
twoorthreeflowchoices,aswellasthepattern.

Anautomaticorconstantpressurenozzlehasaflowthatcanbeadjustedbythepump
operator.Theoperatorincreasesthepressure,whichinturnincreasesthegallonsflowing.

Fognozzleshavetraditionallyoperatedat100psi,butnewlowpressurenozzlesoperatingat
50or75psihavebeenapproved.

Thelowerpressuregivesthesamevolume,butthenozzlereactionisreduced.Therefore,
greaterlengthsofhosecanbeusedwhenatthemaximumpumppressure.

Fognozzlesprovidegoodreachvaryingwiththepatternfrom25to100feet.

Fognozzlesalsoprovidegoodpenetration.

Fogstreamscanproducemoresteam,whichcanextinguishhiddenfireandisgoodforan
indirectattack.

Fogsteamscanbeusedasafanduetotheirabilitytomovelargevolumesofair.

Thefognozzlecanbeusedtoassistinhorizontalventilation.

StraightStream

Thestraightstreamnozzlepatterncreatesahollowtypestreamthatissimilarinshapetothe
solidstreampattern.

Asthestraightstreampassesaroundthebaffleofthenozzle,anopeningiscreatedinthe
pattern,whichallowsairintothestreamandreducesitsreach.

Newerfognozzledesignsonlyhavethisholloweffectfromthetip,anditisashortdistance
torefocusthestreamtocreateasolidstream.

SpecialPurpose

Specialpurposenozzlesweredevelopedforuseinlimitedtypesofsituations.

CellarnozzlesandBresnandistributorscanbeusedtofightlocalizedfiresinbasementsor

cellarswhenfirefighterscannotmakeadirectattackonthefire.

Piercingnozzlesweredesignedtopenetratetheskinofaircraft,butnowhavebeenmodified
topiercethroughbuildingwallsandfloors.

Awatercurtainnozzleisdesignedtospraywaterasprotectionagainstexposuretoheat.

PlaypipesandShutoffs

Somenozzlesornozzletipsareplacedonhoselinesforoccupantstouse,notforfirefighters
orthefirebrigade.

Theshutoffatthenozzleplacescontrolofthewaterflowwiththenozzleperson.

Thelever,bale,orhandletypesarethemostcommonlyusednozzles,whichoperateinaline
withthewaterway,usuallybymovingaballvalve.

Theshutoffisopenedbypullingbackontheleverandclosedbypushingthehandletoward
thenozzle.

Theshutoffcanbebuiltintothenozzleorasabreakaparttypeasashutoff,pistolgrip,or
playpipe.

NozzleOperations

Thenozzlepersoncontrollingtheshutoff,tipsize,andaimoperatesasolidstreamnozzle.

Screwingthemonoroffisonewaytochangetips.Manyaredesignedtostackontoeach
other.

Fognozzleshaveeitherthelevertypeofopen/closeshutoff,ortherotatingtype.

Thefogpatterncanbeadjustedbyrotatingthenozzlebarrelcounterclockwisetomovefrom
astraightstreamtoanarrowfogtoawideanglefog.

Rotatingclockwiseadjuststhepatterntheoppositeway.

Fognozzleswithvariablegallonagehaveanadditionalringonthecollarthatrotatesfrom
onegallonagetothenext.

Bothgallonageandpatternadjustmentscanbedetectedinthedarkbecausethenozzleclicks
ineachposition.

OPERATINGHOSELINES
Firefighter'sHandbook,pages274275
Time:15minutes

KeyPoints

Mosthoselinesareoperatedfromacrouchingorkneelingposition,butlying,standing,or
sittingpositionsarealsoused.

SmallDiameterHandlines

Smalldiameterhandlinesaretypically1,1,or2inchesindiameter.

Theflowonsmalldiameterhandlinesisusuallybetween100to250gpm.

Atlowflowvolumes,smalldiameterhandlinescanbeoperatedbyoneperson.However,at
largervolumes,twopeopleareneeded.

Bothfogandsolidtipscanbeusedforsmalllines.

Smalllinescanextinguishonetothreeroomsofafire.

MediumDiameterHandlines

Mediumdiameterhoseforhandlinesis2inchesandmaybeusedwithsolidtiporfog
nozzles,flowingfrom165to325gpm.

Thissizehoselineiseffectivewhenlargervolumesoffire,uptoanentirefloor,are
encounteredandadditionalreachandhigherflowratesareneeded.

The2inchhosehasbeenastandardinthefireservice.However,manydepartmentshave
switchedtothemorepopular1and2inchhandlines.

Mediumsizehoselinesusuallyrequiretwoormorepersonneltooperatethem.

MasterStreamDevices

Masterstreamdevicesarecapableofflowingover350gpms.

Thesedevicesareusedwhenlargevolumesofwaterareneeded.

Thesedevicesmustbemountedorsecuredproperly,andsafetyshouldbeamajorconcern
wheninoperation.

STREAMAPPLICATION,HYDRAULICS,AND
ADVERSECONDITIONS
Firefighter'sHandbook,pages275281
Time:30minutes

KeyPoints

Theapplicationoffirestreamsdependsonthemethodoffireattackandtheconditions
encountered,includingenvironmentalfactorsandwatersupply.

Thefirestreammusthavetheproperpressureandflow.

Anunderstandingofhydraulicsisneededtoassureproperpressureandflow.

Direct,Indirect,andCombinationAttack

Directfireattackisusedtoattackthefirebyaimingtheflowofwaterdirectlyattheseatof
thefire.

Indirectfireattackisusedtoattackinteriorfiresbyapplyingafogstreamintoaclosedroom
orcompartment,convertingthewaterintosteamtoextinguishthefire.

Theestimatedquantityofwaterappliedistheamountneededforatotalconversionof
enoughsteamtofillaroom.

Becausetheentirespaceisfilledwithsteam,theindirectattackshouldnotbeusedwhen
peopleareinthespace.

Acombinationfireattackusesablendofthedirectandindirectfireattacks,withfirefighters
applyingwatertoboththefuelandtheatmosphereoftheroom.

Foracombinationattack,thenozzleisopenedanddirectedtowardtheceilingandthen
rotatedinacircularpattern.

Thisallowswatertoreachthefireandtheatmosphereatthesametime,whilesteamis
createdtoextinguishanyhiddenfires.

Ventilationwiththecombinationattackcontrolstheflowoffiregasesandsteam.

BasicHydraulics,FrictionLoss,and
PressureLossesinHoselines
Instructor'snote:Beforeteachingthissection,youshouldbefamiliarwiththehydraulic
principlesandformulaspresentedinthetext.

Hydraulicsisthestudyoffluidsatrestandinmotion,whichdescribestheflowpatternsof
watersupplyandfirestreams.

Aneffectivefirestreammusthavesufficientvolumeandpressureandbedeliveredinthe
correctform.

Asthehydraulicprinciplesareaisawholefieldofstudy,wewillonlylookatthebasics.

Pressureisrequiredtolift,push,ormovewater.

Pressureisforcedividedoveranarea,expressedinpoundspersquareinch(psi)or
kilopascals(kPa)where1psi56.895kPa.

Forceisameasurementofweightandismeasuredinpoundsorkilograms.

Waterweighsabout62.4poundspercubicfoot,creatingaforceof62.4pounds.

Pressurecanalsobemeasuredinfeetofheadortheheightofacolumnofwater.

Atmosphericpressureisthepressureexertedbytheatmosphereortheweightofairatthe
earth'ssurface.

Atsealevel,atmosphericpressureis14.7psi.Gaugesreadingthispressureshowabsolute
pressure,whichisindicatedaspoundspersquareinchabsolute(psia).

Gaugepressuremeasurespressureminusatmosphericpressureandismeasuredinpsior
poundspersquareinchgauge(psig).

Mostfiredepartmentreadingsarefromgaugepressureandbeginatzero.

Vacuum(negative)pressureisthemeasurementofpressurelessthanatmosphericpressure.

Fireapparatuscapableofdraftinghaveatleastonegaugethatmeasuresvacuumpressure,
calledacompoundgauge.

Headpressuremeasuresthepressureatthebottomofacolumnofwaterinfeet.

Headpressurecanbegainedorlostwhenwaterisbeingpumpedaboveorbelowthelevelof
thepump.

Velocitypressureisthepressureinahosebeingconvertedtovelocityorspeedasitleaves
thenozzle,thusbecomingnozzlepressure.

Flowistherateandquantityofwaterdeliveredandisusuallymeasuredingallonsperminute
orlitersperminute.

Theneededorrequiredflowistheamountofwaterrequiredtoextinguishthefireandis
determinedbywhatandhowmuchisburning.

Theavailableflowistheamountofwaterthatcanbemovedtoextinguishafire.

Thedischargeflowistheamountofwaterflowingfromthedischargesideofthepump.

Waterflowcanbedeterminedusingaflowmeterorpressuregauge.

Whenallwaterflowstops,thesystemequalizesatthehighestpressureinthesystemor
hoseline.

Asuddenstopofwaterflowcreatesawaterhammerorpressuresurgethatcoulddamagethe
equipment,piping,andhosing.

Tocalculatethedischargepressureofapump,thefollowingformulaisused:

EP5NP1FL6E1SA

Enginepressure(EP)istheadditionoftheothercomponentsandistypicallythehighest
valueforanyofthehoselines.

Nozzlepressure(NP)isusuallyagivenvalueforeachtypeofnozzle.

Instructor'snote:Table111onpage279intheFirefighter'sHandbookinthestudentmanual
givesthetypicalvaluesforthevarioustypesofnozzles.

Frictionloss(FL)isthelossofenergyfromtheturbulenceorrubbingofthemovingwater
throughthehose.

FrictionlosscanbecalculatedusingtheformulaFL5Q23c3L.

Elevation(E)canbeapositivenumberifthenozzleisabovethelevelofthepump,ora
negativenumberifthenozzleisbelowthepump.

Specialappliances(SA)orappliancefrictionlossisthefrictionlosscreatedbymovementof
waterthroughthevalvesandturnsoftheappliances.

AdverseConditionsThatAffectFireStreams

Themajornaturalfactoraffectingafirestreamisthewindandwinddirection.

Gravityandairfrictionarealsonaturalfactors.

Theseconditionscannotberemoved,butgettingthestreamclosertoitstargetorinabetter
positionallowstheseeffectstobereduced.

TYPESOFFOAMANDFOAMSYSTEMS
Firefighter'sHandbook,page281
Time:10minutes

KeyPoints

Foamisanaggregateofgasfilledbubblesformedfromaqueoussolutionsofspecially
formulatedconcentratedliquidfoamingagents.

Themechanicalactionofmixingthefoamconcentrateinthewatermakesafoamsolutionto
whichairisadded.

Combiningthesethreecomponentsmakesthefoamlighterthantheflammableliquidsand
givesittheabilitytofloatovertheirsurface.

ClassAfoamisanaggregateofgasfilledbubblesformedfromaqueoussolutionsof
detergentorsoapbasedsurfactants.

FOAMCHARACTERISTICS
Firefighter'sHandbook,pages281282
Time:20minutes

KeyPoints

Foam'sabilitytoextinguishfiresisbasedonseveralcharacteristics.

Applicationrateistheamountoffoamorfoamsolutionneededtoextinguishafireandis
expressedingallonsperminutepersquarefoot(gpm/ft2).

Applicationratesvarydependingonthefueltype,severity,andfueldepth(seeNFPA
Standard11).

Applicationratesmustbemaintainedforaminimumamountoftimeandadditionalfoam
willneedtobereappliedtoanyremainingfueltopreventreignition.

Heatresistanceistheabilityofthefoamtostanduptotheheatfromthefireorthehot
surfacenearthefire.

Knockdownspeedishowfastthefoamspreadsacrossthesurfaceofafuel.

Fuelresistanceistheabilitytotoleratethefuelandtoavoidbeingsaturatedorpickingupthe
fuel.

Vaporsuppressionistheabilitytocontainorcontroltheproductionoffuelvapors.

Proteinfoamismadefromchemicallybrokendownnaturalproteinmaterials.

Fluoroproteinfoamwasdesignedasimprovedproteinfoamandhasafluorinatedsurfactant
added.

Thissurfactantallowsthefoamtobedippedintothefuel.

Aqueousfilmformingfoam(AFFF)ismadefromfluorochemicalsurfactantsandsynthetic
foamingagentsthathaveaquickdraindowntime.

Thisfeaturecreatesaliquidthatformsafilmorlayerofwaterthatspreadsquicklyoverthe
surfaceoftheflammableliquid.

AFFFcanbeappliedwithregularfognozzles,andcomesinanalcoholtypeconcentrate.

Fluoroproteinfilmformingfoam(FFFP)combinesproteinwiththefilmforming
fluorosurfactantsofAFFFtoimprovethequalitiesofbothtypesoffoam.

Detergenttypefoamsusesyntheticsurfactantstobreakdownthesurfacetensionofwater
andcreateafoamingblanket.

Aspecialtypeofdetergentfoamisusedforhighexpansionfoam,whichisusedtofillup
entireareassuchasmineshaftsorbuildings.

CLASSIFICATIONOFFUELS
Firefighter'sHandbook,pages282283
Time:15minutes

KeyPoints

FoamsareusedforClassAandBfires.

ClassA

ClassAmaterialcanbeextinguishedusingawettingagent,whichisoftenadetergentlike
substance,tohelpextinguishthefire.

DisadvantagesofClassAfoamsincludethecostofequipmentandagent,possibilitiesof
equipmentfailure,possibleeffectsontheenvironment,andfireinvestigationlaboratorytests.

ClassB

ClassBfuelsincludestwocategoriesofflammableliquids:hydrocarbonsandpolarsolvents.

Sincegasesshouldbeextinguishedbyshuttingofftheflowofthefuel,foamshouldnotbe
usedonthem.

Hydrocarbonscoverawiderangeofsubstancesinformsfromgaseoustoliquidtosemisolid

andsolid.

Thesetypesoffuelsdonotmixwithwater;theyarenotmiscibleorwatersoluble.

Largequantitiesoffoamworkbestonthesetypesoffires.

Polarsolventsmixwithwaterandthisabilitycauseseitherabreakdownofthefoamora
mixingofflammablevaporsintothebubblesofordinaryfoams.

Topreventthebreakdownofordinaryfoams,specialfoamscalledpolarsolventtype,
alcoholresistantconcentrate,oralcoholtypefoamshavebeendeveloped.

Thesepolarsolventtypefoamscreateapolymericbarrierthatseparatesthepolarsolvent
fromtheliquidofthefoam.

APPLICATIONOFFOAM
Firefighter'sHandbook,pages283289
Time:30minutes

KeyPoints

Foamisamixturethatrequiresadevicetoproportion,meter,ormixthefoamconcentrate
intothewater.Airmustthenbeaddedtothesolution.

Concentrationsareusuallyexpressedasthepercentageoffoamconcentrationtowaterinthe
solution.

Onecommonproportionerisaneductor,whichworksontheventuriprinciple.

Severaltypesofeductorscanbepermanentlypipedintooraddedtoahoseline.

Aneductorthatisalwayspipedthroughtheventuriisaninlineeductor,andonethathasa
separatewaterwayandvalvetoallowplainwatertopassbytheventuriiscalledabypass
eductor.

Incompressedairfoamsystems(CAFS)ordualinjectionsystems,theconcentrateisina
separatefoamtankandafoampumppumpstheconcentratedirectlyintothehoseline,which
ismeteredbyaflowmeteredmicroprocessor.

Tofinishmakingthefoam,airmustbeaddedtothefoamsolution,normallyatthenozzle.

Thevarioustypesoffoamnozzles,regularfoamnozzles,andfoamgeneratorshavethe
abilitytoaspiratevariousquantitiesofairintothefoamsolution.

FogNozzlesversusFoamNozzles

Originally,foammakingrequiredaspecialfoamnozzletoproperlyaspiratetheairintothe
foamsolution.

Today,foamnozzlesaredesignedtoaspiratetheproperamountsofairandapplythefoamto
thefuel.

Foamnozzlesaredesignedforlowandmediumexpansionfoamsusuallyhavingexpansion
ratiosof8:1to20:1inthelowrangeandupto50:1inthemediumrange.

FognozzlescouldbeusedtoapplyAFFF.

Themajordisadvantageisthattheexpansionratioisonly8:1atthehighend.

Therearecliponorsnaponfoamnozzleadaptersthatattachtothefognozzleandmakeita
foamnozzle.

Therearethreetechniquestoapplyfoamfromnozzles.

Thefirstwayisthebankintechnique,inwhichfoamstrikesthegroundbeforethefireand
rollsintothefire.

Thesecondwayisthebankbackorbounceofftechnique,inwhichfoamisbankedoffa
wallorotherobjectandthefoamrollsbackintothefire.

Thethirdtechniqueistheraindownorsnowflaketechnique,inwhichfoamissprayedhigh
intotheairoverthefireanditfloatsdownontoit.

WRAPUP
Time:15minutes

KeyPoints

Firestreamsaremadeofwaterthatleavesanozzleandheadstowardatarget.

Thetwomaintypesofnozzlesarethesolidtipandfog.

Anunderstandingoffirestreamsisnotpossiblewithoutunderstandingthebasichydraulics
ofmovingwaterfromasourcetoatarget.

Whenfuelsinafirearenotcompatiblewithwater,otheragentssuchasfoammustbeused.

Foamrequiresspecialequipmenttocreateit,andsomespecialapplicationtechniquesare
used.

Assignment

ReadChapter12inFirefighter'sHandbook,pages293320

Optional:CompleteFirefighter'sHandbookWorkbook,Chapter12

InstructorPreparation
PowerPointPresentationChapter12
TransparencymastersChapter12
Overheadprojector,slideprojector,orLCDdisplay
Sprinklerheads,wedges,andsprinklertongs