International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)

ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 2 Issue 10, October - 2013

Characterization of Biodiesel: A Review

Sayyed Siraj R.
1, 3
2

& B.M. Gitte , S.D. Joshi , H.M. Dharmadhikari.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Maharashtra Institute of Technology, Aurangabad,

Dept. of Applied Science & Humanities, Fabtech Technical Campus, Sangola, Dist. Solapur.

Table 1: The Countries and Feedstock around the World:

[1, 3].

Abstract
It is well known for us, biodiesel is an alternative substitute for fossil diesel. Biodiesel is basically Fatty Acid Methyl
Ester Based Fuel, a long chain of Triglycerides and the Alcohol
in the presence of Catalyst forms Ethyl Esters and the Glycerol
that process is known as Transesterification, if the fatty acid
content in the oil is more than 2.5% then the process by which
the oil is converted to ethyl esters is known as Esterification
followed by Transesterification.

Country

Raw Product or Feedstock

1.

Mexico

Animal Fat, Waste Oil

2.

Canada

Canola Oil, Animal Fat

3.

USA

Soybean Oil, Waste Oil

4.

Brazil

Soybean Oil, Palm Oil, Caster Oil,

Cotton Oil

5.

Spain

Sunflower Oil

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This review paper mostly concentrates on the characterization of biodiesel; most of the Physio Chemical properties like Density, Kinematic Viscosity, Flash Point, Cetane
Number, and the heating value these are related to combustion. This paper is having the information about physio
chemical properties of biodiesel and fossil diesel and the availability of various feedstock for biodiesel production in the
world.

Sr.
No.

6.

France

7.

UK

Keywords: Biodiesel, Transesterification, Esterification, Characterization of Biodiesel.

8.

Sweden

Rapeseed Oil

9.

Finland

Rapeseed Oil, Animal Fat

1. Introduction

10.

Germany

Rapeseed Oil

11.

Italy

Rapeseed Oil

12.

India

Jatropha Oil, Karanja Oil, Mahua Oil

13.

China

Jatropha Oil, Waste Oil

14.

Thailand

Palm Oil, Jatropha Oil, Coconut Oil

15.

Malaysia

Palm Oil

16.

Indonesia

Palm Oil, Jatropha Oil

17.

Russia

Rapeseed Oil, Soybean Oil, Sunflower Oil

18.

Japan

Waste Oil

19.

Korea

Waste Oil

20.

Philippine

Coconut Oil, Jatropha Oil

21.

Australia

Waste Oil, Animal Fat

22.

New Zealand

Waste Oil, Animal Fat

Now a days Energy Crises is one of the important

issues for us, Fossil diesel has utilized everywhere in the
world for production processes of the industry, transportation sectors, and also used in ships, motor Vehicle etc. But
the emission produced by that fossil diesel after burning is
very ineffective for our health and also for climate, it increases air pollution and global warming. Fossil diesel contributes almost 80% of the worlds energy needs [1].
Most of the country in the world that are agricultural, due to fluctuating global prices of the crude oil has an
adverse impact on the economy of many nations especially
oil importing countries, apart from the fossil diesel is non
renewable source of energy, due to the depletion of fossil
diesel fuels, the prices are also increasing day by day ultimately it leads to the economic recession in the various developing countries. If we see previous data the Diesel consumption of India in 2008 2009 was 51.7 million tons and
159.7 million tons of CO2 was likely to be generated by such
usage of fossil diesel [9].
So the next alternative available for this fossil diesel is Bio
diesel because it is clean and Renewable source of energy.
Every country has specific variety of feedstock oil for their
biodiesel production; some key countries and their feedstock has revealed in the Table 1.

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Rapeseed Oil, Sunflower Oil

Rapeseed Oil, Waste Oil

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International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)

ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 2 Issue 10, October - 2013

Table 2: Technical Properties of Biodiesel [3].

Common Name

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Biodiesel (Bio Diesel)

Common Chemical Name

Fatty Acid (M) ethyl Ester

Chemical Formula Range

C14 C24 Methyl Esters or

C15 25 H28 48 O2

Kinematic Viscosity Range

(mm2/s at 40:C)
Density Range
(kg/m3 at 15:C)

1.9 6.0 as per ASTM and

3.5 5.0 as per EN
860 900

Boiling Point (:C)

>202

Flash Point Range (:C)

147 177

Distillation Range (:C)

197 327

Vapour Pressure
(mm of Hg at 22:C)

<5

Solubility in Water

Insoluble in Water
Light to Dark Yellow,
Clear Liquid

Physical Appearance
Odor

Light Musty, Soapy Odor

More Biodegradable than Fossil
Diesel

Biodegradability
Reactivity

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As we have expected from the alternative fuel i.e. Biodiesel

that must be technically feasible, economically competitive,
environmentally acceptable, and easily available in the
world. The current alternative fuel can be termed Biodiesel.
Biodiesel can offer other benefits, including Greenhouse
emissions, regional development, and social structure, especially to developing countries [1, 3, 14].
Some of the researchers like [Krawezyk et. al. 1966,
Kerutzer et. al. 1984, schwab et. al. 1987, Daming Huang, 1]
have put the definition for biodiesels, Biodiesel is defined as
oxygenated, sulfur free, Biodegradable, Non Toxic, and
ecofriendly diesel oil. [Demirbas Ayhan, 3] Biodiesel (Greek,
Bio, Life + Diesel from Rudolf Diesel) refers to a diesel equivalent, processed fuel from biological sources. Biodiesel fuels
are attracting increasing attention worldwide as blending
component or direct replacement for the diesel fuel in the
vehicle engine. Biodiesel comprises alkyl fatty acid (Chain
length C14 C22) esters of short chain alcohols, primarily,
methanol or ethanol. [Connemann and Fischer et. al. 1998,
Ma and Hanna et. al. 1999, Van Gerpen et. al. 2005, Canakci et.
al. 2007, Daming Huang, 1, 13] chemically, Biodiesel can be
defined as a fuel composed of Mono alkyl esters of long
chain fatty acids derived from renewable energy sources,
such as vegetable oil, animal fat, etc. designated as B100 and
it must meet to the requirements of (American Society of
Testing and Materials) ASTM D 6751 standards and
(European Nations) EN 14214 standards.
Few of the Technical Properties of Biodiesels are
same as that of Fossil Diesel and some properties are slightly higher than fossil diesel. The biodiesel is having Density is
in the range of 860 900 kg/m3 as per ASTM D6751 standard and Fossil Diesel is having 800 860 kg/m3 as per
ASTM D 975 standard. Kinematic Viscosity of Biodiesel is in
the range of 1.9 6.0 mm2/s as per ASTM D6751 standard
and 3.5 5.0 mm2/s as per EN 14214 standards and for
Fossil diesel the range is given 1.3 4.1 mm2/s as per ASTM
D 975 standard. The Flash point of biodiesel is given 130:C
mini-mum as per ASTM D 6751 standard and for Fossil
diesel is 52:C as per ASTM D975 standard. The Copper Strip
Corro-sion is same for both the fuels as per ASTM D 6751
and ASTM D 975 standards. The Cetane Number is slightly
high-er for Biodiesel i.e. 47 minimum as per ASTM D 6751
stand-ard and for Fossil Diesel 40 minimum as per ASTM D
975 standard [15,17].
The Biodiesel is Insoluble in water and having light
to Dark Yellow, clear liquid physical appearance. The Biodiesel is basically Light Musty or Soapy Odor and it is more
biodegradable than fossil diesel. The general technical properties of Biodiesel have laid down in the Table 2.
Biodiesel is same as that of Fossil Diesel; as per the
ASTM Standards comparison of Biodiesel with Fossil Diesel
have laid down in the Table 3.
The Higher Heating or Gross Heating Values of Biodiesels are relatively high. The HHVs of Biodiesel is in the
Range of 39 41 MJ/kg are slightly lower than of gasoline
i.e. 46 MJ/kg, Petro Diesel i.e. 43 MJ/kg but higher Coal, the
Coal is having HHVs is in the Range of 32 37 MJ/kg [3].

Stable, but avoid oxidizing agents

Table 3: ASTM Standards of Biodiesel and Fossil Diesel [3].

Property

Flash point
(in :C)
Water &
Sediments
Kinematic Viscosity @ 40:C
Sulfated Ash
Ash
Sulfur
Sulfur
Copper Strip
Corrosion
Cetane Number
Aromaticity
Carbon Residue
Carbon residue
Dist. Temp. (90
% vol. recycle)

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Test
Method
D93
D 2709
D 445
D 874
D 482
D 5453

ASTM D
975
(Petrodiesel)

ASTM D 6751
(Biodiesel,
B100)

52 min

130 min

0.05 max %
vol.
1.3 4.1
mm2/s

1.9 6.0 mm2/s

0.02 max %wt.

0.01 max %
wt.
0.05 max %
wt.

0.05 max % vol.

D 2622
/129

0.05 max %wt.

D 130

No. 3 max

No. 3 max

D 613

40 min

47 min

D 1319

35 max %
vol.

D 4530

0.05 max %
mass

D 524

0.35 max %
mass

D 1160

282:C min
338:C max

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International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)

ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 2 Issue 10, October - 2013

The Specifications and Test Methods of Biodiesel as Per ASTM D 6751 Standards and as per EN 14214 Standards
have shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Specification and Test Methods of Biodiesel as per ASTM D6751 & EN 14214 Standards.
Limits
Property

Test Method

Unit

ASTM
D 6751

EN
14214

ASTM
D 6751

EN
14214

:C

130 min

101 min

D93

ISO CD 3679e

mm2/s

1.9 6.0

3.5 5.0

D445

EN ISO 3104

47 min

51 min

D 613

EN ISO 5165

Sulphated Ash Content

% (m/m)

0.020 max

D874

ISO 3987

Copper Strip Corrosion

No. 3 max

Class 1

D 130

EN ISO 2160

mg KOH/g

0.80 max

0.5 max

D 664

pr EN 14104

D 6584

pr EN 14105m
pr EN 14106

Flash point
Kinematic viscosity @ 40: C
Cetane Number

Acid Value
Free Glycerol

% (m/m)

0.020 max

Total Glycerol

% (m/m)

0.240 max

0.25 max

D 6584

pr EN 141101

% (m/m)

0.050 max
-

0.3 max

D 4530
-

EN ISO 10370

:C

Report Customer

D 2500

Phosphorous Content

Cloud point
Density at 15: C
Distillation T90 AET

Kg/m3
:C

Sulfur (S 15 grade)

ppm

Sulfur (S 500 grade)

ppm

860 900

EN SIO 3675
EN SIO 12185

360 max

D 1160

0.0015 max

D 5453

0.05 max

D 5453

10 max

0.050 max

D 2709

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Carbon Residue
D 6751 (100% sample)
EN 14214 (10% Bottoms)

Sulfur content

mg/kg

Water & Sediments

% vol.

Water content

mg/kg

500 max

EN ISO 12937

Total contamination

mg/kg

24 max

EN 12662

6 min

pr EN 14112

120 max

pr EN 14111

Linolenic acid methyl ester

% (m/m)

12 max

pr EN 14013d

Polyunsaturated
(>= 4 double bonds)
methyl esters

% (m/m)

pr EN 14103

Ester content

% (m/m)

96.5 min

pr EN 14103d

Methanol content

% (m/m)

0.2 max

pr EN 141101

Monoglyceride content

% (m/m)

0.8 max

pr EN 14105m

Diglyceride content

% (m/m)

0.2 max

pr EN 14105m

Triglyceride content

% (m/m)

0.2 max

pr EN 14105m

pr EN 14108
pr EN 14109

Oxidation stability at 110: C

Iodine value

Alkaline metals (Na + K)

1 max

mg/kg

5 max

AET: Atmospheric Equivalence Temperature.

Biodiesel is not a simple vegetable oil and the biodiesel properties can very according to the feedstock used. All
major U.S. manufacturers of diesel engine endorse the use of biodiesel.

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International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)

ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 2 Issue 10, October - 2013

2. Literature Survey:

Kinematic viscosity = Calibration constant (mm2/s2) x

mean time of flow (s) in mm2/s. Crude Vegetable oils have
high viscosity (one order of magnitude higher than the acceptable diesel fuel values), which means that they cannot
be used safely as fuels in a compression ignition engine, at
least not without prior heating (viscosity decreases exponentially with increasing temperature), and only for relatively small blending ratios[11]. The Crude vegetable oils
have highest viscosity than biodiesel and biodiesel have
higher viscosity than fossil diesel, the crude vegetable oil
have viscosity 10 to 17 times higher than that of Biodiesel
[18]. Several structural features influence the kinematic viscosities of FAME, such as chain length, degree of unsaturation, double bond orientation, and type of ester head group.
Factors such as longer chain length and larger ester head
group result in increases in kinematic viscosity[11]. Increasing the degree of unsaturation results in a decrease in kinematic viscosity and as the temperature of oil is increased its
viscosity decreases and it is therefore able to flow more
readily. Double bond orientation also impacts kinematic
viscosity[5,6]. Viscosity is the most important property of
lubricating oil, as it affects the wear rate of engine components. Relatively higher viscosity of biodiesel helps in plugging the clearance between piston rings and cylinder liner
effectively, thus reducing blow-by losses and fuel dilution of
lubricating oil[27]. In a diesel engine, higher viscosity leads
to less accurate operation of the fuel injectors, and to poorer
atomization of the fuel spray, increase in the Sauter mean
diameter of the fuel droplets and of the jet break -up time;
these inefficiencies are exaggerated during cold starting.
Due to the large molecular size of the triglycerides making
up about 98 % of plant oils, viscosity is higher and volatility
is lower than fossil diesel[5]. The Brake Power of an engine
working with plant oils or blends varies in the range of
+10% to -18% compared to engines running on fossil diesel
under similar operating conditions. However, according to
most reports there is power decrease around 2% to 18%.
Possible problems are:

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A. Density:
The density of a material or liquid is defined as its
mass per unit volume. Many researchers prefer the dimensionless term specific gravity, which is defined as the ratio
of the density of a substance to the density of a reference
substance (usually water) [20]. Density of the biodiesel, diesel fuel and their blends can be measure by ASTM Standard
D 941 or as per European Standard of EN ISO 3675 and EN
ISO 12185 test methods. Most of the Researchers have used
Anton Paar density meter, Pycnometer, and Hydrometer in
the measurement of Density at room temperature or at stated temperature i.e. 15: C [20, 22, 30]. From various researcher papers The (average) densities of the 25 investigated methyl esters, again excluding castor, range from
870.8 to 891.5 kg/m3, with the overall average value being
880.2 kg/m3 (i.e. almost 5% higher than the corresponding
fossil diesel value). Density increases with the decrease in
chain and with unsaturation [20,22]. Density can impact on
fuel consumption as fuel introduced into the combustion
chamber is determined by volumetrically [6]. Biodiesel fuels
are, in general, characterized by higher density than conventional fossil diesel, which means that volumetricallyoperating fuel pumps will inject greater mass of biodiesel
than fossil diesel fuel [11,24]. Since the flow is controlled by
volume, the expected peak power reduction for engines using B100 is only 5 to 7 % less than the fossil diesel because
more (g/ml) would flow and vaporize more efficiently given
a set throttle (volume) [12,23]. It should be noted that biodiesel produces more than three times the energy as the
same amount of fossil fuel. Biodiesels higher Specific gravity and Density relative to fossil diesel means that on road
biodiesel blends are normally made by splash blending the
biodiesel fuel on top of the conventional diesel fuel or fossil
fuel [12]. The biodiesel has an average density i.e. Crude oil
density is 12% higher than the fossil diesel [11]. Actually, it
has been argued that there exists a correlation between
density and NOx emissions, with lower densities favoring
lower NOx, although other researchers have not confirmed
such an unequivocal trend [11].
B. Viscosity:
Kinematic viscosity is the primary reason why biodiesel is used as an alternative fuel instead of neat vegetable
oils or animal fats [5]. Viscosity is a measure of the internal
fluid friction or resistance of oil to flow, which tends to oppose any dynamic change in the fluid motion [6,25]. Kinematic Viscosity of the biodiesel, diesel fuel and their blends
can be measure by ASTM Standard D 445 or as per European Standard of EN ISO 3104 and EN ISO 3105 test methods
[31]. The Viscosity ranges have given as per the ASTM D445
standard 3.5 to 5.0 mm2/s and as per the EN ISO 3104, 05
standard 1.9 to 6.0 mm2/s [25,31]. Most of the researchers
have used Redwood Viscometer, Setavis Kinematic Viscometer, and Canon Fenske Viscometer Tube of size No. 75, 100
used in the Viscometer Bath for Viscosity measurement
[6,27]. The kinematic viscosity was determined at 40:C by
multiplying the constant of viscometer tube and the measured efflux time, which is the time for a known volume of
liquid flowing under gravity to pass through a calibrated
glass capillary viscometer tube.

IJERTV2IS100795

Higher viscosity interferes with the injection process and

leads to poor atomization, leading in turn into inefficient
mixing of air and fuel which contributes to incomplete combustion.

It also causes some plant oil to be left unburnt and penetrate the engine crankcase which can cause loss of power
[5].
C.
Flash Point:
Biodiesel and diesel have a common boiling point,
but biodiesel has higher flash point the temperature at
which a fuel will catch fire because biodiesel has higher
number of FAMEs which are generally not volatile [6]. Flash
point varies inversely with the fuels volatility. Thus, biodiesel is safer to handle at higher temperature than fossil
diesel. Flash Point of the biodiesel, diesel fuel and their
blends can be measure by ASTM Standard D 93 or as per
European Standard of EN ISO 3679 and IP 523 & IP 524 test
methods[31]. Most of the researchers have used Pensky
Marten Closed Cup Apparatus in the measurement of Flash
Point[5,6,11]. The minimum temperature ranges have given
as per the ASTM D 6751 standard 130:C and 101:C as per
EN 14214 standards. The Flash Point of Non Edible oils is
much higher than that of fossil diesels [31].

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Vol. 2 Issue 10, October - 2013

the measurement of Heating Value but there is no specification as regards the biodiesel heating value, neither in the EU
nor in the US [5]. Previous research has shown that the energy content of fatty acid methyl esters is directly proportional to chain length (again for pure fatty acids), whereas
FAME with similar C:O but lower C:H ratios (i.e. more hydrogen) exhibit greater LHV [11]. As a result, lower energy content is obtained from progressively greater levels of unsaturation for methyl esters of similar chain length [26]. Increasing the unsaturation or the number of double bonds, results
in a moderate increase in the FAME heating value [30]. The
higher the oxygen content, hence the lower the heating value, the higher the potential for PM reduction [27]. On the
other hand, the fact that greater mass of biodiesel needs to
be injected in order to achieve the same engine power as
with conventional diesel fuel is responsible for an increase
in NOx emissions in EGR equipped engines/vehicles; the
latter engines rely on the mass flow signal in order to determine the appropriate EGR valve position [27]. The low heating value of Crude Vegetable oil, the maximum peak pressure of the cylinder reduced than fossil diesel and heat release diagram reveals that the oil vaporizes and burns at a
slower rate than fossil diesel. Due to higher oxygen content
of the biodiesel that produces more complete combustion of
the fuel and soot. B100 has lower energy content than the
diesel fuel by 11% [27,31].

3. Conclusion:

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It also can be transported conveniently and more safely than

fossil diesel, due to its high flash point which enables it to be
identified as safe goods[14,15]. Flash point temperature
indicates the overall flammability hazard in the presence of
air, higher flash point makes for safe handling and storage.
Especially Methanol which is a particular hazard to its invisible flame [5,17,18]. As the impurities increases in the Biodiesel and Diesel Blends ultimately the Flash Point also increase [6].
D. Cetane Number:
One of the most influential properties of the diesel
fuel is the dimensionless cetane number (CN), which represents the ignitability of the fuel, particularly critical during
cold starting conditions [5]. Cetane number of the fuel is
defined as the percentage by volume of the normal cetane in
a mixture of normal cetane and methyl naphthalene
which has the same ignition characteristics (ignition delay)
as the test fuel, when combustion has carried out in a standard engine under specified operating conditions [6]. The
cetane number of the Biodiesel and fossil diesel can be
measured by D 613 as per the ASTM D6751 standard and EN
ISO 5165 as per the EN 14214 standard. The limit is giv-en
for Cetane Number as per the ASTM D6751 standard 47
minimum and as per EN 14214 standard 51 minimum for
Biodiesel and cetane number limit is given for fossil diesel
40 minimum as per ASTM D975 standard [31]. The physical
and chemical properties of the fuel play very important role
in the delay period. The cetane number (CN) of the fuel is
one such important parameter which is responsible for the
delay period [29,30]. The ignition quality of the fuel is measured by cetane number (CN) and it measures how easily
ignition occurs. A fuel with good ignition quality has higher
Cetane Number, where the ignition delay period between
the start of the fuel injection and the onset of auto ignition is
short [27]. The higher Cetane Number, Shorter the Ignition
delay time and vice versa. The cetane number assists in the
smooth combustion with lower knocking characteristics in
the diesel engine [5]. The cetane number requirement for
the engine depends on the fuel composition and influences
the beginning of the process of combustion and emissions.
The cetane number of methyl esters depends on fatty acids
of feedstocks [11]. Cetane number decreases as the number
of double bonds (or the unsaturation) increases [11]. Low
cetane number lead to long ignition delay, i.e. long time between fuel injection and start of combustion [12]. A fuel of
higher cetane number gives lower delay period and provides smoother engine operation[27]. Biodiesel has a higher
cetane number because of its higher oxygen content [31].
E. Heating Value:
The lower (LHV) and the higher (HHV) heating values are measures of a fuels heat of combustion, with the
difference between them being the waters heat of vaporization [20,21]. Biodiesel contains on average 10 12% w/w
oxygen, which leads to proportionally lower energy density
and heating value, thus more fuel needs to be injected in
order to achieve the same engine power output [30]. Some
of the Researchers have measured the Heating Value of the
biodiesel, and their blends can be measure by ASTM Standard D 240 or as per DIN Standard of DIN 51900, DIN 519001, and DIN 51900-2, DIN 51900-3 test methods [31]. Most of
the researchers have used Bomb Calorimeter Apparatus in

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a. As the various kinds of feedstocks available in the world

every country has its own biodiesel types in that every country is having their own feed stocks. The biodiesel is having
some properties similar to the fossil diesel but some properties higher than the fossil diesel.
b. As we see the density of biodiesel is slightly higher than
the fossil diesel and less than the water. The density decreases as the temperature increases and viceversa. It has
also cleared that every feed stock having different densities.
c. The biodiesel is having higher density thats why ASTM
D6751 standard says use biodiesel for blending purpose up
20 % only because 20 % biodiesel is having kinematic viscosity similar to the fossil diesel. Other blends like B30 to
B100 are having more kinematic viscosity than the fossil
diesel.
d. The biodiesel is having high flash point than the fossil diesel because fossil diesel is HC based fuel and Biodiesel is
FAME based. Due to high flash point it is easy in the transportation.
e. Fossil diesel is having 47 dimensionless Cetane number as
per the ASTM D975 standard and Biodiesel is having 51 as
per the ASTM D6751 standard and 52 as per the EN 14214
standard, so higher cetane number means clean burning of
the fuel with lesser time.
f. The biodiesel is having 10 to 12 % less higher heating value because of more oxygen content and the efficiency of the
engine decreases 2 to 12 % because of less heating value.

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4. References:

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