The Pleistocene Boundary and The Beginning of The Quaternary (John A. Van Couvering, 2001)
The Pleistocene Boundary and The Beginning of The Quaternary (John A. Van Couvering, 2001)
The Pleistocene Boundary and The Beginning of The Quaternary (John A. Van Couvering, 2001)
4 Global Geological Record of Lake Basins, Vol. 1 E. Gierlowski-Kordesch & K. Kelts (eds.)
5 Earth's Glacial Record - M. Deynoux, J. M. G. Miller,
E. W. Domack, N. Eyles, I. Fairchild & G. M. Young
(eds.)
6
The Pleistocene
Boundary and the
Beginning of the
Quaternary
Edited by
JOHN A. VAN COUVERING
American Museum of Natural History, New York
mim
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Contents
List of contributors
vii
Preface: the new Pleistocene
11
Foreword
12
13
14
15
EMILIANO AGUIRRE
JEAN CHALINE
16
17
WALDO H. ZAGWIJN
18
WIEGANK
79
19
ANDREW J. M. PALMER
206
ANDREW A. R6NAI
20
216
CONSTANTIN GHENEA
21
22
23
24
KSENIA V. NIKIFOROVA
MIKHAIL N . ALEKSEEV
114
M. V. A. SASTRY
183
RICHARD W. HEY
EMILIANO AGUIRRE
10
141
KSENIA V. NIKIFOROVA
xix
129
Contents
VI
25
28
244
29
30
ANTHONY R. EDWARDS
247
26
27
EVERETT H. LINDSAY
H. BASIL S. COOKE
Index
ZHANG SHOUXIN
291
264
Contributors
Emiliano Aguirre
H. Basil S. Cooke
Mikhail N. Alekseev
Anthony R. Edwards
Augusto Azzaroli
Department of Geology
University of Stockholm
S-106 Stockholm, Sweden
William A. Berggren
Vladimir P. Grichuk
Paleobotanical Institute
Russian Academy of Sciences
Pzyhevsky per. 7
Moscow 109017, Russia
Gedaliahu Gvirtzman
Jean Chaline
Richard W. Hey
Harleton Lodge
Bromsash, Ross-on-Wye
Herefordshire HR9 7SB, United Kingdom
Winfried Hinsch
Department of Geosciences
Osaka City University
558 Osaka, Japan
vn
Contributors
Hans-Dietrich Kahlke
Motoyoshi Oda
Department of Geology
Kumamoto University
860 Kumamoto, Japan
Tadao Kamei
Andrew J. M. Palmer
Department of Geology
University of South Carolina
Columbia, SC 29208, USA
Hiroshi Kitazato
Giancarlo Pasini
Institute of Geosciences
Shizuoka University
422 Shizuoka, Japan
Itaru Koizumi
Department of Geosciences
University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
Guido M. Martinotti
Department of Geology
Shimane University
690 Matsue, Japan
Jorge Morales
Andrew A. Ronai
Institute of Geosciences
Shizuoka University
422 Shizuoka, Japan
Ksenia V. Nikiforova
Marina V. Sotnikova
Geological Institute
Russian Academy of Sciences
Pyzhevsky per. 7
Moscow 109017, Russia
Geological Institute
Russian Academy of Sciences
Pyzhevsky per. 7
Moscow 109017, Russia
Contributors
Rodolfo Sprovieri
Marmstorferweg 46
DW-2100 Hamburg-Harburg, Germany
Friedrich Wiegank
Toshiaki Takayama
Department of Geology
Kanazawa University
920 Kanazawa, Japan
Robert Thunell
Department of Geosciences
Osaka City University
558 Osaka, Japan
Waldo H. Zagwijn
Shigemoto Tokunaga
Geological Institute
Russian Academy of Sciences
Pyzhevsky per. 7
Moscow 109017, Russia
Micropaleontology Press
American Museum of Natural History
New York, NY 10024, USA
Eleanora A. Vangengeim
Geological Institute
Russian Academy of Sciences
Pyzhevsky per. 7
Moscow 109017, Russia
Zhang Shouxin
Institute of Geology
Academia Sinica
P.O. Box 634
Beijing 100029, People's Republic of China
IX
The International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) currently recognizes the units "Paleogene," "Neogene," and "Quaternary" as the three periods making up the Cenozoic era (Cowie
and Bassett, 1989). The expression "Neogene-Quaternary," or
its abbreviation "N/Q," which appears throughout this work to
indicate the chronostratigraphic boundary defined by the base of
the Pleistocene epoch, is therefore correct according to international guidelines. The philosophy and history behind the
Xll
terminology suggest, however, that this arrangement is vulnerable and may be changed in the future.
It has been pointed out by Berggren and Van Couvering (1974,
1979) that the original mid-nineteenth-century meaning of
"Neogene," which Moritz Homes (1853) coined for the marine
fossils of the Vienna Basin, does not agree with the sense of the
term as used by M. Gignoux (1913) in the first decade of this
century. I am greatly indebted to Prof. F. Steininger (personal
communication, 1991) for pointing out that Homes based his
term on the "meiocan" and "pleiocan" local faunal units outlined
by Bronn in 1838. Admittedly Bronn (1838) was extending to the
Vienna Basin the terms "Miocene" and "Pliocene," which had
just been introduced by Charles Lyell (1833), but Homes,
writing in 1853, made it clear that it was Bronn's units, rather
than Lyell's (contra Harland et al., 1990), that he considered to
be basic to the Neogene. In so doing, Homes ignored Lyell's
post-1838 revisions regarding the limits of his epochs, not to
mention Beyrich's studies, which were soon to lead to the formal
proposal of the Oligocene in 1855. Thus, the original Neogene,
like the original Miocene and Pliocene on which Bronn based his
units, encompassed the entire post-Eocene fossil record. Homes
specifically included collections from the glacial "Loss-" and
"Diluvial-Bildungen" in Austria. Furthermore, in correlating the
Vienna Basin Neogene assemblages with Mediterranean faunas,
Homes (1853, p. 809) mentioned collections from Rhodes,
Crete, and Sicily that would now be dated to the Pleistocene.
The term "Neogene" was thereafter much neglected until
Gignoux (1913) reintroduced it. In its revised form, it appears to
have been nothing more than a casual literary convenience
(Gignoux, 1955, p. 467), with no definition beyond the bald
statement that it consisted of the Miocene and Pliocene epochs
together. Despite the superficial resemblance of this diagnosis to
the original, Gignoux's meaning for "Neogene" was actually
quite different, because Homes did not recognize the Pleistocene
as separate from the Pliocene, whereas Gignoux, writing 60 years
later, took this separation for granted. Furthermore, although
Homes, like Lyell, defined his unit in terms of the fossil record,
unlike Lyell he seems to have ignored its application to geologic
time, as is suggested by his choice of "-gen" rather than "-cen" as
an ending. Gignoux made no mention of Hornes's faunal
definition (indeed, he made no mention of Homes at all) in
treating the Neogene as a compound of epochs, or chronostratigraphic units. In that rather careless way the Pleistocene
(and Oligocene, for that matter) was excluded from the Neogene
without discussion, and it was in this "modern" sense that the
term was used by IGCP-41 and eventually by the IUGS. Taking
all this into consideration, Berggren and Van Couvering (1974,
1979) contended that the Neogene, in its original sense, was a
biochronological unit irrelevant to the time-rock unit of the
Quaternary, and chronologically overlapping it.
No post-Neogene unit is specified in the definition of Neogene
given by Gignoux, let alone by Homes. On the other hand, the
most appropriate term for the unit preceding the Quaternary is,
of course, "Tertiary" and if the one is valid it is difficult to see
why the other is not. Indeed, the 1948 commission (King and
Age, Ma
(1995)
Matuyama-Brunhes
0.73
0.780
Jaramillo top
Jaramillo base
0.90
0.97
0.990
1.070
1.186
1.65
1.770
1.785
1.796
1.815
1.950
Magnetostratigraphic
boundary
1.65
0-65)
1.82
Astronomically tuned time scale. Mathematical models of longterm variations in global insolation values, as predicted on the
basis of harmonics in the obliquity of the earth's axis and the
ellipticity and precession of its orbit, have been refined with the
aid of modern computers (Berger and Loutre, 1988). This has
brought fresh success in calibrating the proxy records of
astronomically forced climatic periodicities to the magnetostratigraphy and biostratigraphy in marine deposits (Hilgen
and Langereis, 1989; Shackleton, Berger, and Peltier, 1990;
Shackleton et al., 1995a). The application of the new astronomically calibrated time scale to the Vrica section is discussed by
Pasini and Colalongo (Chapter 2, this volume), but has not been
consistently applied in the descriptions of other Plio-Pleistocene
sequences in this volume. Table 1 is a reference to the "old"
versus "new" values, as an aid to the reader.
Standard global Plio-Pleistocene chronostratigraphic
units
XIV
CO
Q-
iS
C/3
Ma o
GSSP to be proposed
(Taranto Area, Puglie)
in relation to the base of the
"Strombus bed"
1
0.1 0.2
0.30.4-
0 5Z
0.6-
0.9
10
z
cc
LU
1
<
LU
Z
LU
O
GSSP to be proposed
(Montalbano lonico, Basilicata)
close to isotopic stage 25 and/or
small Gephyrocapsa/P lacunosa
nannofossil zonal boundary
O
CO
_
LU
-1
CU
ICIILI/
0.8-
>-
cc
<
z
cc
CD
1.4
CO
z
<
MIL
07
LU
15
<
z
<
z
cc
GSSP to be proposed
(Montalbano lonico, Basilicata or
Vrica, Calabria)
close to FO T. trucatulinoides
excelsa
GSSP proposed
(Vrica, Calabria)
Pasini & Colalongo, 1994
LU
z
CO
1.9-
GSSP ratified
(Vrica, Calabria)
Bassett, 1985
Aguirre& Pasini, 1985
2.0-
z
<
2.1 -
LU
22
LU
LU
if)
<
2.3
O
O
LU
2.4-
LU
LU
O
~
Z
2.5
2.6
GSSP proposed
(S. Nicola, Sicily)
Rioetal, 1994
K
1 Unnamed (Tarentian?); 2: Tyrrhenian
xv
support the recognition of new Pliocene and Pleistocene global Ficarazzi (Sicily), which is near the base of the "small"
chronostratigraphic units in the same context as the Pleistocene Gephyrocapsa zone.
boundary-stratotype. Rio, Sprovieri, and Thunell (1991) have
conclusively demonstrated that in the upper Pliocene, the
Lowering the Quaternary
stratotype of the Piacenzian Stage is erosionally truncated near
the Gauss-Matuyama boundary, some 0.8 m.y. prior to the base Years of effort have culminated in the establishment of an
of the Pleistocene as presently recognized. Under the interna- internationally accepted Pleistocene boundary-stratotype coincitional guidelines (Salvador, 1994), chronostratigraphic "gaps" dent with a major climatic downturn. This level, near the top of
such as that are eliminated by considering the top of a unit to be the Olduvai subchron, with an age of about 1.8 Ma, is (by
defined by the base of the next succeeding unit, so that the definition) the Quaternary boundary as well. It is now well
Piacenzian Stage could be considered to continue up to the base known that the shift from the equable, stable climates of the
of the lowest stage in the Pleistocene. (An alternative proposal, early Pliocene to the intensely seasonal and highly cyclic climates
to move the base of the Pleistocene downward to fill the gap, is of the late Pleistocene and Recent proceeded episodically, with
not in accord with the guidelines, as discussed later). Rio, progressive step-like increments, from the middle Miocene
Sprovieri, and Di Stefano (1994) pointed out that the climatic maximum to modern "fully glacial" conditions by about
paleobiological and paleoclimatic characteristics of the gap in 0.4 Ma (Thunell and Williams, 1983). Major steps toward the
question, as seen in the well-studied section at Monte San Nicola present glacial-climate condition have been confirmed in highin Sicily, distinguish it from the typical Piancenzian. Those quality deep-sea records at 3.2 Ma and 2.5 Ma (Shackleton, Hall,
authors proposed a new stage, the Gelasian, to embody the and Pate, 1995b), prior to the 1.8-Ma downturn, and other major
Upper Pliocene and to more clearly document the sharp change steps at 0.9 Ma and 0.4 Ma (Shackleton et al., 1990; Hilgen,
from warm-climate to cold-climate conditions at the level of the 1991). A detailed review is beyond the scope of this brief
Vrica boundary.
commentary, but it is safe to say that whereas a given step or two
The Ionian Stage has been proposed for the Middle Pleisto- may be strikingly distinct in one or more of the proxy records
cene by a group led by Neri Ciaranfi at Bari University (Van that have been developed - stable isotopes, vertebrate fossils,
Couvering, 1995), to be based on the upper part of a thick land microflora and macroflora, marine planktic and benthic
sequence of highly fossiliferous Lower and Middle Pleistocene microfossils, marine and continental epiglacial sediments - no
marine clayey silts at Montalbano Ionico in southern Basilicata one climatic downturn stands out from all the rest on a consensus
(Ciaranfi et al., 1994). Preliminary studies of the sequence have basis. Because the step at 1.8 Ma is not universally dominant, the
shown continuous sedimentation from the middle Matuyama to effects of the two most closely bracketing steps have also been
the middle Brunhes, in the context of calcareous nannoplankton advocated as criteria for the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary.
zones of "large" Gephyrocapsa, "small" Gephyrocapsa, and
For example, Nikiforova describes, in the Foreword to this
Pseudoemiliana lacunosa (Rio, Raffi, and Villa, 1990). In order volume, how researchers in eastern Europe and Russia have long
to avoid the problems raised by the fact that cold-climate held (with some justification) that the establishment of lowland
lowstands are erosional in shallow-marine and continental glaciers on the European continent at about 0.9 Ma (i.e., isotope
deposits, the boundary-stratotype of the Ionian has been stage 24) (Hilgen, 1991) marked the proper beginning of the
proposed at the level of the last warm, transgressive event prior Pleistocene, in accord with the original intentions of nineteenthto the Menapian "glacial Pleistocene," at the 0.9-Ma paleo- century stratigraphers. Itihara et al. (Chapter 24, this volume)
climatic step, and the end of the Villafranchian (Azzaroli et al., show that Japanese stratigraphers have also dated the base of the
Chapter 11, this volume). This is isotope stage 25, just above the Pleistocene to that time, coincident with the extinction of typical
Jaramillo and correlative to the base of the P. lacunosa zone Pliocene macroflora.
(Castradori, 1993), which is well documented at Montalbano
On the other hand, the glacial maximum at about 2.5 Ma (i.e.,
Ionico.
isotope stage 100) (Shackleton et al., 1995b) appears to have
Boundary-stratotypes for the Santernian, Emilian, and Sicil- been the first to have noticeably impacted the continental and
ian, which have been designated as Lower Pleistocene substages shallow-marine environments, and it was also the earliest cold(Ruggieri et al., 1984), have been proposed in southern Italy climate phase in which the limits of ice-rafted debris (IRD)
(Figure 1). The base of the Santernian substage is identified, by expanded beyond the Arctic Ocean and into the northern
hierarchic necessity, with that of the Calabrian Stage and that of Atlantic and northern Pacific. Workers in China, as noted by
the Pleistocene Series at the Vrica GSSP. The boundary- Zhang (Chapter 26, this volume), were accustomed to using the
stratotype of the Emilian has been defined by Pasini and earliest loess, together with evidence for the development of the
Colalongo (1994) at a point 71 m stratigraphically above the Villafranchian mammal fauna, as indicators that the Pleistocene
Pleistocene boundary in the Vrica section, at the level of epoch began at levels now dated to 2.5 Ma. Likewise, evidence
Hyalinea baltica FAD and the base of the "large" Gephyrocapsahas been cited for distinct changes in continental mammal faunas
zone. A boundary-stratotype for the Sicilian has not been at that time in western Europe (Azzaroli et al., Chapter 11, this
designated, but Ruggieri et al. (1984) suggested the first volume), North America (Lindsay, Chapter 30, this volume),
appearance level of Globorotalia truncatulinoides excelsa FAD atand Africa (Cooke, Chapter 27, this volume). Although the next
XVI
xvii
Foreword
KSENIA V. NIKIFOROVA
Ksenia V. Nikiforova
Foreword
authors subsequently to reconsider them as substages or chronozones of a Selinuntian Stage (Ruggieri, Rio, and Sprovieri,
1984). Most recently there has been general agreement (Preface,
this volume) to restore the Calabrian as the lowest stage in the
Pleistocene, according to the historical argument that the
boundary-stratotype for this stage was automatically established
at the same lithologic point as the definition of the PliocenePleistocene boundary-stratotype.
Thus, the section at Vrica proposed by Selli and Pasini in 1975,
and thoroughly studied afterward, meets all the international
requirements for adequate definition of the boundary-stratotype.
If we understand the restored Calabrian to embody the original
Calabrian concept of Gignoux, then the Vrica proposal also meets
every condition set by the 1948 London IGC for definition of the
Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary.
It should be noted in conclusion that the most urgent task now
facing the INQUA Commission on Stratigraphy is standardization of Quaternary stratigraphical and geochronological units
and their terminology, as concerns both the name of the system
itself and its subdivisions. As the stratigraphic range of the
Quaternary does not exceed one normal biozone, that of
Globorotalia truncatulinoides, recognition of series, stages, and
chronozones within the Quaternary may not be justified. In the
Stratigraphic Code of the USSR (Zhamoida et al., 1977),
subdivisions even finer than zones are described, some of which
(division, link) have been included in the standard stratigraphic
scale and may be appropriate as Quaternary subunits. These
problems are not proper subjects for this volume, of course, but
are considerations that arise now that the work on IGCP Project
41 is completed.
References
Aguirre, E., and Pasini, G. 1985. The Pliocene-Pleistocene
boundary. Episodes 8:116-120.
Parti
Definition of the base of the Quaternary
lowland was organized to study the stratigraphy of the Quaternary. Also in 1979, M. N. Alekseev convened a meeting at
Sangiran, Java, to review cooperative work between the Geological Survey of Indonesia and Japanese scientists on a detailed
study and geological survey of the critical area in central Java,
emphasizing correlations between continental and marine PlioPleistocene deposits. That led to a more precise understanding of
the positions of stratigraphic boundaries in the portion of the
section intermediate between the Pliocene and the Quaternary.
Further physical research into the problem of the N/Q
boundary was carried out by the national working groups of
Hungary, India, Indonesia, the German Democratic Republic,
Spain, Italy, Greece, the USA, the USSR, and some other
countries. The Project 41 leaders maintained close contact with
the investigators of Project 32, "Stratigraphic Correlation
between Sedimentary Basins of the ESCAP Region," Project 25,
"Stratigraphic Correlation of the Tethys-Paratethys Neogene,"
and Project 114, "Biostratigraphic Datum-Planes of the Pacific
Neogene." Considerable micropaleontological research was conducted by the national working group of Italy to document the
Vrica section (Italy) as a key stratotype section for the N/Q
boundary. In addition, magnetostratigraphic studies by H.
Nakagawa revealed a normal-polarity interval in the predominantly reverse-polarized section that potentially can be considered to represent the Olduvai episode of the Matuyama
geomagnetic epoch near the N/Q boundary. Samples were
collected for further determination of the radiometric ages of the
ash interlayers. A meeting of the Spanish national working group
was held to discuss new research on selecting the local
parastratotype section. The coastal area from the Portuguese
frontier around to the Ebro delta was investigated, and studies of
new sites with mammalian fauna and detailed geomorphological
study in La Mancha indicated that the Campo de Calatrava
volcanic formations in western La Mancha could be used for
radiometric age determinations to help date the Spanish N/Q
sequence. It was recommended that magnetostratigraphic investigations be carried out in the southern Meseta and in the Baza
basin and in the territories of the Cadiz coast, Murcia-Alicante,
and the Ebro River.
During 1979, Project 41 engaged 19 regional working groups
to conduct broad investigations in the territory of the USSR. The
reports of those regional groups were discussed at a meeting of
the Soviet working group in March 1979. The Hungarian
working group drilled research boreholes in the Great Hungarian Plain, with the goal of interdisciplinary geological analysis.
They encountered Quaternary and Upper Pliocene sequences
that in some places were continuous and complete, without
stratigraphic lapses. The borehole samples were investigated
from many points of view, including magnetostratigraphy, and
the preliminary results were published.
Activities in 1980
A meeting of the Project 41 working group was held during the
26th session of the International Geological Congress in Paris,
jointly with INQUA Subcommission 1-d on the PliocenePleistocene boundary. Twenty-five delegates from various countries attended the meetings. The recent activities of the working
group were presented by the leader of the project, K. V.
Nikiforova. That was followed by a report on the previous two
years of work by the INQUA subcommission and the IUGS
working group on the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary, and a
report on the results of a mail consultation conducted by its
chairman, E. Aguirre. The current state of research on the
sections at Le Castella, Santa Maria di Catanzaro, and Vrica was
discussed by G. C. Pasini, and an introduction to the report on
Plio-Pleistocene datum levels in the deep sea was given by J. A.
Van Couvering. After discussions on the reports, the meeting
unanimously adopted the following principles:
1. The lower boundary of the Quaternary would have to
be established in accordance with the general principles
of stratigraphy (i.e., the decision must conform to the
guidelines recommended by the International Commission on Stratigraphic Classification) (Hedberg, 1976).
2. The recommendation of the IGC (London, 1948)
should be slightly modified to state that the boundary
must be designated as a stratigraphic plane (boundarystratotype) in a continuous sequence of open-marine
deposits.
3. The 1948 recommendation is understood to mean that
the base of the Quaternary (viz., the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary) should be defined by the base of the
Calabrian Stage in southern Italy. It was therefore
recommended that the Calabrian Stage should be
redefined (taking into account modern research, which
indicated that the Catanzaro section is not satisfactory
to express Gignoux's concept of the Calabrian Stage) to
make its base unambiguous.
4. Multiple criteria should be used in selecting a stratigraphic plane for the base of the Calabrian and thus the
N/Q boundary-stratotype; that is, all the available
evidence that could help wide-range correlations should
be taken into account. The positions corresponding to
the N/Q (Pliocene-Pleistocene) boundary in other
areas would have to be determined by working out local
stratigraphic scales and correlating them to the stratotype section. For compilation of the local scales, a
synthesis of biostratigraphic, climatologic, magnetostratigraphic, and radiometric techniques should be
used. Special attention would have to be paid to the
current difficulties of identifying the boundary, by
means of correlation, in different latitudes and in
continental sequences.
As a first criterion, it was proposed that the N/Q boundary
could be placed in the Vrica section at the FAD (first-appearance
datum) of the "cold guest" ostracode Cytheropteron testudo,
whatever its paleoclimatic significance might be. At the time of
that meeting it was thought that the first C. testudo could be
found in the Vrica section 10 m above sapropel e, but in later
10
11
Subsequent activities
12
Part II
Characterization of the Pleistocene boundary-stratotype
15
16
16*150
17'|oo'
17*|1Q'
CROTONE
VRICA
fCROPANI
MARINA
SECTION
LE CASTELLA
SECTION
Hi
]JA
COLUMNAR
SECTION
L I T HO LO GY
COMPONENT-SECTIONS
ace.to
this paper
450
ace to
Nakagawa
et al.1980
400
17
JA
03
CO
0
350
B
c
300
o
o
o
JB
03
250
LU
200
150
JC
56
S7
100
58
59
Sio
1
50
JD
m0
18
Figure 2.4. Aerial photograph of the Vrica outcrop area. For the locations of the component-sections A, B, and C, compare this photograph
with Figures 2.19 and 2.20. (I.G.M.I. photo no. 227/10145, 1955, reproduced with permission of the S.M.A. in publication no. 231, of April 7,
1970.)
down to the base: see Figure 2.3) are not well exposed, and the
section is synthesized by correlation between scattered outcrops
of claystones.
The Japanese geologists initially reconstructed a PlioPleistocene sequence in the Vrica area starting from a level 67
m below the La. (lower ash) horizon up to the top, for a total
thickness of about 450 m, in four component-sections D, C, B,
and A in ascending stratigraphic order (Nakagawa, 1977, 1981;
Nakagawa et al., 1980) (Figure 2.8). In Figures 2.2 and 2.3, and
throughout this chapter, the Japanese component-sections are
given here as JD, JC, JB, and JA, to distinguish them from the
Italian A, B, C, and D component-sections. The componentsections JB and JA were measured in the same gullies where
the Italian team measured the component-sections B and C
(Selli et al., 1977) and therefore relate to the same boundarystratotype section and point.
In recent years, the Vrica section has been extended downward and upward. At Monte Singa, Calabria, about 100 km
southwest of Vrica, a thick sequence of marine marls and clays
with sapropelic layers spans the middle and upper parts of the
19
75 cm
65 cm
35 cm
80 cm
55 cm
55 cm
100 cm
90 cm
115 cm
190 cm
155 cm
340 cm
115 cm
70 cm
Figure 2.6. Component-section B of the Vrica section (in the foreground). Marker beds c, d,
e, / , and h are indicated. On the right side, the uppermost part of component-section A and
the Costa Tiziana Hotel are visible.
21
COLUMNAR
SECTION
Abundance
Lithology
clayey siltstone
laminated
j---.- sand
siltstone
layer
of
Pollen
and
spore
tripoli
.....
tuff
u
Coiling ratio
L 100 V. left
R 100 V. r i g h t
5^
< 10
10 <
< 20
20 < ^
< 50
50 < A
Occurrence of
Foraminifera and
calcareous
nannoplankton
very rare
The Vrica section is very rich in fossils. Groups that have been
studied include calcareous nannoplankton, planktic and benthic
foraminifera, ostracoda, mollusks, fish, and pollen, as well as
diatoms (Palmer, Chapter 6, this volume). Besides these groups,
silicoflagellates, radiolarians, octocorals, brachiopods, pteropods, and echinoderms are present.
In this section we consider the biostratigraphy and the
biochronology of the studied groups, in particular the fossils
23
oceanica
s.L,
24
Legend
1 specimen
Rare
Scarce
Abundant /
COLUMNAR
SECTION
* i z i '
<
LU 300
Z
LU
o 250
I
(D
LU
a.
200
LU
150
z
LU
O
100
I
50
CL
mO
Event 3: 1.67 Ma. Extinction of Calcidiscus macintyrei. This Figure 2.9. Ranges of selected nannofossil species in the Vrica section,
event is recorded in the Vrica section at stage boundary 59/58. In according to I. Raffi and D. Rio (in Pasini and Colalongo, 1982).
DSDP site 607 it occurs at stage boundary 58/57, dated to 1.640
Ma; in ODP site 677 it is recorded in the top part of stage 55,
dated to 1.597 Ma (Raffi et al., 1993). The estimate for the
extinction of C. macintyrei in ODP Leg 138 sites is 1.58 Ma
(Shackleton et al., 1995a). In ODP site 806 this event is dated to
1.627 0.025 Ma (Berger et al., 1994).
No. of
0 BROUWERI mm2
as
10
1.5
25
No Of
0. BP0UWER1 m m 2
a BROUWERI
No of
NO. OF PREH. SELLU
WR TRIRADIATUS CMAQNTYREI mm2 PLIOCENE
(A/.50I
OSCQASTERS
5mm 2
0 20 40%
10 15
0 20 40% 0
No Of
C MAONTYREl mm
20
J 0
40
H SELLU
300 f 1
Myr
145 Myr
200.=
0. BROUWERI
VAR TRIPADI AT
^ . 1 4 5 Myr
liool
1
Figure 2.10. Quantitative nannofossil stratigraphy for the Vrica section
and piston core V28-239 (western equatorial Pacific). On the left are data
from the Vrica section, starting with the lithologic section of Selli et al.
(1977) and the magnetostratigraphy of Tauxe et al. (1983). The abundances
of Discoaster brouweri, D. brouweri var. triradiatus relative to all forms of
D. brouweri, and Calcidiscus macintyrei each show a clear upper limit. PrePliocene discoasters maintain a uniform reworked abundance throughout
the section, and the proportion of Helicosphaera sellii relative to all
helicosphaerids also does not show any drop in abundance in the upper
part of the section. On the right side, the sequence in piston core V28-239 is
from Backman and Shackleton (1983), with magnetostratigraphy from
Shackleton and Opdyke (1976). (From Backman et al., 1983, with permission of the editors of Nature.)
20
after the reversal, within the basal Olduvai. Both the disappearance event and the reversal boundary are assigned age estimates,
however, of 1.95 Ma [according to] Shackleton et al. (1990)." In
ODP site 677 the extinction levels for D. brouweri and D.
triradiatus are not clear, but the estimate for the extinction of D.
brouweri in ODP Leg 138 sites is 1.96 Ma (Shackleton et al.,
1995a).
According to Nakagawa (1981), Raffi and Rio (in Pasini and
Colalongo, 1982), Backman et al. (1983), and Rio et al. (Chapter
5, this volume), Helicosphaera sellii is present throughout the
Event 1:1.95 Ma. Extinction of Discoaster brouweri. This event Vrica section (Figures 2.8-2.11), and therefore the top of this
is recorded in stage 72 in the Vrica section (Lourens et al., 1994) section is older than the regional extinction of this species.
(Figure 2.4), practically in coincidence with the lower boundary According to Lourens et al. (1994), the H. sellii LO occurs in the
of the Olduvai normal-polarity subzone, as defined by Zijder- Crotone section about 35 m above marker bed t, at the isotope
veld et al. (1991). In DSDP site 607 it occurs at stage boundary stage 38/37 boundary.
72/71, dated to 1.950 Ma, simultaneously with the extinction of
Discoaster brouweri and D. triradiatus. Raffi et al. (1993, pp.
Planktic foraminifera
399-400) affirm in this regard that "the results from core V28239 [western equatorial Pacific] and those from DSDP site 606 The planktic foraminifera assemblages of the Vrica section are
[subtropical North Atlantic] (Backman and Pestiaux, 1987) . . . very diverse and abundant, in genera as well as species, and are
seem compatible with those from site 607, which indicate that generally very well preserved. Figure 2.12 shows the stratiboth D. brouweri and D. triradiatus have their last occurrence graphic distributions of selected planktic foraminifera in the
virtually at the Olduvai . . . [lower] boundary, although this Vrica section, based on studies by Colalongo and Sartoni (in Selli
disappearance event probably occurred a few thousand years et al., 1977), Colalongo et al. (1980, 1981, 1982), Pasini and
Event 2: 1.71 Ma. First appearance of Gephyrocapsa oceanica
s.l., sensu Rio (1982) (i.e., medium-sized Gephyrocapsa between
4.0 and 5.5 ^m). This event in the Vrica section is documented
immediately below marker bed g, just above the Olduvai
subzone (Figures 2.9 and 2.18), and occurs within stage 60 both
here and in DSDP site 607, where it is dated to 1.700 Ma (Raffi
et al., 1993). In ODP Leg 138 sites the estimate for the time of
this event is 1.69 Ma (Shackleton et al., 1995a), and in ODP site
806 it is 1.664 0.025 Ma (Berger et al., 1994).
O
3Z
"
s
q
J_H.BALTICA
DISCOASTER
BROUWERI
TRIRADIATUS
D.BROUWERI
VAR,
50/<
BACKMAN ET A L .
10%
CALCIDISCUS
SELLII
HELICOSPHAERA
<
-J
<
PQ
cc
ce
cj
CO
cc
\-
MACINTYREI
y
S /
GEPHYROCAPSA
<
Ln
CD
GROUP
CJ
<
CD
CO'
/
/
CD
CJ
CD
<
CO
IN
/z.
CO
<
<
S5
11 I
_J
1 ^
//
//
//
/.
//
OCEANIC
SAMPLE
POSITIONS
_]
CQ
ce:
CO
CJ
<
<
<
<
OC CQ
<
<
__
TI AND EORSET
en
APERTA
en
7-r
^ ^ ^ ^ - ^ ^ ^
77
CARIBBE
ERICSON
MARGERE
oc
CD
J _ C . TESTUDO
h
'g
e
d
c
j
CKMAN ET
CD
300-
250-
200-
150-
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
FFI AND
""'
cc:
<c
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cc:
CD
=
1
CKMAN ET AL.
TI AND B
en
<
u_
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oo
CD
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100-J
J _ G . INFLATA
KAGAWA E
ce:
ce:
CD
CD
CD
CD
*->
OO
=1
=c
__
50-
TI AND BORSET
<
CARIBBE
OCEANIC
cS
CD
z
CD
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CJ
UJ
CM
ce:
CQ
cc:
CD
CQ
C_J
CD
cc:
UJ
oo
c_>
oo
ca
FFI
CKMAN ET
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
<->
g
oo
UJ
ca
AND RIO
FFI
en
en
oo
o
<c
., .1
<c
1
s:
UJ
CD
UJ
ca
oo
cc:
CM
oo
0 ^
KAGAWA E
TI AND B
AND
RIO
D
ROUW
oo
11 1
CD
oo
OO
oo
ca
CD"
OO
PSEU 30EMILIA
ELLII
GARTNE
SELLI
HELICOPO
MACINTYRE
(ADA AND
GEPHYR OCAPSA
)IDES CN
ca
UJ
YREI
THU
BROU
MARTIN
BROU
KAGAWA E T AL.
CKMAN ET AL.
K C.
03
Is
ii
Cfl / - ^
8 i
5l
as
2 5
*-
en x:
JO
3D
''v.v.'
DER
1
i
UJ
e
d
150 c
UJ
<
ENELL
a.
c
GLOBOROTALIA Y
:ALID/
C A L ABRA
GLOBIGERII
cr
CD
a
O
IGER INA
5
z
NEO
o
o
a.
CD
O
BIGE RIN
<
OBI
DES
DES
CO
DES
IGER INA
CD
ION
ION
oo:
<
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CD
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cr
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ION I
lldO\
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in
9(1
8
o
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IDA
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UJ
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<
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IA
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CL
<
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50
<
GLOBIGERIf
-7
ID
CL
z
cr
a
"ZL
LU
GITAL
NE0GL0B0CiUADR INA
right - coiling (
1 3 1
CL 200
Tj
GLOBlGERIf
CL
o
c
GLOBIGERII
in
3
LICA
til.)
h-
3
a
30DVII
o 250
in
UJ
GLOBIGERINOIDES
iL)
r
q
CALI
DIGIT ATA
UJ
RTREI
PULLENIAT INA s
i/
TLA NTIS
300
FORAMINIFERA
PAC HYDI
UJ
PLANKTIC
GLOBIGERII
AGE
COLUMNAR
SECTION
27
mO
Figure 2.12. Distribution of selected planktic foraminifera in the Vrica section. Data are from M.-L. Colalongo (in Selli et al., 1977) and Colalongo
et al. (1981).
28
Benthic foraminifera
The benthic foraminifera assemblages of the Vrica section are
also abundant and diverse and are generally very well preserved
(D'Onofrio, 1981). The stratigraphic distributions of selected
benthic foraminifera in the Vrica section, according to D'Onofrio, are shown in Figure 2.13. Nakagawa (1981) and Nakagawa
et al. (1980) reported only the range of Hyalinea baltica among
the benthics in the Vrica section (Figure 2.8).
According to Colalongo et al. (1984), among the benthic
CO LUMNAR
SECTION
300
BENTHIC
F O R A M I N I F E R A
t
s
q
250
200
150
= |S
100
II"
29
30
COLUMNAR
SECTION
II'
i
iiiii
a: a.
l! 1 B
j
CM!
lm
J00"
. .
Figure 2.14. Distribution of presumed autochthonous ostracodes in the Vrica section. (Adapted from Colalongo and Pasini, 1980a, courtesy of
Giornale di Geologia.)
31
COLUMNAR
SECTION
3J2I2
, t o ; t n | tfl j
2501
mo
CO CO
;
^
200}
m
o i* GO O)
750
100*
50
i
mO*
Figure 2.15. Distribution, in the Vrica section, of the ostracodes displaced from shallow-water marine sediments considered to have been
ance of the boreal clam Arctica islandica in Italian shallowmarine sediments (Ruggieri, 1977b; Pelosio, Raff], and Rio,
1980; Colalongo et al., 1981). The appearance of this famous
"northern guest" in the Mediterranean has long been one of the
Ostracode events above marker bed e. The first appearance of main criteria for the beginning of the Pleistocene, and the C.
Cytheropteron testudo, considered as a "northern guest" by testudo FA has therefore also been considered as a marker for
Ruggieri (1977a, 1980), is about 9 m above the top of marker bed the base of the Pleistocene (Colalongo and Sartoni, 1977; Pelosio
e. Until the end of 1982 the C. testudo FA in Italian bathyal et al., 1980; Colalongo and Pasini, 1980a; Colalongo et al., 1981,
sediments was considered approximately coeval with the appear- 1982; Pasini and Colalongo, 1982). According to more recent
32
COLUMNAR
SECTION
Fish
33
11ST OF SPECIES
Engraulis cncrasicholus
macrocepbalus
Engraulis sp.
Cyclothone braueri
Cyclothone pygmaca
Cyclothone spp.
Maurolicus muelleri
Vinciguerria poweriae
Vinciguerria attenuata
Ichthyococcus ovatus
Argyropelecus hemigymnus
Chauliodus sloanei
Electrona rissoi
Hygophum hygomi
Hygophum benoiti
Lobiancbia dofleini
Lampanyctus crocodilus
Lampanyctus pusillus
Ceratoscopelus madercnsis
Diapbus rafinesquei
Diaphus holti
Benthosema glaciate
Belone belone
55
13 8
10 11
23 10
16 6
3
6
2
13
2
34 16
32 6
39 14
11 12
3
3
9
3
1
5
3
6
3
18 5
15 6
42 17
41 6
1
1
1
11
2
1
1
5
1
1
2
2
1
8
3
1
1
2
1
1
16
1
38 10
1 7
3 2
2 1
3
1
1
1
1
1
Micromesistius poutassou
Gadiculus argenteus argenteus
Microichthys coccoi
Stephanolepis sp.
Tavania crotonensis
Total
sum
63
1
108
108
173
100
3
1
1
17
2
9
3
5
69
13*
14
9
3
1
1
2
1
3
1
I
44-
44-
444-
44444-
4
4
4444-
4444
+
44444-
44-f44-f
44444444
4444-
4-
4-
+
+
Atl.
SE
4-
4-
4-
4-
+
44444-
+ 44-
444-
4-
4,
4-
4
_
>
4-
4-
4- +
.
4-
4-
Symbols: (+) species of wide geographic distribution; (-) species of restricted geographic distribution; (?) uncertain
presence.
Source: Adapted from Landini and Menesini (1978a,b), courtesy of Societa di Paleontologia Italiana.
2.17). Among these, Pinus (as P. diploxylon and P. haploxylon) beds / and h should correspond to renewed cooling. The pollen
predominates, in comparison with other genera of mountain diagram between marker bed h and the top of the section
conifers (e.g., Picea, Cedrusy Tsuga, Podocarpus). Mediocrats indicates a cool climate, with minor fluctuations.
are represented mainly by Caryay Pterocarya, Corylus, Quercus, According to Nakagawa et al. (1980; Chapter 3, this volume),
Ulmus, Zelkova, Carpinus, Tilia, Castanea, Liriodendron, and the pollen show abundant conifers, especially Pinus, throughout
Liquidambar. Taxodiaceae (Taxodium type) are present only in the section (Figure 2.8). Pollen of broadleaf genera range from
some intervals and in small percentages; they probably corre- 10% to 30%. Those authors comment that the "paleoclimate is
spond to coastal forests. Herbaceous taxa are neither frequent considered to be moderate to cool temperate, and a gradual
nor significant. According to the aforementioned authors and to cooling is suggested by the upward increase of Abies, Picea and
C. A. Accorsi (personal communication), the pollen diagram Tsuga, and decrease of Podocarpus, Taxodiaceae, Carpinus,
indicates a cool climate for the time interval represented by the Juglans, Pterocarya and Ericaceae." In particular, according to
sediments between the base of the section and marker bed a. those authors, it is possible to recognize unstable forest around
Between marker bed a and marker bed /, mediocrat pollen marker bed m and the beginning of a slight climatic deterioration
species are in general much more abundant, and terminocrats above that level.
scarcer, suggesting a milder climate. The sharp increase in
Combourieu-Nebout, Semah, and Djubiantono (1990) carried
terminocrats and the decrease in mediocrats between marker out detailed pollen analyses of 60 samples from the Vrica
34
- r
q
I
S
p
c
E
Figure 2.17. Synthesis of pollen spectra from the Vrica section, with lithology to left and
pollen diagrams to right: Gr.
1, Taxodiaceae, Engelhardtia,
Palmae, etc.; Gr. 2, Cathaia;
Gr. 3, QuercuSy Carya, UlmusZelkova, Carpinus, etc; Gr. 4,
Pinus and indeterminable
Abietaceae; Gr. 5, Tsuga; Gr.
6, Cedrus; Gr. 7, Abies and
Picea; Gr. 8, taxa not classified; Gr. 9, Mediterranean
xerophytes (Olea, Phillyrea,
Pistacia, etc.); Gr. 10, openvegetation herbaceous plants;
Gr. 11, Artemisia and
Ephedra. (From CombourieuNebout et a!., 1990, with permission of Academie des Sciences de Paris.)
* V * W
h
f
N
E
ml TTi
30-03=31
--
r-1 r~r
1 1
PTffT]
i'
* 1
C
E
N
J|
->
^ ^
10 K^
"-"
, J-
1 10 m
CHDma,
^-i samid
taminites
! * * ! volcanic ash
WF1 Gr.l
B Gr.7
r^
O
Gr.2 ^
Gr.3
Gr.8 flUD Gr.9
Gr.6
point in that detailed research is that the major floristic shift that
those authors identified as the transition from the "Tiglian interglacial phase" to the "Eburonian glacial phase" corresponds to
the Pleistocene boundary-stratotype at the top of marker bed e.
K/Ar and fission-track dating
35
Magnetostratigraphy
MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY
VRICA
F0RAM.
F0RAMINIFE RA
NANNOPLANKTON
SECTION
BENTHIC
P L A N KT1 C
CALCAREOUS
300
cr
a
LU
TATUM
ETNE A
D
CD
TF
1 1 1
PSE
_L
no
Undefined
m0
OBLIOL US
RRIS
E X T f'EMU
ACOST
D
ERINO IDES
HEL CO SPHAE
SCUS
5T E^R
>TER
CALC
DISC
VO
o 9
DISC
50
CL
SELLII
BRO U W E R I
o S
o o
z o
SON*
ar. T R I R A CJ I A T U
p
I
<
<
H>
I*j
1
I=>
_J
JELL
100
X
// \\
LU
<
Reversed
SUBCHRONS
P L I C)RECE
150
REV
Normal
o
o
o
o
LU
SHORT NORMAL
EVENT BETWEEN
THE OLDUVAI
AND THE JARA -
CYTHER
POLARITY
TENELL
AR A C O E N
DA
ALIC
OBIGERINA
\i
h>
9-
g
<
z
I
12
<
z
or
.OBIGERINA
200
z
&
Intermediate
z
-J
JTER
BBEAN
ANICA
a.
*-
RTlCULlNA
LU
OBIGERINA
layer
Si It y marly
claystone
o
n
TATA
hCO
D
<
-OBIGERINA
250
7 1 Sapropel clay
E P H Y R OCA
L>
Sapropehc
layers
OAMUS SlUK
<
ALA
Sandy layer
LU
pr
RON
Accordig to
Accordig to
Nakagawa
ZijdervekJ et al 1991
( 1983 pers. com.)
and to Nagakava
et al. (in this vol.)
ADIAT
LITHOLOGY
(0
Figure 2.18. Distribution, in the Vrica section, of the most significant planktic and benthic
organisms from the biostratigraphic and biochronologic points of view. To the right, magnetostratigraphy of the Vrica section according to Tauxe et al. (1983), and according to H.
Nakagawa (personal communication, 1983) and Nakagawa et al. (Chapter 3, this volume).
Regarding the latter paleomagnetic log, we have considered only the information from
component-sections JA and JB (Figure 2.3).
The Vrica section was first described in the guidebook for the
symposium on the Neogene/Quaternary boundary in Bologna
and Crotone in October 1975 (Pasini et al., 1975). The members
of the IGCP Project 41 working group, after visiting the main
Plio-Pleistocene sections of Calabria, recognized that "there are
some difficulties in the interpretation of the Santa Maria di
Catanzaro and Le Castella sections as [Pleistocene] boundary
stratotype [sections]" and that the Vrica section represented a
potential Pleistocene boundary-stratotype section (Selli and
Cati, 1977, pp. 29-30).
The results of further research on the Vrica section were
presented in 1977 by one of us (G.P.) with C. Savelli and R. Selli
(in Selli et al., 1977) and by H. Nakagawa at the joint meeting of
INQUA Subcommission 1-a and the IGCP Project 41 working
group during the X INQUA Congress in Birmingham. At the
close of that joint meeting, a resolution was passed, emphasizing
that "the participants of the Meeting support the suggestion to
37
38
famous among the earliest "northern guests," into the Mediterranean has historically been the main criterion for recognizing the
beginning of the Pleistocene in Italy. Thus, the designation of the
base of the claystone overlying layer e as the Pleistocene
boundary-stratotype places the boundary very close to its
traditional statigraphic position, thereby avoiding serious upset
of the geological literature and maps, in accordance with the
recommendations of the International Stratigraphic Guide (Hedberg, 1976; Salvador, 1994). Furthermore, the paleomagnetic
reversal at the top of the Olduvai subzone, very close to bed e, is
clearly associated with evidence of major climatic deterioration
in various stratigraphic sections from around the world (as
exemplified by reports in this volume).
39
Point 3. Marker bed e and its contact with the overlying claystone
are very well exposed in the Vrica section and in the surrounding
area, and abundant fossils are present to facilitate correlation,
again in accordance with the recommendations of the International Stratigrahic Guide (Hedberg, 1976; Salvador, 1994).
Approval of the final proposal by the ICS and the
IUGS
40
Kent (1995). All of these ages are the same, at 1.8 Ma, when
rounded up to one decimal place.
Appendix: accessibility of the Vrica section
km 0
0.5
41
42
43
Cati, R, and Borsetti, A. M. 1981. Calcareous nannoplankton Colalongo, M. L., Pasini, G., and Sartoni, S. 1981. Remarks on
biostratigraphy of the Vrica Section (Calabria, Southern
the Neogene/Quaternary boundary and the Vrica section
Italy). Giorn. Geol. 43:365-384.
(Calabria, Italy). Soc. Paleontol. ItaL, Boll. 20:99-120.
Channel, J. E. T., Rio, D., Sprovieri, R., and Glacon, G. 1990. Colalongo, M. L., and Sartoni, S. 1977. Globigerina calabra
Biomagnetostratigraphic correlations from Leg 107 in the
nuova specie presso il limite Plio-Pleistocene della
Tyrrhenian Sea. In Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling
Sezione Vrica (Calabria). Giorn. Geol. 42:205-220.
Program: Scientific Results, vol. 107, ed. K. A. Kastens et Colalongo, M. L., and Sartoni, S. 1979. Schema biostratigrafico
al., pp. 670-682. College Station, TX: Ocean Drilling
per il Pliocene e il Basso Pleistocene in Italia. Contr. Prel.
Program.
Realiz. Carta Neotett. ItaL 251:645-654.
Ciampo, G. 1976. Ostracodi pleistocenici di Cala Bianca Combourieu-Nebout, N., Semah, R, and Djubiantono, T. 1990.
(Marina di Camerota - Salerno). Soc. Paleontol. ItaL,
La limite Pliocene-Pleistocene: precisions magnetostratiBoll 15:3-23.
graphiques et climatiques par 1'etude serie de la coupeColalongo, M. L. 1965. Gli ostracodi della serie de Le Castella.
type de Vrica (Crotone, Italie). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, ser.
Giorn. Geol. 33:83-123.
2 311:851-857.
Colalongo, M. L. 1968. Cenozone a foraminiferi e ostracodi nel Dalrymple, G. B., and Lanphere, M. A. 1969. Potassium/argon
Pliocene e basso Pleistocene della serie del Santerno e
dating. Principles, techniques and applications to geochrodeirAppennino romagnolo. Giorn. Geol. 35:29-61.
nology. San Francisco: Freeman.
Colalongo, M. L. 1977. The Vrica section (Calabria, Italy): II. Di Geronimo, I. 1969. La sezione stratigrafica Plio-Pleistocenica
Planktonic foraminifera as indicators of the Neogenedi Monte Navone (Piazza Armerina, Enna). Soc. Gioenia
Quaternary boundary. In X INQUA Congress, BirmingSci. Nat., Atti 6:81-146.
ham, Abstracts, p. 29.
Di Napoli, E. 1954. La limite Plio-Pleistocene dans la coupe de
Colalongo, M. L., Cremonini, G., and Sartoni, S. 1978. La
Castell'Arquato (Plaisance). In Congres Geologique Intersezione stratigrafica di Rio Vendina (Messinianonational, Comptes Rendus de XIX session, Alger 1952, vol.
Pleistocene, Reggio Emilia). Soc. ItaL Set Nat. Museo
15, pp. 229-234.
Civ. Stor. Nat. Milano, Atti 119:61-76.
Di Stefano, E., and Rio, D. 1981. Biostratigrafia a nannofossili e
Colalongo, M. L., Nanni, T., and Ricci Lucchi, R 1979.
biocronologia del Siciliano nella localita tipo di Ficarazzi
Sedimentazione ciclica nel Pleistocene anconetano. Geol.
(Palermo, Sicilia). Ateneo Parmense, Acta Nat. 17:97-111.
Romana 18:71-92.
Dondi, L., and Papetti, I. 1968. Biostratigraphical zones of Po
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45
Introduction
47
F. Neto
S. Leonardo
(Costa Tiziana]
(Casa Rossa)
C.DoMto
Capo Colonna
Semaforo
Parasinaci
Capo Rizzuto
10 km
Figure 3.1. Index map of
Calabria.
samples. After initial magnetic examination, we applied thermal gradual cooling, which coincides with the cooling of sea water
demagnetization at 200C and alternating field demagnetization indicated by the coiling change in N. pachyderma.
at 15 mT to all samples. Intensity and direction of the remanent
Colalongo et al. (1981, 1982) and Pasini and Colalongo (1982)
magnetization were measured with a ring-core magnetometer. reported the appearance of the "cold guest" Cytheropteron
The polarity sequence is based on the six most reliable testudo between the sapropelic layers e and/(8 m above e and 12
measurements at each sampled horizon. Stable reversed polarity m below/, near sample localities 10-12). Pasini and Colalongo
is dominant in the section, but a normal-polarity zone with a (Chapter 2, this volume) noted that although this event is no
short reversed intercalation occurs in the middle part. Intermedi- longer considered as a reliable index to the moment at which a
ate polarity values are found in a horizon in the lower part of the glacial climate first affected the Mediterranean, there are further
section and in a thicker zone in the upper part. The normal- reasons to correlate this approximate level at Vrica to the
polarity zone is correlated with the Olduvai normal-polarity initiation of Pleistocene conditions in temperate latitudes.
subchron by the fossil evidence described later; additional Therefore, the recommendations of INQUA Subcommission 1-d
normal polarities, observed in a thin zone just above this by and the IGCP-41 working group that designated the PlioceneZijderveld et al. (1991), are probably also part of the Olduvai as Pleistocene boundary at the top of the marker layer e at Vrica
observed in more condensed marine sections.
(Nikiforova and Alekseev, Chapter 1, this volume; Pasini and
Figure 3.5 shows the stratigraphic distribution of selected Colalongo, Chapter 2, this volume) remain valid.
planktonic microfossils, pollen, and spore grains in the same
section. The index horizons for regional correlation are (1) the
Boso Peninsula
lowest horizon of Gephyrocapsa aperta, (2) the lowest horizon of
Gephyrocapsa caribbeanica, (3) the highest horizon of Globigeri- The Boso Peninsula is situated to the southeast of Tokyo
noides obliquus, (4) the highest horizon of Cyclococcolithus [= (Figure 3.6). A fossiliferous marine Plio-Pleistocene section is
Calcidiscus] macintyrei, (5) the horizon of D-S (dextral-to- well exposed in the river valleys cut into the uplands and on
sinistral) coiling change in Neogloboquadrina pachyderma, and the sea-cliffs in the central to northern part of the peninsula.
(6) the highest horizon of Helicosphaera sellii.
The sediments are mostly sandstone and siltstone, interbedded
No remarkable changes are recognized in pollen flora, but with many layers of volcanic ash, which are valuable correlaincreases in Abies, Picea, and Tsuga and simultaneous decreases tion markers (Figure 3.7) (Itihara et al., Chapter 24, this
in Podocarpus and Taxodiaceae in the upper part indicate volume).
Nakagawa et al.
48
COSTA TIZIANAV
* Reported by
Pasini and
Colalongo,
1982
TOO-l
'
4t\<
Talus cone
Road and bridge
Trails
Earth dam, water tanks
and manhole
Figure 3.2. Geologic route map and columnar section for the Vrica
area. The marker horizons a-u are indicated by capital letters A-U for
49
50
Nakagawa et al.
100
200
300
400 m
Sample
jjL
001
.01
.1T 1 10
I
I
I
m
400 - i
300-
200-
Intensity
(A/m)
06
05
04
03
02
01
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
X 1O"
Declination
Inclination
Pole Position
N
0
Ei
W*
I I
II
II
S D
180 90
I I
90 90
I T
90
i r
I r
I-
19
29^
30
47
46
45
31
100-
32
33
34
35
36
26
25
24
23
0-1
i
L_
51
r-750'
-/00
---SiiV^-^----
21
- 50
0
Li t h o l o g y
clayey siltstone
laminated siltstone
^ c 5 *
v - j sandy layer
^
-2 S a
III,
sapropelic layer
-9 z
I 1 3
^ -j ui o o O Z i
I T
T" f 1 * f
lu
"
Coiling
L
ratio
100*/.
100 V.
left
right
Occurrence
:.
of
Foraminifera
iil
: i
and
calcareous
nannoplankton
very rare
Abundance
(i
of
;..
pollen
and
spore
0 <
| < 1
7.
1< < 5
5 < < io
10 < #
< 20
20 < 0
< 50
50 <
I;
11
Figure 3.5. Magnetostratigraphy and biostratigraphy of the Vrica
section.
4 4
4 *
Polarity
normal
Nakagawa et al.
52
Miura
10
20
JO
40^m
The Vrica and Boso sections have yielded only a few planktonic
microfossil species in common, but the sequence of index horizons
noted earlier has been correlated to magnetostratigraphic and
biostratigraphic sequences in many deep-sea sediment cores.
Referring to the evidence in deep-sea sections, we can correlate
the microfossil and geomagnetic horizons between Calabria and
the Boso Peninsula as indicated in Figure 3.8. In this interpretation the normal-polarity zone in the lower part of the Kiwada
Formation of the Boso Peninsula is correlated with the Olduvai
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
Terr, f. %
Shimosa G.
Kasamori
MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
BENTHIC FORAMINIFERAL
ZONE
PLANKTONIC MICROFOSSIL
Relative
water
temperature
MAGNETO-
Nonionella stell a
COOL\
_\ W/
WARM - Crybroelphidium alavatum
Cassidulina subglobosa
Conan
.
Kakinokidai^ Coiling
direction
Kokumoto
Cassidulina
Uvigerina
Umegase
Bulimina
subaavinata
akitaensis
aauleata
Bulirrina-Bolivina
Bolivina
(U)
a piss a
Otadai
Bulirr,ina-Bo livina
(L)
Kiwada
Bulimina
stviata
E
p.
p,
en
Gyvoidina
Ohara
CO
Katsuura
CO
cf. orbiculari
Ptero
Namihana
lyroidina-MeIonic
Lithology
Geomagnetic polarity
r-1000
Kiyosumi
Amatsu
- 500
si ltstone
normal
sandy siltstone
reversed
sandstone
indefinite
conglomerate
alternation of sandstone and siltstone
intraformational deformation
marker tuff
%. terrestrial deposits
Figure 3.7. Magnetostratigraphy and biostratigraphy of the Plio-Pleistocene of the Boso Peninsula.
Nakagawa et al.
54
Detrital
remanent
magnetization
Composite section of
Sediment
grains
?deposited
suspending
fixed
preserved
Hyalinea balthica
Cytheroptern testudo
Gephyrocapsa oceanica
Gephyrocapsa caribbeanica
Eucryrtidium matuyamai
Globorotalia truncatulinoides
Gephyrocapsa aperta
Globorotalia tosaensis
Emt
Hst
CmT
GoT
DbT
LAD
LAD
LAD
LAD
LAD
Eucrytidium matuyamai
Helicosphaera sellii
Cyclococcolithus macintyrei
Globigerina obliqua
Discoaster brouweri
HbB
CtB
GocB
GcB
EmB
GtrB
GaB
GtoB
FAD
FAD
FAD
FAD
FAD
FAD
FAD
FAD
NpRL
NLR
ApB
EmB
GaB
GcB
GIB
GocB
GtoB
GtrB
MeB
NaB
NkB
PIB
SdB
FAD
FAD
FAD
FAD
FAD
FAD
FAD
FAD
FAD
FAD
FAD
FAD
FAD
Asterorotalia pulchella
Eucyrtidium matuyamai
Gephyrocapsa aperta
Gephyrocapsa caribbeanica
Globorotalia inflata
Gephyrocapsa oceanica
Globorotalia tosaensis
Globorotalia truncatulinoides
Mesocena elliptica
Neogloboquadrina asanoi
Neogloboquadrina kagaensis
Pseudoemiliana lacunosa
Sphaeroidinella dehiscens
CmT
DbT
DkT
DpT
EmT
GfT
GoT
GtoT
HsT
MeT
NaT
NkT
RpT
SdT
LAD
LAD
LAD
LAD
LAD
LAD
LAD
LAD
LAD
LAD
LAD
LAD
LAD
LAD
Cyclococcolithus macintyrei
Discoaster brouweri
Denticulopsis kamtschatica
Discoaster pentaradiatus
Eucyrtidium matuyamai
Globigerinoides fistulosus
Globigerinoides obliquus
Globorotalia tosaensis
Helicosphaera sellii
Mesocena elliptica
Neogloboquadrina asanoi
Neogloboquadrina kagaensis
Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilicata
Sphaeroidinella dehiscens
ST
LAD
Sphaeroidinellopsis
TcT
spp.
NpRL
PLR
PRL
KA
OH
Katsuura
Ohara
KU
OU
Kurotaki
Oura
NA
Namihana
55
' UKinawa ^
f Ryukyu
Islands
Nakagawa et al.
56
Sapropels - highly organic, oxygen-reduced layers - in deepwater strata are similar in origin to organic-rich laminite units in
upper-slope sediments and are clear manifestations of major
changes in the climatic-oceanographic regime of the Mediterranean region. The periodic deposition of organic-rich facies at
Vrica may have been related to the intensification of climatic
oscillations in the late Pliocene, as seen in the deep-sea record.
In this chapter, we review the conditions of sapropelic deposition
and the relationship between the upper-slope and deep-sea
events in the Ionian Basin during the later Pliocene and early
Pleistocene.
Laminated sedimentary units are common features in marine
sequences from Miocene to Pleistocene age in the marginal
circum-Mediterranean region. For example, laminated sediments have been described from Algeria (Anderson, 1933),
Spain (Geel, 1978), Sicily (Ogniben, 1957; Brolsma, 1978;
Meulenkamp et al., 1978; McKenzie, Jenkyns, and Bennet,
1979; Gersonde, 1980), southern Italy (Martina et al., 1979),
northern Italy (Sturani and Sampo, 1973), Morocco (Bizon,
Muller, and Vergnaud-Grazzini, 1979), Cyprus (Bizon et al.,
1979), and the Ionian Islands of Greece (Heimann, Just, and
Muller, 1979; Thomas, 1980; Spaak, 1983). Many, but not all, of
these laminated layers are rich in biogenic silica because of high
abundances of diatoms. These diatomaceous laminites are often
collectively referred to as "tripoli."
A number of different mechanisms have been proposed to
explain the formation of Neogene laminites in marginal settings.
The diatom-rich laminites of Morocco (Bizon et al., 1979) and
Sicily (McKenzie et al., 1979; Gersonde, 1980; Van der Zwaan,
1982) have been attributed to increased productivity brought on
by increased upwelling of nutrient-rich waters. Likewise, Van
der Zwaan (1979) also concluded that increased productivity was
responsible for the late Miocene diatomites in the Falconara
section of Sicily. However, he attributed the increased productivity to an increase in the runoff of nutrient-rich continental water.
In addition, it has generally been assumed that these laminated
units were deposited in oxygen-deficient or anoxic bottom waters
(Van der Zwaan, 1982, 1983; Spaak, 1983).
58
VRICA
LITHOLOGIC
LOG
300
250
200
CO
cc
LLJ
hLU
PLIOCENE/PLEISTOCENE
BOUNDARY
150
Q.
UJ
Q
100
[|
50
Fine Sand
|y v| Volcanic Ash
pB^
Laminated Layers
Figure 4.1. Stratigraphic column for the Vrica section, showing the positions of various lithologic marker beds and the position of the PliocenePleistocene boundary (top of laminated layer e).
59
60
ORGANIC C (%)
200
199 -
200h
195 -
190 -
20
i
10 12 14 16 18
20
z\
193 s.
191 -
LU
12 14 16 18
i
192 -
185 -
10
- 6
5
4
3
2
199.
g
t
iiiiiiiiiii
CARBONATE(%)
190 -
180 -
175 0.0
171 -
170 -
165 d
1.0
9
R
6
5
- 4
- 2
^1
iiPilllt
Figure 4.3. Vrica laminates. Results of analyses of organic-carbon
and carbonate contents across laminated layers e, / , and h at Vrica.
160-
LAMINATED LAYERS
15
SAPROPELIC MARL
MARL
o
o
10
CO
DC
.o.o
0 - Laminated
- Nonlaminated
02
0.4
0.6
OB
1.0
Organic C (wt %)
Figure 4.4. Relationship between organic-carbon content and C/N ratio
in laminated and nonlaminated sediments from Vrica. The distinction
between marls and sapropelic marls is based on the definition that
sapropelic marls contain between 0.5% and 2.0% organic carbon (Kidd
et al., 1978).
61
62
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13:283-290.
Landini, W., Menesini, E., Mezzetti, R., Pasini, G.,
Savelli, C , and Tampieri, R. 1977. The Vrica section Thunell, R. C , Williams, D. R, and Kennett, J. P. 1977. Late
(Calabria, Italy), a potential Neogene/Quaternary boundQuaternary paleoclimatology, stratigraphy and sapropel
ary stratotype. Giorn. Geol. 41:181-204.
history in eastern Mediterranean deep-sea sediments.
Shackleton, N. J., Backman, J., Zimmerman, H., Kent, D. V,
Mar. Micropal 2:371-388.
Hall, M. V, Roberts, D. G., Schnitker, D., Baldauf, J. Trask, P. D. 1953. Chemical studies of the sediment of the
G., Desprairies, A., Homrighanson, R., Huddleston, P.,
western Gulf of Mexico. M.I.T Pap. Phys. Oceanogr.
Keene, J. B., Kaltenback, A. J., Krumsiek, K. A. D.,
Meteorol. 12:49-120.
Morton, A. C , Murray, J. W., and Westberg-Smith, J. Van der Zwaan, G. J. 1979. The pre-evaporite late Miocene
1984. Oxygen isotope calibration of the onset of ice rafting
environment of the Mediterranean: stable isotopes of
and the history of glaciation in the North Atlantic region.
planktonic foraminifera from section Falconara, Spain.
Nature 307:620-623.
Kon. Ned. Akad. Wetens., Proc, ser. B 82:487-502.
Shackleton, N. J., Hall, M. A., and Pate, D. 1995. Pliocene Van der Zwaan, G. J. 1982. Paleoecology of Late Miocene Mediterranean foraminifera. Utrecht Micropal. Bull 25:1-202.
stable isotope stratigraphy of Site 846. In Proceedings of
the Ocean Drilling Program: scientific results, Leg 138, ed.Van der Zwaan, G. J. 1983. Quantitative analyses and the
reconstruction of benthic foraminiferal communities.
N. G. Pisias et al., pp. 337-356. College Station, TX:
Utrecht Micropal. Bull 30:49-69.
Ocean Drilling Program.
Introduction
64
12
16
20
CASTELL'ARQUATO
44
40
SAW NICOLA
36
KmO
100
200
HAY et alii
1967
65
DATUM
GARTNER 1977
MARTINI 1971
OKADA and BUKRY 1980
P.LACUNOSA
S.PULCHRA
+A.S.G.
+A.S.G.
SMALL
GEPHYROCAPSAE
SHALL
CN
14 a
GEPHYROCAPSA
OCEANICA
PSEUDOEMILIANIA
P.LACUNOSA
NN 19
E. OVATA
GEPHYRXAPSA
+H.s.
anall Gephyrocapsa*
-x- H.sellii
H.SELLII
H.SELLII
CN
13 b
CN
13 a
G.CARIBBEANICA
~T~ C.macintyrei
G.CARIBBEANICA
C.MACINTYREI
G.o.
E.ANNULA
_I_G.o
C.DORONICOIDES
+D.b.
T T
DISCOASTER
DISCOASTER
BROUWERI
BROUWERI
CN 12
CN
12 d
CN
12 c
D.BROUWERI
+D.p.
C.MACINTYREI
+D.p.
+D.p.
D. PENT/HIATUS
NN 17
-*
CN13
C.MACINTYREI
NN 1 8
End Acme
Small Gephyrocapsa
Beginning Acme
A.S.G.
D.BROUWERI
EVENTS
MEDITERRANEAN ZONATION
D.s
D.PENTARADIATUS
D.SURC
D.brouweri +
D.brouweri var.
triradiatus
Beginning Acme
D.brouweri var.
triradiatus
D.PENTWfllATUS
Figure 5.2. Principal nannofossil zonation schemes proposed for the Upper Pliocene and Lower Pleistocene. Note that the range of Helicosphaera sellii is valid only for Mediterranean sections. Abbreviations in
66
AGE (Ma)
1.5
2.0
1.15 Ma
1.0
N.
spp
12 FA Gephyrocapsa
-
LO C. macmtyrei
FA
G. oceamca
si.
16 -
18 -
LO D- brouwen
and D.
triradlatus
20 -
The definition of the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary (its assignment to a physical horizon) in the stratotype section had to be
such that, besides being amenable to long-distance correlation, it
would respect the historical concepts of the Pliocene and the
Pleistocene in order to maintain stratigraphic stability. As
discussed by Pelosio, Raffi, and Rio (1980), the PliocenePleistocene boundary traditionally had been placed at a level at
which marine faunal elements that at present are restricted to the
boreal bioprovince began to occur as "northern guests" in the
Mediterranean (specifically the Italian) geologic record. Indeed,
that concept was the main reason for a concentration of studies
of the Calabrian Stage (the traditionally accepted first stage of
Nannofossil biostratigraphy of the Italian surface
the Pleistocene) at Santa Maria di Catanzaro (Gignoux, 1913;
exposures
Selli, 1971), of the top of the Piacenzian (the generally accepted
A correlation chart for classical Italian land sections (including stage for the Upper Pliocene) at Castell'Arquato (Barbieri,
stratotypes) and DSDP site 132 is presented in Figure 5.5. This 1971; Colalongo, Elmi, and Sartoni, 1974), of the proposed
figure shows the critical biostratigraphic and lithostratigraphic Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary-stratotype at Le Castella (Pelocharacters on which the chronostratigraphy of the Pliocene and sio et al., 1980), and of the subsequently proposed boundarythe Pleistocene is based. Two topics that deserve attention are, stratotype in the Vrica section (Colalongo et al., 1982; Pasini and
first, the timing of the appearance of the "northern guests" in the Colalongo, Chapter 2, this volume). It is important to note that
Mediterranean and, second, the prior lithostratigraphic defini- Lyell's (1833) original concept of the Pleistocene, based on fossil
tions of the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary.
molluscan faunas in Italian strata with no less than 70% of
67
AGE (Ma)
10
5 2
\
o
2:
760 - 060
\
End acme small \
\
j Oephyrocapsa spp.
6 2
2.0
o
2:
o
2:
1.10 - 1.1
1.5
M
\
Gephyrocapsa spp.
\
o
I
a_
a
to
a
30 -
8 2
FA
Mm
X
hCL
UJ
Q
LO C. macintyrei
9 2
35-
FA
G. oceanica
si
40-
68
FICARAZZI
10-
SANTA MARIA
di Catanzaro
m40
FA G.TRUNCATULINOIDES EXCELSA
45100-
"G-G' "
BED
40-
LE CASTELLA
50-
50-
m25 FA G,TRUNC.EXCELSA
15 -
CAPO ROSSELLO
250 -
M.te S.NICOLA
MARKER BED
H.B.
.60-
*G.P.
65-
, P/P BOUNDARY
DEFINITION '
200-
150 -
100-
Symbols
A - F A HYALINEA BALTICA
* - INCREASE OF G.PACHYDERMA "LEFT"
^ _ F A ARCTICA ISLANDICA
%-CCCURRENCE OF G . TRUNCATUL I NO IDES
TRUNCATULINOIDES
80 -|
50-
BEGINN
69
SANTERNO
TIEPIDO
2000 -
CROSTOLO
500 AH.B.
1300
SA SPP.
STIRONE
1500-
'A.I.
r
CASTELL ARQUATO
1000-
100 -
50-
A.I.
'H.B.
800 A
"
100
A.I.
10 1000
0-
50
800 -
70
Table 5.1. Locations and previous studies of sections utilized for Gephyrocapsa spp. biochronology
Water
depth
Section
Location
Lat.
Long.
(m)
Main studies
V28-239
Equatorial
Pacific
315'N
15911'E
3,490
Colombia Basin,
Caribbean Sea
Southwestern
Atlantic
Mediterranean,
Tyrrhenian Sea
1129'N
7923'W
3,051
2842'S
3434'W
4,021
4015'N
1125'E
2,813
V12-18
DSDP site 132
"northern immigrant" concept. Evidence of climatic deteriora- Gephyrocapsa spp. are present, including transitional forms
tion, such as the coiling change of Neogloboquadrina pachy- indicating the first appearance of G. oceanica s.l. This suggests
derma (Dondi and Papetti, 1968) and the extinction of that the appearance of A. islandica is close to the top of the
Taxodiaceae (Lona, 1962), also have been used as substitutes for Olduvai subchron in this section. It is noteworthy that in both the
the recognition of the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary. The Stirone and the Castell'Arquato sections the first appearance of
rationale underlying those choices was based on the misconcept A. islandica postdates the first occurrence of Globorotalia inflata.
that the earth passed from ice-free to glaciated conditions at the In Mediterranean sections the latter event occurs close to the first
Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary. Such a threshold in the earth's appearance of Globorotalia truncatulinoides truncatulinoides,
history ought to have been detectable in every environment and which has been determined to have occurred just below the
therefore should have been correlatable as a time horizon. Olduvai subchron both in the Mediterranean (Rio et al., 1984a,b)
However, recent work has shown that the climatic history is and in the equatorial oceans (Rio, Fornaciari, and Raffi, 1990;
much more complicated, and glacial conditions probably were Shackleton etal., 1995).
brought on through a series of climatic steps (e.g., Shackleton
The INQUA Subcommission 1-d, "Pliocene/Pleistocene
and Kennett, 1975; Thunell and Williams, 1983). The appear- Boundary," adopted the proposal that the base of the shale bed
ance of the "northern guests" in the Mediterranean during the overlying sapropelic layer e in the Vrica section should be used
Pleistocene was gradual and discontinuous, occurring at different for definition of the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary. This level
times for different taxa. In particular, the appearances of A. is close to the top of the Olduvai subchron, according to
islandica and H. baltica did not represent a single event, and magnetostratigraphy and biostratigraphy (as discussed later),
since both were environmentally controlled, these forms do not suggesting that the boundary-definition proposal is appropriate
allow reliable correlations even within a small region. The in historical terms.
correlations that are based on planktic forms (Figure 5.5)
Prior to the introduction of the Vrica section as the location of
illustrate this point. Note the scattering of the appearances of A. the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary-stratotype, two other definiislandica and H. baltica relative to the proposed correlations. It tions were in use: the base of the Calabrian Stage, provisionally
also appears from Figure 5.5 that the first appearance of H. defined in the Santa Maria di Catanzaro section (Selli, 1971),
baltica was clearly later than that of A. islandica. H. baltica and the so-called marker bed in the Le Castella section
occurs close to the appearance of large Gephyrocapsa spp. (Berggren and Van Couvering, 1974; Haq et al., 1977).
(larger than 5.5 /mi), whereas A. islandica occurs below the first
appearance of G. oceanica s. I.
The Santa Maria di Catanzaro section
If we want to adhere to the original concept that the base of the
Pleistocene is to be tied to the first appearance of A. islandica in Although there is a general agreement that the Santa Maria di
Italian sections, we need to locate, in a deeper-water boundary- Catanzaro section is unsuitable for definition of the base of the
stratotype section, a physical horizon that is time-equivalent with Pleistocene (Haq et al., 1977; Pelosio et al., 1980; Colalongo et
thefirstappearance of A. islandica in a shallow-water section. The al., 1982), this section needs some discussion because the
stratigraphically lowest level where A. islandica is present seems Calabrian Stage was first introduced (Gignoux, 1913) with
to be represented in the Castell'Arquato and the Stirone sections. reference to this section, among many others. It was this section,
No reliable nannofossil data are available from the former section. however, and in particular the G-G' bed shown in a diagram by
In the Stirone section, we have observed that the appearance of A. Gignoux (1913), that had been provisionally designated to
islandica slightly predated the first occurrence of G. oceanica s. I.represent the stratotype base of the Calabrian Stage (Selli, 1971;
Below the levels containing the first A. islandica, abundant cf. Berggren and Van Couvering, 1979). However, the G-G' bed
71
72
Section
Field
stratigraphic
information
Nannofossil
data
Other
information
Castell'Arquato
(Piacenza)
Stirone
(Parma)
Crostolo
(Reggio Emilia)
Tiepido
(Modena)
Raffi and
Rio (1980b), Rio et al.
(this chapter)
Santerno
(Bologna)
Capo Rossello
(southern Sicily)
Ficarazzi
(Palermo, Sicily)
Vrica
(Calabria)
Le Castella
(Calabria)
interval of dominantly small Gephyrocapsa spp.) and the ric) taxonomy of Rio (1982). It should be emphasized that we
appearance of Globorotalia truncatulinoides excelsa (Raffi and have applied this informal taxonomy on all material studied, thus
Rio, 1979; Di Stefano and Rio, 1981). Neither of these two avoiding taxonomy and nomenclature problems when evaluating
events is recorded in the Vrica section.
the biochronology of the datum events provided by the
Gephyrocapsa group.
Gephyrocapsa group. Range charts for the Gephyrocapsa group
have been used by all authors who have studied the Vrica section
Nannofossil biochronology of the Vrica section and
except Backman et al. (1983). Identifications in this group have
the age of the proposed Pliocene-Pleistocene
been unstable because of taxonomy and nomenclature problems,
boundary-stratotype
and thus it is not surprising that conflicting findings have been
reported by different authors. In order to apply consistent The INQUA Subcommission 1-d, "Pliocene/Pleistocene Boundtaxonomic concepts, we have adopted the informal (morphomet- ary," meeting in Madrid in 1983, proposed that the base of the
73
Table 5.3. Summary offield stratigraphic and biostratigraphic studies used in the compilation of Figure 5.5
Age estimates (Ma) for nannofossil datum events around the Plio-Pleistocene boundary
Datum event
End of acme of small
Gephyrocapsa spp.
Beginning of acme of small
Gephyrocapsa spp.
First appearance of
Gephyrocapsa spp. > 5.5 pin
First appearance of
Gephyrocapsa oceanica s.l.
Last occurrence of
Calcidius macintyrei
Last occurrence of
Discoaster brouweri
Last occurrence of
D. brouweri var. triradiatus
Increase in proportion of
D. brouweri var. triradiatus
V12-18
(southwestern
Atlantic)
DSDP 132
(Mediterranean
Sea)
V28-239 (western
eq. Pacific)
DSDP 502B
(Caribbean Sea)
0.93-0.95
0.90-0.94
1.13-1.15
1.10-1.11
1.31-1.32
1.32-1.34
1.29-1.31
1.32-1.36
1.57-1.61
1.55-1.56
1.55-1.59
1.56-1.62
1.08-1.14
Conclusions
II
1 11 1 1 1 1 11
BROUWERI
1 11
1
1
1
CJi
DISCOASTER
C 0 CC 0 L I T HU S
BROUWERI
CN 12a
MACINTYREI
CALCIDISCUS
DISCOASTER
CN 12
BROUWERI
DISCOASTER
NN 18
BROUWERI
DISCOASTER
J_ G . I N F L A T A
CJ
1 II 1
II
Q.
II 1
(t>
o
o
H
m
CO
'
II
HIM
fl
1 1 1
>
DO
>
SELLII
to
O
1 1 1 11
11 1
1971
DTH
1070
ly/y
NAKAGAWA ET A L .
BACKMAN ET AL,
BACKMAN ET A L .
AND RIO
NAKAGAWA ET AL.
L I TH 0 L0 G Y
AIIO
1977
DACCT
GARTNER
MARTINI
1 1
<J
.; o
rvo
CJi
HELICOSPHAERA
ro
O
C.mCINT.
SELLII
LACUNOSA
HELICOPONTOSPHAERA
ZED
CN 14
N N 19
OCEAN ICA
PSEUDOEMILIANIA
G N
+ GEPHYROCAPSA
L AC UN 0 SA
R E C 0
I I i II ii
I M i
urn
1 1
1 1
1 III II II II
O)
MACINTYRE
NOT
DORONICOIDES
cus
CRENALITHUS
P ELA G
DORONICOIDES CN 13
CYCLOCOCCOLITHINA
CRENALITHUS
P S E U D O E M I L I A N I
CO
rn
-o
CD
O
GO
DO
CL
o'
HELICOSPHAERA
SELLII
GEPHYROCAPSA
GROUP
75
76
AGE (Ma)
1.5
1.3
1.1
OLDUVAI
300\
> UL c m / k y r
N3
\
250-
\
FA Gep'hyrocoipsa spp. > 5.5 urn
o
v cm/kyr->s^^18 cm/kyr
LU
L0 C. macintyrei
200 LU
FA 0. oceanic a s.l.
TOP OF LAYER e
N2
CL
LU
Q
150-
25
N1
L0
D. brouweri
100-
77
Barbieri, F. 1971. Piacenzian. In Stratotypes of Mediterranean Dondi, L., and Papetti, I. 1968. Biostratigraphical zones of the
Neogene Stages, ed. G. C. Carloni et al., pp. 147-155.
Po Valley Pliocene. Giorn. Geol. 25:63-68.
Emiliani, C , Mayeda, T., and Selli, R. 1961. Paleotemperature
Giornale di Geologia 37, estratto, fasc. II.
analysis of the Plio-Pleistocene section at Le Castella,
Berggren, W. A. 1972. A Cenozoic time scale, some implications
Calabria, southern Italy. Geol. Soc. Am., Bull. 72:679for regional geology and paleobiogeography. Lethaia
5:195-215.
688.
Berggren, W. A., and Van Couvering, J. A. 1974. The Late Ericson, D. B., Ewing, M., and Wollin, G. 1963. PlioPleistocene boundary in deep-sea sediments. Science
Neogene. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 16:1
139:727-737.
215.
Berggren, W. A., and Van Couvering, J. A. 1979. The Gartner, S. 1969. Correlation of Neogene planktonic foraminifera and calcareous nannofossil zones. Gulf Coast Assoc.
Quaternary. In Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, Part
A: Introduction, ed. R. A. Robison and C. Teichert, pp.
Geol. Soc, Trans. 19:585-599.
Gartner, S. 1977. Calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy and
A505-A543. Boulder: Geological Society of America.
revised zonation of the Pleistocene. Mar. Micropal. 2:1Berggren, W. A., Kent, D. V, and Van Couvering, J. A. 1985.
25.
Neogene geochronology and chronostratigraphy. In The
chronology of the geological record, ed. N. J. Snelling, pp. Gignoux, M. 1913. Les formations marines pliocenes et
211-260. Geol. Soc. London, Mem. 10. Oxford: Blackwell.
quaternaires dTtalie du Sud et de la Sicile. Univ. Lyon,
Bertolani Marchetti, D., Accorsi, C. A., Pelosio, G., and Raff],
Ann., n.s. 36: 1-693.
S. 1979. Palynology and stratigraphy of the Plio-Pleiso- Haq, B. U., Berggren, W. A., and Van Couvering, J. A. 1977.
tocene sequence of the Stirone river (Northern Italy).
Corrected age of the Plio-Pleistocene boundary. Nature
Pollen et Spores 21:149-167.
269:483-488.
Boudreaux, J. E., and Hay, W. W. 1967. Zonation of the latest Hay, W. W., Mohler, H. P., Roth, P. H., Schmidt, R. R., and
Pliocene-Recent interval. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc,
Boudreaux, J. E. 1967. Calcareous nannoplankton zonaTrans. 17:420-443.
tion in the Cenozoic of the Gulf Coast and CaribbeanAntillean area and transoceanic correlation. Gulf Coast
Boudreaux, J. E., and Hay, W. W. 1969. Calcareous nannoAssoc. Geol. Soc, Trans. 17:438-480.
plankton and biostratigraphy of the Late PliocenePleistocene sediments in Submarex cores. Rev. Esp. Lona, F. 1962. Prime analisi pollinologiche sui depositi terziari
quaternari di Castell'Arquato; reperti di vegetazione da
Micropal. 1:249-262.
clima freddo sotto le formazioni calcarea ad Amphistega.
Bramlette, M. N., and Riedel, W. R. 1954. Stratigraphic value of
Soc Geol. Ital, Boll 81:89-91.
discoasters and some other microfossils related to recent
Lyell, C. 1833. Principles of geology: being an attempt to explain
coccolithophores. /. Paleontol. 28:385-403.
Bukry, D. 1973. Low latitude coccolith biostratigraphic
the former changes in the Earth's surface, by reference to
causes now in operation, vol. 3. London: John Murray.
zonation. In Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling
Project, vol. 15, ed. N. T. Edgar, J. B. Saunders, et al., Martini, E. 1971. Standard Tertiary and Quaternary calcareous
pp. 685-703. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printnannoplankton zonation. In Proceeding of the 2nd Planking Office.
tonic Conference, Roma, vol. 2, ed. A. Farinacci, pp. 739Bukry, D. 1978. Biostratigraphy of Cenozoic marine sediments
785. Rome: Ediziones Tecnoscienza.
by calcareous nannofossils. Micropaleontology 24:44-60. Mclntyre, A., Be, A. W. H., and Pretiskas, R. 1967. Coccoliths
Castradori, D. 1993. Calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy and
and the Plio-Pleistocene boundary. In The Quaternary
history of the ocean basins. Progress in oceanography, vol.
biochronology in eastern Mediterranean deep-sea cores.
Riv. Ital. Paleontol. Strat. 99:107-126.
4, ed. M. Sears, pp. 3-24. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Cati, R, and Borsetti, A. M. 1980. Calcareous nannoplankton Nakagawa, H. 1977. Preliminary report on the magneto- and
biostratigraphy of the Vrica section (Calabria, southern
biostratigraphy of the Vrica section, Calabria, Southern
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Italy). Giorn. Geol. 43:365-384.
Cita, M. B., and Decima, A. 1975. Rossellian: proposal of Nakagawa, H. 1981. Neogene/Quaternary boundary and correlation of Vrica Section. In Field conference, Neogene/
superstage for the marine Pliocene. In VI Congress of the
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Regional Committee for Mediterranean Neogene StratiA. Sastry et al., pp. 107-111. Calcutta: Geological Survey
graphy, Bratislava, 1975, Proceedings, vol. 1, ed. J. Senes
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and J. Slavik, pp. 217-227. Bratislava: Akad. Vied.
Colalongo, M. L., Elmi, C , and Sartoni, S. 1974. Stratotypes of Nakagawa, H., Oda, M., Sakai, T., Yoshida, K., Asano, K.,
Niitsuma, N., Takayama, T., Tokunaga, S., Kitazato, H.,
Pliocene and Santerno River section. Bur. Rech. Geol.
and Koizumi, I. 1980. Preliminary results of magneto- and
Min., Mem. 78:603-624.
biostratigraphy of the Vrica Section (Calabria, Southern
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Italy). In Proceedings of the Second Symposium on the
Ruggieri, G., Sartoni, S., Selli, R., and Sprovieri, R. 1982.
Neogene/'Quaternary Boundary, USSR, 1977, ed. K. V
The Neogene/Quaternary boundary definition: a review
Nikiforova and A. Y. Dodonov, pp. 145-156. Moscow:
and a proposal. Geogr. Fisica Dinam. Quat. 5:59-68.
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Colalongo, M. L., Pasini, G., and Sartoni, S. 1981. Remarks on
the Neogene/Quaternary boundary and the Vrica section Pasini, G., and Colalongo, M. L. 1982. Status of research on the
Vrica section (Calabria, Italy), the proposed Neogene/
(Calabria, Italy). Soc. Paleontol. Ital, Boll. 20:99-120.
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Di Stefano, E., and Rio, D. 1981. Biostratigrafia a nannofossili e
presented at INQUA XI Congress, Moscow, 1982. Bolobiocronologia del Siciliano nella localita tipo di Ficarazzi
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Doederlein, P. 1872. Note illustrative della carta geologica del Pelosio, G., Raffi, S., and Rio, D. 1980. The Plio/Pleistocene
boundary controversy: status in 1979 at the light of
Modenense e del Reggiano. Menoria tersa. Modena:
International Stratigraphic Guide. In Volume speciale in
Gaddi.
78
Introduction
80
Andrew J. M. Palmer
^mi&Mi:
propoctd Plio-PUistocene
boundary stratotype
R2
8l- 0
Rhizosolenia
praebergonii
POB
*4O
30
Rhizosolenia proebergonn
vor robusta
10%
10%
81
Figure 6.2. Integrated Plio-PIeistocene magnetostratigraphy and marine diatom stratigraphy from the equatorial Pacific. Note the level of
Cosanodiscus nodulifer
vor cyclopus
Pseudoeunotia do/io/us
Nitzschia
the Olduvai normal polarities, marked with the letter O on the depth
scale. (From Burckle and Trainer, 1979, with permission.)
Table 6.1. Major and minor components of a diatom assemblage (n = 186) from Vrica level e6
Taxon
Trophic Group
Count
Percentage 0
Coscinodiscus obscurus
Coscinodiscus radiatus
(spores, undifferentiated)
Rhizosolenia hebetata f.
semispina
Thalassiosira eccentrica
Coscinodiscus oculus-iridis
Coscinodiscus normani
Melosira sp. (chains in girdle
view)
Fragilaria sp.
Thalassiothrix mediterraneana
Nitzschia sp.
Coscinodiscus stellaris
Actinoptychus senarius
(unknowns)
Thalassiosira lineata
Hemidiscus cuneiformis
ocean plankton
ocean plankton
plankton
temperate plankton
62
23
18
15
33.3
12.4
9.7
8.1
6.8%
4.8%
4.3%
3.9%
neritic plankton
ocean plankton
plankton
sessile**
12
6
6
6
6.5
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.5%
2.5%
2.5%
2.5%
neritic plankton
neritic plankton
ocean plankton
ocean plankton
neritic plankton
5
5
5
4
4
4
3
3
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.2
2.2
2.2
1.6
1.6
2.3%
2.3%
2.3%
2.1%
2.1%
2.1%
1.8%
1.8%
fl
plankton
ocean plankton
jouseoe
20%
82
Andrew J. M. Palmer
No.
-6
5
4
2 00
197'
-2
-1
19 3'
4
-3
191
*17 0<
22), undifferentiated spores, Rhizosolenia hebetata forma semispina, and Thalassiosira eccentrica. Other diatoms noted are
Coscinodiscus asteromphalus (cf. Hustedt, 1971, figure 250;
Hendey, 1964, pi. 24) and Coscinodiscus normani (cf. Hendey,
1964, p. 80; Hustedt, 1971, as C. rothi var. normani, figure 213;
Schmidt et al., 1972, as Coscinodiscus fasciatus). The assemblage
does not appear to contain any of the equatorial Pacific taxa
discussed by Burckle and Trainer (1979), such as Coscinodiscus
nodulifer var. cyclopus, Rhizosolenia praebergonii (with the
variety robusta), and Pseudoeunotia doliolus. Correlation between the diatom biostratigraphy associated with the Olduvai
subchron in Pacific Ocean cores and that of the Vrica sample e6
is therefore impossible. The diatom assemblages in the deep-sea
sapropels of the eastern Mediterranean examined by Schrader
and Matherne (1981) were dominated by such taxa as Rhizosolenia calcaravis, Thalassionema nitzschioides, and Thalassiosira
oestrupii. Again, there was a poor match between those
elaborately quantified diatom assemblages and the diatoms
recovered from the laminates of the Vrica section.
Conclusions
60
83
84
Andrew J. M. Palmer
Part III
The paleontological context of the Pleistocene boundary
87
500-
No of
D BROUWERI mm 2
D BROUWERI
No of
VfiRTRIRADIATUS CMACJNTYREI mm 2
NO OF PREPLIOCENE
DISCOASTERS
05
10
15
20
40%
10
15
5 mm 2
H SELL/1
(A/=50)
0
N3
r
q
No of
D BROUWERI mm' 2
20 40%
40
No of
H SELLII
C MACINTYREI m m 2 [/V=100()/V=500W]
20
80
40
10%
ft*
b98
10-
Myr
p
1
n
m
400
R4
f
-
166
N2
R3
c
- b
D BROUWERI
N1
300
200 {
20
100 j
Figure 7.1. Quantitative nannofossil stratigraphy for the Vrica section and piston core
V28-239 (western equatorial Pacific). On the left are data from the Vrica section, starting with the lithologic section of Selli et al. (1977) and the magnetostratigraphy of Tauxe
et al. (1983). The abundances of Discoaster brouweri, D. brouweri var. triradiatus relative to all forms of D. brouweri, and Calcidiscus macintyrei each show a clear upper
limit. Pre-Pliocene discoasters maintain a uniform reworked abundance throughout the
section, and the proportion of Helicosphaera sellii relative to all helicosphaerids also
does not show any drop in abundance in the upper part of the section. The filled circles
between 270 and 345 m indicate samples that were prepared and counted in duplicate.
On the right side, the sequence in piston core V28-239 is from Backman and Shackleton (1983), with magnetostratigraphy from Shackleton and Opdyke (1976). (From
Backman et al., 1983, with permission of the editors of Nature.)
SOUTHERN
REGIONS
1.2-
EQUATORIAL
REGIONS
Pulleniatina
NORTH PACIFIC
NORTH ATLANTIC
50
0
100
ATLANTIC
50
100
finalis
Helicopontosphoera sellii
Helicopontosphoera sellii
L3
Calcidiscus macintyrei
Rhizosolenia barboi
Clathrocyclas bicornis
Pterocanium prismatium
L5
Pseudoeunotia doliolus
Eucyrtidium calvertense
Eucyrtidium matuyamai
Lamprocylas heteroporoi^
Globoquodrina asanoi
ofooororo/to truncatuiinoiaes
Discoaster brouwerii* t^
Coscinodiscus kolbei
Vobigerinoides obliquus
extremus
id truncatu
ts/er brouwern
Globorotalia exilis
Coscinodiscus vulnificus
^Gephyrocapsa aperta
L6
Thalassiosira convexa
Thalassiosira convexa
frGephyrocapso aperta
Globorotalia miocenica \
Reappearance
of
Hetotholus vema
Discoaster pentaradiatus
and D. surculus
Discoaster pentaradiatus
and D. surculus
Desmospyris spongiosaj(\
Cosmiodiscus insignis-^ Stichocorys peregrina
X
Discoaster tamalis
X
Summary diagram for all microfossil datum levels in the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary interval.
Pulleniotino
First
Appearance
Last
Appearance
90
ERICSON'S
ZONES
DEPTH TIME
cm
my
PLANKTONIC FORAMINIFERA
-100
i1
1
N0RMAI
-300
O.69<
-400
-500
0.95"
ARAMIL
0.89.
1o
x r
-200
.ARIT
c
Spho<1 roi fl
g^
\ ^
Y
X
w
PERCENTAGE
MENARDII-COMPLEX
this paper
-600
a.
ex
o
|
o
o
5
z
EVI
ATUYAI
1
2E
1.61.
1/9
c
2.00
rin<
o
w
S
E
1100
oboro
o
*o
1200
1292
z;
-V
-900
1000
bliqi
1_
o
- !
800
lob
ex
otdl
i n c o t u l i noidti
700
2.20-
.
5
1
10
I
15
20
Figure 7.4. Time (m.y.) versus percentage of right-coiling individuals in Pulleniatina populations from 10 low-latitude deep-sea cores. Time lines are drawn according to the
paleomagnetic-reversal sequence established for each core. Prominent left-coiling intervals
are numbered L1-L9, AL1, and AL2. The upper Gilbert and Gauss intervals in core
RC12-66 are low in carbonate because of dissolution effects. (From Saito, 1976, fig. 2,
courtesy of the Geological Society of America.)
92
PERCENT RIGHT
COILING
NUMBER OF D B R O U W E R I () A N D
REWORKED DISCOASTER | . | m m 2
0
20
40
NUMBER OF D B R O U W E R I
T R I R A D I A T E FORM | % )
0
20
93
() A N D
REWORKED DISCOASTER ()
40
10
20
30 0
100
mm2
200
300
TRIRADIATE FORM
0
20
(%)
40
RC11 -209
NUMBER OF D BROUWERI mm
0
20
40
TRIRADIATE FORM
0
20
(%)
NUMBER OF D. BROUWERI
40
10
20
30 0
100
mm
200
300
1100-
Figure 7.6. D. brouweri abundances in four mid- and low-latitude Pacific cores. For each core, the abundance of D. brouweri is shown on
the left, and the relative abundance of triradiate forms on the right.
94
JMBER
OF 0 BROUWERI
mm
NUMBER OF 0 TAMALIS
mm
NUMBER OF 0 SURCIRUS n
NUMBER OF 0 PENTARADIATUS mm
Figure 7.7. Abundances of Discoaster species in V28-179, central equatorial Pacific, in the interval from the top of the Olduvai to the base of
the Gauss (see Preface, this volume, for modern time scale values): A,
abundance of D. brouweri; B, abundance of D. triradiatus; C, abundance of D. tamalis; D, relative abundance of D. tamalis; E, abundance
of the D. variabilis group (including D. challenged and D. decorus); F,
abundance of D. surculus; G, abundance of D. pentaradiatus. The sampling interval is 5 cm, but the data are presented on a time-scale based
on paleomagnetic data. Note scale difference between D. brouweri and
the other discoasters. (From Backman and Shackleton, 1983, fig. 6,
with permission of Elsevier Publishing Co.)
replacement by Theocorythium trachelium (Nigrini, 1970; Johnson and Knoll, 1975; Shackleton et al., 1995).
In the northern Pacific, three radiolarian datum levels are
recognized in the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary interval (Hays,
1970) (Figure 7.2). The first, the LAD of Eucyrtidium elongatum
peregrinum, occurs in the middle of the Gauss chronozone, as it
does in the central Pacific. The second is the LAD of
Lamprocyrtis heteroporos near the base of the Olduvai
subchronozone, although, as discussed earlier, the southern
population of this species in the equatorial Pacific became extinct
at a later date, as was also the case in the high latitudes of the
Southern Ocean (Hays, 1970). Third, Eucyrtidium matuyamai
evolved from E. calvertense near the base of the Olduvai
subchron. Hays (1970) notes that in the Southern Ocean, E.
calvertense disappears in the lower part of the Olduvai subchron
at approximately the same level where it gives rise to E.
matuyamai in the northern Pacific.
In the Southern Ocean, Hays (1965), Opdyke et al. (1966),
and Hays and Opdyke (1967) reported a number of radiolarian
events near the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary interval. Desmospyris spongiosa and Helotholus vema disappear just above the
Gauss chronozone, and Clathrocyclas bicornis disappears near
the top of the Olduvai subchronozone. In terms of assemblage
zones, the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary would fall within the
X Zone of Hays (1965). Hays and Opdyke (1967) also reported a
sharp decrease in the abundances of the more widely ranging,
presumably less cold-tolerant radiolarians in the Southern Ocean
just above the Olduvai.
Stable-isotope record
95
S l 8 0 %o P.D.B.
45
40
3 5
30
I T
Rhizosolenia praebergonii
var. robusta (1 )
I B
I T
I TR Coscinodiscus nodulifer
var cyclopus (2)
I BR Coscinodiscus nodulifer
| >C
vor
cyclopus
(2)
var robusta ( 2 )
1 2
I TR Coscinodiscus nodulifer
var
I T
cyclopus
(2)
Thalassiosira convexa
Th convexa var aspinosad)
1 3
I BR Coscinodiscus nodulifer
I g var cyclopus(2)
Rhizosolenia praebergonii
wx robusta (2)
I T
I B
Rhizosolenia praebergonii
(1)
19
IB
Thalassiosira
convexa (3)
LU
CO
20
IT
NORTH PACIFIC
DATUM LEVELS
(after Koizumi, 1975
Burckle & Opdyke, 1977)
DSDP
SITE 397
Paleomagnetic
Stratigraphy
u-
m.
X'X*
x-.-.-x-x
..%:...
>X\\vX- v X
iiii
HIM
CO
UJ
XvXvX X v
X
2
QC
CD
-LAD Rhizqsolenia
curvirostris
HIP
BRUNHES
96
- LA D Nitzschia reinholdii
!::::
XvX'Xv
X*M*
X'X'X'X*
:gj
X*X*"
x*x
MATU
XvXvX
XvXvX
XvXvX
liiixB
MATUYAMA
100-
Rhizosolenia
-LAD curvirostris
200-
||
iliiH
CO
CO
GAU
GAUSS
0.50
97
0.00
Figure 7.10. Correlation of oxygen-isotope stratigraphy between the Atlantic (DSDP site 502B, and piston cores P6304-9 and P6408-9) and
the Pacific (cores V28-238 and V28-239). Interglacial isotope stage
numbers are circled. Where present, magnetostratigraphic boundaries
are shown. Cores P6304-9 and P6408-9 are from Emiliani (1966,
1978), and cores V28-238 and V28-239 are from Shackleton and
Opdyke (1976, 1977). Site 502B is from Prell (1982, fig. 2).
Carbonate stratigraphy
98
CaCO3
30
40
50
60
518O
70
80
90
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
-1.0
-2.0
M21
150-
GU3
200
250-
300-
300
350
400-
I Unrecovered interval
'
' l '
'
99
60m
90-
IJO
140
. : . . .
L47
D.P.
D.B.
24
D.3.
D.T.
3.0
ii
to
100
if
r"\/*
O
0
0
to
D.P.
24
D.3.
D.B.
D.T.
SdO
24
1.7
14
1.9
2JO
2.1
24
24
1A
24
24
2.7
24
2.0
IJO
t.1
100
100
are modified from Shackleton and Opdyke (1976), and the carbonate
cycles are from Hays et al. (1969). (From Gardner, 1982, fig. 10, courtesy of the Offshore Drilling Program.)
40
(%)
60
80
RC11-209
CaCO
100
V24-59
CaCO,
20
40
60
80
B3B5
^
B i3-<cz:
315=
^
Ml
10-
=*
-,.
4-
M17-<!
M19-
20\13
:=
8-
GI5==m
| =
n GI7GI9=
30-
GU1
G U 3 ^ T Z ^ ^
\18
M21
<r^
- ^.
M21
T
Anthocyrtidium angulare
Mesocena elliptica
B
Theocorythium vetulum - * 7". trachelium
T
Rhizosolenia praebergonii
T
Pterocanium prismatium
B
Pseudoeunotia doliolus
"
12-
102
Burckle, L. H. 1979. Validation of middle Pliocene to Pleistocene paleomagnetic reversal record using diatom and
silicoflagellate datum levels. In Initial reports of the Deep
Sea Drilling Project, vol. 47, ed. U. von Rad, W. B. F.
Ryan, et al., pp. 479-480. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Burckle, L. H., Morley, I , Koizumi, I., and Bleil, U. 1985. Late
Neogene biostratigraphic and paleomagnetic correlations
Acknowledgments
between the equatorial and northwest Pacific. In Initial
reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, vol. 86, ed. G. R.
The authors would like to thank J. D. Hays (Lamont-Doherty
Heath, L. H. Burckle, et al., pp. 781-786. Washington,
Geological Observatory) and W. Prell (Brown University) for
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
their helpful comments and review of an earlier draft of this Burckle, L. H., and Opdyke, N. D. 1977. Late Neogene diatom
chapter. The efforts of the U.S. working group of IGCP Project
correlations in the circum-Pacific. In Proceedings of the 1st
International Congress on Pacific Neogene Stratigraphy, ed.
41 have been supported by a grant from the National Science
Y. Takayanagi and T. Saito, pp. 255-284. Tokyo: IUGS
Foundation (Earth Sciences Division). This is WHOI ContribuRegional Committee on Pacific Neogene Stratigraphy.
tion no. 5675.
Burckle, L. H., and Opdyke, N. D. 1984. Late Miocene/earliest
Pliocene diatom correlations in the north Pacific. Mar.
Micropal. 9:212-227.
References
Burckle, L. H., and Trainer, J. 1979. Late Pliocene diatom
Aguirre, E., and Pasini, G. 1985. The Pliocene-Pleistocene
datum levels in the central Pacific. Micropaleontology
boundary. Episodes 8:116-120.
25:281-293.
Backman, J. 1979. Pliocene biostratigraphy of DSDP sites 111 Cieselski, P. 1983. The Neogene and Quaternary diatom
and 116 from the North Atlantic Ocean and the age of
biostratigraphy of sub-Antarctic sediments, Deep Sea
northern hemisphere glaciation. Stockholm Contrib. Geoi
Drilling Project, Leg 71. In Initial reports of the Deep Sea
32:117-137.
Drilling Project, vol. 71, ed. W. Ludwig, V. A. KrasheninBackman, J., and Shackleton, N. J. 1983. Quantitative bionikov, et al., pp. 635-666. Washington, DC: U.S. Governchronology of Pliocene and early Pleistocene calcareous
ment Printing Office.
nannofossils from the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. Cowie, J. W., and Bassett, M. G. 1989. International Union of
Mar. Micropal. 8:141-170.
Geological Sciences 1989 stratigraphic chart. Episodes 12:
Backman, J., Shackleton, N. J., andTauxe, L. 1983. Quantitative
(unpaginated insert).
nannofossil correlation to open ocean deep-sea sections Denizot, G. 1957. Lexique stratigraphique internationale, Volume
from the Plio-Pleistocene boundary at Vrica. Nature
1, fascicule 4a VII. Tertiare: France, Belgique, Pays Bas,
304:156-158.
Luxembourg. Paris: Centre National de la Recherche
Berggren, W. A. 1972. Late Pliocene-Pleistocene glaciation. In
Scientifique.
Initial reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, vol. 12, ed. Donahue, J. 1970. Diatoms as Quaternary biostratigraphic and
A. S. Laughton, W. A. Berggren, et al., pp. 953-963.
paleomagnetic indicators in high latitudes of the Pacific
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
ocean. Unpublished dissertation, Columbia University.
Berggren, W. A. 1975. The Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary in Dunn, D. A., and Moore, T. C , Jr. 1981. Late MiocenePliocene (magnetic epoch 9-Gilbert magnetic epoch)
deep-sea sediments: status in 1975. Geoph. GeoL, ser. 2
calcium carbonate stratigraphy of the equatorial Pacific
41:375-384.
Ocean. Geol. Soc. Am., Bull. 92:408-451.
Berggren, W. A., and Van Couvering, J. A. 1979. Quaternary. In
Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Part A: Introduction,Emiliani, C. 1966. Paleotemperature analysis of Caribbean cores
ed. R. A. Robison and C. Teichert, pp. A505-A543.
P6304-8 and P6304-9 and a generalized temperature
Boulder: Geological Society of America.
curve for the past 425,000 years. /. Geol. 74:109-126.
Briskin, M., and Berggren, W. A. 1975. Pleistocene stratigraphy Emiliani, C. 1978. The cause of the ice ages. Earth Planet. Sci.
and quantitative paleo-oceanography of tropical North
Lett. 37:349-352.
Atlantic core V16-205. In Late Neogene epoch bound- Gardner, J. V. 1982. High resolution carbonate and organicaries, ed. T. Saito and L. H. Burckle, pp. 167-198. New
carbon stratigraphies for the late Neogene and Quaternary
York: Micropaleontology Press.
from the western Caribbean and eastern equatorial Pacific.
Bode, G. W., and Cronin, D. S. 1973. Carbon and carbonate
In Initial reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, vol. 68,
analyses, Leg 16. In Initial reports of the Deep Sea Drilling
ed. W. L. Prell, J. V. Gardner, et al., pp. 455-464.
Project, vol. 16, ed. T. H. van Andel, G. R. Heath, et al.,
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
pp. 521-528. Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Gignoux, M. 1950. Geologie stratigraphique, 4th ed. Paris:
Office.
Masson et Cie.
Burckle, L. H. 1971. Late Cenozoic diatoms from the eastern Gignoux, M. 1955. Stratigraphic Geology (translation of the 5th
equatorial Pacific. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, New York
ed.). San Francisco: Freeman.
University.
Gladenkov, A. Y. 1994. Diatom assemblages from the PlioceneBurckle, L. H. 1972. Late Cenozoic planktonic diatom zones
Pleistocene boundary beds in Kamchatka, Russia. Microfrom the eastern equatorial Pacific. In First International
paleontology 40:79-94.
Symposium on Fossil Marine Diatoms, ed. R. Simonsen, Haq, B. U , Berggren, W. A., and Van Couvering, J. A. 1977.
pp. 217-245. Nova Hedwigia, vol. 39. Bremerhaven.
Corrected age of the Plio-Pleistocene boundary. Nature
Burckle, L. H. 1977. Pliocene and Pleistocene diatom datum
269:483-488.
levels from the equatorial Pacific. Quat. Res. 7:330-340. Hays, J. D. 1965. Radiolaria and late Tertiary and Quaternary
would correspond to the carbonate minimum M15, but if located
within the latest part of the Olduvai subchron it would correlate
with the more pronounced minimum M17; both are within the
interval of low carbonate values corresponding to oxygen stage
Mb of Gardner (1982).
103
Introduction
Panholarctic
American-Eurasiatic
American-Mediterranean-Asiatic
American-Eastasiatic
Eastasiatic
North American (abbreviated as N.A. or A. in some
tables)
7. Tropical, including subgroups of pluricontinental and
South Asiatic-American (abbreviated as Tr. in some
tables)
Macujruo
Figure 8.1. Map of regions for which the changes in the genus diversity of Upper
Cenozoic dendroflora were analyzed (see Tables 8.1-8.6): 1, The Netherlands; 2, the
Bashkirian foreland of the Urals; 3, Primoriye; 4, northern Italy; 5, the Kura lowland
and the southeastern foothills of the High Caucasus; 6, the Pamirs.
106
Vladimir P. Grichuk
The Netherlands
Table 8.1 shows data on changes in the regional dendroflora in
the period from the middle Pliocene (Brunssumian) to the
Holocene. In this table, as in the others in this chapter, only
horizons with thermophilic flora are shown. These horizons
correspond to the subdivisions of the Pliocene and interglacial
epochs distinguished in the stratigraphic scheme of Holland
(Zagwijn, 1963). Data on the flora of glacial horizons are not
shown, because those floras are not important in showing the
evolution of forest floras.
South Ural forelands and Bashkiria
Changes at the genus level in the late Cenozoic dendroflora in
this region are shown in Table 8.2. In this region, all the Pliocene
horizons, as well as those corresponding to the interglacial
epochs distinguished in the stratigraphic scheme of Yakhimovich
(1970; Yakhimovich and Suleimanov, 1981), are present. Detailed paleomagnetic studies have been undertaken within the
Bashkirian foreland, making possible comparison of the stratigraphic horizons with the paleomagnetic scale (Yakhimovich and
Suleimanov, 1981). Long-term paleocarpological and palynological studies have provided materials that fully highlight the
changes in composition of the dendroflora through the late
Cenozoic deposits.
Primoriye
The materials from the Primoriye territory are relatively limited.
The most diverse and consistent are those for the late Cenozoic
in the south of the region, as published in two generalized
monographs (Korotkiy, Karaulova, and Troitskaya, 1980;
Golubeva and Karaulova, 1983). Table 8.3 shows Upper
Cenozoic horizons in the stratigraphic scheme of Korotkiy
(Korotkiy et al., 1980). Unfortunately, there have been no
systematic paleomagnetic studies within Primoriye, but the
studies by Alekseev (1978) and Korotkiy et al. (1980) make it
possible to establish a definite link between the stratigraphic
scheme in this region and the paleomagnetic scale.
Northern Italy
The paleofloristic history in this region is presented in Table 8.4,
based on the stratigraphic scale of Selli (1967). The paleomagnetic investigations undertaken in Italy have pertained mainly to
its southern part, with only a few for northern Italy. Nevertheless, biostratigraphic analysis makes it possible to compare the
stratigraphic horizons with the paleomagnetic scale (Ryan,
1973). In this region, the paleobotanical material consists mainly
of fossil pollen, and we have detailed descriptions of macrofloral
remains (leaves, seeds, etc.) only for the Astian Stage (i.e.,
continental Upper Pliocene) and certain parts of the Calabrian
Stage.
107
MATUYAMA
GAUSS
iOlduvai
GENERA
Brunssum
Waal
Reuver
Praetiglian
Cromer
HolsteinTreene
Holocene
Eem
Menap
Pinus
Salix
Myrica
Alnus
Rhamnus
Cornus
Sambucus
Viburnum
Picea
Abies
Carpinus
Corylus
Fagus
Quercus
Ulmus
Ilex
Acer
Tilia
Fraxinus
Pyrus
Vitis
Staphylea
Celtis
Juglans
Castanea
Ostrya
Pterocarya
Rhus
Zelcova
Liquidambar
Aesculus
Stirax
Diospyrus
Elaeagnus
Parthenocissus
Tsuga
Carya
Magnolia
Liriodendron
Pyrularia
Nyssa
Stewartia
Fothergillia
Meliosma
Barchemia
Torre va
Eucommia
Sciadopitys
Phyllodendron
Actinidia
Halesia
Pseudolarix
Corylopsis
Cunninghamia
Cyclocaria
Glyptostrobus
Schizandra
Taxodium
Sequoia
Simplocos
Alangium
Number of genera
Floral groups
61
51
37
33
25
23
20
18
III.
Note: Cold-climate intervals are indicated in italics. Correlation of the paleofloral units of The
Netherlands with the paleomagnetic scale is according to Zagwijn (Chapter 16, this volume).
108
Vladimir P. Grichuk
Table 8.2. Dendroflora of Upper Cenozoic warm-climate horizons of the Bashkirian piedmont of the Urals
BRUNHES
MATUYAMA
GAUSS
lOlduvai
GENERA
II
1,2
zr
o
7,8
5,6
3,4
9, 10
11, 12, 13
11. 14, 15
18
15
Pinus
Abies
Picea
Salix
Populus
Betula
Alnus
Prunus
Sambucus
Viburnum
Larix
Swida
Myrica
Corylus
Quercus
Ulmus
Acer
Tilia
Fraxinus
Carpinus
Ilex
Fagus
Taxus
Celtis
Pterocarya
Juglans
Zelcova
Elaeagnus
Cerasus
Vitis
Paliurus
Tsuga
Chamaecypris
Carya
Abelia
Aralia
Liriodendron
Actinidia
Ealauterococcus
Phyllodendron
Weigelia
Number of genera
Floral groups
41
25
23
23
19
15
III.
Note: Correlation of the stratigraphic sequence (Yakhimovich, 1970) to the paleomagnetic scale is according
to the data of Yakhimovich and Suleimanov (1981). The main fossiliferous sections are as follows: 1,
Simbugino; 2, Belekes, Kumurly, Khabarovka; 3, Voevodskoye (lower flora); 4, Nagayevo, Tukayevo; 5,
Akkulayevo; 6, Chiki-Anachevo; 7, Chui-Atasevo; 8, Tirlan'; 9, Baisakal; 10, Afonasovo; 11, Voevodskoye
(upper flora); 12, alluvium of Terrace IV, Belaya River basin; 13, Gremyachy Creek; 14, Minueshty Creek;
15, alluvium of Terrace II, Belaya River basin; 16,floodplainalluvium of Belaya River basin.
109
Table 8.3. Dendroflora of Upper Cenozoic warm-climate horizons of the Primoriye region, eastern Siberia
GAUSS
BRUNHES
MAT.
iOlduv.
GENERA
(Q
Lower
Suifun
Suite
N1/2
Upper
Suifun
Suite
N1/2
1,2
no
I
CD
p
m
Upper
Krasnozvetna
N2/2
Ussuriya
Q1/1
5,6
3,4
Sungach
Q
3/ll
Khankay
5,10,11
5,9
7,8
Nakhodkin
Chernoruch'y
5,12
Holocene
Q, v
13, 14
Pinus
Abies
Picea
Larix
Betula
Alnus
Myrica
Carpinus
Corylus
Quercus
Ulmus
Tilia
Fraxinus
Acer
Fagus
Castanea
Ilex
Juglans
Syringa
Pterocarya
Zelcova
Rhus
Ostrya
Liquidambar
Celtis
Morus
Aralia
Tsuga
Carya
Torreya
Nyssa
Phyllodendron
Kalopanax
Weigelia
Cryptomeria
Sciadopitys
Glyptostrobus
Engelhardtia
Ginkgo
Taxodium
Sequoia
Planera
Number of genera
Floral groups
42
36
30
28
I.
19
23
II.
17
17
16
III.
Note: Correlation of the stratigraphic sequence of Korotkiy et al. (1980) to the paleomagnetic scale is according to the
data of Alekseev (1978) and Korotkiy et al. (1980). The main fossiliferous sections are as follows: 1, Perevoznaya Bay;
2, Povorotny Cape; 3, Krasnozvetna Series of Tokhtin depression; 4, Spassk-Dalny; 5, Ussuri-Khankai depression; 6,
Bolshaya Ussurska River; 7, Melgunovka River mouth; 8, interfluve of Sungach and Ussuri rivers; 9, Terney village;
10, Vostok Bay; 11, Tumangan River; 12, Belaya Scala Bay; 13, Tal'ma Lake; 14, Amur Bay.
110
Vladimir P. Grichuk
BRUNHES
MATUYAMA
iOlduvai
GENERA
f
5 a
Astian
Calabr.
(Lower)
DonauGunz
GiinzMindel
MindelRiss
RissWiirm
Holocene
Pinus
Abies
Populus
Salix
Betula
Alnus
Rhamnus
Viburnum
Picea
Larix
Taxus
Carpinus
Corylus
Fagus
Quercus
Ulmus
Ilex
Acer
Tilia
Fraxinus
Ostrya
Castanea
Vitis
Diospyrus
Cedrus
Pterocarya
Zelcova
Juglans
Aesculus
Laurus
Liquidambar
Platanus
Amygdalus
Tsuga
Carya
Pseudotsuga
Magnolia
Nyssa
Benzoin
Sophora
Sapindus
Borchemia
Eucommia
Keteleeria
Cephalotaxus
Ginkgo
Planera
Taxodium
Asimina
Ptelea
Geonoma
Ficus
Pheobe
Litsea
Cassia
Machaerium
Celastrus
Sterculia
Terminalia
Leuconthoe
Porana
Persea
Eugena
Appolonias
Boscia
Pittosporum
Combretum
Number of genera
65
41
33
30
28
24
23
Floral suites
111
Table 8.5. Dendroflora of Upper Cenozoic warm-climate horizons of the Kura depression and the southesat
piedmont of the Urals
MATUYAMA
GAUSS
BRUNHES
lOlduvai
GENERA
Productivna
Akchagyl
Apsheron
2,3
o.
CD
Z3
S-S"
O
'
Khazar
Baku
6,8
6,7
4,5
Khvalyn
Holocene
9, 10, 11
Pinus
Salix
Populus
Betula
Alnus
Rhamnus
Lonicera
Picea
Abies
Myrica
Carpinus
Corylus
Fagus
Quercus
Ulmus
Acer
Tilia
Fraxinus
Ilex
Celtis
Pyrus
Rhus
Vitis
Punica
Elaeagnus
Pterocarya
Ostrya
Parrotia
Castanea
Juglans
Buxus
Vitis
Morus
Zelcova
Cedrus
Carya
Tsuga
Nyssa
Libocedrus
Aralia
Paulovnia
Thuja
Platicarya
Taxodium
Sequoia
Cinnamomum
Persea
Number of genera
Floral suites
46
35
38
I.
28
25
II.
21
20
III.
Note: Correlation of the 1963 MSC (Modern Stratigraphic Code) standard sequence of the USSR to the
paleomagnetic scale is according to data of Grishanov et al. (1983). The main sections are as follows: 1, Baku or
Bakinsky Archipelago, western Caspian; 2, Shirak steppe; 3, Kvabebi; 4, Lengibiz Ridge; 5, Oblivnoi Island; 6,
Tagirkent; 7, Divichi; 8, Kysyl-Burun; 9, Kudialchai; 10, Shura-Ozen; 11, Binagady.
112
Vladimir P. Grichuk
Table 8.6 Dendroflora of Upper Cenozoic warm-climate or interglacial sequences of the Pamir Range,
Tadjikistan
BRUNHES
MATUYAMA
GAUSS
Olduvai!
Polizak
GENERA
"Gan"
subtillite
Nizhnekilimbin
Kokbai
intergl.
3,4,5
Dushanbe
llyak
Kuruksay
Akdzhar
intergl.
Early
Altyndar
6,7
Late
Altyndar
Amudar
Holocene
9, 10
Juniperus
Ephedra
Salix
Betula
Pinus
Picea
Alnus
Rosa
Comus
Abies
Rhododendron
Populus
Hippophae"
Corylus
Quercus
Ulmus
Acer
Tilia
Fraxinus
Carpinus
Fagus
Ilex
Pistacia
Rhus
Elaeagnus
Cedrus
Juglans
Celtis
Berberis
Platanus
Tamarix
Pterocarya
Zelcova
Ostrya
Morus
Vitis
Zygophyllum
Liquidambar
Tsuga
Carya
Menispermum
Fothergillia
Platycaria
Engelhardtia
Cerdidiphyllum
Glyptostrobus
Corylopsis
Taxodium
Altingia
Sabal
No. of genera
Floral groups
51
40
36
30
II.
26
25
III.
Note: Correlation of the stratigraphic sequence of Chediya (1971) to the paleomagnetic scale is
according to data of Dodonov (1980). The main sections are as follows: 1, Orta-Uchkul' (lower
levels); 2, Khyrga-Dara; 3, Orta-Uchkul' (upper levels); 4, Kokdzhar-Uchkul'; 5, Khiriak-Dara; 6,
Akdzhar; 7, Karatau-1; 8, Lakhuti; 9, Ogzikichik; 10, Khudzhi; 11, Shugnou.
113
Introduction
115
116
Aguirre et al.
Magnetic Western
Europe
Ma scale
oTi
0.6
0.7
C-Europe
& Balkans
Eastern
Europe
Betfia 5
KARAI-DUBJNA
South Africa
N. Africa North+West
Mid.-East Asia
C-East
Africa
glo.73 ATAPUERCA 3
0 . 8 Ml 1
OLDUVAI IV
LAKHUTI2
Oler
VIATKINO
SOLILHAC
UO.88
H O 94 VALLONET
0.9
1
1.1
Monte Peglia
Pirro
Imola
Venta Micena
1.2
Swartkrans 3
NOGAISK-2
UNTERMASS FIELD SENNAYA BALKA
1
1
Swartkrans 2
Ubeidiya
1
D. Altenburg.4
Betfia 2
OLDUVAI III
LAKHUT11
A
1
1.3
Cueva Victoria
1.4
SINZELLES
Casa Frata
Brielle
1.5
Psekups
Upper
D. Altenburg 2
Vcelare 3B1
KRYZHANOVKA Sterkfontein 5
Dmanisi
Kromdraai A
ATn- J
OLDUVAI II u A
Hanech
1
CHARI
A
1
SHUNGURA. L A
Kizikha
Osztramos 3
1.6
1
.;.;J.;.;J.;.;.;.;.;.
Olivola
II
LJi.72 TEGELEN 6
1.7
1.8
1 9
1 a
Kotiriaf>vS::::'
ORCE2
Almenara
KADZIELNIA
Villany 5
CHILHAC
COUPET
Kislang
SLATINA 2
iSwartk-raRSit::-: .QLQU.VAI.-JI-.FTV^V
SHUNGURA. J A
Kromdraai B3
1
OKOTE
A
1
OLDUVAI lllowA
SHUNGURA. H A
KBS_
A
OLDUVAI 1
A
LIVENTSOVKA
Khapry
KURUKSAI
PODPUSK
LEBYAZHIE
2.04 SENEZE
2.1
Saint Vallier
RIPPERSROD 4
2.2
SHUNGURA. G A
2.3
2 4
Mm a
2 5 "U2.47
at a W
aC a O
2.7
2.8
2.9
3
o ^
O.I
3.2
GOMARETI
MONTOPOLI
ROCCANEYRA STRANZENDC)RF
RINCON 1
C
Kotlovina?
ETOUAIRES
KALTENSUNDH.
KALOCHORO A
SHUNGURA. E A
Sterkfonte in 4
u. SHUNGURA. C
U3.I6
TULUCESTl
PJ3.07
BETEKE
ATnKADAHADAR A Brimba
2.88
U2.96
SHUNGURA. D A
BURGI Tuff-u A
Villarroya
VIALETTE
HIGUERUELAS
'riversa
RIPA SKORTSELSKAYA
HAJNACKA
MAKAPAN 3
LOMEKWI
A L. Ichkei 1
SHUNGURA. C A
DENEN DORA
TULU BOR
A
SHUNGURA. B A
Ichai
India
c
o>
c
Conglomerate
tit
1
GONGWAG-LING
O PearletteAshCUDAHY
Hartford Ash
COURTLAND
CANAL
IRVINGTON
8
Rock Creek
Q.
^"
CO
CD
JETIS
KEDUNG-BRU~BUS
TRINIL
M
P V
r A
r R
T T T
Upper
Arroyo seco
EL MUELLE
Lower
Arroyo Seco
C/ S/4/Af
Dongcun
Top of up.
TT nihowan
Warm
TARUA
co
CO
Upper
Yushe III
C
CO
1
E. Mediterrar 1.1
Land Bridge
I
(LB 1.2
Fisherman's
Warm
Cliff ?
1
<D
1
1
1
1
a. SATIR
HI
endemic
Arvicolidae
.-77
YOUNGER
LACUSTRINE, Youhe
Lower
Yushe III
FSD Equus
in India
Lower.
Lari'ar
Smilpdop ...
VALCnO'-'-'-'-
Corbicula Bed
WELLSCH
VALLEY
1
1
i
C. R. GIDLEY
BORCHERS 7
B PearlettQ Ash
1.4
Bioevent
Aridity
1.5
Cold, Low SL
1.6
Mon
Mira
VCasKfTvir-'-'-'-'-'
FVOUSXtJ\l^u. . . . . .
1.3
CO (0
CO
C/)
* -
D>
CO
0.7
0.8
Cold
Compress.
Diastrophism 0.9
Cooling
V
Li.
0.6
Ma
0.5
CO
Boulder
Australia
events
& N . Guinea
South
America
North
America
09
CL
CO
111
Central Java
uja
o
a China
r-
117
SMEATON
::::::::::V::-:
Unconformity 1.7
Cooling
Endemism
11 a SJ
ft
Diastrophism
Panama LB
Behring L B V 1.9
Aridity
Diastrophism 2
Cold, Low SL
2 1
^
KAREWA Gr
FSD Equus
in Kashmir
Soricini India \
Illl LOWER
LACUS
TRINE, Youhe
"QUUS
Lower/Green
Nihowan
Yushe II
CO
ttttt
Figure 9.1. Pliocene-Pleistocene mammal correlations.
2.2
'Torn
Base of
Pala nkarina
Ensenadan
2.3
Ay. UBERTAD/
S.s MONTE BLANCO Top of \ /
Cool
2.4
Vorohue
ce Age, V
Continent
i
CITA CANYON
2.5
accretion
GRANDVIEW/
c
D
anama LB 2.6
CO
Warm
AWE
Land
Bridge)
c
2.7
Behring LB
CO
2.8
<D
SANDPCHNT
Early
3lancan
POST RANCH
5
rohi
Late
Blancan
D"
BARRANCA
DELOSLOBOS
2.9
"oo ling
S-ice sheet
arosion
Diastrophism
3.1
3.2
118
Aguirre et al.
Sola and Menendez, 1986), is also noteworthy. The Almenara- and a fossil Homo (Dzaparidze et al., 1991), has a local fauna in
Casablanca l.f. is therefore most probably close to Olivola and which most elements (other than the bovids) are held in common
Kadzielna in age, and possibly precedes Kolinany. All these with the localities mentioned earler for the upper Matuyama
localities probably should be dated to the upper part of the time span, above the Olduvai subchron.
Olduvai subchron, if not to the top.
The local small-mammal faunas of Brielle (Van der Meulen
Normal magnetic polarity, possibly representing the Olduvai and Zagwijn, 1974), Neuleiningen-15 (Fejfar and Heinrich,
subchronozone, has also been reported from Orce 2, a horizon in 1981, given as Neuleiningen-11), and Bagur (Lopez, Michaux,
the Baza Basin in southern Spain that yields a faunule that and Villalta, 1976), as well as the local faunas of Psekups,
includes Mimomys ostramosensis, together with Mimomys Akkulaevo, and the "Odessan Complex" of eastern Europe
pusillus, Allophaiomys cf. A. deucalion, Apodemus mystacinus, (Nikiforova, Chapter 21, this volume), may correspond to the
Castillomys crusafonti, Gazellospira torticornis, and Leptobos younger, relatively more stable part of this interval during the
etruscus (Agusti et al., 1987; Aguirre, 1989b). The closest transition from cool climate to the warmer Waalian phase.
correlation of this fauna is to Kolinany, close to the top of the
A succeeding interval of more rapid change began at about 1.2
Olduvai subchron. A similar situation has been suggested for the Ma, the approximate age of Betfia 2, Deutsch-Altenburg, and
Kotsakuri l.f. of Georgia (Gabunia and Vekua, 1981).
Mas Rambault. A number of local faunas have been dated by
All of these faunal horizons together represent a faunal interpolation in paleomagnetic profiles, such as the following:
sequence that gives a fairly good picture of the diversity of large the central European site of Untermassfeld, with reversed
and small mammals in Europe at the end of the Olduvai polarity that is either just older or just younger than the Jaramillo
subchron, and thus the time of transition from the Pliocene to subchron; Sennaya-Balka, Nogaisk, and Vallonet, all of which
the basal Pleistocene. The accelerated pace of evolution in are contemporary with the Jaramillo (deLumley et al., 1988;
mammalian faunas seen in this interval may represent a true Markova, 1990); and Solilhac, which also has been referred to
faunal overturn, or an accelerated tempo of replacement, during the Jaramillo (Bonifay, 1991), but which more probably is related
to a post-Jaramillo normal-polarity excursion. The youngest part
this transition.
As a continuation of the same rapid pace of adaptation, some of the Matuyama, from levels just prior to the Jaramillo up to the
of the arvicolids that appeared in the lower Olduvai subchron Brunhes reversal, also includes the undated but correlative local
became extinct near its top, such as Villanyia exilis, or slightly faunas of Betfia 2, Les Valerots, Monte Peglia, Cava Pirro,
above this level, such as Allophaiomys deucalion, more or less Imola, and Venta Micena (Agusti, 1986; Agusti et al., 1987; De
simultaneously with the first appearance of Allophaiomys Giuli, Masini, and Torre, 1990).
pliocaenicus. The occurrences of this taxon at Vcelare 3 Bl and
In the short interval from 1.2 Ma to the beginning of the
Kamyk are probably its earliest record (Nadachowski, 1990), and Matuyama at 0.78 Ma, important changes occurred in mamit is widespread and abundant throughout Europe in other sites malian microfaunas. The last Mimomys with closed-root incisors
that date to just above the Olduvai subchron (Chaline, Chapter (M. savini) appears in Betfia 2 and in the upper Kryzhanovka
14, this volume), at the beginning of an important evolutionary level, dated to about 1.2 Ma, as well as Deutsch-Altenburg 4 and
lineage for the Quaternary (Van der Meulen, 1973).
Cueva Victoria. In the same faunas, we find evidence of
Almost at the same time, a number of changes occurred cladogenesis with the earliest appearance of Microtus (subgenus
among the European large-mammal assemblages. The evidence Pitymys) and related genera such as Stenocranius and Iberomys.
comes from such sites as Sinzelles, with a date of 1.4 Ma The earliest occurrences of Microtus sensu stricto and Pitymys in
(Bonifay, 1991); Cueva Victoria in southern Spain, which is central and western Asia are penecontemporaneous, in Itantsa
similar to Sinzelles, or perhaps younger (Ferrandez et al., 1989); and Razdolie, respectively (Vangengeim, 1977; Zazhigin, 1980).
and Casa Frata, an Italian locality stratigraphically equivalent to Beginning with the pre-Jaramillo levels at sites such as Betfia 2,
the ancient Tasso faunal assemblage, which has been dated to be Venta Micena, Monte Peglia, and Les Valerots we also find new
older than Sinzelles and younger than Olivola (De Giuli and species of Allophaiomys: A. laguroides, A. nutiensis, and A.
Masini, 1986). The immigrations of Hippopotamus and Cervalces burgondiae (Van der Meulen, 1973; Chaline, 1986). Finally, at
are recorded at Tasso and Sinzelles, the latter also including the approximately the same time, the dispersal of Ellobius and the
earliest record of Praemegaceros in western Europe. The Cueva immigration of Eolagurus are recorded in the Nogaisk 1 l.f.
Victoria l.f. is important for yielding the earliest record of (Vangengeim, 1977; Markova, 1990).
Dolichodoriceros (= Praedama) and of Cervus ex gr. C. elaphus In large-mammal faunas dating to the upper Matuyama, the
(Azanza and Sanchez, 1990). Fossil canids questionably attrib- most notable change is the regional diversification of Mammuuted to Canis falconeri or Xenocyon are found at Casa Frata and thus meridionalis into progressive varieties (Aguirre, 1972): M.
Cueva Victoria, and the last mention of Leptobos etruscus also m. tamanensis from Sennaya Balka and many other localities in
comes from these localities. The local faunas of Tetoiu 2 Ukraine, southern Russia, Georgia, and Romania, M. m.
(Radulesco and Samson, 1990) and Lybakos (Steensma, 1988) in vestinus from Imola and Pirro in Italy, M. m. wuesti from central
the Balkan basins correspond to this part of the Matuyama; Europe, and perhaps other varieties. Remains of these progresTetoiu 2 records the last occurrence of Megalovis. The new site sive varieties have frequently been confused with M. trogonof Dmanisi, in Georgia, with occurrences of Bos, Capra, Ovis, therii. As an immigrant from Asia, Elasmotherium caucasicum
119
occurs in the upper Kryzhanovka l.f., shortly before the been unfounded. Replacements at the species and variety levels
Jaramillo (Tretyak and Volok, 1974); Dicerorhinus etruscus must in particular groups within diverse areas more probably were
be read for D. hemitoechus at Solilhac. Equus suessenbornensis influenced by minor climatic cycles and vegetational changes.
and Equus altidens replace the last representatives of the E.
Several species were consistently present in African faunas
stenonis group, Dama ex. gr. D. dama replaces Dama (Pseudo- between 3 Ma and 0.74 Ma, among them the two living
dama) nestii, and Cervalces latifrons replaces C. gallicus; at the rhinoceroses, the extinct Hipparion (Stylohipparion) lybicum,
same time, Megacerini and modern Capreolus become abun- the southern zebra Equus capensis, several bovids such as
dant. Bison schoetensacki and Soergelia also appear before the Antidorcas recki and Oreotragus major, and extant carnivores,
Matuyama-Brunhes reversal in some of these sites. The first including leopard, cheetah, serval, caracal, striped hyena, and
species of Crocuta, new canids such as Canis arnensis, Canis spotted hyena. In faunas collected from levels of middle Gauss
mosbachensis, and Canis tamanensis, and ursids such as Ursus age, about 3-2.7 Ma, such as Makapansgat Mb 3 (McFadden,
deningeri appear. The last occurrence of European Acinonyx is Brock, and Partridge, 1979), Shungura B, Denen Dora in the
noted at Le Vallonet, and the last Megantereon is found in Hadar Formation, and the Tulu Bor level in Koobi Fora, we find
Untermassfeld.
the last occurrences of many Lower Pliocene taxa that characterWarm-climate episodes were followed by the Menapian ize older associations at Langebaanweg, Kanapoi, Laetolil, and
cooling trend near the time of the Jaramillo and by an increase in Usno: Theropithecus darti, Australopithecus afarensis, Ancylocompressive tectonics in various regions, together with uplifting therium hennigi, Gazella vanhoepeni, and Simatherium kohllarand erosion, as, for instance, the Cassian unconformity in Italy. seni (Vrba, 1982). At slightly higher levels, for instance in the
The succeeding faunas were but slightly modified from those of lower Burgi Member of Koobi Fora, in Shungura C and D of the
the Olduvai-Jaramillo interval, as, for instance, in Akhalkalaki Omo Basin, and in Sterkfontein 4, the most notable events are
(Vekua, 1987), Karai Dubina (Markova, 1990), Petropavlovka, the last Nyanzachoerus and the earliest Metridiochoerus.
and Huescar (Alberdi et al., 1989), which are just slightly older
The next interval showing faunal changes in eastern Africa is
than the Matuyama-Brunhes transition, and in Atapuerca TD3 bracketed between 2.0 and 1.75 Ma and includes local faunas
(Gil, 1987; Aguirre, 1989a), a faunal horizon in which that from Shungura G to H, Olduvai Bed I-lower Bed II, and the
paleomagnetic reversal is recorded.
upper Burgi and the lower KBS members at Koobi Fora. First
occurrences during this interval are the African elephant
Loxodonta africana in Shungura H and the earliest warthog,
Pliocene-Pleistocene mammalian successions in Africa
Phacochoerus antiquus, in lower Bed II at Olduvai (Cooke and
The African mammal assemblages seem to have been more Maglio, 1972), and the last Notochoerus are found at Shungura
stable than those of other continents. In the somewhat and Koobi Fora.
discontinuous record of southern Africa, accelerated faunal
There are no known fossil-bearing beds within the 2.0-1.75change has been reported between 3 and 2.5 Ma approximately, Ma interval in southern Africa, but several first and last
again between 2 and 1.5 Ma, and finally at about 1 Ma (Turner, occurrences have been noted in the fauna from Swartkrans 1 (the
1990b). In East Africa, the more nearly continuous, ra- "hanging breccia" included) and in the Kromdraai B-East 3,
diometrically calibrated sequences, such as the Shungura Forma- roughly dated between 1.6 and 1.7 Ma (Partridge, 1982; Brain et
tion north of Lake Turkana, also display evidence of faunal al., 1988). Among the earliest appearances there are those of
change. Cooke (1978) recognized such changes within Member Oreotragus major, Redunca cf. R. arundinum, Antidorcas
C (prior to 2.6-2.7 Ma) and within Member G (approximately 2 australis, Rabaticeras arambourgi, Equus quagga, and PaMa). Those suggested changes do not coincide precisely with the ranthropus robustus, and the last occurrences of Chasmainterpretation of Maglio (1972) regarding the Koobi Fora porthetes silberbergi and Hipparion steytleri (Vrba, 1982; Klein,
Formation, northeast of Lake Turkana, where he proposed three 1984). The upper part of Olduvai Bed II, above Tuff IIA, is of
zones: Zone 3, bracketed between the Tulu Bor Tuff (3.35 Ma) similar age, 1.67-1.65 Ma, with the first occurrences of Elephas
and the base of the KBS Tuff (1.95 Ma); Zone 2, from that level recki stage III, Damaliscus niro, Pelorovis olduwayensis, and
up to the base of the Okote Tuff (1.64 Ma); and Zone 1, from several suid taxa, and the last records of Homo habilis,
that level to the top of the preserved section. No major changes Parmularius braini, Parmularius angusticornis, and Mammuthus
in bovid faunal composition were recognized by Cooke (1978) in africanavus in East Africa (Cooke, 1978).
the transition between Maglio's zones 2 and 1, around 1.6 Ma.
Further first and last stratigraphic data have been noted in
Near to that level, however, Maglio placed the evolutionary Kromdraai A, involving a number of carnivores (Turner, 1990a),
change between the Elephas recki varieties 2 and 3, which and in Sterkfontein Mb 5, with an indirectly estimated age of
coincides with the subdivision between lower Olduvai Bed II and about 1.5 Ma. At that time, a number of new suid taxa appeared
its middle-upper part.
in South African assemblages, including the Phacochoerini
Overall, the major compositional changes of the southern and Afrochoerus, Tapinochoerus, and Orthostonyx (Cooke and
east-central fossil faunas of Africa appear to have been related to Maglio, 1972). Members 2 and 3 of Swartkrans, nearing 1 Ma,
continent-wide turnovers, and the doubts expressed by Turner show minor changes (Vrba, 1982). In fact, the fossil record in
(1990b) about the possibility of correlation would seem to have Africa between the middle of the early Pleistocene (1.25 Ma)
120
Aguirre et al.
121
(Mammuthus
meridionalis
Aguirre et al.
122
123
Aguirre et al.
124
Conclusion
The peaks of faunal overturn and the intervals of stability were
approximately synchronous in the mammal communities of
different continents during the Pliocene and early Pleistocene. It
can be inferred, not surprisingly, that the tempo of dispersal and/
or evolutionary change in mammalian communities was influenced by major changes in the global environment.
In relating faunal overturns to geological and climatic events,
one has to consider that the interdependence and development
of those phenomena were not uniform. Occasional global events
that lead to migration and dispersal may affect faunal stability
and produce major departures from patterns of "normal"
ecological dynamics. A "dispersal event" actually involves
several concepts. In the first case, it can mean the immigration of
one or more taxa into areas where they are pre-adapted for
success, as in the exchanges via the filter of Central America or
Beringia. In the second case, it may mean the expansion of
endemic lineages that have evolved adaptations to exploit the
resources of a larger region, such as the spread of Allophaiomys,
Microtus, Bison, Equus, and the progressive forms of Mammuthus meridionalis. The third case may arise from the effects of a
geographic expansion of favorable conditions. In the second
case, the effect is enhanced if it coincides with the development
of corridors or land bridges, but in each of the noted examples
the dispersal would have come about through the same favorable
adaptation: increased hypsodonty, with continued enamel production in the teeth-forming tissues. The success of such
adaptations depends on vegetation, and that is favored by
expansion of suitable plant associations, in this case the grasses
of the family Poaceae; and that, in turn, is also an effect of
climate change. Thus, there is an overlap with the third type of
dispersal. Other instances of the third case are the dispersal of
the carnivore "guild" (Turner, 1990b; Masini and Torre, 1990),
that of the new cervids, Cervalces and the Megacerini, and that
of Hippopotamus. All of those would have been predictable,
taking into account the lowered sea levels and dominantly mild
and moist climate up to the end of the Eburonian.
With respect to the stratigraphic questions, it is necessary to
recognize that all of the earlier described examples of faunal
overturns represent accelerated or powered processes that were
not instantaneous, but time-transgressive events, the same as
other geodynamic and paleogeographic changes. The type of
events that are closest to a geological "instant" are the magnetic
reversals. The ages and successions of land-mammal faunas are
now better calibrated and more precisely understood, so that
faunal changes, whether major or minor, global or regional, can
be tuned to the astronomically forced climate cycles, paleomagnetic reversals, paleogeographical and tectonic events, as well as
the global stratotype sections and points (GSSPs).
The basal boundary of the Pleistocene, as proposed by Aguirre
and Pasini (1985) and adopted in the Global Stratigraphic Scale
(Cowie and Bassett, 1989), is very close to the faunal overturns
represented in Allophaiomys event in Eurasia, to the dispersal of
the carnivore guild mentioned earlier, and to the changes in
African fauna seen in Olduvai Bed II. The faunal horizons closest
in time to these events are as follows: Olivola in northern Italy;
Barranca de los Conejos, close to Orce 2 in Spain; Villany 5 in
Hungary; Kadzielna in Ukraine; Shungura J7, the lowest part of
the Okote beds, and the earliest faunal levels in Olduvai Bed II in
East Africa; the Smilodon FAD in Vallecito Creek, southern
California; the top of the Uquia Formation, Argentina.
Acknowledgments
The authors are deeply indebted to many colleagues who have
shared their invaluable knowledge and advice. We wish to thank
in particular Dr. Ksenia V. Nikiforova and also the officers of the
INQUA and of the IUGS International Commission on
Stratigraphy, who have supported and encouraged our efforts
over the past two decades.
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10
Introduction
For many years, the main problem in relating the PliocenePleistocene boundary to human evolution has been the controversy over "Tertiary man." For some, this has had serious
philosophical implications arising from the definition of the
Quaternary period in anthropological terms. The development
of modern stratigraphical standards, however, makes this a
merely nominal question, because such boundaries are now
based entirely on geological principles. At the same time, the
terms "Tertiary" and "Quaternary," having been drawn from
primitive concepts of stratigraphy that once also distinguished a
"Primary" and a "Secondary," have been called into question.
Nevertheless, the chronology of early humans is pertinent to the
goal of this project, for other than merely historical reasons.
The search for fossil Hominidae in the past three decades has
produced an immense amount of geological and paleontological
evidence. In Africa, particularly, well-exposed and relatively
thick Plio-Pleistocene sections yielding abundant remains of
Hominidae and a wide diversity of other fossils have been very
well characterized in terms of biochronology, and also with
reference to magnetostratigraphy and isotopic dates. Similar
data, if not so well developed, have been recovered from other
areas as a direct result of paleoanthropological studies.
It is now clear that key events in human evolution occurred
within the time interval that also encompassed the PliocenePleistocene boundary (i.e., within the limits of the Matuyama
paleomagnetic chron, from 2.6 to 0.8 Ma) (Figure 10.1). It was
during that time that the genus Homo first appeared in Africa,
giving rise to the key species Homo habilis Leakey, Tobias, and
Napier, at about 1.8 Ma, almost exactly coincident with the
beginning of the Pleistocene. At some later time, perhaps very
soon after its evolution in Africa at about 1.6 Ma, the clade of
Homo ergasterlerectus began to disperse into southern Eurasia.
Africa
C-E.ETHIOPIA
W-TURKANA E-TURKANA
(CHAVAILLON
(BROWN e. a. (BROWN e. a. 0M0SHUNGURA S2)
85)
'85)
TANZANIA
(LEAKEY,
S-AFRICA
Ma (VRBA, 1982) ISAAC '82)
Mauer
0.5
0.6
Ternifine
0.7
0.8
CO
<
CQ
11
CC
1.3
O Tuff 110 Z
Tuff IIC
Chari Tuff
<&*
<
>
WT-15000
Malbe Tuff
KBS Tuff
2.3
Kalochoro Mb
Y
s
2.5 oiGrktontGin
|
Lokalalei Mb BurgiTuff
WT-17000
w
GTuff
0 FTuff 5
*
ETuff
. D Tuff
* BK-T2Tuff
2.7
9 ft
.omekwi Mb
2.9
Makapan4 A
3
3.1
Makapan3 A
Kada Hadar Mb
Hasuna Tuff CTuff
AL-288
v
Denen Dora Mb
BIOTuff AL-333
T
AL-266
T
AL-128
T
\
SH Cinerite
3.2
3.3
#Toroto
# TuluBorTuff
Sidi-Hakoma
3.4
3.5
DKhabilis
Homosp.
Paranthropus boise
O P. robustus
P.aethiopicus
0 Paranthropus sp.
A Australopithecus sp.
A A. africanus
A.afarensis
vHominidaegeasp.
^ Stone tools
H2 Tuff
'
Ogol Lavas
Dmanisi
Homo erectus
2.2
o c
IB
2.4
M
y
H
Gombore
Notao Mb
Tuff IIA
Tuff ID
Tuff IB
LU
Member
i l l ^^ i l l ^^^y 1
2 1
Cueva Victoria??
< GarbalV
LTuff
Mb
Tuff II B
1.8
1.9
"
"
"
1
1
Nariokotome
1.5 Swartkrans *
O
S2.6
Trinil
S4.S5
S1
Ubeidiya
-z.
Unnamed Tuf
DC
Member III
LJLJ
1.6 1
Kromdraai
1.7 B3
A tuff top
Z)
1.2
CTuff
c
Gombore IIC o
BTuff
<
LU
Swartkrans
OH
1.1 2
1.4 Sterkfontein
Gongwangling
z S12.17.3
Member IV
Swartkrans
0.9
Magnetic
scale
EURASIA
INDONESIA
Top, upper
Laetolil Beds y
Figure 10.1. Principal occurrences of human fossils and paleolithic artifacts in the Old World during the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene.
The paleomagnetic scale on the right shows the Matuyama chron be-
Tuff
Mb
11
Hi
tween 0.7 and 2.5 Ma, with the Olduvai subchron normal-polarity interval at about 1.8 Ma.
131
Emiliano Aguirre
132
Ma, Olduvai Bed IV, Olorgesailie (0.95 Ma), and Guomde (East
Turkana), dated to about 1.0 Ma.
South Africa
The chronology of Plio-Pleistocene fossil Hominidae from the
South African caves is less precise than that in East Africa, with
no radiometric dates and only a debatable paleomagnetic record
from Makapansgat. Two alternative age sequences have been
proposed for the fossils from the younger "Australopithecine
caves." The first is correlated in a morpho climatic approach, set
out by Partridge (1982), while the second follows faunal
correlations with East African sequences by Cooke (1978), Vrba
(1982), and others. The two approaches almost coincide in their
estimations for the most likely age of the main level of
Sterkfontein (St. 4, with Australopithecus africanus), suggesting
an age range between 2.8 Ma and 2.4 Ma. The upper level of
Sterkfontein (St. 5, with Homo cf. H. erectus) is estimated to
have an age between 1.6 and 1.4 Ma, if not slightly younger,
which would correlate to a level in upper Olduvai Bed II.
The dates that have been suggested for the other sites are less
consistent, regardless of the approach. Makapansgat Member 3,
the earliest australopithecine level, has been assigned an age of
just over 3 Ma by Partridge (1982), based on the interpretation
that middle Gauss (Mammoth and Kaena) paleomagnetic
polarities are recorded in the overlying Member 4, also with
hominid remains. The paleomagnetic profile, however, could be
interpreted as the upper part of the Gauss, with an age between
2.8 and 2.4 Ma, like the St. 4 main level at Sterkfontein. All of
the fossil hominines from Makapansgat are commonly attributed
to A. africanus, but Aguirre (1970) suggested that the lower jaw
of an immature individual resembles Paranthropus in some
features. This question should now be reassessed in view of the
discovery of a primitive species of that genus, P. aethiopicus,
from beds of that age in the Turkana Basin.
The age of the deposits of Swartkrans 1, with the robust
australopithecine Paranthropus and indications of early Homo,
should be 1.9-1.6 Ma, according to the faunal correlations, just
as at Olduvai, whereas Partridge (1982) estimates it to be
between 1.55 and 1.2 Ma, and thus significantly younger than the
youngest known Australopithecus from the well-dated East
African hominid record. The age of Swartkrans 2, with H.
erectus, but no Paranthropus, should be 1.0 Ma, according to
Vrba (1982), but Partridge (1982) estimates it as much younger,
corresponding to early middle Pleistocene. Finally, two age
estimates for Member B of Kromdraai, with robust australopithecines, are 2.1-1.8 Ma (Vrba, 1982) or 1.25-1.0 Ma
(Partridge, 1982).
Northwest Africa
Among the fossil Hominidae known from Middle Pleistocene
sites in Northwest Africa, the skull and associated material of the
"advanced Homo erectus" of Tighenif (also known as Palikao
133
Emiliano Aguirre
134
On the other hand, Shimizu et al. (1985) found that the top of
the Jaramillo is clearly evidenced just below the basal Grenzbank, indicating that the controversial interpretations of reversed polarity in the Grenzbank and lower Kabuh are probably
valid. In this view, the range of typical "pithecanthropines" in
Java extended from the Matuyama-Brunhes reversal down to a
level well below the Jaramillo, as discussed later. The dating of
Swisher et al. (1994) on a tuff just above the oldest specimens at
Sangiran (S27 and S31) indicates an age of 1.66 Ma, well down in
the upper Matuyama. They also dated hornblende from normally magnetized volcaniclastic deposits at the site of the
Modjokerto skull at Perning, chemically comparable to material
from within the skull itself, at 1.81 Ma, consistent with an age
within the Olduvai subchron and thus slightly older than the
oldest dated erectus-grade hominids in Africa.
The biostratigraphic and radiometric data appear to be in
better agreement with the older interpretation, rather than with
the younger interpretation. In the biostratigraphic analysis of
Leinders et al. (1985) the Kedung Brubus local fauna in the
lower Kabuh Formation is correlated to an age older than 0.7
Ma. The fossils from Trinil and those of the Grenzbank at
Sangiran are placed at the level of the Jaramillo subchron (1.1
Ma), while the material from the top of the Black Clays and the
Ci Saat fauna are dated to about 1.3 Ma, or (pace Swisher et al.,
1994) even older. Itihara, Kadar, and Watanabe (1985) noted
that in regard to the three pumice tuffs identified within the
Kabuh Formation (their Bapang),fission-trackages by Suzuki et
al. (1985) dated the Upper Tuff to the lowermost Brunhes, and
the Middle Tuff at 0.78 Ma to the latest Matuyama. That dating
agrees with the determination that the 0.71-Ma tektites found at
different levels in the middle Kabuh are in situ just above the
Middle Tuff and that the Brunhes-Matuyama boundary is
therefore correctly placed between these horizons.
135
on the inner surface is quite similar in shape to one characteristically found in the Equidae (S. Moya-Sola and J. Agusti, in
Gibert-Clols et al., 1989), and very uncommon in humans.
Nevertheless, immunological assay of the specimen has shown a
closer affinity to humans than to horses (Gibert-Clols et al.,
1989, pp. 225-228).
The Cueva Victoria fossil, found in a cave setting, is a second
phalanx of the fifth finger (Gibert-Clols et al., 1989, pp. 395406) that looks definitely human and cannot be attributed to any
other known primate. Although it was not collected in situ, all
the evidence leads to the conclusion that the Cueva Victoria
phalanx came from a bone breccia that completely filled the cave
in the early Pleistocene. The very abundant faunal remains,
which are ascribed to hyena accumulation, are well correlated to
the Sinzelles faunal assemblage (1.3-1.4 Ma) by Moya-Sola and
Menendez (1986; Agusti, 1986; Aguirre et al., Chapter 9, this
volume). Fossils of an undescribed giant baboon have been
recovered from the Cueva Victoria breccia (J. Moya-Sola,
personal communication), but the possibility that this is the
proper attribution for the phalanx can be positively ruled out
(Perez-Perez, 1989).
Conclusion
Evolution of the genus Homo can be closely tied to the PliocenePleistocene boundary, located in the uppermost part of the
Olduvai subchron. The earliest known species, H. rudolfensis,
was replaced by H. habilis within the time interval of the
Olduvai, and shortly after it ended, the H. erectus clade evolved
in Africa and rapidly spread into southeastern Asia. The
dispersal of humans into southwestern Eurasia was not much
later. The present state of knowledge therefore suggests that the
first major dispersal of humans outside of Africa took place close
to the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary.
Southern Europe
The attribution of a skull fragment and a fragment of bone from
the locality of Venta Micena, near Orce (Gibert-Clols et al.,
1989), to the genus Homo is questionable, although the
stratigraphic position is well established in the Baza endorheic
sequence (Anadon et al., 1987; Aguirre, Chapter 13, this
volume). This level corresponds to the median third of the early
Pleistocene and has a rich fauna younger than that of Sinzelles
(1.3-1.4 Ma) and older than that of Vallonet (0.95 Ma) (MoyaSola et al., 1981). By interpolation, the specimen can thus be said
to date from approximately 1.1 Ma, with an error margin of as
much as 10%, which is about the same age and uncertainty as for
the Tell 'Ubeidiya remains. The fossil in question is a small
fragment of a cranial vault, including the lambda region, and
what arguably may be a section of the coronoidal suture. The
bone is very thin, with a very poorly developed pneumatized
layer. That would indicate a very immature human, but it is
inconsistent with a partial fusion of the sutures. Moreover, the
shape of the suture is highly uncommon in humans, but is more
often found in several other orders of Mammalia. A crestal ridge
References
136
Emiliano Aguirre
Anadon, P., Julia, R., De Decker, P., Rosso, J. C , and SoulieMarsche, I. 1987. Contribution a la paleolimnologia del
Pleistoceno inferior de la Cuenca de Baza (sector OrceVenta Micena). In Geologia y Paleontologia del Pleistoceno inferior de Venta Micena, ed. S. Moya-Sola et al., pp.
35-72. Paleontologia i Evolucio, Memoria especial, no. 1.
Sabadell: Institut de Paleontologic Dr. M. Crusafont.
Arsuaga, J. L., Martinez, I., Garcia, A., Carretero, J. M., and
Carbonnel, E. 1993. Three new human skulls from the
Sima de los Huesos, Middle Pleistocene site in Sierra de
Atapuerca, Spain. Nature 362:534-537.
Brown, F. H., Harris, J. M., Leakey, R. E. L., and Walker, A.
1985a. Early Homo erectus skeleton from West Lake
Turkana, Kenya. Nature 316:788-791.
Brown, F. H., McDougall, I., Davies, T., and Maier, R. 1985b.
An integrated Plio-Pleistocene chronology for the
Turkana Basin. In Ancestors: the hard evidence, ed. E.
Delson, pp. 82-90. New York: Liss.
Ceding, T. E., and Brown, F. H. 1982. Tuffaceous marker
horizons in the Koobi Fora region and the Lower Omo
Valley. Nature 299:216-221.
Chavaillon, J. 1982. Position chronologique des hominides
fossiles d'Ethiopie. In ler Congres International de
Paleontologie humaine. Pretirage, vol. 2, ed. H. deLumley
and M. A. deLumley, pp. 166-791. Nice: Centre National
de la Recherche scientifique.
Cooke, H. B. S. 1978. Faunal evidence for the biotic setting of
early African hominids. In Early hominids of Africa, ed.
C. Jolly, pp. 267-281. London: Duckworth.
Coppens, Y., Howell, F. C , Isaac, G. L., and Leakey, R. E. F.
(eds.) 1976. Earliest man and environments in the Lake
Rudolf Basin. University of Chicago Press.
Dzaparidze, V., Bosinski, G., Bugianisvili, T , Gabunia, L.,
Justus, A., Klopotovskaja, N., Kvavadze, E., Lordkipanidze, D., Majsuradze, G., Mgeladze, N., Nioradze, M.,
Pavlenisvili, E., Schmincke, H. U., Sologasvili, D. Z.,
Tustfabramasvili, D., Tvalkrelidze, M., and Vekua, A.
1991. Der altpalaolitische Fundplatz Dmanisi in Georgien
(Kaukasus). Romisch-Germ. Zentralmus. Mainz, Jahrb.
36:67-116.
Feibel, C. G., Brown, F. H., and McDougall, I. 1989.
Stratigraphic context of fossil hominids from the Omo
Group deposits, northern Turkana Basin, Kenya and
Ethiopia. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol 78:595-622.
Gibert-Clols, J., Campillo-Valero, D., and Garcia-Olivares, E.
(eds.) 1989. Los restos humanos de Orcey Cueva Victoria.
Sabadell: Institut Paleontologic Dr. M. Crusafont.
Haileab, B., and Brown, F. H. 1992. Turkana Basin-Middle
Awash Valley correlations and the age of the Sagantole
and Hadar formations. /. Hum. Evol. 22:453-468.
Harris, J. 1986. Decouverte de materiel archeologique olduwayen dans le Rift de l'Afar. VAnthropologie 90:339-357.
Hill, A., Ward, S., Deino, A., Curtis, G. H., and Drake, R.
1992. Earliest Homo. Nature 355:719-722.
Hublin, J. J. 1985. Human fossils from the North African Middle
Pleistocene and the origins of Homo sapiens. In Ancestors:
the hard evidence, ed. E. Delson, pp. 283-288. New York:
Liss.
Itihara, M., Kadar, D., and Watanabe, N. 1985. Concluding
remarks. In Quaternary geology of the hominid fossil
bearing formations in Java, ed. N. Watanabe and D.
Kadar, pp. 367-378. Special Publication no. 4. Bandung:
Geological Research and Development Centre.
Johanson, D. C. 1989. A partial Homo habilis skeleton from
Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania: a summary of preliminary
137
javites of hominid fossil bearing formations in Sangiran Walter, R. C , Manega, P. C , Hay, R. L., Drake, R. E., and
Curtis, G. H. 1991. Laser-fusion 40Ar/39Ar dating of Bed
area, Central Java. In Quaternary geology of the hominid
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Kadar, pp. 310-357. Special Publication 4. Bandung: White, T. D. 1988. The comparative biology of "robust"
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Australopithecus: clues from context. In Evolutionary
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Wood, B. 1992. Origin and evolution of the genus Homo. Nature
Vrba, E. S. 1982. Biostratigraphy and chronology, based
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Part IV
The Pleistocene boundary in regional sequences
11
Introduction
Italy is one of the primary sources of data for the Pliocene and
Pleistocene. The Italian coastal margins were affected by
tectonism during the Pleistocene more than any other part of
western Europe, and as a result the Upper Cenozoic marine
sequences that crop out along the coast in Sicily and in the
mainland Apennine foothills (Figure 11.1) have been the
subjects of classic studies on the chronostratigraphy of that age.
Additionally, Plio-Pleistocene strata with stratigraphic thicknesses exceeding 8,000 m have been sampled in boreholes in the
subsurface of the central Po Valley. Finally, Pliocene and Lower
Pleistocene nonmarine strata are common in the montane basins
of the Italian peninsula.
Since the very beginning of stratigraphy as a science, the
abundance of Cenozoic fossils, particularly in the marine record,
has attracted attention to the Italian sections. Lyell's original
designations of the "older" and "younger" Pliocene (Lyell,
1833), the latter of which became the Pleistocene, relied heavily
on the malacofaunas of the northern Apennines. For the same
reason, all standard Pliocene and Pleistocene marine chronostratigraphic terms used in global correlation are based on the
biostratigraphy of the Italian sequences. In recognition of this
historical importance, the XVIII International Geological Congress in London in 1948 confirmed a general consensus that the
Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary should be defined in the exposed
Italian marine strata.
In this chapter we shall review the stratigraphic data available
from the marine and continental records of Italy, as background
for defining the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary. The known
Italian Plio-Pleistocene sections are so numerous that it would
be impossible to treat them all in this brief review, and therefore
we shall consider only those sections that are well documented
and stratigraphically significant and that have been historically
important in subdividing the Pliocene and the Pleistocene.
Biostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic framework
Several fossil groups (mollusks, ostracodes, foraminifers, calcareous nannofossils, pollen, etc.) are biostratigraphically use-
ful in the Italian marine record. The most detailed and most
reliable correlations are obtained through planktic foraminifera
(Pasini and Colalongo, Chapter 2, this volume) and calcareous
nannofossils (Rio, Raffi, and Backman, Chapter 5, this volume). The other groups are less reliable for long-distance
correlations, although they can provide additional stratigraphic
controls.
The biostratigraphic schemes based on planktic foraminifera
and calcareous nannofossils, as discussed by the aforementioned authors, are shown in Figure 11.2. Figure 11.2 also
shows the informal biostratigraphic subdivisions of the Lower
Pleistocene of Ruggieri et al. (1976). Zones C, D, and E of
Ruggieri and co-workers are defined, in ascending order, by the
successive entrances into the Mediterranean basin of Arctica
islandica (or other time-equivalent "northern guests"), Hyalinea
baltica, and finally Globorotalia truncatulinoides excelsa. The
chronostratigraphic subdivisions adopted for the Lower Pleistocene (Figure 11.2) are discussed in Ruggieri et al. (1984) and
Rio et al. (1991). In particular, for the recognition of the
Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary, we have used the definition
proposed by INQUA Subcommission 1-d, "Pliocene/Pleistocene Boundary," and adopted by action of the IUGS, namely,
the base of the claystone conformably overlying sapropelic layer
e of the Vrica section in Calabria (Pasini and Colalongo,
Chapter 2, this volume).
In reviewing the individual sections, we shall also discuss the
available magnetostratigraphy in light of the biostratigraphic
framework presented earlier. Cross-checks of magnetostratigraphy and biostratigraphy are crucial in the Italian sections
considered here, because all of them are erosionally truncated
and lack radiometric control. Therefore, only calibrated biostratigraphic events can allow correlation of the local magneticpolarity reversals to the standard MPTS (magnetic polarity time
scale). The chronometry followed here was originally developed
according to the MPTS of Mankinen and Dalrymple (1979), but
their values have been translated throughout this text according
to the newly developed orbital time scale (Preface, this volume).
The biostratigraphic events reported in Figures 11.2 and 11.9
have been tied to geomagnetic polarity, following Rio et al.
(Chapter 5, this volume).
141
Azzaroli et al.
142
CASTELL' ARQUATO
SANTERNO
S. MARIA Dl CATANZARO
d VRICA
LE CASTELLA
MONASTERACE
100
200 Kn
Marine record
Plio-Pleistocene of Italy
CHRONOSTRATI
SERIES
EPOCH
STAGE
AGE
B I O S T R A T I G R A P H Y
GRAPHY
PLANKTONIC
NANNOFOSSILS
POLARITY
TIME SCALE
SUBTAGE M a
Z.
BI OZONE
SZ.
BIOEVENT
ZONES OF
ZONAL BOUNDARY
BIOEVENT
ZONAL BOUNDARY
RUGGIERI AND
BIOEVENT
SPROVIERI
1976
GLOBOROTALIA
TRUNCATULINOIDES
EXCELSA
SMALL
GEPHYROCAPSA
FORAMINIFERA
BIOZONE
SYRACOSPHAERA
PULCHRA
ZONE E
6pp.
kbtginrung Acme.
Small Gzphyfiocap6a
6pp.
HELICOSPHAERA
SELLII
-1.5
143
>5.5 fun
Gzpf
6pp.
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G.
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HyaJUnea
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CRENALITHUS
DORONICOIDES
GLOBOROTALIA
INFLATA
J G.inileuta
DISCOASTER
BROUWERI
GLOBOROTALIA
CRASSAFORMIS
DISCOASTER
PENTARADIATUS
Azzaroli et al.
144
CHRONO
STRATIGRAPHY
BIO
STRATIGRAPHY
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC
INFORMATIONS
2500
8
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CHRONOSTRA
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SILTY CLAY
CLAY
Central Italy
F^I
CONGLOMERATES
CALCARENITES
146
Azzaroli et al.
CHRONO
STRATIGRAPHY
BIOSTRATI
GRAPHY
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC
INFORMATIONS
Southern Italy
Monasterace section. This section crops out along the southern
slope of Monte Rosito, a few kilometers north of Monasterace
village on the Ionian side of Calabria, near Punta Stilo. It is
noteworthy as one of the sections of the Calabrian described by
Gignoux (1913, p. 48), but the local Plio-Pleistocene sequence is
poorly exposed.
In the middle part of this section, where there are some scanty
outcrops, about 20 m of blue marls can be sampled. From the
presence of Globorotalia inflata, Globorotalia truncatulinoides
truncatulinoides, Globorotalia tosaensis, and Discoaster brouweri
these strata must be ascribed to the uppermost Pliocene. Greco,
Ruggieri, and Sprovieri (1974) erroneously referred these marls
to the Pleistocene because of the presence of G. truncatulinoides,
which at that time was considered to have been restricted to the
Quaternary.
Transgressively above the Upper Pliocene blue marls lies a
sequence, about 100 m thick, that begins in a fossiliferous
conglomerate with Arctica islandica, followed by interbedded
sands and sandy clays, in which G. truncatulinoides excelsa is
present. This transgressive sequence must be ascribed to a
separate sedimentary cycle of late Emilian-Sicilian age (Figure
11.2), in a geologic and stratigraphic setting very similar to that
in the Santa Maria di Catanzaro area (Sprovieri, D'Agostino,
and Di Stefano, 1973). This being the case, we may conclude that
the Monasterace section, even though indicated by Gignoux
(1913) as one of the typical examples of the Calabrian, represents
only the uppermost part of the Lower Pleistocene.
_J_ G. ocia/Uca
i.l.
J_
P. ICULI.
iti:
~V
-\ SEMIENDURATED CHALK
SILTY MARL WITH
Fe - Mg BROWN HORIZONS
Plio-Pleistocene of Italy
CHRONOSTRATI
GRAFHY
BIOSTRATI
GRAPHY
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC
INFORMATIONS
SZ
NOT
ZONED
_- 15
_J_ G. ViunccucuJU.noidzA
-MARKER BED,,
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I
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[^jjr]
DIATOMITE
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^ ^
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147
Azzaroli et al.
148
Station
ScrraMv/a
SE
CHRONOSTRATI
GRAPHY
STRATIGRAPHIC
INFORMATIONS
LU
LU
UJ
h-
Figure 11.7. Stratigraphic cross section of the hills south of Santa Maria di Catanzaro, according to Gignoux (1913). In this drawing, the
"Pliocene superieur" is the equivalent of the Calabrian. (From
Gignoux, 1913, p. 22.)
"G" BED
Plio-Pleistocene of Italy
149
end of the Globorotalia puncticulata biozone in marine micropaleontology (De Giuli et al., 1983). Lindsay et al. (1980)
estimated an age for this level at about 3 Ma, based on
correlations to a short, normal-polarity paleomagnetic event
between the Kaena and Mammoth reversed chrons in the Gauss
epoch.
GEOMAGNETIC POLARITY
TIME SCALE
(Mankmen & Dalrymple 1979)
LE CASTELLA
GEPHYROCAPSA FO
MARKER BED
55
MACINTYREI LO
PROPOSED P/P
BOUNDARY DEFINITION
(+)
Globigerina
Globigerinoides
3fc Arctica
MAGNETIC
cariacoensis FO
obliquus
ex tremus
LO
Local Occurrence)
POLARITY
normal
reversed
intermediate
undefined
\-\-) maximum age for G crassaformis gr. FO
151
Plio-Pleistocene of Italy
u
*ine
M a m m a l s
Pollen
2
W.Europe
E. Europe
W.CuroDe
India
M A
tandar
<o
NE A s i a
Major
events
Erosionai
phases
Ostlan
UJ
V
ClOmtAAAA
Nomntanan
UJ o
TAjuupoLLan
Ranucclo
p ^
o5 O
o
o
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Utnaplan
V)
Do^liara
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Avvicola
riaminian
o
O
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End V i l l a f r .
Cattian
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Taaao
O.
EbuAoniA*
Ollvola
OdtAmOn
Wolf
mm ^m mm ^ a
X
o
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mm im mm mt
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Rcuvvuan
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Acqufltraversan
Moldavian
w
Z
U
CO
Leptoooe
P L I 0
3-
about 2.2 Ma to the top of the Olduvai normal at 1.8 Ma (Sue and
Zagwijn, 1983; Zagwijn, Chapter 16, this volume). The maar
deposits at Seneze have a pollen spectrum with similar features
and also contain a mammal fauna that shares many characteristic
elements with the Saint-Vallier unit (e.g., Nyctereutes megamas-
toides, Eucladoceros teguliensis, Cervus rhenanus, and Croizetoceros ramosus). The Seneze fauna is generally considered to be
younger than the fauna at Saint-Vallier (Meon et al., 1979), and in
fact it includes more progressive taxa, which nevertheless are
older than the comparative forms in the next (Olivola) unit. A
152
Azzaroli et al.
Plio-Pleistocene of Italy
153
Vernasca-Castell'Arquato including the Piacenzian stratotype (Piacenza Province). Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat., Mem.
15:145-163.
Barbieri, F. 1971. Piacentian. In Stratotypes of Mediterranean
Neogene Stages, ed. G. C. Carloni et al., pp. 147-155.
Summary of the continental record
Giorn. Geol. 37, estratto, fasc. II.
In conclusion, the Villafranchian and Galerian continental Barbieri, R, and Rio, D. 1974. Calcareous nannoplankton from
the Piacenzian (Late Pliocene) of Western Emily. L'Ateneo
faunas in Italy show evidence of two major turnovers, the
Parmense, Acta Nat. 10:29-42.
elephant-Egwws event at about 2.5 Ma and the end-VillafranchBorselli, V, De Giuli, C , Ficcarelli, G., and Mazzini, M. 1980.
ian event at about 0.9 Ma, both of which were approximately
Casa Frata: una localita fossilifera del Villafranchiano
coeval with major climate and ocean-level minima. The
superiore presso Terranova Bracciolini (Arezzo) nel
Valdarno Superiore. Soc. Paleontol. Ital., Boll. 19:254Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary, coincident with the beginning of
258.
the Olivola unit in the Valdarno sequence, was also marked by
significant changes in the land-mammal faunas, but those Bout, P. 1970. Absolute ages of some volcanic formations in the
Auvergne and Velay areas and chronology of the European
changes were not accompanied by changes in the environment
Pleistocene. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 8:
comparable to the changes that accompanied the two major
95-106.
Bout, P., and Azzaroli, A. 1953. Stratigraphie et faune du Creux
events.
de Peyrolles (Puy-de-Dome). Ann. Paleontol. 38:37-56.
Brolsma, M., and Meulenkamp, J. E. 1973. Benthonic foraminiferal assemblages from the Calabrian deposits of
References
Santa Maria di Catanzaro. Newsl. Stratigr. 3:1-24.
Aguirre, E., and Pasini, G. 1985. The Pliocene-Pleistocene Cita, M. B., and Decima, A. 1975. Rossellian: proposal of
boundary. Episodes 8:116-120.
superstage for the marine Pliocene. In VI Congress of the
Alberdi, M. T , Arias, P., Bigazzi, G., Bonadonna, F. P., Leone,
Regional Committee for Mediterranean Neogene StratiG., Lopez, N., Michaux, J., Morales, J., Robles, R, and
graphy, Bratislava, 1975, Proceedings, vol. 1, ed. J. Senes
Soria, Y. D. 1982. Nuevo yacimiento de molluscos y
and J. Slavik, pp. 217-227. Bratislava: Akad. Vied.
vertebrados del Villafranquiense de la Cuenca del Jucar Cita, M. B., and Gartner, S., Jr. 1973. The stratotype Zanclean:
(Albacete, Espafia). In Actes de la Colloqium "Le
foraminiferal and nannofossil biostratigraphy. Riv. Ital.
Villafranchien mediterraneen," Lille, 9-10 Dec. 1982, vol.
Paleontol. Strat. 79:503-558.
1, pp. 255-271. Lille: Lille Univ., Fac. Sci. (CNRS).
Colalongo, M. L. 1968. Cenozone a foraminiferi e ostracodi nel
Albertelli, L., and Mazzei, R. 1963. Geologia del settore
Pliocene e basso Pleistocene della serie del Santerno e
Vogherese-piacentino. Geol. Soc. Ital, Boll. 81(4):20-44.
dell'Appennino romagnolo. Giorn. Geol. 35:29-61.
Ambrosetti, P., Azzaroli, A., Bonadonna, F. P., and Folieri, M. Colalongo, M. L., Elmi, C , and Sartoni, S. 1974. Stratotypes of
1972. A scheme of Pleistocene chronology for the
the Pliocene and Santerno River Section. Bur. Rech. Geol.
Tyrrhenian side of Central Italy. Geol. Soc. Ital, Boll.
Min., Mem. 78:604-624.
91:169-184.
Colalongo, M. L., and Pasini, G. 1980. La ostracofauna del
Arias, C , Azzaroli, A., Bigazzi, G., and Bonadonna, F. P. 1980.
Vrica in Calabria (con considerazioni sul limite Neogene/
Magnetostratigraphy and Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary
Quaternario). Soc. Paleontol. Ital, Boll. 19:44-126.
in Italy. Quaternary Res. 13:65-74.
Colalongo, M. L., Pasini, G., Pelosio, G., Raffi, S., Rio, D.,
Ruggieri, G., Sartoni, S., Selli, R., and Sprovieri, R.
Azzaroli, A. 1953. The deer of the Weybourn Crag and Forest
1982a. The Neogene/Quaternary boundary: a review and a
Bed of Norfolk. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), Bull. Geol. 2:196.
proposal. Geogr. Fis. Dinam. Quat. 5:59-68.
Azzaroli, A. 1977. The Villafranchian State in Italy and the Plio- Colalongo, M. L., Pasini, G., Raffi, I., Rio, D., Sartoni, S., and
Sprovieri, R. 1984. Biochronology of the Italian marine
Pleistocene Boundary. Giorn. Geol. 41:61-79.
Pliocene and Lower Pleistocene. In XXVII International
Azzaroli, A. 1983. Quaternary mammals and the end-VillaGeological Congress, Moscow. Proceedings, vol. 3, pp.
franchian dispersal event - a turning point in the history
109-127. Moscow: Nauka.
of Eurasia. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 44:
Colalongo, M. L., Pasini, G., and Sartoni, S. 1981. Remarks on
117-139.
the Neogene-Quaternary boundary and the Vrica Section.
Azzaroli, A., and Berzi, A. 1970. On an Upper Villafranchian
Soc. Paleontol. Ital, Boll. 20(2):99-120.
fauna at Imola Northern Italy, and its correlation with the
marine Pleistocene sequence of the Po Plain. Palaeontogr. Colalongo, M. L., Ricci Lucchi, R, Guarnieri, P., and Mancini,
E. 1982b. II Plio-Pleistocene del Santerno. In Guida alia
Ital. 66:1-12.
geologia del margine appenninico-padano, ed. G. CremoAzzaroli, A., De Giuli, C , Ficcarelli, G., and Torre, D. 1982.
nini and P. Ricci Lucchi, pp. 161-166. Bologna: Pitagora
Table of the stratigraphic distribution of terrestrial faunas
Tecnoprint.
in Italy from the Pliocene to the early Middle Pleistocene.
Geogr. Fis. Dinam. Quat. 5:55-58.
Colalongo, M. L., and Russo, A. 1974. Stratotypes of the
Azzaroli, A., De Giuli, C , Ficcarelli, G., and Torre, D. 1986.
Pliocene and Santerno River section, comparison and
Mammal succession of the Plio-Pleistocene in Italy. Soc.
correlations on the ostracofaunas. Bur. Rech. Geol Min.,
Geol. Ital., Mem. 31:213-218.
Mem. 78:595-601.
Azzaroli, A., and Napoleone, G. 1982. Magnetostratigraphic Cooke, H. B. S. 1981. Age control of Quaternary sedimentary
investigation of the Upper Sivaliks near Pinjor, India. Riv.
climatic record from deep boreholes in the Great HungarItal. Paleontol. Stratigr. 87:739-762.
ian Plain. In Quaternary Paleoclimate, ed. W. C. Mahaney,
Barbieri, F. 1967. The Foraminifera in the Pliocene section
pp. 1-12. Norwich: Geo Abstracts Ltd.
154
Azzaroli et al.
Plio-Pleistocene of Italy
155
12
Introduction
distributed over the coastal plain, the continental shelf and the
continental slope of Israel.
The present Nile Delta and Nile Cone began forming at the
end of the Miocene, when the Mediterranean sea level was
restored and sediment from the Nile began to backfill the deeply
dissected canyon that had been incised to the Messinian (latest
Miocene) base level. Thus, the sediments of the delta and cone
overlie Messinian evaporites in most of the area. The sedimentary sequence of the delta and cone is composed of three
successive complexes (Rizzini et al., 1978; Gvirtzman and
Buchbinder, 1978; Said, 1981). In the deposits of the Israel
coastal plain, these are recognized as the basal post-evaporite
shallow-water Afiq Formation, the deep-water Yafo Formation,
and the overlying shallow-water Hefer Formation (Figure 12.2).
The Afiq is composed of coarse elastics that fill erosional
channels, and it does not form a continuous sheet. This complex
is found only at the southern margin of the area, near the
continent. The middle complex, or Yafo, forms most of the
volume of the delta and the cone and is distributed throughout
the entire area. This complex includes open-sea and hemipelagic
clays and silts in foreset beds. The Hefer strata at the top are
composed of coarse, mainly sandy elastics distributed (in the
same manner as the Afiq) only in the southern coastal plain and
near the continent.
Four lithologic components make up the sediments (Gvirtzman, 1970):
1. Clays (smectite, kaolinite, and illite) and quartz particles, most of which were transported by the Nile River.
This component accounts for most of the volume of the
delta and the cone.
2. Biogenic detritus formed in the marine environment,
including microfossil oozes (planktonic foraminifera
and nannofossils) and shells of benthic foraminifera,
siliceous microfossils, and mollusks.
3. Eolian dust from the Sahara and Sinai deserts.
4. Coarse detritus, including conglomerates, transported
by small rivers other than the Nile.
Features such as salt tectonics, salt flows, and diapirs are
common in the continental slope in areas where thick Messinian
Plio-Pleistocene of Israel
157
ERATOSTHENES
SEAMOUNT/
Figure 12.1. Physiographic elements in the southeastern Mediterranean (Ross and Uchupi, 1977;
Gvirtzman and Buchbinder, 1978;
Said, 1981) and location map of
the studied area. Section A - B - C
is illustrated in Figures 12.3 and
12.5. Data on boreholes 1-18 are
given in the Appendix.
158
;HA a HEDERA i
Figure 12.2. Stratigraphic nomenclature of the PlioPleistocene sequence of the coastal plain of Israel (modified from Gvirtzman et al.,
1984). Lithology: 1, marine calcareous sandstones (kurkar); 2,
eolianites; 3, clayey-silty reddish sandstones (hamra); 4, marine shale;
5, dark clayey swamp deposits with plant remains; 6, marine silts,
clays, and calcareous sandstones; 7, loose dune sands; 8, conglomerates; 9, coquina beds; 10, anhydrites. Biostratigraphic markers: A,
Amphisorus sp.; H, Hyalinea baltica; G, Gephyrocapsa oceanica; P, Pyramidella plicosa; D, Discoaster spp.; S, Sphaeroidinellopsis seminulina;
Gm, Globorotalia margaritae.
-N-
-s-
-N-
160
Q
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herein (see remarks 17,18, and 19 in the Appendix) and data from
Gvirtzman (1970), Gvirtzman et al. (1984), Martinotti (1981a),
Moshkovitz (1963), Moshkovitz and Ehrlich (1980), Reiss (1964), and Reiss
and Issar (1961). Nannofossil zones after Martini (1971).
Plio-Pleistocene of Israel
161
-N-
Afiq Fm.
(Messinian)
Mavqi im F
(Messinian)
Figure 12.5. Cross section A-B-C of the full Upper Miocene to Pleistocene basinal section in the coastal plain of Israel. Locations of boreholes
as in Figure 12.1, and lithostratigraphy, boundaries, and
Biostratigraphy
162
nean, such as DSDP site 132 (Raffi and Rio, 1979), at Vrica
(Backman et al., 1983; Rio, Raffi, and Backman, Chapter 5, this
volume), and at Capo Rossello (Rio et al., 1984; Chapter 5, this
LO of Globorotalia margaritae. This datum level is well
volume), the discoasterids show successive extinctions which can
established in many wells in Israel and has been correlated with
be correlated with the extra-Mediterranean biozones. It therethe global last appearance of the same taxon (Martinotti, 1981b):
fore seems that the disappearance of the discoasterids from our
Lower Member of the Yafo Formation.
area is a result of three factors which are locally interrelated:
global cooling, a lowered sea level, and an increase of freshwater
LO of Sphaeroidinellopsis seminulina. This well-established discharge, with simultaneous increase in the flux of continental
datum level is correlated with the last appearance of the taxon in detritus from the Nile. Thus, shallowing, increasing erosional
the deepest basins of the Mediterranean (cf. Martinotti, 1981b, forces, turbulence, and dilution in this region led, simulta1986): Lower Member of the Yafo Formation.
neously, to disappearance of the discoasterids, a decrease of
planktonic foraminifera, the dominance of some benthonic
LO of Discoaster spp. In the subsurface of the coastal plain and foraminifera, and better preservation of allochthonous siliceous
continental shelf in Israel, this datum level is related to an microorganisms.
ecological event, because all of the species of this genus disappear
at a certain level in the sequence in all the boreholes studied in FO and LO of Pyramidella plicosa. This gastropod is the most
Israel (Ehrlich and Moshkovitz, 1978; Moshkovitz and Mar- significant taxon in a mollusk assemblage (Moshkovitz, 1963)
tinotti, 1979; Moshkovitz and Ehrlich, 1980, p. 13). The dis- that forms the widespread lower coquina bed in the Petah Tiqwa
appearance of the discoasterids from our area occurred during Member (Gvirtzman, 1970). It is always found between the BPT
NN-16 and therefore not later than 2.6 Ma, according to the inter- and PT3 E-log markers (Figures 12.3 and 12.4) and is a good tool
polated time scale of Rio, Sprovieri, and Raffi (1984, table II). for local correlations. The so-called Pyramidella plicosa zone
This disappearance level, which is found in the Yafo Lower includes macrofossils such as Pyramidella plicosa Brn., DenMember, is interpreted in our area as being related to a major talium michelottii Hoernes, D. sexangulum acutangularis Cocc,
change in the discharge of the Nile River in the middle-to-late and D. ?passerinianum Coss., of typical Pliocene age. Because
Pliocene. The extinction of discoasters coincides with a sharp the assemblage also contains some forms representing extant
reduction in planktic/benthic ratios and a marked increase in lineages, it has been interpreted to be of late Pliocene age
reworked nannofossils of Upper Cretaceous-Lower Tertiary (Moshkovitz, 1963, 1968). Unfortunately, biozones of this kind
age, together with the appearance of marine and fresh-water cannot be correlated with the global stratigraphy of the Pliosiliceous microfossils. This evidence points to abundant influx of Pleistocene (Berggren et al., 1980). The fact, however, that this
alluvial material from the Nile (Ehrlich and Moshkovitz, 1978). molluscan assemblage is always found in layers above the NN-16
At about the same level, we observe a strong increase of shallow- zone and below the first occurrence of the early Pleistocene
water benthic foraminifera, with "many Ammonia and elphidiids Gephyrocapsa oceanica is confirmatory evidence of the late
of robust size" noted by Perath (1965, p. 19), indicating a Pliocene age of P. plicosa. Furthermore, in the Ashqelon 2
reduction in water depth. A parallel decrease or absence of borehole (no. 13, Figures 12.1, 12.3, and 12.5), the last
discoasterids in the NN-16 zone in the western Mediterranean occurrence of P. plicosa was found at about 304 m, significantly
was noted by Muller (1979), who associated that phenomenon below the first occurrence of Globorotalia inflata at 250 m
with the glaciation of the Northern Hemisphere. According to (Martinotti, 1981b). Although G. inflata is very rare in our area
Rio et al. (1984), marked changes in the late Pliocene, at about and has not been established as an index fossil, as discussed
2.4-2.6 Ma, occurred in the western Mediterranean when earlier, the possibility that these observations represent the
discoasters faded out (with the exception of D. brouweri). Those regional last occurrence of P. plicosa below the regional first
floral events were also related to a severe cooling, in this case occurrence of G. inflata should not be excluded.
one of the precursor cycles (Rio et al., 1984, referring to Thunell
FO of Gephyrocapsa oceanica. This datum level was found
and Williams, 1983). Initiations of major global climatic changes during our investigations in most of the wells studied in the upper
and high-latitude glaciation at about 2.4-2.6 Ma have been part of the Petah Tiqwa Member, slightly below the PT1 electricnoted by many authors, both in the Northern Hemisphere log marker (Figure 12.3; see also remarks 13 and 19 in the
(Berggren, 1972; Berggren and Van Couvering, 1974; Shackle- Appendix). This datum level is correlated with the global firstton et al., 1984) and in the Southern Hemisphere (Stipp, appearance datum of G. oceanica. Detailed evolutionary studies
Chappell, and McDougall, 1967), as well as in the western of this species (Samtleben, 1980) and its significance for
Mediterranean (Keigwin and Thunell, 1979; Thunell and Wil- Pleistocene stratigraphy was recently summarized by Perchliams, 1983; Sue, 1984). Stipp et al. (1967) noted a major drop in Nielsen (1985, p. 511). In the Mediterranean basin, its first
sea level as a result of the advances of polar glaciers at that time, appearance was recorded in the Vrica section slightly above the
and Vail and Hardenbol (1979) also reported a fall in sea level Olduvai magnetic event (Rio et al., Chapter 5, this volume).
during the NN-16 zone time interval.
Accordingly, it might prove to be a useful tool for both
Nevertheless, in several locations in the western Mediterra- stratigraphic and paleoecologic purposes in our area.
Datum levels
Plio-Pleistocene of Israel
163
164
Plio-Pleistocene of Israel
165
166
Plio-Pleistocene of Israel
167
168
13
Introduction
The transition from the late Neogene to the Pleistocene in the
Iberian Peninsula was characterized by widespread erosion on
the Meseta and its margins because of structural deformation
associated with subsidence over wide areas, both along the
Mediterranean shorelands and in the intramontane basins along
the Betic front. Marine deposition was rare and was restricted to
littoral fringes. Volcanic activity in the southeast, and also in the
southern Meseta, decreased after the end of the Miocene. The
paleomagnetic record is extremely limited. However, there are
significant sites in continental environments with both small and
large vertebrates (Figure 13.1) that provide the material for
interregional correlations.
Stratigraphic sequences
Bay of Cadiz
170
Emiliano Aguirre
CANTABRIC FRINGE
CAMPO DE CALATRAVA
Higueruelas (
MAR MENOR
Cueva Victoria
ALMERIA LfTTORAL
between the two assemblages, that is, just below the first
appearance of Globigerina hessi.
171
Emiliano Aguirre
172
Radiometric dates
Elephants and horses appear for the first time in the strata of the
Jucar River valley at levels corresponding to the small-mammal
horizons Valdeganga I and II (Mein, Moissenet, and True, 1978).
Equus stenonis and Mammuthus ex gr. meridionalis are in this
site associated with Mimomys medasensis, Mimomys capettai,
Stephanomys balcellsi, Castillomys crusafonti crusafonti, and Sus
strozzii, an assemblage which corresponds to MN-16 age (i.e.,
from 3.5 to 2.6 Ma). Rincon 1 appears to be similar in age, with
Oryctolagus sp., Eliomys intermedius, Mimomys capettai, Castillomys crusafonti crusafonti, Nyctereutes megamastoides, Pachycrocuta sp. (of larger size), Equus stenonis, Dicerorhinus sp.,
Gazella borbonica, and other artiodactyl genera. Paleotemperature determinations and correlation of the Rincon section with
the normally magnetized lower third of the red clays and
Age Magnetic
Ma scale
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
i
I
0.9
1
1.1
>
V
Subsidence in
Baetics & other
areas
Tlting in Meseta
1.5
1.9
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Aa
2.5
G ^H
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
M I
G H
Gi I J
Pirro
D. Altenburg 4
SEINZELLES
CERRO
DEL PALO
Lacustrine in
Tectonic
reactiV Southern Meseta
Humid
vation
^
Warm
Iberomanchega
phase 1
V
High SL
V
Tectonic activ.
Boulder Conglomerate (Panjab)
Microtus &
Bison events
V
Megacehni, Cams
Hippopotamus
events
Tectonic activ.
Almenara
Valdeganga IV
0RCE2
CHILHAC
Valdeganga III
COUPET
Puebla de
SENEZE
Valverde
ST-VALLIER
Fuentes Nuevas 1
V
Allophaiomys
event
Land
V
Bridges
\y
Erosion surfaces
SL lowering
Erosion in
highlands
Uplift
Huelago-C
Escorihuela
RINCON 1
Valdeganga 1,2
RINCON 2, 3
ROCCANEYRA
VIALETTE
oL Tail
Kvabebi
Triversa
Tectonic
activity
a
b
TORRE DEL
PUERCO III
anama
Land Bridge
VillalbaAlta
LAYNA
Rising SL
Mammuthus
EquusFSD
Villarroya
HIGUERUELAS
V
Cold in highland
High SL warm
Wide-range
events
Olivola
n
n +
y
Lacustrine
+ fluviatile
deposition
Incarcal
Dissection of
major present
Tectonic
valleys
reactivation
v Penetrative
CABEZO surface
SEGURA RANA
Iberoman- .
chega
^ RANA
3
phase 2
olygenetic
surface
LowSL
V
Severe erosion
most obvious
n highlands
Tlting
CERRO
PELADO Peneplanation
Sussenborn
ATAPUERCA TD6
West-Runton
TD5
TD4
ATAPUERCA TD3
Huescar
Lachar
SOULHAC
VALLONNET
Bagur 2
Cueva Victoria
1.8
2.9
3
River dissection
terraces
Continental uplift
1.4
2.8
Tectonic
reactivation
1.3
2.6
2.7
SL raise
^ 3 LowSL
2> o
SL raise
w
O H
1.2
1.6
1.7
Correlated
sites
Tectonic
Volca D e P s i t s Climate Mammal sites
Marine sites
processes nism Landforms
173
Tectonic
activity
174
Emiliano Aguirre
megantereon, Acinonyx pardinensis schaubi, Lynx issiodorensis, gombaszoegensis, Dicerorhinus hemitoechus, Equus cf. E.
Mammuthus meridionalis, Dicerorhinus etruscus, Equus stenonisstehlini, Megacerini, "Cervus" sp., and Bison schoetensacki, an
vireti, Croizetoceros ramosus, "Cervus"philisi, Eucladocerossene-assemblage similar to that of the lower Galerian of Italy. Near
zensis, Gazella borbonica, Gazellospira torticornis, and Gallo- the base of this fossiliferous sequence, a geomagnetic-polarity
goral meneghini. This is a typical Middle Villafranchian assem- reversal identified as the Matuyama-Brunhes transition has
blage (Heintz, 1978), or later Villanyan, in the modern usage. recently been identified (Garacedo, Soler, and Chicharro,
In the upper horizons of the Jucar canyon, Albacete province, personal communication, 1991).
the Valdeganga III site yields Mimomys aff. M. medasensis,
Mimomys rex, Stephanomys progressus, Castillomys crusafonti
Plio-Pleistocene faunas of the Betic depressions
subsp. indet., Micromys aff. M. minutus, Apodemus aff. A.
dominans, Eliomys aff. E. quercinus, Parapetenya hibbardi, The Guadix and Baza basins are linked tectonic depressions
Sorex subminutus, Desmana nehringi, Prolagus calpensis, presently drained by the Guadalquivir River. In late Neogene
Oryctolagus aff. O. laynensis, and Equus stenonis subsp. indet. and early Pleistocene time they were closed endorheic basins
(Mein et al., 1978). The assemblage appears to correlate best to thatfilledwith lacustrine deposits. Large and small mammals are
the characteristic later Villanyan faunas of Villany 3 and Kislang. found throughout the sequence, and in the Baza Basin in
The karst filling in the Casablanca quarry, near Almenara, particular they constitute an almost continuous record from the
Castellon province, has yielded abundant large- and small- early Pliocene to the early middle Pleistocene.
mammal fossils, including Prolagus calpensis, Desmana inflata, In the time span relevant to the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundMyotis cf. M. myotis, Miniopterus aff. M. schreibersi, Rhinolo- ary, the sites with the richest fossil records are (in ascending
phus cf. R. mehelyi, Eliomys sp., Stephanomys progressus, chronostratigraphic order) as follows: Carretera de Huelago
Apodemus cf. A. mystacinus, Apodemus aff. A. occitanus, (correlative to Montopoli and Etouaires); Fuentes Nuevas 1
Castillomys crusafonti subsp. indet., Mimomys tornensis, M. (correlative to Puebla de Valverde, in Teruel province, and to
medasensis, Mimomys aff. M. rex, Ursus etruscus, PachycrocutaSaint-Vallier) (Aguirre et al., Chapter 9, this volume); Orce D
brevirostris, Felis sp. indet., Dicerorhinus cf. D. etruscus, Equusand Orce 1 (correlative to Seneze, Chilhac, and Le Coupet); Orce
stenonis subsp. indet., Cervus philisi, Gazellospira torticornis, 2 (correlative to Olivola, Montousse, and other sites placed in the
and Ovibovini gen. indet. (Soto and Morales, 1985; Esteban lower Mimomys ostramosensis zone of Chaline, Chapter 14, this
Aenlle and Lopez Martinez, 1987). The rodent assemblage is volume); Barranco de los Conejos (correlative to sites in the
comparable to that of Villany 5 and Kadzielna, and rather more upper ostramosensis zone), which Agusti, Moya-Sola, and Ponsto the latter, while the large-mammal assemblage is closely Moya (1987b) have equated with Casa Frata; Venta Micena 1 and
correlative to that of Olivola.
2 (correlative to early Biharian faunas at Betfia 2, Betfia 13, and
The MN-17 mammal assemblages are followed by a new Altenburg 2); Barranca Leon, Fuentes Nuevas 3, and Canada de
faunal complex, characterized in Bagur 2 karst filling by Murcia 1 (correlative to levels slightly younger than Venta
Allophaiomys pliocaenicus, Lagurus pannonicus, Pliomys episco- Micena); Huescar 2 and 3 and Puerto Lobo 1 (correlative to Le
palis, Ungaromys sp., Castillomys crusafonti, Apodemus aff. A. Vallonet on the basis of Allophaiomys nutiensis); Huescar 1
mystacinus, Apodemus aff. A. sylvaticus, Eliomys aff. E. (correlative to Atapuerca TD3-TD6, with small-mammal faunas
intermedius, Prolagus cf. P. calpensis, and Oryctolagus cf. O. assigned to the zone of Pitymys gregaloides and Mimomys savini);
lacosti (Lopez Martinez, Michaux, and Villalta, 1976). Allo- Cullar de Baza (correlative to later Cromerian and later Galerian
phaiomys is also recognized in younger horizons of the Baza on the basis of Arvicola cantiana and Mammuthus trogontherii).
basin and in the Venta Micena local fauna discussed later.
Also to be mentioned are the Cueva Victoria fauna from La
A very extensive detritic formation in the central basin of the Union, near Cartagena, which is slightly older than the Venta
Rio Guadiana is found at the present river level, east and west of Micena fauna and correlates to the Sinzelles faunal level (1.3 to
Ciudad Real. From a stock-pond excavation, this deposit yielded 1.4 Ma), and Lachar in the Granada Basin, which is well
Mammuthus meridionalis, Eucladoceros dicranios, Leptobos sp., correlated to the Solilhac faunal level.
Hippopotamus major, and Equus mosbachensis. This association
The Plio-Pleistocene faunal succession of the Betic basins
can be considered transitional to the early middle Pleistocene, or begins with Carretera de Huelago, from which Alberdi and
Cromerian-Galerian faunas. The identification of Mammuthus Bonnadonna (1989) reported Mammuthus meridionalis, Equus
meridionalis tamanensis at a quarry on a terrace near Fuensanta, stenonis livenzovensis, Dicerorhinus cf. D. etruscus, Leptobos cf
in the Jucar Valley, together with Hippopotamus major (Aguirre, L. elatus, Gazella borbonica, Gazellospira torticornis, Ovibovini
1989b), conveys the possibility of recognizing the Tamanian stage cf. Hesperoceros merlae, Croizetoceros ramosus, Eucladoceros
in Spain.
cf. E. senezensis, Cervidae gen. indet., Mimomys cf. M. reidi,
The lower half of the known cave-fill section at Atapuerca and Stephanomys sp.
Burgos (Atapuerca I of Aguirre et al., 1990) yields Mimomys
The Fuentes Nuevas 1 site yields Mimomys cf. M. reidi,
savini, Pliomys episcopalis, and Pity mys gregaloides. Atapuerca Castillomys crusafonti, Apodemus cf. A. dominans, Equus
I also yields the large mammals Crocuta intermedia, Panthera stenonis aff. E. s. vireti, and Gazella borbonica. The two teeth
175
and metatarsal of the equid from Fuentes Nuevas resemble most north, and it is possible that this district is beyond the
closely those of the variety found at Puebla de Valverde and paleogeographic limit for exact correlation of the PlioceneSaint-Vallier.
Pleistocene boundary on the basis of central European microtine
At Orce 2, the fossil list includes Drepanosorex sp., Mimomys evolution.
ostramosensis, Mimomys pusillus, Castillomys crusafonti, Micro- Outside of the Guadix-Baza basin, but also in the southeasttus (cf. Allophaiomys) sp., Apodemus aff. A. sylvaticus, ern part of Spain, the site of Cueva Victoria is a cave complex
Apodemus mystacinus, Eliomys aff. E. quercinus, Galemys that was completely filled with hyena debris in the early
kormosi, Gazellospira torticornis, and Leptobos etruscus. The Pleistocene. Most of the infilling bone-breccia was later eroded,
co-occurrence of the last two taxa is known elsewhere only at but the remaining material includes remains of Crocidura sp.,
Olivola. Sediments at Orce 2 show normal paleomagnetic Erinaceus sp., Prolagus calpensis, Oryctolagus cf. O. lacosti,
polarity (Agusti et al., 1987a). An assemblage similar to Orce 2 Myotis sp., Rhinolophus euryhale, Rhinolophus cf. R. mehelyi,
is recorded at Barranco de los Conejos from beds 8a and 9, Miniopterus sp., Allophaiomys chalinei, Eliomys quercinus,
corresponding to the lower part of unit b in the informal notation Apodemus mystacinus, Vulpes sp., Canis etruscus, Equus
of Anadon etal. (1987).
stenonis, Equus sp., Mammuthus meridionalis, Dolichodoriceros
The extensive outcrops at Venta Micena 1 and 2 yield fossils savini, "Cervus" elaphoides, Hemitragus sp., Ovibovini gen.
from stratigraphic unit c of Anadon et al. (1987). As described by indet., Caprini gen. indet., Bovini gen. indet., and Papionini cf.
Agusti et al. (1987a), the list from Venta Micena 2 includes Papio sp. The presence of Homo sp. has been reported from
Desmana sp., Microtus (Allophaiomys) pliocaenicus, Apodemus Cueva Victoria, and from Venta Micena as well, but identificaaff A. mystacinus, Castillomys crusafonti, Eliomys intermedius, tion remains doubtful (Gibert-Clols et al., 1989). Cueva VictoHystrix major, Prolagus calpensis, Oryctolagus cf. O. lacosti, ria, on present evidence, is best correlated to Sinzelles; Venta
Micena is not much younger.
Ursus etruscus, Canis etruscus mosbachensis, Vulpes preglacialis,
Cuonpriscus, Xenocyonsp., Homotherium latidens, Megantereon The fauna at Huescar 1, in the upper part of the Baza Basin
cultridens adroveri, Pachycrocuta brevirostris, Panthera cf. P. sequence, includes many bird fossils. Mammals listed by Alberdi
gombaszoegensis, Lynx sp., Meles sp., Mammuthus (nee Ar- et al. (1989) are Soricidae gen. indet., Eliomys quercinus,
chidiskodon) meridionalis, Equus stenonis granatensis, Dicerorhi-Apodemus sp., Castillomys crusafonti, Mimomys savini, Pity mys
nus etruscus brachicephalus, Hippopotamus incognitus, Praemegagregaloides, Microtus brecciensis, Oryctolagus sp., Lepus cf. L.
ceros solilhacus, "Cervus" elaphoides, Praeovibos sp., Capra granatensis, Canis etruscus, Panthera gombaszoegensis, Homoalba, Soergelia minor, Bison sp., Caprini gen. indet., Testudo sp., therium sp., Elephas (Palaeoloxodon) antiquus, Equus stenonis,
and Lacerta sp.
Equus suessenbornensis, Dicerorhinus etruscus brachycephalus,
Barranca Leon has yielded fossils from at least three levels: L2 Hippopotamus major, and Praemegaceros cf. P. solilhacus. This
and L3, in unit d of Anadon et al. (1987), and LI, which is in assemblage is comparable to the early Galerian, or, in other
upper d and lower e. Another site in the lower part of unit e is the words, close to the older faunas at Atapuerca, and thus to the
rich horizon of Orce 7. The fossils from all these levels may be transition between early and middle Pleistocene. The fauna at
regarded as a single assemblage consisting of Microtus Lachar, in the Granada Basin, is a slightly older assemblage and
(Allophaiomys) pliocaenicus, Apodemus mystacinus, Apodemus includes Mammuthus meridionalis, Equus stenonis granatensis,
aff. A. sylvaticus, Castillomys crusafonti, Eliomys intermedius, Dicerorhinus etruscus, Bison sp., Bovidae gen. indet., PraemegaHippopotamus sp., "Cervus" elaphoides, Bison sp., Capra alba, ceros sp., Capreolus sp., and Dama cf. D. clactoniana (Aguirre,
Soergelia minor, Equus stenonis, and Mammuthus meridionalis. 1989b; B. Azanza and B. Sanchez, personal communication,
Orce 3, at a slightly higher stratigraphic horizon, is relatively 1991). The Lachar fauna is very similar to that of Solilhac, which
poor, but it includes a Galemys sp. and a Mimomys aff. M. is to say close in time to the transition from the terminal early
Pleistocene paleofauna, such as Vallonet, to earliest Cromerian
savini.
An unresolved question is whether or not Mimomys pusillus and Galerian assemblages.
has been identified correctly from Orce 2, in unit b, and the
In sum, the abundance of rich fossil sites, representing in one
correlative site of Valdeganga IV. If so, its appearance is stratigraphic sequence almost every recognized faunal event
anomalous with regard to the first occurrence of Microtus straddling the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary, suggests the value
(Allophaiomys) pliocaenicus in Venta Micena at the lower of the Guadix-Baza basin for illustrating the Plioceneboundary of unit c. In regions to the north of the Pyrenees, the Pleistocene transition in the Iberian Peninsula and the ease with
appearance of M. pusillus is delayed until after the first which this biostratigraphic succession can be correlated in the
appearance of M. pliocaenicus, at a level that is recognized as regional synthesis. I therefore expressly propose here that the
equivalent to the top of the Olduvai normal-polarity subchron basin-filling sequence of the Guadix-Baza basin should be
(Chaline, Chapter 14, this volume). The apparent presence of adopted as a parastratotype area for the Pliocene-Pleistocene
M. pusillus in normally polarized (Olduvai?) strata at an older boundary in continental sediments, with the expectation that this
level than M. pliocaenicus indicates that one or the other had a will encourage stratigraphers working in this region to identify
different time range in southern Spain than in the regions farther and propose a formal reference section.
Emiliano Aguirre
176
177
Perez Gonzalez, A., and Gallardo, J. 1987. La Rana al sur de Zazo, C. 1989. Los depositos marinos cuaternarios en el Golfo
Somosierra y Sierra de Ay lion: un piedmonte escalonado
de Cadiz. AEQUA Monografia 1:113-122.
del Villafranquiense medio. Geogaceta (Madrid) 2:29-32. Zazo, C , Goy, J. L., Dabrio, C , Civis, J., and Baena, J. 1985.
Paleogeografia de la desembocadura del Guadalquivir al
Querol, M. A., and Santonja, M. 1983. Elyacimiento de cantos
comienzo del Cuaternario (provincia de Cadiz, Espana).
trabajados de El Aculadero (Puerto de Santa Maria,
In Actas i reunido do Quaternario Iberico, vol. 1, ed. M.
Cadiz). Excavaciones Arqueologicas en Espana, no. 130.
Ramos, pp. 461-472. Lisboa: Instituto Nacional de InMadrid: Ministerio de Cultura.
vestigagao Cientifica.
Soto, E., and Morales, J. 1985. Grandes mamiferos del
yacimiento villafranquiense de Casablanca I, Almenara Zazo, C , Goy, J. L., Hoyos, M., Meco, J., User a, J., Garcia
(Castellon). Estudios geol. 41:243-249.
Vicente, J., Galvan, I , and Aguirre, E. 1977. El corte de
Puerto Real y el problema del limite Plio-Pleistoceno en
Torcal, L., Marfil, R., and Zazo, C. 1991. El transito Pliola Bahia de Cadiz. Trabajas sobre Neogeno-Cuaternario,
Pleistoceno en el extremo occidental de la provincia de
No. 6, pp. 319-336. Madrid: Consejo Superior de InHuelva (Espana). Datos petrologicos y mineralogia de arvestigaciones Cientificas.
cillas. R. Soc. Esp. Hist. Nat. (Sec. Geol.), Bol. 86:65-79.
14
The phylogeny of the Mimomys taxa that make up the evolutionary succession occitanus davakosi-occitanus occitanus-occitanus
hajnackensis-pliocaenicus polonicus-pliocaenicus pliocaenicus- Le Coupet (Auvergne). This site has been dated at the locality of
pliocaenicus ostramosensis-savini is based on a biometric study Saint Georges d'Aurac. A few teeth of Mimomys pliocaenicus s.
178
Plio-Pleistocene of France
179
flora and below one of Eburonian age. Finally, a core of SimardMeix-Pernod contained a tooth of M. p. ostramosensis or M.
savini in a bed above the Eburonian level, in a paleofloral
context that may represent the beginning of the Waalian
(Chaline and Farjanel, 1990).
For the southern part of western Europe, Sue (1980) has
Valerots a Nuits-Saint-George (Cote d'Or). This cave filling has proposed correlations between micromammal zones according to
yielded a fauna with Mimomys savini, together with advanced palynological evidence (Sue and Zagwijn, 1983). Zone MN-15 of
Mein (1975), with Mimomys occitanus, would thus range
Allophaiomys pliocaenicus (Chaline et al., 1985).
between 3.0 and 2.65 Ma, with the fossil mammal site of Sete at
Courterolles (Yonne). A fauna similar to the preceding, with 2.8 Ma (Aguirre et al., Chapter 9, this volume; Azzaroli et al.,
evolved Allophaiomys pliocaenicus (Brochet, Chaline, and Chapter 11, this volume).
Poplin, 1983), is also found in cave deposits. These faunas with
evolved A. pliocaenicus are best placed between the "Waalian" Faunal evidence. At Perrier-Etouaires, the well-known largeand "Cromerian I" interglacials, in the Menapian cold-climate mammal fauna (Bout, 1960) includes a tapir, a forest pig, and
numerous cervids (Heintz, 1970), together with a Taxodium flora
interval above the Jaramillo normal subchron.
that suggests a partly forested landscape of interglacial
(Reuverian?) type, as further indicated by the presence of
Climate chronology of the late Pliocene and early
Hystrix. At Saint-Vallier (Drome), the loess fauna (Viret, 1954),
Pleistocene of France
of (upper?) Pretiglian age, contains an incisor of Ochotona
Calibrated biostratigraphy can be linked with contemporaneous associated with remains of Mimomys pliocaenicus polonicus.
climate history. By incorporating data from sedimentology, Faunas come from various levels at Chagny, but the tapir is
faunal analysis, and palynology, a climatochronology can be unquestionably from a basal layer (Reuverian?), whereas the
constructed in which the geologic histories of northern and rodents come from the upper levels, with teeth of M.
southern Europe can be compared. The presence of rodent pliocaenicus ostramosensis transitional to M. savini and teeth of a
remains together with those of large mammals in classic species referred to Allophaiomys; the correlation is possibly to
assemblages (Perrier-Etouaires, Chagny, Saint-Vallier, Le Cou- the final part of the Eburonian.
pet, etc.) makes it possible to replace the earlier chronology of
The site of Montousse 5 (Clot et al., 1975) contains, together
the Villafranchian with a new system and to reinterpret the with M. pliocaenicus ostramosensis, some teeth of a lemming in
faunas from a paleoecological point of view.
the genus Lemmus (the most southerly known occurrence) and
of Macaca florentina. The correlation is to the end of the
Stratigraphic evidence. From the stratigraphic point of view, Eburonian glacial-climate phase or the beginning of the Waalian
studies in the south of France by Michaux (1980) and Sue (1980) interglacial.
and in the Bresse basin, between Dijon and Lyon, by the
In the Bresse basin, sediments at Commenailles, Magny,
"groupe Bresse" have provided information concerning the later Montagny, and Vonnas contain remains of desmanids, which
Pliocene. The discovery of a fluvioglacial gravel interstratified imply running water. At Montagny, the tortoises suggest a
with the Bresse marls (Senac, 1981), situated below the Vonnas temperate climate. The correlation of Commenailles is to the
horizon with Mimomys pliocaenicus, is of particular importance. Pretiglian, Montagny and Magny to phase C4 of the Tiglian, and
This gravel could be related either to the Pretiglian or to the Vonnas to the Eburonian (Chaline, 1984; Chaline and Farjanel,
Eburonian, but in any event it represents the most ancient well- 1990). At Trevoux-Reyrieux, in the southern part of the Bresse
dated indication offluvioglacialconditions in western Europe.
basin, the presence of a southern vole, Mimomys capettai,
Again in Bresse, at Montagny-les-Beaune, beds with M. indicates an interglacial phase (Reuverian?).
pliocaenicus pliocaenicus and remains of tortoises are overlain by
a stratum with strongly wind-sculpted calcareous blocks, implyOther elements of climate correlation in Europe
ing a period of denuded and arid soils, which in these latitudes
would occur during cold phases (i.e., Eburonian).
In the stratigraphy of the Mimomys occitanus davakosi-savini
lineage, evidence from other parts of Europe can be applied to
Palynological evidence. Drill cores in the Bresse basin have the developments in France. At Wolfersheim (Tobien, 1952) the
produced rodent remains (Chaline, 1984) from within palynolog- fauna has a tropical aspect, with a tapir (Tapirus arvernensis),
ical sequences that are readily correctable with those of flying squirrels (Petaurista), a cercopithecid (Macaca), Prolagus,
northern Europe (Farjanel, 1985). A core from Servignat- and tortoises. All of these elements are of interglacial type;
Montmain yielded a tooth of M. pliocaenicus in a paleofloral according to Brunnacker and Boenigk (1976), Wolfersheim is
context of interglacial type, probably Tiglian. A core from dated to the Gauss normal chron. According to Kowalski (1960),
Labergement-les-Seurre at La Mare-du-Bois produced a tooth of the type site of Mimomys pliocaenicus polonicus, at RebieliceM. pliocaenicus ostramosensis from a bed overlying a Tiglian Krolewski, also contains the most primitive known lemming
180
Jean Chaline
m.y.
PALEOMA
B. R
GNETISM
PROPOSEDCORRELATIONS MAMMAL
RODENT ZONES
BRESSE
Genus
Diachron
LOCALITIES
WITH THE NETHERLANDS ZONES
Subdiachron
Mimomys savini
MN17
Mimomys savini
Waalian
Simard-'Meix-Pernot'
Labergement
Charrey
Q1
MP2
j..
MP1JE
L4| '<*
Eburonian
'1
Tiglian
L2
Bragny
Geanges
BIV
Broin
Commenailles
Bagnot
Bin
St-loup-La Salle
S2 5
I to l u
Cessey-Sur-Tille
MN16
Praetiglian
Reuverian
Mimomys occitanus hajnackensis
MN15
O
|M
Mimomys
occitanus occitanus
Brunssumian
Plio-Pleistocene of France
181
Mimomys occitanus hajnackensis biozone. Type locality: Hajnacka (Slovakia). Because the name stehlini used previously was
ambiguous with respect to lineage, it was decided at the Lower Mimomys savini.and Allophaiomys pliocaenicus biozone.
Rohanov conference (Czechoslovakia) in 1987 to replace it with Type locality: Piispokfurdo (Romania).
the name hajnackensis. This taxon is without doubt related to the
Localities: France (Mas Rambault, La Sartanette);
preceding lineage as indicated.
Spain (Bagur 2); Austria (Deutsch Altenburg 4B4C); Romania (Betfia 1, 3, 7).
Localities: Spain (Escorihuela); Italy (San Giusto);
Age range: 1.4 to 1.1 Ma.
Germany (Wolfersheim); Poland (Weze); Hungary
(Csarnota 2); Moldavia (Kotlovina); Ukraine (Kryzhanovka, Kujalnick, Uryv 1); Russia (Akkulaevo, in Upper Mimomys savini and Microtus burgondiae-Allophaiomys
Bashkiria, with the type of M. gracilis akkulaevae, a nutiensis biozone. Type locality: Les Valerots (France).
synonym of M. o. hajnackensis).
Localities: England (Westbury 1); France (CourteAge range: 3.0 to 2.6 Ma.
rolles); Spain (Venta Micena, La Victoria); Italy
(Soave, Monte Peglia, Selva Vecchia); the former
Mimomys pliocaenicus polonicus biozone. Type locality: RebieYugoslavia (Marjan); Czech Republic (Chlum 6,
lice 1 (Poland).
Vcelare 4, Holjstein); Poland (Kozi Grzbiet);
Ukraine (Nogaisk, Khairy); Russia (Tichonovka,
Localities: France (Perrier-Etouaires, Saint-Vallier, and
near
Vladivostok).
Bresse Valley sites of Cessey-sur-Tille, Beaune
Age
range:
1.1 to 0.8 Ma.
BIIIa-BIVa, Commenailles, Broin, Chagny 2, Bagnot, and Satin-Loup-la-Salle); Italy (Arondelli);
Moldavia (Kotlovina); Ukraine (Kujalnick, KryzhaIdentification of the Quaternary boundary
novka, Uryv 2); Russia (Liventsovka, in the Don
basin, with M. livenzovicus, a synonym of M. On the basis of studies in the Calabrian marine sequence of Italy
by INQUA Subcommission 1-d, "Pliocene-Pleistocene Boundpliocaenicus polonicus).
ary," and by IGCP Project 41, "Neogene/Quaternary Boundary"
Age range: 2.6 to 2.3 Ma.
(see Foreword, this volume), the physical stratotype of this
boundary
in the section at Vrica has been defined at a level
Mimomys pliocaenicus pliocaenicus biozone. Type locality:
which
equates
with the lowest (first) appearance of species
Castelfranco (Italy).
indicating a cold climate. According to current calibrations, that
Localities: England (Norwich and Weybourne Crag); cold-climate phase commenced at 1.8 Ma, slightly below the top
The Netherlands (Tegelen); France (Saint Georges of the Olduvai event (Pasini and Colalongo, Chapter 2, this
d'Aurac and Bresse Valley sites of Vonnas, La- volume). It follows that this cold phase in the European
bergement-les-Seurre, Comblanchien, Montagny- continental sequences must be identified with the Eburonian
les-Beaune, Charrey, Bragny, and Geanges); Poland paleoclimatic stage of the lower Rhine basin (Zagwijn, Chapter
(Kadzielna, Kielniki); Moldavia (Kotlovina); Russia 16, this volume).
(Platovo 1 in the Russian plain; Lebiaje, Podpusk,
In accepting this correlation to the Eburonian as a first
and Kizhikia in southern Siberia).
approximation, subject to the support of complementary data,
Age range: 2.3 to 2.0 Ma.
the Neogene-Quaternary limit in France and in Eurasia should
therefore be identified in small-mammal biochronology primarily
Lower Mimomys pliocaenicus ostramosensis biozone. Type on the basis of the occurrence of Allophaiomys pliocaenicus,
locality: Osztramos 3 (Hungary).
alone or jointly with Mimomys pliocaenicus ostramosensis
Localities: France (Montousse 5 and the Bresse Valley (Chaline, 1977). In France, that was the period when the infilling
site of Demigny); Germany (Schernfeld, Neuleinin- of the Bresse basin was completed, with the overlying deposits
showing the effects of the climate change to the Waalian intergen); Poland (Kamyk).
glacial, as for instance at Chagny 1 (Chaline and Farjanel, 1990).
Age range: 2.0 to 1.8 Ma.
Upper Mimomys pliocaenicus ostramosensis and Allophaiomys
deucalion biozone. Type locality: Villany 5 (Hungary).
Localities: The Netherlands (Brielle); France (Seneze,
Balaruc 1, and Bresse Valley sites of Chagny 1,
References
182
Jean Chaline
15
Plio-Pleistocene in England
The so-called Crag formations of East Anglia are the only British
examples of a sedimentary sequence that is partly Pliocene and
partly early Pleistocene. They are composed of marine nearshore and estuarine shelly sands and clays, in some horizons with
good pollen assemblages. The oldest unit, the Coralline Crag,
has always been accepted as Pliocene. Early attempts to locate
the base of the Pleistocene in that sequence were guided by the
belief that its position would be indicated by evidence of a sharp
drop in temperature. Thus, at the International Geological
Congress in 1948, it was recommended (King and Oakley, 1949)
that in England the Neogene-Quaternary boundary should be
placed in the East Anglian sequence at the base of the Butleyan
Red Crag, the highest and youngest of Harmer's (1902) three
Red Crag "zones." A number of authors (e.g., Boswell, 1952)
subsequently proposed that it should be lowered to the base of
the Red Crag, on the assumption that the transition from the
underlying Coralline Crag indicated a major climatic deterioration. On the premise that the boundary was associated with the
Olduvai normal paleomagnetic event, Hey (1977) and Funnell
(1977) independently concluded that in East Anglia it could lie
above the top of the Red Crag.
It must be emphasized that the paleomagnetic data available
from the East Anglian succession are scanty (Van Montfrans,
1971, pp. 100-101), and materials suitable for radiometric dating
appear to be absent. Any attempt to locate the boundary in the
East Anglian succession must depend on paleontological correlations with the succession in the Rhine basin, which is both more
nearly complete and more securely related to the paleomagnetic
time scale (Zagwijn, Chapter 16, this volume; von der Brelie et
al., Chapter 17, this volume).
Age of the Red Crag
A borehole at Stradbroke, 30 km north-northeast of Ipswich,
passed through nearly 70 m of marine sediments, of which the
uppermost 45 m were assigned palynologically to the Ludhamian
Stage, whereas the lower beds, resting directly upon the Chalk
Formation, yielded a pollen sequence unlike any recorded
Richard W. Hey
184
16
Introduction
Since the beginning of the century, the Reuver Clay and the
Tegelen Clay, two clay units of fluvial origin, have been
recognized in the southeastern part of The Netherlands. The
186
Waldo H. Zagwijn
After the Tiglian, which was a rather long interval with several
alternating cooler and warmer phases (Zagwijn, 1963), a second
phase of deforestation associated with an intense cold climate
followed, the Eburonian cold stage. The Eburonian was followed by another relatively moderate interglacial complex with
at least one phase of minor cooling, the Waalian, and subsequent
to that came the Menapian cold stage, which is very well
expressed in palynological data.
Following the Menapian, the two interglacials of the Bavelian
age are characterized by occurrences of Pterocarya, Carya,
Eucommia, Tsuga, and other trees which were also commonly
present during the preceding Tiglian and Waalian temperate
forest stages (Zagwijn and Doppert, 1978; de Jong, 1987). Beds
representative of those interglacials are overlain by beds of the
"Cromerian Complex," considered to be of middle Pleistocene
age.
187
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Waldo H. Zagwijn
188
THE
NETHERLANDS
USE OF
HARMER'S
STAGE NAMES BY LA
TER DUTCH
INVESTIG.
A10 30
189
Reid, C , and Reid, E. M. 1907. The fossil flora of Tegelen-surMeuse, near Venlo, in the Province of Limburg. Kon.
Akad. Wetens., Verh. 13:1.
Boenigk, W., Koci, A., and Brunnacker, K. 1979. Magne- Reid, C , and Reid, E. M. 1915. The Pliocene Flora of the
Dutch-Prussian Border. Rijksopspor. Delfst., Meded. 6:1tostratigraphie im Pliozan der Niederrheinischen Bucht.
N Jb. Geol. Palaont., Mh. 1979:513-528.
178.
Cravatte, J., and Sue, J. P. 1981. Climatic evolution of North- Spaink, G. 1975. Zonering van het mariene Onder-Pleistoceen en
Plioceen op grond van molluskenfauna's. In Toelichting bij
Western Mediterranean area during Pliocene and Early
Pleistocene by pollen-analysis and forams of drill Autan 1.
Geologische Overzichtskaarten van Nederland 1:600.000,
ed. W. H. Zagwijn and C. J. van Staaduinen. Haarlem:
Chronostratigraphic correlations. Pollen et Spores 23:247Rijks Geol. Dienst.
258.
de Jong, J. 1987. Climatic variability during the past three million Spaink, G., and Norton, P. E. P. 1967. The stratigraphical range
years as indicated by vegetational evolution in northwestof Macoma balthica (L.) (Bivalvia, Tellinacea) in the
ern Europe, and with emphasis on data from The
Pleistocene of the Netherlands and Eastern England.
Netherlands. In The past three million years: evolution of
Geol. Sticht., Meded. 18:39-44.
climate variability in the North Atlantic region, ed. N. J. Sue, J.-P, and Cravatte, J. 1982. Etude palynologique du
Shackleton, pp. 193-207. Cambridge University Press.
Pliocene de Catalogne (nord-est de l'Espagne). Apports a
Doppert, J. W. C. 1975. Foraminiferenzonering van het Nederla connaissance de l'histoire climatique de la Mediterlandse Onder-Kwartair en Tertiair. In Toelichting bij
ranee occidentale et implications chronostratigraphiques.
Geologische Overtfzichtstfkaarten van Nederland 1:600.000,
Paleobiol. continent. 12:1-31.
ed. W. H. Zagwijn and C. J. van Staaduinen. Haarlem: Sue, J.-P, and Zagwijn, W. H. 1982. Correlations in the PlioRijks Geol. Dienst.
Pleistocene between the Mediterranean and N. W. EuDoppert, J. W. C. 1980. Lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy of
rope. In IN QUA Eleventh Congress, Moscow. Abstracts,
marine Neogene deposits in the Nederlands. Rijks Geol.
vol. l , p . 299.
Dienst, Meded. 32:255-311.
Tesch, P. 1909. De Klei van Tegelen, een onderdeel der
Dubois, E. 1905. Over een equivalent van het Cromer forestbed
"Kieseloolithstufe." Kon. Ned. Aardr. Gen., Tijdschr., 2e
in Nederland. Kon. Akad. Wetens., Versl. Meded. 13:243,
ser. 26:573.
453.
Tesch, P. 1928. La separation stratigraphique PlioceneFlorschiitz, E, and Van Someren, A. M. H. 1950. The
Pleistocene en Europe. In Comptes Rendus de la Reunion
Palaeobotanical Boundary Pliocene-Pleistocene in the
Geologique International. Copenhague 7925:183-188.
Netherlands. In International Geological Congress, Report Tesch, P. 1934. De opeenvolging van de oud-pliosceene lagen in
of the 18th Session, Great Britain, 1948, vol. 9, ed. A. J.
Nederland. Kon. Ned. Aardr. Gen., Tijdschr. 1934:649Butler, pp. 40-46. London: Geological Society.
675.
Freudenthal, M., Jeijer, T., and Van der Meulen, A. J. 1976. Urban, B. 1978. Vegetationsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen zur
Preliminary report on a field campaign in the continental
Gliederung des Altquartars der Niederrheinischen Bucht.
Pleistocene of Tegelen. Scripta Geol. 34:1-33.
Geol. Inst. Univ. Koln, Sonderv. 34:1-165.
Gibbard, P. L., West, R. G., Zagwijn, W. H., Balson, P. S., Van Baren, J. 1920. De Boden van Nederland, vol. 1. Amsterdam.
Burger, A. W., Funnell, B. M., Jeffery, D. H., de Jong, J., Van der Meulen, A. J., and Zagwijn, W. H. 1974. Microtus
Van Kolfschoten, T., Lister, A. M., Meijer, T., Norton,
(Allophaiomys) pliocaenicus from the Lower Pleistocene
near Brielle, The Netherlands. Scripta Geol. 21:1-45.
P. S. P., Preece, R. C , Rose, J., Stuart, A. J., Whiteman,
C. A., and Zalasciewicz, J. A. 1991. Early and middle Van Montfrans, H. M. 1971. Paleomagnetic dating in the North
Pleistocene correlation in the southern North Sea basin.
Sea basin. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 11:226-236.
Quat. Sci. Rev. 10:23-52.
Van Voorthuysen, J. H. 1957. The Plio-Pleistocene boundary in
the North Sea Basin. Geol. Mijnb. 19:263-266.
Hacquaert, N. 1961. Palynologisch onderzoek van de cenozoische
mariene zanden (Scaldisien en Merxemien) van het Van Voorthuysen, J. H., Toering, K., and Zagwijn, W. H. 1972.
Hansadok te Antwerpen. Natuurw. Tijdschr. 42:65-112.
The Plio-Pleistocene Boundary in the North Sea Basin;
Harmer, F. W. 1896. On the Pliocene deposits of Holland and
revision of its position in the marine beds. Geol. Mijnb.
their relation to the English and Belgian crags, with a
51:627-639.
suggestion for the establishment of a new zone "Amstel- West, R. G. 1961. Vegetational history of the Early Pleistocene
ian" and some remarks on the geographical conditions of
of the Royal Society Borehole at Ludham, Norfolk. R.
the Pliocene Epoch in Northern Europe. Geol. Soc.
Soc. London, Proc, Sect. B 155:437-453.
London, Quart. J. 52:748-782.
West, R. G. 1980. The pre-glacial Pleistocene of the Norfolk and
Kortenbout van der Sluys, G., and Zagwijn, W. H. 1962. An
Suffolk coasts. Cambridge University Press.
introduction to the stratigraphy and geology of the Tegelen Zagwijn, W. H. 1959. Zur stratigraphischen und pollenanalyclay-pits. Geol. Sticht., Meded., n.s. 15:31-37.
tischen Gliederung der pliozanen Ablagerungen im
Laga, P. G. 1972. Stratigrafie van de mariene Plio-Pleistocene
Roertal-Graben und Venloer Graben der Niederlande.
Fortschr. Geol. Rheinl. Westf. 4:5-26.
afzettingen uit de omgeving van Antwerpen met een
bijzondere studie van de foraminiferen. Unpublished Zagwijn, W. H. 1960. Aspects of the Pliocene and Early
doctoral dissertation, Universiteit van Leuven (Louvaine).
Pleistocene vegetation in the Netherlands. Geol. Sticht.,
Lagaaij, R. 1952. The Pliocene Bryozoa of the Low Countries.
Meded., Ser. C-III-15:1-78.
Geol Sticht., Meded., Ser. C 5:1-233.
Zagwijn, W. H. 1963. Pollen-analytic investigations in the
Mein, P. 1975. Biozonation du Neogene mediterranean a partier
Tiglian of the Netherlands. Geol. Sticht., Meded., n.s.
des Mammiferes. In Report on activities of R.CM.N.S.
6:49-71.
working groups, ed. J. Slavik, pp. 78-81. Bratislava: Zagwijn, W. H. 1974a. Variations in climate as shown by pollen
Akad. Vied.
analysis, especially in the Lower Pleistocene of Europe. In
References
190
Waldo H. Zagwijn
the southern North Sea Basin Palaeodimatic and Paleogeographic evolution. Geol. Mijnb. 57:577-588.
Zijderveld, J. D. A., Hilgen, F. J., Langereis, C. G., Verhallen,
P. J. J. M., and Zachariasse, W. J. 1991. Integrated
magnetostratigraphy and biostratigraphy of the upper
Pliocene-lower Pleistocene from the Monte Singa and
Crotone areas in Calabria, Italy. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.
107:697-714.
17
Introduction
Northwestern Germany. In the coastal sequence, the stratigraphic units of most interest are the Kaolinite Sand (Weyl,
Rein, and Teichmuller, 1955) and the Lieth series (Menke,
1975). Particular sections have been described from Oldenswort
(Menke, 1975), Weser-Bergland (Benda et al., 1968), and
Ostfriesland (Meyer, 1981).
Lower Rhine Basin. In this region, the stratigraphic sequence,
divided into cyclic units of transgressive-regressive couplets, is
denominated A/a to D/d, from oldest to youngest (Boenigk et
al., 1974), and appears to correspond with the record from the
Rhine delta in The Netherlands (Zagwijn, 1974; Zagwijn,
Chapter 16, this volume).
The lower strata, unquestionably Pliocene in age, have been
correlated according to molluscan faunas and palynology, analyzed petrographically, and inserted into the paleomagnetic scale
by Boenigk and co-workers (Boenigk et al., 1974; Boenigk,
1978a; Boenigk, Koci, and Brunnacker, 1979). Two heavymineral suites are clearly distinguished (Table 17.1). The
192
horizon, and the molluscan fauna is still of the warm "Quaternary" nature (Lozek, in Boenigk et al., 1972); the paleoflora is
noteworthy for the presence of some holdover "Tertiary"
elements (Kempf, in Boenigk et al., 1972; Urban, 1978).
Samples of the D Clay from the Ville sequence have shown
normal paleomagnetic polarities.
Petrographic analyses (Schniitgen, 1974; Boenigk, 1978b)
provided the basis for a separate classification of the gravel
layers as low-stand terraces, or "main terraces," classified under
the terms HT1 through HT4. The molluscan fauna of the Upper
Pliocene in the Bl Clay is sharply different from the warmclimate fauna in the B2 Clay horizon, which according to pollen
analysis (Urban, 1978) can be correlated to the lowest horizon of
the Tiglian complex in The Netherlands sequence (Zagwijn,
1960, 1974; Zagwijn, Chapter 16, this volume).
\ 9
Figure 17.1. Geologic provinces of western Germany.
Table 17.1. Stratigraphic correlation of the Pliocene and Quaternary in western Germany
Toringian
MQ2
MQ1
KorlichEand F
Hohen-Sulzen
Weissenburg 7
Neuleinlngen 15
Late Villanyian
MN17
Gundersheim 2
Erpflngen 2
Moggaster Hohle
Schernfeld
Deinsdorf, Schumbach
Early Villanyian
MN16
Frechen
Late Ruscinian
MN15
Gundersheim 3, 4
Early Ruscinian
MN14
Herbolzheim
Turolian
MN13
Pleistocene
Biharian
Pliocene
Late Miocene
Other inland sections. The Upper Pliocene and Lower Pleistocene strata have also been studied in Nordhessen Buchenau
(Leschick, 1951), in the Kelsterbach Terrace complex of the
Rhine/Main area and the Upper Rhine Graben (Semmel, 1974;
von der Brelie, 1974), and in other deposits of the Upper Rhine
Graben (Bartz, 1976, 1982). The age of the Steinbach deposits
has been discussed by Kolumbe (1963) and Frenzel (1973), and
that of Jockgrim by Guenther and Mai (1977), Peters (1965), and
Koci, Schrimer, and Brunnacker (1973).
Late Villanyan
Middle Villanyan
Mammalian faunas
Early Villanyan
Upper Villafranchian:
Farneta, Tasso,
Olivola faunas (= MQ-1)
-N/Q boundary-
Biostratigraphy
Mammalian local faunas in the interval of the PliocenePleistocene boundary are categorized in the mammal ages
Ruscinian, Villanyan, and Biharian in the current biostratigraphic concept for central and western Europe. The Villafranchian continental stage corresponds, more or less, to the Villanyan
and Biharian together, as discussed later.
In this concept, the Ruscinian and Villanyan represent the
Pliocene, and the Biharian the lower part of the Pleistocene. The
Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary is drawn between the Villanyan
and the Biharian at a level close to the top of the Olduvai normalpolarity subchron, corresponding to the decision of the Neogene-Quaternary Boundary Commission (Fejfar and Heinrich,
1989), with an age of 1.81 Ma (Pasini and Colalongo, Chapter 2,
this volume). The biochronological subdivisions of these ages are
based on the mammal zones proposed by Mein (1989, p. 73), in
which the Ruscinian is equivalent to Mammalian Neogene (MN)
zones MN-14a, -14b, -15a, and -15b, and Villanyan to MN-16a,
-16b, and -17. The Biharian is equivalent to the Mammalian
Quaternary (MQ) zone MQ-1. The terminal Miocene faunas are
assigned to the Turolian mammal age, zone MN-13 (Table 17.1).
For details, see Fejfar and Heinrich (1989, figures 1 and 2).
Table 17.2 shows the classic Villafranchian Stage of the Italian
continental sequence in place of the mammal ages Villanyan and
Biharian. Correlation between the Villafranchian subdivisions in
Italy and these mammal ages, which are typified mainly in central
and eastern European faunas, is obviously not perfect, given the
present state of knowledge. According to Masini and Torre (1989),
the Italian Plio-Pleistocene biostratigraphy should be compared
with that of the regions to the north as seen in Table 17.2.
193
Late Ruscinian
194
Kaena
GILBERT
Ville
CD
Frechen-lntergl III
a.
B1
Peat
Wetterau -
Clay Horizon A1
Main Brown
Frechen-lnterqll^
Fortuna-Osc
?
Quartz-Gravel
Reuver. C-Flora
plioc. Mo lusc-Fauna
A2
e
Frechen-lnterglH ^
Reuver. I 3-Flora
instable
Heavy Min
stable
C
Reuvenum
Coal
J Underlying Clay
e )
B2
Fauna of Wolfersheim
Brunssumian Flora
o
o
upper
Green Silt
Csarnotium
[ = younger
Ruscinium ]
o
o
Mammal
(Biharium)
(Weilerswist)
o
o
o
S 1
O
Mammoth
and
HI o o o o a
GAU
C/,
2.5-
Flora
( I ower)
ooooo
| Clay Horizon
(o) Gravel d
8 Clay Horizon
Gravel c
o
o Clay Horizon
Gravel b2
Clay Horizon
Gravel b1
'8
o
o Clay Horizon
o
o
Climate- Indicators
V i l t a f r a nchiun
'UYAMA
Olduvai
Horloff-Graben/Vogelsberg
Main Terraces
Series
Ville/Lower Rhine
195
Brunssumium
Susterium
Ruscinium
holder
Ruscinium ]
- normal
o - rtvers
magnetized
Figure 17.2. Stratigraphy in the terrestrial Tertiary-Quaternary boundary interval of western Germany
long used in this area as the equivalent of the TertiaryQuaternary boundary (Zagwijn, 1974).
Important sections with microflora of Plio-Pleistocene age are
found principally in the coastal regions, such as East Friesland
(Meyer, 1981) and Schleswig-Holstein (Menke, 1975), and in
structural depressions such as the lower Rhine Basin, the
Leinetal Graben (Benda and Liittig, 1968), the Rhein-Hesse
depression (including the Horloff Graben, the Seligenstadter
depression, and the Rhine/Main area), and the Upper Rhine
Graben.
Lower Rhine palynofloras. It has been known for some time that
in the lower Rhine area there is a very thick and important
Coastal-plain palynofloras. The most important and best-studied sequence of Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits (Van der Vlerk
sequence is at Lieth near Hamburg, in Schleswig-Holstein, and Florschiitz, 1953). The problem of the Tertiary-Quaternary
where Menke (1975) described a sequence of paleofloras transition in the vegetational history has been discussed by
indicating five warm-climate periods separated by layers indicat- Urban (1978), who investigated profiles in the open-pit lignite
ing cold-climate periods. From bottom to top, the warm-climate mines on the Ville at Fortuna, Garsdorf, and Frechen, as well as
196
that adequate information exists to identify the TertiaryQuaternary boundary, whether at the base of the Pretiglian or at
a higher level, such as the base of Eburonian cold-climate phase
(Zagwijn, Chapter 16, this volume). In the Upper Rhine Graben
(Bartz, 1976, 1982) and in the Horloff Graben (Gruschkau,
1962; Boenigk et al., 1977) the deposits of that interval are
generally very poorly exposed, and because of slow and erratic
tectonic subsidence rates they have a complicated sedimentation
geometry; the stratigraphy, therefore, is almost impossible to
correlate. It must also be taken into consideration that the
deposits usually are somewhat condensed and normally exhibit
relatively thin interglacial vegetation phases.
Continental molluscan faunas
The upper Reuverian molluscan fauna in the A horizons of the
Ville shows a distinct similarity to the molluscan assemblage of
Hauterives, a later Ruscinian (medial Pliocene) site in southern
France (Strauch and Schlickum, in Boenigk et al., 1974; Mein,
1989). In the past, Reuverian flora were consistently classified as
Upper Pliocene, but the present mid-Pliocene attribution is more
in accord with the molluscan evidence. The mollusks in the B2
Clay horizon from the Ville demonstrate an astonishing faunal
change, similar to the paleofloral change at that level, as noted
earlier. According to Lozek (in Boenigk et al., 1972) the fauna
exhibits distinct warm-climate elements, but without any of the
earlier warm-climate taxa of the Reuverian. This may be seen as
an indication of an unprecedented severity of climate change and
a consequent high rate of extinction in northern European
molluscan faunas during the intervening cold-climate episodes
represented by gravels bl and b2; as noted earlier, pollen
analysis equates these gravels with the Pretiglian, and the B2
Clay with the Tiglian.
Paleomagnetism
197
Table 17.3. Stratigraphic correlation of the Neogene and early Quaternary in the North Sea margins
Epoch
PLEIST.
PLIOCENE
Climate
Stage
BELGIUM
NETHERLANDS
Waalian
Waalian
Eburonlan
Eburonian
Tigllan
DClay
CClay
B2 Clay
Tiglian
Praetlgllan
(Lieth Series)
Mol B
(Praetigilian)
Reuverian
Brunsummian
Susterian
MIOCENE
NV/EST GERMANY,
JUTLAND
(Middle)
(Early)
Merxemian
Mol C
(u. Reuver)
Scaldisian
Mol D1
Kattendijkian
Mol D 2
Mol E
(Delden)
Mol F 1
Baventian
Thurnian
Ludhamian
Scaldisian
Morsumian
Syltian IV
Syltian III
Syltian II
Syltian I
Gramian II
Gramian I
Langenfeld. IV
Langenfeldian III
Langenfeldian II
Langenfeldian I
Diestian s.s.
Deurnian
Mol F 3 - 5
(Eibergen)
Reinbeckian
Oxlundian
Hemmoorian
Behrendorfian
Mol F 2
(Zenderen)
Mol G
(Stemerdink)
Anversian
Houthalian
Edegemian
Mol H
(Miste)
Vierlandian
OLIGOCENE
Neochattian
198
199
superieur des Sables de Deurnes. Inst. Roy. Sc. Nat. Belg., Menke, B. 1975. Vegetationsgeschichte und Florenstratigraphie
Nordwestdeutschlands im Pliozan und Fruhquartar. Mit
Bull., 31(71):l-27; 31(72):1-12.
einem Beitrag zur Biostratigraphie des Weichsel-FriihglazGruschkau, H. 1962. Pollenanalytische Untersuchungen der
Wetterauer Braunkohle und iiber holarktische Ericaceen.
ials. Geol. Jb. A26:3-148.
Unpublished dissertation, Universitat Giessen.
Meyer, K.-J. 1981. Zur Stratigraphie des kontinentalen Pliozans
Guenther, E. W., and Mai, H. 1977. Die pleistozanen Schichten
in NW-Deutschland mittels pollenanalytischer Untersuchvon Jockgrim in der Rheinpfalz. Naturw. Ver. Schlesw.uingen. Newsl. Stratigr. 10:1-19.
Holst., Schr. 47:5-24.
Peters, I. 1965. Zur Altersstellung der Tofe und Gyttjen von
Heller, F. 1936. Eine oberpliozane Wirbeltierfauna aus RheinhesHerxheim, Jockgrim und Rheinzabern in der Vorderpfalz.
sen. N. Jb. Min. Geol. Pal., Bell. Bd. 76B:99-160.
Eisz. Gegenw. 16:121-131.
Heller, F. 1958. Eine neue altquartare Wirbeltierfauna von Schedler, J. 1979. Neue pollenanalytische Untersuchungen am
Erpflngen (Schwabische Alb). N. Jb. Geol. Palaont., Abh.
Schieferkohlevorkommen des Uhlenberges bei Dinkelscherben (Schwaben). Geol. Bavar. 80:165-182.
107:1-101.
Hinsch, W. 1977. Die Molluskenfauna des Syltium vom Morsum- Scheuenpflug, L. 1979. Der Uhlenberg in der ostlichen IllerLech-Platte (Bayerisch-Schwaben). Geol. Bavar. 80:159Kliff. Naturw. Ver. Schlesw.-Hoist., Schr. Mr:39-56.
164.
Hinsch, W. 1984. In Das Neogen im Raum Sylt: Exkursionsfiihrer
Erdgeschichte des Nordsee und Ostseeraumes, pp. 217- Schniitgen, A. 1974. Die Hauptterrassenfolge am linken Niederrhein auf Grund der Schotterpetrographie. Unpublished
248. Universitat Hamburg, Geologisch-palaontologischer
dissertation, Universitat Koln.
Institut.
Hinsch, W. 1985. Fossillagerstatten des marinen Neogen auf Schniitgen, A., and Brunnacker, K. 1977. Zur KieselschieferFiihrung in Schottern am Niederrhein. Decheniana 130:
Sylt. Fossilien von Sylt 1:117-131.
Hinsch, W. 1986a. Lithologie, Stratigraphie und Palaogeo293-298.
graphie des Neogens in Schleswig-Holstein. Beitr. Reg. Semmel, A. 1974. Der Stand der Eiszeitforschung im RheinGeol. Erde 18:22-38.
Main-Gebiet. Rhein-Main. Forsch. 78:9-56.
Hinsch, W. 1986b. The Northwest-German Tertiary basin Storch, G., and Fejfar, O. 1989. Gundersheim-Findling, a
Miocene and Pliocene. Beitr. Reg. Geol. Erde 18:679-699.
Ruscinian rodent fauna of Asian affinities from Germany.
Hinsch, W. 1989. Die Molluskenfauna und sonstige Mesofauna
In European Neogene Mammal Chronology, ed. E. H.
in der Forschungsbohrung Wursterheide. Geol. Jb. A l l l :
Lindsay et al., pp. 405-412. Paris: North Atlantic Treaty
233-286.
Organization, A.S.I. Series No. 180.
Hinsch, W. 1990. Subdivision and palaeogeography of the Straus, A. 1967. Zur Palaontologie des Pliozans von WillershauGramian and Syltian stages (Late Miocene) in Schleswigsen. Berliner Natur-hist. Ges., Abh. 111:15-24.
Holstein and Wursten (NW Germany). Ten. Res. 11:159- Tobien, H. 1951. Die Aufzeichnungen H. G. Stehlin's iiber die
177.
pliozanen Saugerreste von Herbolzheim bei Freiburg i. Br.
Hinsch, W. 1991. Molluscan faunes in sections of Southern North
Baden, geol. Landesamt., Mitt. Bl. 1950:78-84.
sea. Report SNP BH 89 (unpublished).
Tobien, H. 1975. Pleistozane Warmzeiten und Saugetiere in
Jung, W. 1963. Blatt- und Fruchtreste aus der Oberen SiisswasserEuropa. Quartdrpaldontologie 1:221-233.
molasse von Massenhausen, Kreis Freising (Oberbayern). Tobien, H. 1980. Saugerfaunen von der Grenze Pliozan/
Palaeontographica, Abt. B 112:119-166.
Pleistozan in Rheinhessen, 1: die Spaltenfiillungen von
Koci, A., Schrimer, W., and Brunnacker, K. 1973. PalaomagGundersheim bei Worms. Mainzer geowiss. Mitt. 8:209netische Daten aus dem mittleren Pleistozan des Rhein218.
Main-Raumes. N Jb. Geol. Palaont., Mh. 1973:545-554. Urban, B. 1978. Vegetationsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen zur
Kolumbe, E. 1963. Die interglazialen und interstadialen AblagerGliederung des Altquartars der Niederrheinischen Bucht.
ungen von Steinbach bei Baden-Baden. Oberrhein. geol.
Univ. Koln, Geol. Inst., Sonderveroff. 34:1-165.
Abh. 12:25-43.
Van der Vlerk, I. M., and Florschiitz, F. 1953. The palaeontoKretzoi, M. 1962. Fauna und Faunenhorizont von Csarnota.
logical base of the subdivision on the Pleistocene in the
Fold. Intezet. Evi Jelentesi 1959:297-395.
Nederlands. Kon. Ned. Akad. Wetens., Afd. Naturk. 1
Kretzoi, M. 1965. Die Nager und Lagomorphen von Voigstedt in
Reeks 20:1-58.
Thiiringen und ihre chronologische Aussage. Palaont. Van Kolfschoten, T., and Van der Meulen, A. J. 1986. Villanyan
Abh., Abt. A2, 1965:587-660.
and Biharian mammal faunas in The Netherlands. Soc.
Lagaaij, R. 1952. The Pliocene Bryozoa of the Low Countries.
Geol. Ital. Mem. 31:191-200.
Geol. Sticht., Med., C-V 5:1-233.
von der Brelie, G. 1974. Pollenanalytische Untersuchungen an
Leschick, G. 1951. Mikrobotanisch-stratigrahische Untersuchwamrzeitlichen Sedimenten in den Terrassen des
ung der jungpliozanen Braunkohle von Buchenau (Krs.
Untermainz-Gebietes. Rhein-Main. Forsch. 78:83-99.
Hiinfeld). Palaeontographica, Abt. B 92:1-51.
von der Brelie, G. 1981. Die Grenze Pliozan/Pleistozan und das
Madler, K. 1939. Die pliozane Flora von Frankfurt am Main.
Tiglium in der Erst-Scholle (Niederrheinische Bucht) aus
Senckenb. naturf. Ges., Abh. 46:1-202.
palynologischer Sicht. Univ. Koln, Geol. Inst., SonderMasini, E, and Torre, D. 1989. Large Mammal dispersal events
veroff. 41:29-42.
at the beginning of the Late Villafranchian. In European von der Brelie, G., Hager, H., and Kothen, H. 1981. Neue
Neogene Mammal Chronology, ed. E. H. Lindsay et al.,
Gesichtspunkte zur pollenstratigraphischen Gliederung
pp. 131-138. Paris: North Atlantic Treaty Organization,
des Pliozans in der Niederrheinischen Bucht. Fortschr.
A.S.I. Series No. 180.
Geol. Rheinl. Westf 29:265-274.
Mein, P. 1989. Updating of MN Zones. In European Neogene von Koenigswald, W., and Tobien, H. 1990. Important Arvicolid
Mammal Chronology, ed. E. H. Lindsay et al., pp. 131faunas from the late Pliocene to early Holocene in western
138. Paris: North Atlantic Treaty Organization, A.S.I.
Germany. In International Symposium. Evolution, PhylogSeries No. 180.
eny and Biostratigrapahy of Arvicolids (Rodentia, Mam-
200
Pleistocene vegetation in The Netherlands. Geol. Stichting, Meded., Serie CIII-j 15:1-78.
Zagwijn, W. H. 1963. Pollen-analytic investigations in the
Tiglian of The Netherlands. Geol. Stichting, Meded., n.s.
16:49-69.
Zagwijn, W. H. 1974. The Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary in
western and southern Europe. Boreas 3:75-97'.
18
202
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203
has been correlated with the early Elsterian, the older gravel
bodies formerly were interpreted as either pre-glacial or Pliocene
in age. In all those gravel bodies, permafrost patterns, including
ice wedges, are developed (Eissmann, 1975, 1981). Today we
correlate those three earlier accumulations with the Briiggen,
main Eburonian, and Menapian cold-climate phases. The
Briiggen has been identified with the Pretiglian by some
researchers, and by others with the early Eburonian. The postBruggen limnic sequence of Zeuchfeld-Borntal, however, with
Fagotia acicularis, Valvata naticina, Lithoglyphus pyramidatus,
and Discus perspectivus (Mania, 1973), is correlated with the late
Pliocene Tiglian climate stage of the lower Rhine Basin.
Thuringian basin
204
205
Eissmann, L., and Miiller, A. 1979. Leitlinien der Quartarentwicklung im Norddeutschen Tiefland. Zeitschr. GeoL
Wiss. 7:451-463.
Thuringen. Quartdrpaldontologie 7:55297.
Ellenberg, J. 1969. Die geologisch-morphologische Entwicklung
des sudwest-thuringischen Werragebietes im Pliozan und Mania, D. 1973. Palaookologie, Faunenentwicklung und StratiQuartar. Dissertation, Universitat Jena.
graphie des Eiszeitalters im mittleren Elbe-Saalegebiet auf
Gehl, O. 1958. Das Profil von Riiterberg, ein Beitrag zur PlioGrund von Molluskengesellschaften. Zeitschr. Geol. 21,
Pleistozan-Grenze in Mecklenburg. GeoL Ges. DDR, Ber.
Beiheft 78/79:1-175.
Mielecke, W. 1929. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der von Gerollen
3:153-154.
Genieser, K. 1955. Ehemalige Elbelaufe in der Lausitz. Zeitschr.
nordischer Herkunft freien Kiese in der Niederlausitz.
GeoL 4:223-279.
Zeitschr. Geschiebeforsch. 5:132-143.
Genieser, K., and Diener, I. 1958. Versuch einer Altersdeutung Mielecke, W. 1934. Uber Kieselsauregelite aus dem Pliozan der
der vor- und fruheiszeitlichen Elbelaufe auf Grund neuer
Niederlausitz. Zeitschr. Geschiebeforsch. 10:111-117.
Froschungsergebnisse. Univ. Berlin Wiss. Zeitschr. 6, Prager, F. 1976. Quartare Bildungen in Ostsachsen. Staatl.
Museum Mineral. GeoL Dresden, Abh. 25:125-217.
math.-nat. Reihe 5:477-487.
Hucke, K. 1928. Zur Verbreitung des Pliocans in Norddeutsch- Quitzow, H. 1953. Altersbeziehungen und Flozzusammenhange
in der jiingeren Braunkohlenformation nordlich der
land. Preuss. geol. Landesanst., Jb. 49:413-426.
Mittelgebirge. Geol. Jb. 68:27-132.
Jahnichen, H. 1968. Pflanzenfiihrende Tone aus dem Obermiozan von Ottendorf-Okrilla (Bezirk Dresden). Deutsch. Schramm, H. 1964. Untersuchungen zur Stratigraphie und
Akad. Wiss. Berlin, Monatsber. 10:919-920.
Palaogeographie altpleistozaner Schotterablagerungen im
Kahlke, H. D. 1968. Vertebratenstratigraphie zur Plio/Pleistozannordlichen Vorland des Thuringer Waldes. Dissertation,
Universitat Jena.
Grenze. In Reports of the 23rd Session. International
Geological Congress, Czechoslovakia, 1968. Proceedings ofSchubert, G. 1980. Ein synchroner Taschen- und Tropfenboden
Section 10, TertiaryI Quaternary Boundary, pp. 27-39.
in praelsterkaltzeitlichen Flusschottern ("Bautzener ElbeBratislava: Geologicky Vied.
lauf") der Lausitz. Zeitschr. Geol. Wiss. 8:1345-1348.
Kahlke, H. D. 1977. The N/Q-Boundary. Territories: Federal Siegel, R. 1959. Untersuchungen zur Talgeschichte der oberen
Werra zwischen Themar und Bad Salzungen. Dipl. Arbeit,
Republic of Germany, German Democratic Republic,
Universitat Jena.
People's Republic of Poland (terrestrial sequences).
Steinmuller, A. 1974. Tertiare. In Geologie von Thuringen, ed.
Giorn. GeoL, Ser. 2 41:165-177.
Kahlke, H. D., Eissmann, L., and Wiegank, F. 1984. Die Neogen/
W. Hoppe and G. Seidel, pp. 717-742. Leipzig.
Quartar-Grenze. Territorium der Deutschen Demokrati- Stolley, E. 1900. Geologische Mitteilungen von der Insel Sylt. II.
Cambrische und silurische Gerolle im Miozan. Arch.
schen Republik. Beitrag zum IGCP-Projekt 41: N/QAnthropol. Geol. Schleswig-Holsteins 4:1-49.
Grenze. Zeitschr. Angew. GeoL 30:44-48.
Kahlke, H. D., and Ukrainzeva, V. V. 1986. Pozdnepliocenovaya Unger, K. P. 1964. Die Gliederung der altpleistoanen Sedimente
flora, rastitel'nost i fauna yuga Tyuringii (Ikrug Zul',
und zur Frage der Plio/Pleistozan-Grenze in Thuringen. In
Vlth International Congress on the Quaternary, Warsaw
GDR). [Late Pliocene flora, environment, and fauna of
1961. Reports, vol. 1, pp. 349-356.
southern Thuringia [District Suhl, GDR]). Bot. Zhurn.
Unger, K. P. 1974. Quartar. In Geologie von Thuringen, ed. W.
71:16-22.
Hoppe and G. Seidel, pp. 742-781. Leipzig,
Krause, P. G. 1933. Das Pliozan Ostpreussens und seine
Beziehungen zum nordwestdeutschen und westdeutschen von Biilow, W. 1964. Der Tropfenboden von Ruterberg (SWMecklenburg). Zeitschr. Geol. 13:361-363.
Pliozan. Preuss. geol. Landesanst., Abh. n.f. 144:1-71.
Krutzsch, W. 1959. Sporen vom "Schizea-pusilla-Charakter" im Wiegank, F. 1982. Ergebnisse magnetostratigraphischer Untersuchungen im hoheren Kanozoikum der DDR. Zeitschr.
Pliozan von Riiterberg (= Wendisch-Wehningen). Arch.
GeoL Wiss. 10:737-744.
Naturfr. Mecklenburg 5:36-55.
Krutzsch, W. 1988. Kritische Bemerkungen zur Palynologie und Wolf, L. 1980. Die elster- und praelsterkaltzeitlichen Terrassen
der Elbe. Zeitschr. geol. Wiss. 8:1267-1280.
zur klimastratigraphischen Gliederung des Pliozans bis
tieferen Altpleistozans in Slid-, Siidwest-, Nordwest- und Ziegenhardt, W. 1965. Saxonischer Schollenbau und junge
Krustenbewegungen im nordlichen Vorland des Thuringer
pro parte Mitteleuropa sowie die Lage der Pliozan/
Waldes zwischen Ohra und Ilm. Dissertation, Hochschule
Pleistozan-Grenze in diesem Gebiet. Quartdrpaldontologie
Architektur u. Bauwesen, Universitat Weimar.
7:7-51.
19
Introduction
Recent studies and investigations have agreed that paleomagnetic polarity changes are the most expedient criteria for
establishing the main divisions of Quaternary stratigraphy and
for tracing the "N/Q" limit between Neogene and Quaternary
(actually, the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary). In Hungary,
there are two viewpoints as to where to mark the N/Q boundary:
at the Gauss-Matuyama paleomagnetic boundary (Ronai,
1984), dated to 2.5 Ma, or at the top of the Olduvai event (Pasini
and Colalongo, Chapter 2, this volume), dated to 1.8 Ma. Each
of these reversals is close to the initiation of a period of global
cooling.
If we accept the paleomagnetic polarity changes as signposts of
stratigraphic boundaries, it is still necessary to reach consensus
on which of the cooling events should be recognized as the lower
boundary of the Quaternary. Both reversals have been recognized in Hungary, but most Hungarian scientists have long
favored the view that the beginning of the Quaternary should be
determined by a major stratigraphic and paleontological change,
which we now know to have been almost coincident with the
Gauss-Matuyama paleomagnetic boundary - see Ronai (1984)
and the references cited therein.
There are several reasons to prefer this date, but the main one
is that it corresponds to the most impressive change in the
Carpathian Basin during the past 5-10 million years, namely, the
epirogenetic uplift of that great territory in the middle of the
European continent, and the regression of the Pannonian Lake,
comparable to regression in the Dacic Basin (Ghenea, Chapter
20, this volume). This event changed the geomorphology of the
entire region and seems also to have been coincident with the
starting point of a new tectonic cycle.
Because of growing interest in problems of agrogeology, engineering geology, hydrogeology, and environmental protection, a
very detailed and thorough program of mapping the younger
deposits of the Pannonian Basin was started by the Quaternary
Department of the Hungarian Geological Institute in 1964
206
Plio-Pleistocene of Hungary
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Pannonian lake in Pliocene time indicated by the hatched area.
Andrew A. Ronai
208
yJJJUlti/LJLLLU
100-
500-
1000
Figure 19.2. Quaternary sedimentation in the Hungarian Great Basin. Limnic sediments of the
Lower, Middle and Upper Pliocene (PI1-PI3) and fluvial sediments of the lowest, lower, middle, and upper parts of the Pleistocene (Q!-Q4) are shown in N-S
and E-W sections. According to
paleomagnetic analysis, the "lowest Pleistocene" (Qt) is older than
the Vrica boundary.
50
Upper Pleistocene
PI3
Uppermost Pliocene
Middle Pleistocene
Pl2
Lower Pleistocene
Pl-j
L. Pannonian (Mio-Pliocene)
Lowermost Pleistocene
(Fluvial)
(Limnic)
Plio-Pleistocene of Hungary
animal life can be found, as contrasted with the rich mollusk and
ostracode faunas and the abundant pollen in the strata below and
above the sterile layers.
The paleontological evidence shows that at the beginning of
the fluviatile deposition, the climate became more humid,
although remaining quite warm; precipitation rates rose, and
vegetation again covered the terrain, becoming increasingly
opulent up to the level of the Olduvai subchronozone. At that
time, the climate began to alternate between cold and warm,
with strong fluctuations in precipitation, but none of those
changes had an effect on vegetation comparable to the transition
in the earliest Gauss (Ronai, 1970) (Figure 19.3). Paleontologically, it has not been possible to differentiate any major biotic
changes that would allow identification of internal, sub-epoch
boundaries of the Pleistocene, such as the four major glacial
intervals observed and demonstrated in the Alps. Only two
major biostratigraphic units can be distinguished in the postGauss interval, with the boundary marked by the transition to
more variable climates at the top of the Olduvai subchronozone.
The great change in geomorphology, tectonism, and climate at
the Gauss-Matuyama boundary supports the Hungarian opinion
that the disappearance of the Pannonian lake should mark the
end of the Pliocene and that the beginning of the fluvial
accumulation should mark the start of the Quaternary, coincident with the Gauss-Matuyama reversal. In this schema, the
climatic and faunal changes at the top of the Olduvai
subchronozone divide the older Pleistocene from the younger,
colder part, similar to a long-held opinion about the divisions of
the Quaternary in the former Soviet Union (Nikiforova, Chapter
21, this volume).
209
210
Andrew A. Ronai
1000-
1100-
1200-
Proportion of
the clay fraction
Plio-Pleistocene of Hungary
211
J A S Z L A D A N Y
CUMAIE
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index for dividing between the "Oldest" and the "Old" (or
Lower) Pleistocene, and the Matuyama-Brunhes paleomagnetic
reversal was used to divide the Lower from the Middle
Pleistocene (Ronai, 1984). Between the Middle and Upper
Pleistocene there are no paleomagnetic events to serve as
boundary markers. As noted earlier, this schema is inconsistent
with the currently adopted criterion of the Vrica bed e, which
locates the base of the Pleistocene to be equivalent to the coldclimate maximum at the end of the Olduvai event. As noted
earlier, this level has been the boundary between Oldest
Pleistocene and Old Pleistocene in the conventional Hungarian
usage.
Sedimentation rates determined from the paleomagnetic data
indicate that subsidence was almost steady at 0.2 mm/year during
the fluviatile interval in the Koros Basin, despite the changes in
sediment types. That evidence confirmed that the variations in
granulometry probably were almost completely independent of
tectonism and therefore should be considered as closely reflecting the changes in environmental conditions.
References
212
Andrew A. Ronai
D E V A V A N Y A
V E S Z T O
TIME
STAilt
SCALE
-to
-40
INCLINATION
>40
GANUlOMfTt
-to
so
my
STAilE
Devavanya and Veszto have provided a high-resolution paleomagnetic record in which magnetostratigraphic boundaries can
be drawn and used to provide time controls. The first two fluvial
cycles prove to be older than the Olduvai event and in terms of
present usage would fall in the Upper Pliocene. Both holes have
provided fair mollusk and ostracode faunas and moderate pollen
records that make possible broad correlations with Jaszladany.
The warm climate dominated until approximately 1.8 Ma, as
in the marine record. Further studies are needed before a
detailed evaluation of the climatic changes is possible, but the
prospects are excellent.
The Jaszladany borehole
Plio-Pleistocene of Hungary
D E V A V A N Y A
V E S Z T O
CLIMATE
POLLEN
SAMPLES
C c T T WW
DH DH D H
CLIMATE
POLLEN
SAMPLES
CYCLES
C C T T ww
DH DHDH
FLUVIAL
HI
. . .
Hi
MM
m
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.
200-
200-
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m
300-
300-
. . .
400-
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Andrew A. Ronai
214
PALEOMAGNETIC
TIME SCALE
CLIMATE
Plio-Pleistocene of Hungary
215
20
Introduction
In recent years, detailed geological studies of the PlioceneLower Pleistocene interval in Romania, including modern
biostratigraphic analysis, have been combined with paleomagnetic data. At present, the chronology of the interval between
3.8 and 1.0 Ma in the Dacic Basin is well known, correlations
being possible not only with the Euxinic Basin (Ukraine) but also
with western Europe.
The Dacic (or Dacian) Basin is the name given to a vast
sedimentary basin bounded by the southern Carpathians, the
Balkans, and the Danube (Figure 20.1). In the middle Pliocene,
about 3.8 Ma, the salinity of the waters filling that basin was
reduced, a trend that became more pronounced in the late
Pliocene. Strata with fresh-water fauna were deposited, and at
certain levels beds rich in fossil mammal faunas were deposited.
This is the Romanian Stage, and data obtained in the past few
years are basic to correct interpretation of the stratigraphy of this
interval.
In most of the Dacic Basin, deposition of continental molasse,
known as the Cindesti Formation, began in the late Pliocene and
continued into the early Pleistocene. This formation occurs
throughout the basin, except for the western part, where
lacustrine conditions prevailed. Recently, the stratigraphic limits
of the Cindesti deposits were correlated to the paleomagnetic
scale, but no stratigraphic subdivisions have been identified
within this complex.
Above the Cindesti Formation, in the central and southern
parts of the Dacic Basin, deposits of a mixed, fluviolacustrine
regime developed in the early and middle Pleistocene; paleontological evidence at various levels permits their correlation with
the formations of the Euxinic Basin (Table 20.1).
Chronostratigraphy of the 3.8-1.0-Ma interval
Romanian Stage
Lower Romanian. In the Carpathian Bend, near Beceni, an
alternation of sands, clays, and marls with lignite intercalations
about 250 m thick conformably overlies the deposits of the
Upper Dacian Stage (Andreescu, 1981). The fossil content is
mainly smooth unionids of the slanicensis, sturdzae, and
brandzae groups, as well as Viviparus bifarcinatus. The Lower
Romanian has the same lithologic and paleontological features in
the central part of the Dacic Basin and in its western extremity,
where lignitic strata are also present.
On the Moldavian Plateau, afluviolacustrinesequence equivalent to the Lower Romanian contains a mammalian fauna
characterized by the following taxa: mastodons Anancus
arvernensis and Zygolophodon (= Mammut) borsoni; the
earliest arvicolid, Promimomys moldavicus; horses of the genus
Equus together with the genus Hipparion; and Tapirus
arvernensis and Sus provincialis. A mollusk fauna with Psilunio
sibinensis occurs in the same formations.
In the Brasov intermontane basin, a lacustrine sequence
consisting of marls, clays, and sands, with lignite intercalations,
is also considered to be equivalent to the Lower Romanian. At
Capeni and Virghis, local mammal faunas include Anancus
arvernensis, Zygolophodon (= Mammut) borsoni, Dicerorhinus
cf. D. leptorhinus, Equus (Macrohippus) sylvanum, Sus provincialis, Protarctos boeckhi, Parailurus anglicus, Prospalax priscus,
Mesopithecus monspessulanus, and others (Samson and Radulescu, 1973).
The mollusk and mammal faunas found in the Lower
Romanian can be correlated with the lower part of the
Moldavian complex in the former Soviet Union. This is in
agreement with recent paleomagnetic analyses, which have
Plio-Pleistocene of Romania
L G
217
tions in the Liquidambar pollen and the Myricaceae-Cyrillaceae association. The second, between strata VII and VIII, is
marked by the maximum development of the MyricaceaeCyrillaceae association. The palynomorph suite in the upper
part of the Romanian is characterized by the dominance of
conifers such as Picea, Cedrus, Pinus, Tsuga, Abies, and Larix,
indicating cold climate (Roman, in Marinescu, Ghenea, and
Papaianopol, 1981), or, more probably, higher elevations in the
source areas from which the sediments were derived, as the
geological evidence suggests.
In the Middle Romanian, fossil mammal remains have been
found at several locations in the Dacic Basin, including the
deposits of Cernatesti and Tulucesti. In addition to the two
mastodons Anancus arvernensis and Zygolophodon borsoni, the
faunas include some typical middle Villafranchian species, such
as Dicerorhinus etruscus, Equus stenonis, Cervus issiodorensis,
and the earliest elephant, "Archidiskodon rumanus" which,
properly speaking, is a species of Mammuthus (Aguirre et al.,
Chapter 9, this volume). In the Brasov intermontane basin,
remains of Dicerorhinus jeanvireti and D. etruscus were mentioned by Samson and Radulescu (1973), within the "Iaras Sand
Formation," which is assigned to the Middle Romanian.
Middle Romanian. The Middle Romanian is marked by a major Upper Romanian. In the western part of the Dacic Basin,
change in the fresh-water mollusks: the appearance and further lacustrine conditions are still represented in the Upper Romadevelopment of the Levantine thermophilous fauna (Tshepalyga, nian strata, consisting of a clayey-sandy sequence with a fresh1972), characterized by numerous genera and subgenera of water mollusk fauna. The latter is marked by the disappearance
sculptured unionids. At Craiova in the western Dacic Basin, of most of the typical "Levantine" genera and species of the
sands and clays with sculptured unionids form the stratotype of Middle Romanian and by the appearance of new genera, such as
the Levantine Stage. Current knowledge allows us to consider Bogatschevia and new species such as Ebersininaia milcovensis,
that this stage, as previously used in the relevant Romanian E. geometrica, E. struevi, Unio kujalnicensis, and Rugunio
riphai.
literature, is the equivalent of the entire Middle Romanian.
In the Olt Valley, at Slatina, the sequence of clays, clayey
The typical Middle Romanian in the western part of the Dacic
Basin, in the Jiu Valley, contains an extremely varied and rich sands, and gravels representing the Middle and Upper Romamollusk fauna consisting of Rugunio lenticularis, Potamides nian is highly fossiliferous. Paleontological evidence (mollusks,
porumbarui, P. herjeui, Cuneopsidea recurvus, C. vukotinovici, micromammals) and paleomagnetic correlations provide a deC. sculpta, C. iconominanus, C. beyrichi, C. doljensis, Rytia tailed stratigraphy across the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary
bielzii, R. brandzae, R. slavonica, Wenziella clivosa, W. sub- (Andreescu et al., 1981). The Upper Romanian is represented
clivosa, W. cymatoidea, W. gorjensis, Rugunio condai, R. by strata with Ebersininaia milcovensis, E. geometrica, and
turburensis, R. mojsvari, R. pilari, Pristinunio pristinus, P. Rugunio riphai. The boundary between the strata with Rugunio
davilai, Cyclopotomida munieri, C. pannonica, Psilunio craioven-riphai and those with Unio apscheronicus seems to correspond to
the base of the Olduvai subchronozone.
sis, P. altercarinatus, Ebersininaia stefanescui, Viviparus bifarcinatus, V. stricturatus, V. rudis, V. turgidus, V. strossmayerianus, V. The Upper Romanian strata of the Olt Valley also contain a
craiovensis, and V. mammatus, among others. The biozonation rich fauna of fossil mammals. The large mammals include an
of the Middle Romanian is based on the unionid fauna archaic elephant, which, according to Radulescu and Samson (in
(Andreescu, 1981), and the definition of zones and subzones Andreescu et al., 1981), is similar to Mammuthus (= "Arpermits good correlations with the equivalent formations in the chidiskodon") gromovi and is characteristic of the Kotlovina
Ukraine (Tshepalyga, 1972).
level in the former Soviet Union.
Small mammals are present at several levels in the Olt Valley,
In the western extremity of the Dacic Basin (the Jiu-Danube
interfluve), deposition of coal began with the Dacian Stage of at Slatina and Cherlesti (Feru, Radulescu, and Samson, 1978).
the middle Pliocene, continued through the whole Romanian, The lower level (Slatina 1) is characterized by Desmana kormosi,
and ended in the early Pleistocene. Sporopollen sequences Apodemus sp. 1, Dolomys milled subsp. 1, and Mimomys minor
within the coal sequence show two characteristic reference subsp. 1; D. milleri dominates this association. The upper level
horizons. The first, at the level of stratum VI (the Dacian- at Slatina (Slatina 2) contains Desmana nehringi, Talpa fossilis,
Lower Romanian boundary), is marked by substantial reduc- Beremendia fossidens, Leporidae cf. Hypolagus brachygnathus,
Constantin Ghenea
218
1
B
C
I
B A S I N
0
M O L L U S C S
CRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC SUBOISIONS
M A M M A L S
M l C R 0 2B I 0
CASPIAN
BASIN
Corbicula fluminalis
0.7
COMPLEX
1.0
JARAMILLO
1,2
Tragontherium
boisvilletti
boisvilleiii
Bogatschevia sturi
z
o
BOSERNITIAN
Archidiskodon
meridionalis
1,6
meridionalis
Umo apscheronicus
Tragontherium
boisviltetti
dacicum
OOMASKINIAN
QL
<
1,8
Rugunio riphaei
2.0
Unio'kjialnicensis Archidiskodon
feunion
2.2
Ebersininaia
2.8
3.4
3.6
3.8
AKKULAEVIAN
Ebersinmaia
milcovensis
2.6
3,2
gromovi
geometrica
2.U
3,0
Mimomys polonicus
FERLADANIAN
M. pliocaenicus
KRIJANOVSKIAN
KAEHA O
Cuneopsidea
iconomianus
Archidiskodon
rumanus
Rytia bielzi
Anancus
arvernensis
Pnsfinunio pristinus
Zygolophodon
borsoni
Rytia brandzae
Vi v iparus
bifarci n a t us
s m o o t h unionids
Anancus
arvernensis
Zygolophodon
borsoni
Tapirus
arvernensis
Mimomys
G I gr. mi nor
CISTOPOLIAN
Pliomys
hungaricus
VESELOVIAN
UPPER
PORATIAN
<
o
o
KAGULIAN
Promimomys
1
2
KUCHURGANIAN
Apodemus sp., Dolomys milleri milleri, and Mimomys minor deposition. The stratigraphic position of the Cindesti Formation
subsp. 2. The reduction of D. milleri and the prevalence of is difficult to establish because paleontological evidence is
extremely scarce (mainly, isolated remains of Mammuthus
Mimomys are characteristic.
At Cherlesti, 13 km north of Slatina, the Upper Pliocene meridionalis). Nevertheless, the stratigraphic limits have been
(between 2.0 and 1.8 Ma) includes a faunal association of estimated through paleomagnetic profiles in sections where
Desmana nehringi, Allactaga ucrainica, Dolomys milleri milleri,sedimentation was continuous during the Romanian-early PleisMimomys ex gr. M. polonicuspliocaenicus, and Mimomys tocene interval. In the Carpathian Bend zone, coarse-grained
minor subsp. 2 (Radulescu and Samson, in Andreescu et al, intercalations have been assigned to the "Cindesti Formation" as
far back as the interval between 2.7 Ma and 2.5 Ma (Alekseeva
1981).
etal.,1981).
Cindesti Formation. At the beginning of late Romanian time, the Stratigraphic relations in the Carpathian region indicate that
continental molasse known as the Cindesti Formation, made up the Cindesti type of deposition continued up into the early
of alternating gravels, conglomerates, sands, and clays, devel- Pleistocene over a wide area. In that respect, the previous
oped over a vast area in the Dacic Basin. In many places, its location of the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary within the
thickness reaches hundreds of meters, with a maximum of 1,000 Cindesti Formation has no important geological or climatic
m in the Carpathian Bend zone.
significance. The boundary near the top of the Olduvai event, at
The extent and thickness of the Cindesti Formation in the about 1.80 Ma (Pasini and Colalongo, Chapter 2, this volume),
Carpathian foreland are the results of massive uplift of the however, seems to have been associated with evidence of
Carpathians and the resulting intensification of erosion and important changes.
Plio-Pleistocene of Romania
219
220
Constantin Ghenea
References
21
Introduction
222
Ksenia V. Nikiforova
Cimmerian, or at least its upper part, the Kamyshburunsky, and and Prolagurus (Lagurodon) arankae (Azzaroli et al., 1988;
the Panticapeisky horizons (Semenenko and Pevzner, 1979).
Chaline, Chapter 14, this volume). The beginning of the
The Upper Pliocene division is composed of two links. The Eburonian is located in The Netherlands just at the top of the
lower link, equivalent to the lower Akchagylian, corresponds to Olduvai event (Zagwijn, 1974, 1985; Zagwijn, Chapter 16, this
continental facies with the Moldavian fossil mammal complex. In volume). According to this interpretation, leading from biothose deposits, the key mammal taxa are Anancus arvernensis, stratigraphy to magnetostratigraphy, the Domashkinian coolDicerorhinus jeanvireti, archaic elephants of the genus Archi- climate deposits thus closely coincide with the strata at the base
diskodon (or Mammuthus according to some specialists; see of the Quaternary in the marine sequence at Vrica.
Aguirre et al., Chapter 9, this volume), species of the micro tine
The upper link of the Eopleistocene is composed of the
rodents Dolomys and Pliomys, and in the uppermost levels the uppermost middle Apsheronian and the upper Apsheronian,
first Mimomys (e.g., M. polonicus) (L. P. Alexandrova, in correlative to the Tamanian complex of mammals in continental
Nikiforova, 1987; Chaline, Chapter 14, this volume). The upper facies of European Russia and the adjacent states. That interval
link includes the middle and upper Akchagylian, which corre- in western Europe is represented by the transitional or
spond to continental facies with Khaprovian mammal assem- Epivillafranchian sequences, and in western Siberia by the
blages. The key forms of the Khaprovian are Archidiskodon Razdolinian complex. In those deposits the key taxa are
gromovi, diverse species of Mimomys, including M. pliocaenicus, Archidiskodon meridionalis tamanensis and the related western
and in upper Khaprovian levels the first Villanyia, as V. laguro- subspecies cromerensis and vestinus (Aguirre et al., Chapter 9,
dontoides. The boundary between the Moldavian and Khapro- this volume; Azzaroli et al., Chapter 11, this volume), and
vian is close to the Gauss-Matuyama boundary, at about 2.6 Ma. Microtus (Pitymys) appears in the small-mammal faunas. The
The Moldavian mammal assemblages are similar to those of boundary between these two links coincides approximately with
the late Ruscinian (Csarnotian) and Lower Villafranchian faunas the base of the Jaramillo subchron.
of southwestern Europe and to the Reuverian of the northern
The boundary at the top of the Eopleistocene, formerly considEuropean scale. In western Siberia, the Betekian complex ered to be the base of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the
appears to correspond to the uppermost phase of the Moldavian Quaternary by many workers in the former USSR, lies at the base
complex (Veselovsky horizon), but older phases are missing. of the Tyurkanskaya suite, at the beginning of the Bakuan
Deposits with Khaprovian mammals are mostly correlative to the regiostage. In continental facies, that is correlative to the deposits
upper part of the Lower Villafranchian unit in western Europe with the earliest elements of the Tiraspol faunistic complex (i.e.,
(characterized by the fauna of Montopoli) and possibly, in the faunas with Microtus raticepoides), equivalent to the latest
uppermost Khaprovian, to part of the Middle Villafranchian. It Biharian and earliest Cromerian of western Europe (L. P. Alexis probable, however, that the FAD (first-appearance datum) of androva, in Nikiforova, 1987). Strata of this age have negative
Archidiskodon meridionalis, seen in the Psekups fauna, is remanent polarity at Solilhac and Tiraspol and are thus older than
younger than the Khaprovian, although older than the Odessan the Brunhes-Matuyama. At an earlier level, the "Betfia" phase of
complex. The first appearance of this proboscidean is a marker early Biharian age marks the end of the Villafranchian of western
for the Middle Villafranchian in western Europe, as at Saint- Europe; it is characterized by cold-adapted assemblages which
Vallier, Seneze (lower level), and Tegelen (Azzaroli et al., 1988; appear to correspond to a glacial-climate (Menapian) phase in the
Aguirre et al., Chapter 9, this volume; Azzaroli et al., Chapter uppermost Matuyama, above the Jaramillo.
11, this volume). In western Siberia the Podpusk-Lebyashinsky
The Russian Pleistocene (equivalent to the Middle and Upper
faunal complex is roughly equivalent to the Middle Villafranch- Pleistocene in western Europe and North America) consists of
ian (Alekseev, Chapter 22, this volume).
three links. The lower link, as found throughout the region west
of the Urals and in the Caspian and Black Sea basins, is characterized by the main part of the Tiraspol fossil mammal complex. In
Eopleistocene and Pleistocene stratigraphy
the main Tiraspol fauna there are at least two subdivisions in
In the Eopleistocene, two links are distinguished. The lower link northern Eurasia, with the lower part equal to the Bakuan
embraces the lower Apsheronian and most of the middle regional stage and the "true" Cromerian or Giinz-Mindel
Apsheronian, corresponding approximately to the continental interglacial interval of western Europe, and the upper, or Oksky,
facies with the Odessan complex of mammals, in which part of a cold-climate faunal interval corresponding to the
Archidiskodon meridionalis meridionalis is a key element. The Elsterian or Mindel glacial-climate period of western Europe,
presence of the first rootless-toothed voles, Allophaiomys and the beginning of which is dated at about 0.54 Ma. Thus, in the
Prolagurus, indicates that the Odessan complex is equivalent to scheme of the European part of the former USSR, at least eight
the early Upper Villafranchian. In particular, we may correlate horizons (or steps) are distinguishable in the Lower Pleistocene.
the fauna of the Domashkinian horizon at the base of the
Odessan complex to the earliest level of the Upper VillafranchThe Anthropogene question
ian, represented by the Olivola fauna, to the lower Eburonian
climatic stage of The Netherlands, and to the Kizikhan complex The earliest evidence of humans, or hominids, is of special
of western Siberia, by the presence of Allophaiomys pliocaenicus significance because Soviet scientists have long emphasized a
223
224
Ksenia V. Nikiforova
Table 21.1. Mollusk zonation of the Plio-Pleistocene sequence in southwestern Russia and adjoining states
Epoch
LOWER
PLEISTOCENE
Stage
Bakuan
Complex
Biozone
Kolkotovian
Pseudunio moldavica
Platovian
Viviparus pseudoachatinoides
Mikhailovian
Crassiana crassoides
Morozovian
Potomida litoralis
Kosnitsian
Pseudosturia candata
Nesmeyanian
Bogatschevia scutum
Boshernitsian
Bogatschevia sturi
Domashkinian
Unio apsheronicus
Polivadinian
Bogatschevia tamanensis
Kryzhanovian
Unio kujalinicensis
Akkulaevian
Erbersininaia
Age (Ma)
0.8
EOPLEISTOCENE
Apsheronlan
-1.6
UPPER PLIOCENE
Akchagyllan
-2.4
Simbuchinian
Potomida bashkirica
Poratian
Rugunio ienticularis
3.3
MIDDLE PLIOCENE
Klmmerlan
Kimmerian
Unio sturdzae
Geological history
225
References
Aguirre, E., and Pasini, G. 1985. The Pliocene-Pleistocene
boundary. Episodes 8:116-120.
Alizade, K. A., Ali-Zade, A. A., Fedorov, P. V., Gadzhiev,
D. V., Vekilov, B. G., and Asadullaev, E. M. 1972.
Position of Neogene-Quaternary boundary according to
the data of Ponto-Caspian brackish water fauna (in
Russian). In International colloquium on the problem
"The Boundary between the Neogene and Quaternary" (in
Russian), ed. M. N. Alekseev et al., pp. 1-26. Moscow:
Acad. Nauk SSSR.
Andrusov, N. I. 1923. Apsheronian stage (in Russian). Geol.
Com., Proc, n.s. 110:1-294.
Azzaroli, A., De Giuli, C , Ficarelli, G., and Torre, D. 1988.
Late Pliocene to early mid-Pleistocene mammals in Eurasia: faunal succession and dispersal events. Palaeogeogr.
Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 66:77-100.
Bigazzi, G., Bonadonna, F., and Iaccarino, S. 1973. Geochronological hypothesis on Plio-Pleistocene boundary in Latium
region (Italy). Soc. Geol. It., Boll. 92:391-422.
Bogachev, V. V. 1936. Freshwater and terrestrial molluscs from
Upper Tertiary deposits of Kura river basin (in Russian).
Trudy, vol. 13. Baku: Akad. Nauk Azerbaijanskii.
Bout, P. 1970. Absolute ages of some volcanic formations in the
Auvergne and Velay areas and chronology of the European
Pleistocene. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 8:
95-106.
Gurarij, G. Z., Pevzner, M. A., and Trubikhin, V. M. 1973.
Paleomagnetic scale of Late Cenozoic deposits of Caspian
basin. In Proceedings of IX Conference on permanent
geomagnetic field of magnetic rocks, (in Russian), vol. 3,
pp. 133-143. Baku: Akad. Nauk Azerbaijanskii.
Koleshnikov, V. P. 1940. Middle and upper Pliocene of the
Caspian region. In Stratigraphy of the USSR, Volume 12:
Neogene, pp. 407-476. Moscow: Leningrad Academy of
Science Publishing House.
Lona, F., and Bertoldi, R. 1973. La storia del Plio-Pleistocene
italiano in alcune Sequenze vegetazione ali lacustri e
marine. Mem. Cl. Sci. Fis. Mat. Natur., Ser. VIII 11:1-45.
Nikiforova, K. V. 1987. Extent of the Eopleistocene (in
Russian). Akad. Nauk SSSR, Izv., ser. Geol. 10:79-92.
Nikiforova, K. V., and Alexandrova, L. P. 1991. Late Pliocene
and Anthropogene stratigraphy, chronology and correlation of the events of Europe and North America connected
with the changes in the geosphere and biosphere (in
Russian). In Pliocene and Anthropogene paleogeography
and biostratigraphy (in Russian), pp. 99-123. Moscow:
Nauka.
Nikiforova, K. V., Ivanova, I. K., and Kind, N. V. 1987. Urgent
problems of the Quaternary chronostratigraphy (in Russian). In New data on the Quaternary geochronology (in
Russian), pp. 15-23. Moscow: Nauka.
Nikiforova, K. V., Krasnov, I. I., Aleksandrova, L. P., Vasiliev,
Y. M., Konstantinova, N. A., and Tshepalyga, A. L. 1976.
Climatic fluctuations and detailed stratigraphy of Upper
Pliocene-Lower Pleistocene deposits of the USSR South
(in Russian). In Geology of Quaternary deposits (in
Russian), ed. K. V. Nikiforova et al., pp. 101-119. XXV
Session IGC, Paris, Papers of Soviet Geologists. Moscow:
Nauka.
Nikiforova, K. V., Krasnov, I. I., Aleksandrova, L. P., Vasiliev,
Yu. M., Konstantinova, N. A., and Tshepalyga, A. L.
1980. Chronostratigraphic scheme of the Late Cenozoic of
the European part of the USSR (in Russian). In Quater-
226
Ksenia V. Nikiforova
22
Introduction
Nine areas are particularly helpful in studying the PlioPleistocene succession of this region. These are western Siberia,
Transbaikalia, Olkhon Island in Lake Baikal, the upper basin of
the Lena River, central Yakutia, the Kolyma Basin, Kamchatka,
and the Primorie/Priamurie region (i.e., the Pacific coast
provinces), all in eastern Russia, and the Tadjik Depression of
Tadjikistan (Figures 22.1 and 22.2). There are difficulties,
however, including the unequal extent of exploration, inadequate exposures, and the vast area of territory in Siberia affected
by permafrost. As a result, few sequences are adequately known.
Western Siberia
ria developed taiga vegetation, and the north developed foresttundra and tundra associations.
The overlying Podpusk-Lebyaginsk layers show wide adaptive
radiations of Equus species, the dispersal of Archidiskodon (or
Mammuthus according to some specialists) (Aguirre et al.,
Chapter 9, this volume) and Eucladoceros, reductions and
eventual disappearances of thermophilous molluscan faunas in
this region, and the initial appearances of recent species. Major
changes in the entire environment are registered at the transition
from the Podpusk-Lebyaginsk to the overlying Kizikhinsk layers,
that is, at the boundary of the Pliocene and Eopleistocene
(between 2.0 Ma and 1.7 Ma). That time was marked by intense
deterioration of the climate, as indicated by the appearance of
tundra and forest-tundra assemblages on the drainage divides
and fir-tree forests in the valleys of southwestern Siberia.
Rootless-toothed voles such as Allophaiomys, Prolagurus, and
Eolagurus appeared in the rodent fauna for the first time. Thus,
the boundary between the Podpusk-Lebyaginsk and Kizikhinsk
layers reflects the usual small-mammal biostratigraphic changes
at the boundary between the Neogene and Quaternary (Aguirre
et al., Chapter 9, this volume; Chaline, Chapter 14, this
volume).
Evidence of some warming is found in the upper part (late
Eopleistocene) of the Kochkov Formation, and that was again
followed by renewed cooling, with the maximum climatic
deterioration seen in the Shaitan horizon, in an interval
coinciding approximately with the Mindel glacial period in
Europe.
Mikhail N. Alekseev
228
PALEQMAGNETIC
SCALE
WESTERN
SIBERIA
TRANSBAIKALIA
QLKHDN ISLAND
LAKE BAIKAL
CENTRAL
YAKUTIA
UPSTREAM
DF LENA RIVER
229
PRIMDRIE oL
PRIAMURIE
KDLYMA BASIN
TAJIK
DEPRESSION
STRATIBRAPJ
HID
i
UNITS
BASALTS OF
GAMCHEN RAN9E
ALLUVIUM wrrw
SHAITAN
HORIZON
KIZIKH1AN
BESS
PROLUVIUM WITH
TOLQGOI FAUNAL
COMPLEX
AKANIAN
BEOS
BETEKFJAN
BESS
IS
KANGILSK
FORMATION
SASIN
FORMATION
OLIOR
FORMATION
ALLUVIUM OF
HIGH TERRACES
(LENA,ALDAN,
VILYUY RIVERS)
UPPER RED
FORMATION
CHIKO1 FORMATION
VAKHSH
COMPLEX
ALLUVIUM WTI
ALDAN FAUNA
MANZURKA
AND AN6A
FORMATIONS
KHARANTSYNTAN
SUITE
PDDPUSKLEBIAZHJAN
BEDS
BROWN LOAMS
IULTSK VOLGA
NIC COMPLEX
LOWER RED
FORMATION
DYGDAL
FORMATION
TUMROK
COMPLEX
RED-COLOURED
FORMATION
KAYRUBAK
SUITE
KUTUJAKH
BEDS
SCHAPINSK
FORMATION
KURUKSAV
SUfTE
LIMIMTEVAJAM
FORMATION
FERRUGENEOUS
SANBSOF MAMMOTH HILL,
SUYFUN
SUITE
P0LI2AK
SUITE
Figure 22.2. Correlation of Pliocene and Lower Pleistocene key sequences in Asian Russia and Tadjikistan.
230
Mikhail N. Alekseev
that connect them with the seeds, leaves, and pollen of living
deciduous flora (Volkova and Baranova, 1980). In the interval
between 3.5 Ma and 3.0 Ma, when there was a decrease in land
area and the Bering land bridge was inundated, the region's
vegetation was transformed into something similar to forest
tundra.
In the upper layers of the Kutujakh (or Kututyak) Formation,
E. I. Virina (in Volkova and Baranova, 1980) identified an
interval of normal polarity in the zone of reversed magnetization
of the Matuyama epoch that is considered to represent the
Olduvai event. The lower Kutujakh Formation yielded rare
remains of a fossil mammal fauna similar to that of the
Khaprovian Podpusk-Lebyaginsk assemblage, together with the
earliest distinct signs of cryoturbated soil of the Hypoarctic zone
with perannual permafrost. The pre-Quaternary intensification
of Arctic basin glaciation, at about 2.5 Ma, probably can be
referred to this period.
In the Kolyma lowland, the type section of the Olior (Olyor)
suite documents the upper Matuyama, including the Jaramillo
subchron, and the lowest part of the Brunhes (Sher, 1987). The
boundary between Eopleistocene and "true" or glacial Pleistocene could be drawn, in the type Olior, between the layers with
an early Olior small-mammal fauna, correlated to the Tamanian
complex, and the layers with a late Olior small-mammal fauna,
correlated to the Tiraspolian complex.
Kamchatka
Within the Kamchatka-Chukotka region, age calibrations of
magnetostratigraphic reversals indicate that the Gilbert-Gauss,
Gauss-Matuyama, and Matuyama-Brunhes chron boundaries
can be recognized, as well as the Olduvai subchron. The earliest
reversal found in the sequences on the Pacific coast of Asia, and
the least pronounced, occurs in the volcano-sedimentary sequences of the Kamchatka region in the upper part of the
Schapinsk suite (Pevzner, 1972), which according to paleomagnetic evidence dates within the Gilbert and Gauss epochs.
According to Shantser (in Alekseev et al., 1979), a volcanogenic
layer within the suite has a K/Ar age of approximately 3.8 Ma.
The Gauss-Matuyama boundary and a normally magnetized
zone corresponding to the Olduvai event are recognized in the
marine sequence of Kamchatka. In the lower portion of the
Olkhovian sequence, the boundary between Neogene and
Quaternary at the top of the Olduvai subchronozone is very well
characterized in terms of marine micropaleontology, with clear
changes in the subarctic North Pacific diatom floras and
foraminiferal faunas (Gladenkov, 1994; Gladenkov et al., in
press). In the continental sequence, the Olduvai paleomagnetic
zone is recorded at the boundary between the Schapinsk suite
and the Tumrosk volcanogenic complex.
The stratigraphic level corresponding to the transition from
the reversed polarity of the Matuyama epoch to the normal
polarity of the Brunhes epoch is recorded in the lower part of the
shield and stratovolcanic lava sequence overlying the Tumrosk
volcanogenic complex. It may also be recorded in the sequences
Novosibirsk: Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Siberian Branch of USSR Academy of Sciences.
Logachev, N. A. 1982. Baikal Region. Guidebook for excursion
A-13, C-13, XIINQUA Congress. Moscow: Nauka.
Minjuk, P. S. 1982. Paleomagnetic studies of the upper part of
section of the Mamontova Gora on the Aldan River (in
Russian). In Geology of the Cenozoic of Yakutia (in
Russian), ed. A. F. Fradkina, pp. 22-27. Yakutsk: Siberian
Branch Academy of Sciences, Yakut Department.
Pevzner, M. A. 1972. Paleomagnetism and stratigraphy of
Pliocene-Quaternary deposits of Kamchatka (in Russian).
Moscow: Nauka.
231
23
Introduction
North of the Siwaliks, and separated from them by the Pir Panjal
Range, the Kashmir Valley contains a thick pile of sediments of
lacustrine, glacial, and fluvial origin capped by loessic strata.
Those sediments are known as the "Karewa" and are divisible
into lower and upper formations.
The Lower Karewa consists of faulted and folded beds
composed of clay, shale, sands, boulder conglomerates, and
lignite beds, with plant and vertebrate fossils throughout. The
Upper Karewa, on the other hand, has thick horizontal beds of
233
SIGNIFICANT
FORAHINIFERA
LATE PLIOCENE
TAIPIAN STAGE
EARLY PLEISTOCENE
SHOMPENIAN STAGE
GLOBOROTALIA TRUNCATULINOIDES
^NEOCENE/QUATERNARY DEPOSITS
G.TOSAENSIS
TENUITHECA
G.TOSAENSIS-TRUNCATULINOIDES PLEXUS
G CRASSAFORMIS
GLOBIGERINA OECORAPERTA
NEOGLOBOOUADRINA OUTERTREI ANDAMANICA
N. DUTERTREI DUTERTREI
GLOBIGERINOIDES OBLIQUES S L .
G ..FISTULOSUS
SPHAEROIDINELLOPSIS SPP.
GLOBOQUADRINA
ISLAND
i
ALTISP1RA
0%OT BLAIR
O C E A N
M. V. A. Sastry
234
coarser from the lower to the upper parts of the sequence. The
following is the broad classification of the Siwalik Group
(Pilgrim, 1913; Acharyya, Dutta, and Sastry, 1979):
Upper Siwalik sub-group
MUD
Boulder Conglomerate
Formation
Pinj or Formation
Tatrot Formation
Dhok Pathan Formation
Nagri Formation
Chinji Formation
Kamlial Formation
SAND =
"MUD
Early studies
SAND
<
a:
a.
MUDS
BASEMENT
Figure 23.3. Schematic lithologic section of the Karewa. The PliocenePleistocene boundary is surmised to lie between the Hirpur and Nagum
formations (i.e., below the Conglomerate III horizon). (Adapted from
Agrawal et al., 1981.)
K>
ISKm
235
Later studies
Sahni and Khan (1968) recorded Leptobos from the Tatrot and
indicated that the first appearances of that genus and Archidiskodon in India marked the end of the Pliocene, because
those genera were indigenous to India. Further, the immigrations of Equus, Bubalus, Hipselephas, and Rhinoceros indicated, according to them, the beginning of the Pleistocene in
India. They equated the Tatrot with the Upper Pliocene
(Astian) and the Pinjor with the Lower Pleistocene (Villafranchian). Prasad (1974) showed that of 26 vertebrate genera
present in the Tatrot, 8 were holdovers from the Dhok Pathan,
9 were newcomers, and the remaining 9 persisted into the
Pinjor. From the faunal data, he argued that the Tatrot might
be the end of the Pliocene.
Balasundaram and Sastry (1972) contended that the Pinjor
was of Pliocene age, based on tectonic, climatic, and paleontological evidence. Sastry and Dutta (1977a,b) observed that the
upper part of the Pinjor is conspicuously marked by the
simultaneous development of rhythmic alternations in the ratios
of pebbles to sand and silt and the absence of fossils. That
horizon, according to them, represents drastic changes in
climate, life, and environment, related to the initiation of a final
phase of Himalayan orogeny, and is the appropriate location for
the Neogene-Quaternary boundary.
A systematic regional mapping of the Siwaliks, coupled with
lithological and heavy-mineral analysis by the ONGC (Oil and
236
M. V. A. Sastry
UJ
rity
300
o
"o
0.
Epoc
>
+90
fy
.90
S Pol
NADAH
237
UJ
X
z
NADAH
LR
BOULDER
200
F?i
CD
Jaramillo
CONGLI
P
I
N
.100
a:
0-73
1-67
Olduvai
1-87
201
2-12 Rtunion
0
R
2-48.
2 92 Katna
_0m
TATROT
If we accept that the top of the Olduvai event is the indicator for
the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary, the Dhok Pathan-Tatrot
and the Tatrot-Pinjor concepts become irrelevant.
The change to the Pinjor fauna from that of the underlying
Tatrot is not significant either in variety or in abundance, but on
the other hand the rich Pinjor fauna suddenly disappears at the
level of the Boulder Conglomerate. The ratio of pebbles to sand
and silt in the sediments and the rates of deposition continued
without much change from the Tatrot to the Pinjor, but, again,
not into the Boulder Conglomerate. Thus the continuity of the
fauna and the similarity of depositional and climatic conditions
support a close relationship between the Tatrot and the Pinjor.
At the end of the Pinjor, the change in sedimentation suggests
a sudden increase in erosion due to a combination of tectonism in
the adjoining mountains, and also possibly some climate change,
at about 1.0 Ma (Jaramillo), if not 0.7 Ma or later (lower
Brunhes). The high-energy sedimentary environment was much
less favorable for the preservation of fossils, and in fact fossils
are rare if not absent in the Lower Boulder Conglomerate, which
may account for much of the apparent faunal change at that
level. The marked changes at the Pinjor-Boulder Conglomerate
contact are unrelated to the top of the Olduvai subchronozone
238
M. V. A. Sastry
Balasundaram, M. S., and Sastry, M. V. A. 1972. Plio- Opdyke, N. D., Lindsay, E., Johnson, G. D., Johnson, N.,
Tahirkheli, R. A. K., and Mirza, M. A. 1979. Magnetic
Pleistocene boundary in sediments of Indian Subcontipolarity stratigraphy and vertebrate paleontology of the
nent. Geol. Surv. India, Rec. 107:54-72.
Upper Siwalik Subgroups of Northern Pakistan. PaleoBanner, R T., and Blow, W. H. 1965. Progress in the Planktonic
geogr. Paleoclimatol. Paleoecol. 27:1-34.
foraminiferal biostratigraphy of the Neogene. Nature
208:1164-1166.
Paterson, T. T. 1941. On a world correlation of the Pleistocene.
Roy. Soc. Edinb., Trans. 49:373-422.
Barry, J. C , Lindsay, E. H., and Jacobs, L. L. 1982. A biostratigraphic zonation of the middle and Upper Siwaliks of Pilgrim, G. E. 1913. Correlation of Siwaliks with mammal
the Potwar Plateau of Northern Pakistan. Palaeogeogr.
horizons of Europe. Geol. Surv. India, Rec. 43:264-326.
Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 37:95-130.
Pilgrim, G. E. 1944. The lower limit of the Pleistocene in Europe
and Asia. Geol. Mag. 81:28-30.
Bhatt, D. K., and Chatterji, A. K. 1981. A recent analysis of
Neogene/Quaternary transition in the Kashmir Region. In Prasad, K. N. 1974. Vertebrate fauna from Perim Island,
Proceedings of the N/Q Boundary Field Conference, India,
Gujarat. Paleontol. Ind., n.s., 41.
1979, ed. M. V. A. Sastry et al., pp. 11-14. Calcutta: Ranga Rao, A., Khan, K. N., Venkatachala, B. S., and Sastri,
Geological Survey of India.
V. V. 1981. Neogene/Quaternary boundary and the
Siwalik. In Proceedings of the N/Q Boundary Field
Cande, S. C , and Kent, D. V. 1995. Revised calibration of the
Conference, India, 1979, ed. M. V. A. Sastry et al., pp.
geomagneic polarity time scale for the Late Cretaceous
131-142. Calcutta: Geological Survey of India.
and Cenozoic. /. Geophys. Res. 100:6093-6095.
Colbert, E. H. 1935. Siwalik mammals in the American Museum Roy, D. K. 1975. Stratigraphy and paleontology of the Karewa
of Natural History. Am. Phil. Soc, Trans., n.s. 36:1-401.
Group of Kashmir. Geol. Surv. India, Misc. Publ. 24:204221.
Colbert, E. H. 1942. The geological succession of the
Proboscidea. In The Proboscidea, vol. 2, ed. H. F. Osborn. Sahni, M. R., and Khan, E. 1968. Boundary between the Tatrot
New York: American Museum of Natural History.
and Pinjaur. Paleontol. Soc. India, J. 5:29-30.
De Terra, H., and Teilhard de Chardin, T. 1936. Observation on Sastry, M. V. A., and Dutta, A. K. 1977a. Review on Neogene/
Quaternary boundary in India. Giorn. Geol., ser. 2
the Upper Siwalik formation and later Pleistocene deposits
61:331-340.
in India. Am. Phil. Soc, Proc. 76:791-822.
De Terra, H., and Paterson, T. T. 1939. Studies on the Ice Age in Sastry, M. V. A., and Dutta, A. K. 1977b. Neogene/Quaternary
boundary in the Siwalik. Paleontol. Soc. India, J. 20:320India and associated human cultures. Carnegie Inst. Wash.,
326.
Proc. 493:1-354.
Gill, W. D. 1951. The stratigraphy of the Siwalik Series in the Sastry, M. V. A., Kurien, T. K., Dutta, A. K., and Biswas, S.
(eds.) 1981. Proceedings of the N/Q Boundary Field
northern Potwar, Pakistan. Geol. Soc. London, Quart. J.
Conference, India, 1979. Calcutta: Geological Survey of
107:375-394.
India.
Haug, E. 1911. Traite de Geologie, II: les periodes geologique.
Srinivasan, M. S. 1981. The Neogene/Quaternary boundary in
Paris: Mouton.
the marine sequences of Andaman-Nicobar Islands, NorthHooijer, D. A., and Colbert, E. H. 1951. A note on the
ern Indian Ocean. In Proceedings of the N/Q Boundary
Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary in the Siwalik Series of
Field Conference, India, 1979, ed. M. V. A. Sastry et al.,
India. Am. J. Sci. 244:533-538.
pp. 169-175. Calcutta: Geological Survey of India.
Johnson, G. D., Zeitler, P., Naeser, C. W., Johnson, N.,
Summers, D. M., Frost, C. D., Opdyke, N. D., and Wadia, D. N. 1951. The transitional passage of Pliocene into the
Tahirkheli, R. A. K. 1982. The occurrence and fission
Pleistocene in the north-western Himalayas. In XV111
track ages of late Neogene and Quaternary volcanic
International Geological Congress, Reports, vol. 11(K),
sediments, Siwalik Group, northern Pakistan. Palaeopp. 43-48.
geogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 37:63-93.
West, R. M. 1981. Plio-Pleistocene fossil vertebrates and
biostratigraphy, Bhittanni and Marwat Ranges, NorthLewis, G. E. 1937. A new Siwalik correlation. Am. J. Sci.
west Pakistan. In Proceedings of the N/Q Boundary Field
33:191-204.
Conference, India, 1979, ed. M. V. A. Sastry et al., pp.
Lydekker, R. 1883. The geology of the Kashmir and Chamba
211-215. Calcutta: Geological Survey of India.
territories and the British district of Khagan. Geol. Serv.
India, Mem. 22:1-344.
Yokoyama, T. 1981. Paleomagnetic study of the Tatrot and the
Matthew, W. D. 1929. Critical observation upon Siwalik mamPin j or Formations, upper Siwaliks, east of Chandigarh,
mals. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Bull. 56:437-560.
north-west India. In Proceedings of the N/Q Boundary
Field Conference, India, 1979, ed. M. V. A. Sastry et al.,
Movius, H. L. 1944. Early man and Pleistocene stratigraphy in
pp. 217-220. Calcutta: Geological Survey of India.
southern and eastern Asia. Harvard Univ., Peabody Mus.
Papers 10(3): 1-113.
24
Introduction
Plant megafossils
The taxonomy of plant megafossils was studied in detail by Miki
(1941a,b, 1948). In a detailed review of the stratigraphy of the
plant-bearing strata, Itihara (1961) concluded that the lowermost
part of the Osaka Group was deposited during a warm-climate
period characterized by dominance of the Metasequoia flora.
Subsequent climatic deterioration led to a decline of the
Metasequoiaflora,which eventually became extinct by the time
of a cold-climate horizon just below the Azuki tuff layer, at
about 0.9 Ma, associated with the Jaramillo subchron (Figure
24.2). Although that was followed by climatic amelioration,
Itihara (1961) suggested that "in the Osaka Group, the beginning
of the age of extinction of the Metasequoia flora, i.e. the
239
240
45
-40
Shimane
Boso
Saijo
-35
Kuchinotsu
-30
.* ^ O k i n a w a Is.
250
. 4 Miyako Is.
125
130
135
140
145
Nyssa n i
Ginkgo bilob
Ketel
Pseudolanx kaempferi
Liquidambar formosana
PmZs fujii I 7 i i 71
Sequoia ^empervirens i i
Glyptostrobus pensilis i i
Juglansj:inerea var. meg
Metasequoia disticha i i
P/cea Koribai
II
Senriyama Formation
I I
It
G R O U P
8
e
>.3
03
03
Divisions
Chronostr
J...B . l . l U _ L ^
CD
CD
sted
Corr lat ions
242
Metasequoia flora, a new kind of flora appeared. For instance, S. elephantoides has been revised to Stegodon shinshuensis, a
Juglans mandschurica replaced Juglans cinerea var. megacinerea,species closely related to Stegodon zdanskyi of northern China.
and then was replaced in turn by Juglans sieboldiana (Nirei, At the same time, the two species of stegodont, S. akashiensis
and S. sugiyamai, which characterize the succeeding zones in the
1975).
Climate fluctuations, indicated by alternations of cold-climate lowermost Osaka Group, are both recognized to be conspecific
megafloras and warm-climate megafloras, intensified after the with Stegodon aurorae (Kamei, 1991). Finally, Dubrovo (1981)
disappearance of the Metasequoia flora (i.e., at the time of has maintained her opinion that both Mammuthus paramammondeposition of the upper part of the Osaka Group), implying the teus shigensis and M. armenaicus proximus are synonymous with
beginning of glacial conditions. This is exemplified by occur- Palaeoloxodon naumanni.
rences of Larix gmelini, Pinus koraiensis, and Oxycoccus
According to Kamei, zone 1 is characterized by the presence
palustris in the interval between the Ma6 and Ma7 beds (cold), of elements found in the Gaozhuang fauna of the Yushe Basin in
followed by Syzygium buxifolium and Podocarpus nagi in the northern China, approximately correlatable with zones MN-14
Ma8 bed (warm), then Pinus koraiensis and Picea maximowiczii and MN-15 of the western European scale (Qiu, 1989). The
from the interval between the Ma8 and Ma9 beds (cold), and faunas of zones 2 and 3 are more endemic, with remnants of the
finally Pinus koraiensis from the horizon above the Ma 10 bed zone 1 assemblage, but are enhanced by immigrants found also
(cold). The warm-climate species Paliurus nipponicus and in the Nihewan fauna of northern China, such as Elaphurus,
Sapium sebiferum are associated with the successive marine beds Axis, Rusa, and so forth. Zone 4 contains transitional and
Ma3 through Ma8, supporting the conclusion that high sea levels endemic forms of temperate-forest affinities, including Apodocumented by the marine clay beds in the Osaka Group were demus argenteus. Zone 5 is made up almost equally of extinct
synchronous with warm-climate conditions.
and living taxa, with temperate-forest elements predominant,
but with a few immigrants from warm-temperate faunas, such as
Stegodon orientalis and Rhinoceros sinensis, which are abundant
Pollen
in the Wanhsien fauna of southern China. The giant crocodilian
Tai (1973) subdivided the Osaka Group into the Metasequoia and "Tomistoma" machikanense from just below the Ma8 level
Fagus zones, with the boundary at the base of the Ma3 bed. belongs to the zone 5 assemblage. Another crocodilian is also
According to Tai, the onset of climatic deterioration can be found below the Mai horizon.
detected within the B subzone of the Metasequoia zone,
It is worth notice that the level of occurrence of the deer
especially at the top part of that subzone. It is noticeable that the Elaphurus of the Nihewan fauna in zone 3 corresponds to the
top part of the B subzone nearly corresponds to the transition final extinction of the Metasequoia flora.
between the period of flourishing and the period of reduction
and eventual extinction of Metasequoia flora, as identified by
Magnetostratigraphy
Itihara (1961). The floral succession seen in the palynological
analyses closely parallels that of plant megafossil studies.
Paleomagnetic studies of the Osaka Group by Torii, Yoshikawa,
and Itihara (1974), Maenaka et al. (1977), Maenaka (1983), and
Itihara et al. (1984) are summarized in Figure 24.1. The data
Mammalia
suggest that the Osaka Group represents the time from the
The Osaka Group has long been noted for its fossil mammals Gauss chron to the early part of the Brunhes chron. One subzone
(Ikebe, Chiji, and Ishida, 1966; Kamei and Setoguchi, 1970; of normal paleomagnetic polarity, from the Mai bed to the
Kamei and Otsuka, 1981). Kamei (1984) found that the Osaka Komyoike tuff layer, has been thought to correspond to the
Group and its correlative, the Kobiwako Group, could be Jaramillo subchron. Another subzone of normal polarity, from
subdivided into the following mammalian zones, in ascending about 2 m above the Shimogaito tuff layer to about 5 m above
the Mitsumatsu tuff layer, has been correlated with the Olduvai
order:
subchron.
8. Sus scrofa and Cervus (Sika) nippon zone (Holocene)
7. Mammuthus primigenius zone (latest Pleistocene)
Radiometric dating
6. Palaeoloxodon naumanni zone
5. Stegodon orientalis zone
Radiometric age determinations for the tuff layers of the Osaka
4. Mammuthus paramammonteus shigensis-Mammuthus
Group, mainly using the fission-track method (Nishimura and
armenaicus proximus zone
Sasajima, 1970; Matsuda, 1980), have been reexamined by
3. Stegodon akashiensis zone
Suzuki (1988), with findings that appear to be substantially
2. Stegodon sugiyamai zone
different from the previously reported ages. It appears that on
1. Stegodon cf. S. elephantoides zone (middle Pliocene)
the basis of direct radiometric dating, the age span of the Osaka
All of these zones were founded on mammals from the Osaka Group probably ranges from about 3.0 Ma to 0.3 Ma and that the
Group except for the earliest (zone 1) and latest (zones 7 and 8). age of extinction of the Metasequoiaflora,the level at which the
It should be noted that at present, the taxonomy of Stegodon cf. Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary has been correlated in earlier
243
studies (e.g., Itihara, 1961), was in fact about 0.9 Ma. That age is Kamei, T., and Otsuka, H. 1981. The Plio-Pleistocene
stratigraphy of Japan in relation to Proboscidean evolusomewhat younger than the age for the top of the normaltion. In Proceedings of the Field Conference on Neogenepolarity zone identified as the Olduvai subchron, in which the
Quaternary Boundary, India, 1979, ed. M. V. A. Sastry,
Vrica definition is located. It should be noted that the Vrica
pp. 83-88. Calcutta: Geological Survey of India.
horizon appears to correspond fairly closely to the level between Kamei, T., and Setoguchi, T. 1970. Some remarks on mamthe Fukuda and Kamifukuda tuffs at which the Metasequoia flora
malian faunas in the early Pleistocene (in Japanese, with
English abstract). Daiyonki-Kenkyu [Quaternary Refirst began to decline.
search] 9:158-163.
Kokawa, S. 1959. Plant remains around Nishinomiya City and
their floral transition (in Japanese). Nishinomiya-shi-shi
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25
Outline of geology
Formation
Kokumoto
POLLEN
BENTHIC FORAMINIFERAL
ZONE
PLANKTONIC MICROFOSSIL
"Terr. f. *
Shimosa G.
Kasamori
Mandano *
Chonan
Kakinokidai
MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
Marker
Relative
water
temperature
Nonionella Stella
COOL\ WARM _
Crybroelphidium clavatum
Cassidulina subglobosa
Coiling
direction
Cassidulina subcarinata
Uvigenna akitaensis
Umegase
Bulimina aculeata
Bulimina-Bolivina (U)
Bolivina spissa
Otadai
Bulimina-Bolivina (L)
Stilostomella
ketienziensis
Kiwada
Bulimina striata
tiu
e
Gyroidma cf. orbiculans
a.
LUI
Namihana
i
ster
Ohara
Gyroiaina-Melonis
Katsuura
Q
a!
Kurotaki
-m
Lithology
Anno
m
r1000
siltstone
Geomagnetic polarity
^H
sandy siltstone
sandstone
Kiyosumi
- 500
Amatsu
normal
reversed
IIIIIJI indefinite
conglomerate
alternation of sandstone and siltstone
intraformational de formation
marker tuff
% terrestrial deposits
MAMMAL
TECTONICS
MAGNETO-
Nakagawa et al.
246
References
Aoki, N. 1968. Benthonic foraminiferal zonation of the Kazusa
Group, Boso Peninsula: vertical faunal change. Paleontol.
Soc. Japan, Trans. Proc, n.s. 70:238266.
Aoki, N., and Baba, K. 1980. Pleistocene molluscan assemblages
of the Boso Peninsula, central Japan. Univ. Tsukuba, Inst.
GeoscL, Sci. Rep., sec. B 1:107-148.
Hatai, K. 1958. Boso Peninsula, Chiba Prefecture. In Jubilee
publication in commemoration of Prof. H. Fujimoto, ed.
H. Shibata, pp. 183-201. Tokyo: Geological Institute of
Tokyo University of Education.
Ishiwada, Y., Mitsunashi, T , Shinada, Y., and Makina, T. 1971.
Geological map of the oil and gas fields of Japan, no. 10.
Mobara 1:15,000. Tokyo: Geological Survey of Japan.
Koizumi, I., and Kanaya, T. 1976. Late Cenozoic marine diatom
sequence from the Choshi district, Pacific coast, central
Japan. In Progress in Micropaleontology, ed. Y Takayanagi and T. Saito, pp. 144-159. New York: Micropaleontology Press.
Masuda, F., and Taira, K. 1974. Oxygen isotope paleotemperature measurements on Pleistocene molluscan fossils
from the Boso Peninsula, central Japan. Geol. Soc. Japan,
J. 80:97-106.
26
Introduction
The Upper Pliocene and Lower Pleistocene sediments in eastern
China include various types of deposits, providing an ideal
region for study of this part of the geologic record. The cave
fillings, loess deposits, and strata of fluviolacustrine, coastalplain, and marine origin combine to reveal the biological history,
topography, climate, and active tectonics during that interval.
This chapter presents an overview of the sections that are the
most significant for separating the Pliocene and Pleistocene.
Starting in 1949, most Chinese geologists adopted the proposal
made at the 1948 XVIII International Geological Congress in
London to place the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary at the first
immigration of "cold guests" into the marine faunas of the
Mediterranean region, exemplified by the paleontology at the
base of the Calabrian Stage of Italy, and to consider that level
correlative to the base of the Italian Villafranchian Stage in
continental deposits. Because the Plio-Pleistocene vertebrate
faunas in China have long been famous and better known
(Teilhard de Chardin and Piveteau, 1930) than the marine
sequences, the continental Villafranchian concept, rather than
the marine Calabrian concept, was widely adopted as the basis
for recognition of the base of the Pleistocene in China. It is now
recognized that in Italy the earliest Villafranchian is almost twice
as old as the base of the Calabrian Stage (Azzaroli et al., Chapter
11, this volume). The Chinese workers have maintained,
however, that the Villafranchian definition is in agreement with
the first cold-climate faunas of both marine and continental
environments in that region, coinciding closely with the GaussMatuyama paleomagnetic reversal at about 2.6 Ma.
Zhang Shouxin
248
GAUSS
Old. MATUYAMA
Jar.
BRUNH.
Red clay
X""-X
Y_.........
Prosiphneus intermedius
Myospalax chaoyatseni
Myospalax fontanierii
Microtus brandtoides
Allocricetulus ehiki
Ochotonoides complicidens
Proboscidipparion sinensis
X
.........................
.......
XX
x
x~-.-
Nihewan Series
Daodi I
(1)
Nihewan
2)
(3) (4)
X
K P U l
Xiaodukou
(5) (6 )
(7)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X?
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X?
X X
X X
X
X
X X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Myospalax tingi
Myospalax fontanieri
Mimomys orientalis
Mimomys cf. M. youhenicus
Prosiphneus sp.
Pltymys cf. P. hintonl
Microtus cf. M. ratticepoides
Allophalomys cf A. pliocaenicus
Pliopentalagus nlhewanensis
Hypolagus schreuderl
Ochotona minor
Ochotona nihewanica
Ochotonoides complicidens
Meles chiai
Eucyon minor
Acinonyx pleistocaenicus
Acinonyx jubatus
Lynx variabilis
Hyaena licenti
Vulpes chikushanensis
Canis chihliensis
Zygolophodon sp.
Elephas namadicus
Proboscidipparion sinensis
Hipparion cf. H. houfense
Equus sanmenensis
Coelodonta antiquitatis
Paracamelus sp.
Muntiacus bohlini
Axis shansius
Rusa elegans
Census elaphus
Megaloceros sanganhoensis
Gazella sinensis
Bison palaeosinensis
Bos primigenius
249
Zhang Shouxin
250
GAUSS
Old.
MATUYAMA
Jar.
BRUNHES
1
Mimomys youhenicus
Ochotoinoides complicidens
Mammuthus youheensis
Hipparion houfense
Equuus sanmenensis
Hyaena licenti
Nyctereutes sinensis
Euctenoceras sp.
Bison paleosinensis
X
X
X
X
X
Shagou
Yuanmou Series
(condensed)
Yuanmou
Shangnabang
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X*
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Globigerina bulloides
Globigerina pachyderma
Globorotalia puncticulata
Globigerinoides trilobus
Turborotaiia continuosa
Turborotalia anfracta
Hyalinea balthica
Buccella frigida
Elphidiella arctica
Coccolithus pelagicus
Emiliana huxleyi
Pseudoemiliana lacunosa
Gephyrocapsa oceanica
Gephyrocapsa protohuxleyi
llyocypris kaifengensis
Leucocythere gongheensis
At present, the Shagou Formation has yielded a fossil pardus, and Rhinoceros cf. R. sinensis, which are unknown from
assemblage that indicates late Pliocene-early Pleistocene (i.e., the older levels. The rare mammals from the Shangnabang
early Villafranchian) age, with Hipparion, Dicerorhinus, Chilo- horizon indicate correlation to the Middle Pleistocene Stegodon
therium yunnanensis, the proboscideans Serridentinus, Stegolo- orientalis fauna of southern China.
phodon, and Stegodon, and Enhydriodon species (Figure 26.2).
Paleomagnetic studies by Li et al. (1976) and Cheng et al.
In the overlying Yuanmou Formation, which You et al. (1978) (1977) agreed on placing the boundary between the Gauss and
believed to be restricted to early Pleistocene age, a different Matuyama chrons at the boundary between the Shagou and
assemblage is recorded, with a few holdovers from Shagou time Yuanmou formations, which is consistent with the overall
(most notably Stegodon), but with many new taxa, such as Equus Villafranchian character of the Yuanmou vertebrate assemblage.
yunnanensis, Sus scrofa, Felis (Panthera) tigris, Felis (Panthera)Fossil teeth of Homo erectus from the Shangnabang faunal level
were initially assigned an age of more than 1.6 Ma, on the basis
of paleomagnetic analysis, but Liu and Ding (1983) and Jiang,
Sun, and Liang (1988) have argued that the normal-polarity
sediments below the beds from which these specimens were
collected correspond to the Brunhes, not the Olduvai, and that
the Shangnabang fossils are therefore younger than 0.7 Ma. In
that view, the stratigraphic interval yielding Yuanmou fauna
(i.e., the Yuanmou Formation only) spans the entire Matuyama,
from 2.6 to 0.7 Ma, and thus it is a possibility that the Yuanmou
fauna is mixed from levels of pre-Olduvai and post-Olduvai age.
The stratigraphy, however, is rather unclear, and as Aguirre et
al. (Chapter 9, this volume) have pointed out, the faunal and
paleomagnetic data are also consistent with correlation of the
normal-polarity strata below the Shangnabang fauna to the
Jaramillo event at about 1.0 Ma. The Shangnabang H. erectus
might thus come from uppermost Matuyama strata.
Many Chinese vertebrate paleontologists consider that it is
suitable to place the faunal levels of early Villafranchian age in
the early Pleistocene. In the Nihewan and equivalent fluviolacustrine sequences in northern China, there are thus two choices
for the reference point for the N/Q boundary (the base of the
Quaternary), according to the preferred concept of the Pleistocene in that region. One option is to place it at the base of the
Nihewan Formation {sensu strictd), or Bed 6, at the firstappearance datum of Equus sanmenensis, and the other is in
Nihewan Bed 4, at the last-appearance datum of Zygolophodon
and the fish Pungitius nihowanensis. In both options, the N/Q
boundary is close to the Gauss-Matuyama boundary at 2.6 Ma.
However, it is also admitted that the Youhe-Dongyaozitou
mammalian faunas could mark the Upper Pliocene, in view of
the present decision to define the N/Q boundary at Vrica, at a
level equivalent to the top of the Olduvai normal chron and thus
well above the lower Nihewan, lower Sanmen, and lower
Yuanmou levels.
The maritime-plain sections
251
of calcareous nannofossils in the same bed includes Cyclococcolithus leptoporus, Coccolithus pelagicus, Emiliana huxleyi, Pseudoemiliana cf. P. lacunosa, Gephyrocapsa oceanica, and G.
protohuxleyi. A similar marine interval has been observed in
many borehole sections east of Beijing, and paleomagnetic study
has shown those occurrences to be correlative to the marine bed
in the S-2 core section.
Chinese paleontologists recognize that the calcareous nannofossils of the Beijing plain can be correlated to the entire range of
the NN19 through NN21 nannofossil zones, which encompasses
the Quaternary. Therefore, they prefer to place the PliocenePleistocene boundary at the base of the Hyalinea-Globigerina
assemblages, as seen in the S-2 core, essentially coincident with
the Gauss-Matuyama polarity reversal at 468 m.
Bo-3 borehole section. In a 600-m core from the Bo-3 borehole
(3915'N, 11830'E), in the northern coastal plain, three major
paleomagnetic polarity zones were recognized by Li and Wang
(1982). The first zone showed normal polarity from the surface
to a depth of 171 m, with the exception of a few reversed samples
from 15 m and 103 m. From 171 m to 493 m, the polarity of the
remanent magnetization in the samples is reversed, and in the
normal-polarity zone below 493 m there is a zone of mixed
polarities from 572 m to 588 m. From the different lines of
evidence, these three polarity zones appear to correspond to the
Brunhes normal, Matuyama reversed, and Gauss normal chrons,
respectively.
In the lower part of the core, three marine beds occur in an 80m interval. At a core depth of 505 m, about 15 m below the
assumed Gauss-Matuyama boundary, an ostracode assemblage
is found that represents a transition from the older Leucocythere
gongheensis assemblage to the succeeding Ilyocypris assemblage.
The exact position for the N/Q boundary, equivalent to the
boundary in Chinese continental sequences, should thus be at a
depth of 515 m, at the first appearance of Ilyocypris kaifengensis.
In the same Bo-3 borehole, there is a marked change in pollen
flora at a depth of 464 m, from a mixed conifer and broad-leaf
forest assemblage with Ulmus, Pinus, Betula, and others to a dry
steppe assemblage with Chenopodia ceae and Artemisia. According to the magnetostratigraphy described earlier, the changes in
ostracoda and vegetation observed in the Bo-3 core happened
near the Gauss-Matuyama boundary. Those data roughly agree
with the results obtained from the S-5 core section, in which the
layer bearing Hyalinea baltica is just above the GaussMatuyama reversal, at about 2.3 Ma.
In 1978, Zhang and co-workers studied the 600-m Ca-13 core
section. Brunhes, Matuyama, Gauss, and Gilbert polarity zones
were recorded. Those authors put the lower boundary of the
Pleistocene at the Mammoth subchron of the Gauss normalpolarity chron.
252
Zhang Shouxin
253
Zheng Shaohua and Cai Baoqua. 1991. Fossil micromammals Zheng Shaohua, Yuan B., Gao F.-Q., and Sun F.-Q. 1985.
from the Dongguo section of Dongyaozitu, Yuxian county,
Paleovertebrate biology and palaeoecology of the Loess in
Hebei Province (in Chinese, with English summary). In
China (in Chinese). In Loess and the environment (in
Contributions to INQUA XIII, Beijing, 1991, pp. 100-131.
Chinese), ed. Liu Tungsheng, pp. 113-140. Beijing:
Beijing: Science Press.
Science Press.
27
Introduction
According to the definition of the lower boundary of the
Pleistocene epoch at Vrica (Pasini and Colalongo, Chapter 2,
this volume), the top of the Olduvai subchron can be used as a
convenient approximation of the Quaternary boundary in
nonmarine areas. In Africa, several highly fossiliferous stratigraphic sequences are known in which the limits of the Olduvai
subchron can be placed, either by direct paleomagnetic observations or through good radiometric control. The faunal associations in those sequences can then be used for correlating other
deposits in which paleomagnetic or radiometric age data are not
available. The major sequences with geochronological control
are in East Africa, whereas the occurrences in southern (and
northern) Africa are generally deficient with regard to isotope
age determinations and paleomagnetic data.
East African Plio-Pleistocene deposits
The highland areas of East Africa, including Ethiopia, have been
strongly affected by tectonic and volcanic activity since at least
the early Miocene, and the rift valleys and downwarped areas
have provided unusually good traps for the accumulation of
fossil-bearing sediments, in many cases associated with lavas or
volcanic tuffs that furnish radiometric or fission-track ages.
Geochemical "fingerprinting" of tuffs has also been employed
successfully as a correlation tool. The broad geological framework has been described by a number of specialists, and the
fossil mammals have been treated extensively (Maglio and
Cooke, 1978).
The most important deposits of Plio-Pleistocene age occur in
six areas: (1) the Awash Valley and adjoining areas in northcentral Ethiopia, (2) the lower Omo Basin in southwestern
Ethiopia, north of Lake Turkana, (3) the areas flanking the
northern half of Lake Turkana, Kenya (the Koobi Fora area to
the east and the Nachukui area to the west), (4) the Olduvai
Gorge, Laetoli, and Lake Natron areas in northern Tanzania, (5)
the Lake Baringo area in north-central Kenya, (6) western
Kenya and the Western, or "Albertine," Rift in Uganda, and the
Upper Semliki area in Zaire. The principal localities are shown
254
255
CHESOWANJA
CHEMERON*VLoke Baringo
Mt
Kenya i
NAIROBI |
OLORGESAILIE^t
PLIOCENE-PLEISTOCENE
FOSSIL
LOCALITIES
j ^ Foss iI
Towns
loca I ity
Lake
Natron
High peaks
OLDUVAI^t
LAETOLI *
KilimanjaV'
MOSHI
256
H. Basil S. Cooke
Age
m.y.
OMO BASIN
|
KIBISH
WEST
TURKANA
EAST
TURKANA
OLDUVAI
LAKE
NATRON
LAETOLI
LAKE
BARINGO
W
E
WESTERN
RIFT
OTH ER
FM
Silbo
MASEKl
/
Bed IV I
a
0
Bed HI
SAILIE
NDUTU
6
1/5
Chari
Upper
Bed II
Okote
uplex
Lr. Bed II
KBS
Bed I
t^ur
..P
*'
r
Burg1..
.. c
"u 19/26"
- u 10
Tulu Bor
Lokochot
- K E Y -
Basal
f
F o o t p r i n t
t u f f
"Cinder
M a r k e r
t u f f s
Tuff"
MURSI
FM
Figure 27.2. Provisional correlation of the main fossiliferous stratigraphic units of PlioPleistocene age in East Africa. Most of the sequences are controlled by radiometric dates and/or
paleomagnetic records (age values are those of the referenced studies; for orbitally tuned values,
see the Preface to this volume). Faunal data are also employed in correlation between sites.
258
H. Basil S. Cooke
mals that suggest a time range from the early or middle Pliocene
to the earliest Pleistocene (Kaufulu, Vrba, and White, 1981;
Bromage, Schrenk, and Juwaweyi, 1995). They are overlain
unconformably by the unfossiliferous but artifact-rich Chitimwe
beds of middle or late Pleistocene age; artifacts have been
recovered from the paleosurface at the contact, but despite
hopeful claims (Kaufulu and Stern, 1987; Clark, 1990), none
have been clearly documented from within the Chiwondo beds
(Juwaweyi and Betzler, 1995). Analysis of the age-diagnostic
large-mammal taxa in the Chiwondo fossil assemblages, constrained by geology, indicates three main paleontological levels:
unit 2, with a fauna dated to 4.0 Ma or earlier; unit 3A, with
fossils (including a mandible of primitive Homo) which indicate
ages between 3.76 Ma and 2.0 Ma or younger; and unit 3B, with
a fauna of 1.6 Ma to 1.5 Ma (Bromage et al., 1995; Betzler and
Ring, 1995). The Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary appears to fall
between 3A and 3B.
259
H. Basil S. Cooke
260
Age
m.y.
OMO
STERKFONTEIN
MAKAPANSGAT
SWARTKRANS
KROMDRAAI
OTHER
FLORISBAD
BROKEN
HILL
KBE
D
4
..4.-.
^7-\
-1-7 2>I-
1.8 Ma, and at Olduvai a minor rainfall change at 1.8 Ma, and a
major one between 0.5 and 0.6 Ma (Cerling, Hay, and O'Neil,
1977). The change at Olduvai at 1.8 Ma was approximately
synchronous with the aforementioned faunal change, but the
latter seems to have been due to local rather than regional
trends, and its coincidence with the Quaternary boundary
adopted at Vrica probably does not signal an important event in
Africa, unlike the climatic and faunal changes at 2.5 Ma.
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261
262
H. Basil S. Cooke
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Kaufulu, Z., Vrba, E. S., and White, T. D. 1981. Age of the
Haileab, B., and Brown, F. H. 1992. Turkana Basin-Middle
Chiwondo Beds, Northern Malawi. Transv. Mus., Ann.
Awash Valley correlations and the age of the Sagantole
33:1-8.
and Hadar formations. /. Hum. Evol. 22:453-468.
Krommenhoek, W. 1969. Mammalian fossils from the Pleisto-
263
28
Introduction
Geological background
Exhaustive field work by Dutch geologists during the first half of
the century was fairly well summarized by Van Bemmelen (1949)
and Marks (1957). This report follows the standard terminology
of Marks (1957) for Javanese formations, in order to maintain a
connection with previous works, without implying acceptance of
the chronostratigraphic meanings and correlations proposed by
earlier authors. In our view, the assignment of formation names
has been overdone in publications dealing with Javanese
stratigraphy, particularly with regard to the Plio-Pleistocene.
Recent work has shown that many stratigraphic units have such
limited geographic extensions, or vary in age so greatly from
place to place, that they hardly deserve the name of "formation."
This is particularly the case in the Sangiran Dome area
(discussed later), where lateral facies changes are very abrupt.
Java can be divided into several structural units, roughly
oriented E-W, following the axis of the island (Figures 28.1 and
264
- 6S
JAVA SEA
7S
- 8S
INDIAN OCEAN
Rembang-Madura hills
Randublatung depression
_ 9S
Central anticlinorium
[yr'.vll
|
ri
\
||
>
]
Central depression
Southern Mountains
Volcanoes
* 1 : Gemolong
Bringinan
JAVA SE-A
Onto
Sangiran
* 2 : Trini1
* 3 : Kedungbrubus
* 4 : Penning and Mojokerto
INDIAN OCEAN
100 km
Figure 28.1 (top). Structural geology of Java. (Adapted from Van Bemmelen, 1949.)
Figure 28.2 (bottom). Locations of sections discussed in this chapter: 1, Gemolong, Bringinan, Onto,
Sangiran; 2, Trinil; 3, Kedung Brubus; 4, Perning and Mojokerto.
Francois Semah
266
Table 28.1. Summary of Plio-Pleistocene stratigraphy in the studied areas of central Java
West Central Java (Bumiayu): Ci Saat, Kali Glagah valleys
Gintung
Conglomerate.
Mengger
Kali Glagah
Kali Biuk
Volcanic breccias.
Tuffaceous sands, clays, gravels; basal Grenzbank
conglomerate.
Pucangan
Kalibeng
Globigerina marls
Open-marine deposits.
AGE/POLARITY
m.y.
BUMI A Y U
GEMOLONG
SANGIRAN
PAGEREJO
JENGGLONG
ONTO
KALI ONTO
BAPANG
CI SAAT
SUNGAI
PUREN
SOUTH KRISIK
CENGKLIK
basis of ""N
1st normal
sequence
(1.9/2.1)-/
basis of
the normal
sequence
(1.9/2.1-
BRINGINAN
268
Francois Semah
Plio-Pleistocene of Indonesia
269
No.
Sample
Age. Ma
Method
Reference
1.
Notopuro (pumice)
FT
2.
Kabuh (tektite)
FT
3.
Kabuh (tektite)
0.70 - 0.72
FT
4.
Kabuh (tektite)
K/Ar
5.
K/Ar
of 4 ages)
6.
Kabuh (tuff)
0.78+/-0.15
FT
7.
Kabuh (tuff)
FT
8.
Kabuh (tuff)
FT
9.
Kabuh (pumice)
1.05+/-0.1
K/Ar
10.
Kabuh (pumice)
1.6+/-0.7
FT
11.
Pucangan
0.4-0.5
FT
12.
Pucangan (tuff)
FT
13.
Pucangan (tuff)
FT
14.
Pucangan (tuff)
1.16+/-0.24
FT
15.
FT
16.
FT
17.
K/Ar
18.
FT
No.
Sample
19.
20.
Age, Ma
Method
Reference
K/Ar
Koenigswald, 1964
K/Ar
Bandetetal. 1989
21.
K/Ar
Bartstra, 1978
22.
Perning/Modjokerto (tuff)
1.9+/-0.4
K/Ar
23.
Kedungbrubus (Pucangan
1.91
K/Ar
Jacob, 1978
K/Ar
Bandetetal. 1989
andesite)
24.
Kedungbrubus/Gunung
Butak
(top lower breccias)
Plio-Pleistocene of Indonesia
271
272
Francois Semah
29
Introduction
Anthony R. Edwards
274
UJI
100
t\
200 km
I
7^(
4(S
DSDP Site
284
^f^4 c WCasttepoint
Tasman
Sea
i-
)x
W Parnassus
Ross/
/^Waipara
Pacific
Ocean
_44_
/
/
~~
275
VRICA,
ITALY
V28-239,
EQUATORIAL
PACIFIC
DSDP 284,
TASMAN SEA
DEVILS
ELBOW
TOTARA
ROAD
MANGAOPARI
STREAM
NUKUMARU
BEACH
400 m
1 UNCONFORMITY
| MUDSTONE
[;:\\
SANDSTONE
E -= emergence
[rV-j LIMESTONE
fc\<</j CROSS-BEDDING
r"1 CONGLOMERATE
marine incurston
C.d.
Chlamys delicatula
shale layer (Vrica)
The upper bathyal sequence at DSDP site 284 is adapted from Kennett
et al. (1975) and Hornibrook (1982), modified according to new data.
The abyssal sequence of core V28-239 is adapted from Shackleton and
Opdyke (1976) and Backman and Shackleton (1983).
276
Anthony R. Edwards
Backman, J., and Shackleton, N. J. 1983. Quantitative biochronology of Pliocene and early Pleistocene calcareous
nannofossils from the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans.
Mar. Micropal 8:141-170.
Backman, J., Shackleton, N. J., andTauxe, L. 1983. Quantitative
nannofossil correlation to open ocean deep-sea sections
from Plio-Pleistocene boundary at Vrica, Italy. Nature
304:156-158.
Barron, J., Nigrini, C. A., Poujos, A., Saito, T., Theyer, R,
Thomas, E., and Weinrich, N. 1985. Synthesis of biostratigraphy, central equatorial Pacific, Deep Sea Drilling
Project Leg 85: refinement of Oligocene to Quaternary
biochronology. In Initial reports of the Deep Sea Drilling
Project, vol. 85, ed. L. Mayer, F. Theyer, et al., pp. 905934. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
External correlations
Beu, A. G., and Edwards, A. R. 1984. New Zealand Pleistocene
and late Pliocene glacio-eustatic cycles. Paleogeogr. PalaeoMagnetostratigraphy appears to be a straightforward method to
climatol. Palaeoecol. 46:119-142.
correlate between the Mangaopari Stream and Vrica sequences
(Figure 29.2). The identification of the Olduvai subchron in New Beu, A. G., Grant-Taylor, T. L., and Hornibrook, N. de B. 1977.
Nukumaruan records of the subantarctic scallop Chlamys
Zealand is still largely dependent on biostratigraphy (Beu and
delicatula and crab Jacquinotia edwardsii in central Hawkes
Edwards, 1984), as noted earlier.
Bay. New Zeal J. Geol Geophys. 20:217-248.
In contrast to the magnetostratigraphic correlation, biostrati- Bowen, F. E. 1967. Early Pleistocene glacial and associated
deposits of the West Coast of the South Island, New
graphic correlations between New Zealand and Vrica are
Zealand. New Zeal. J. Geol. Geophys. 10:164-181.
indirect. The first correlation is between New Zealand and the
Edwards, A. R., Hornibrook, N. de B., and Te Punga, M. T.
nearby upper bathyal DSDP site 284; the second is between
1981. In pursuit of the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary.
DSDP site 284 and Vrica via the geographically intermediate
Geol. Soc. New Zeal. Newsl. 52:21-28.
abyssal core V28-239 (Figure 29.2). The change in the order of Fleming, C. A. 1953. The geology of Wanganui Subdivision.
New Zeal. Geol. Surv. Bull, n.s. 52:1-362.
the LAD (last-appearance datum) of C. macintyrei and the LAD
Gage,
M. 1945. The Tertiary and Quaternary Geology of Ross,
of H. sellii between core V28-239 and DSDP site 284 is not
Westland. R. Soc. New Zeal., Proc. 75:138-159.
regarded as critical. The LAD of H. sellii probably is the less Gair, H. S. 1961. Drillhole evidence of the Pliocene-Pleistocene
reliable of these two bioevents in the Pacific (Backman and
boundary at Timaru, South Canterbury. New Zeal. J.
Shackleton, 1983).
Geol. Geophys. 4:89-97.
From that, the proposed Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary- Gartner, S. 1977. Calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy and
revised zonation of the Pleistocene. Mar. Micropal. 2:1stratotype (the base of the claystone resting on bed e in section B
25.
at Vrica) can be correlated to an undefined level within the Hornibrook, N. de B. 1976. Globorotalia truncatulinoides and
upper part of the Nukumaruan and above the first occurrences of
the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary in northern Hawkes
G. sinuosa in the New Zealand region, largely because of
Bay, New Zealand. In Progress in micropaleontology:
277
30
278
MAMMALIAN
CLIMATES
GLACIAL
FAUNAS
EPOCHS
AGES
AGES
Microthermal, subhumid,
continental
Jingle bob
UJ
Mesothermal, humid
maritime
OC
O
X
hispidus
\
^
*
o
Mt
Scott
Microthermal, subhumid,
maritime ?
Illinoian
Microfhermal, subhumid,
continental?
Butler
Spring
UJ
o
Yarmouth
prosior
caliche bed
Semiarid
Mesothermal, subhumid,
Borchers
maritime
R V I NG
Cu d ahy
Crotaphytus collaris
Phrynosoma modestum
Notiosorex crawfordi
Dosypterus
gollineri
Sorex arcticus ^ x
Terrapene llanensis
S. cinereus
^
Blarina b. carolinensis
S. palustris
v
^
Oryzomys fossilis
Microtus pennsylvanicus
v
Perco flavescens
^
Ambystoma, neotenic
c
Sorex cinereus
'
Microtus pennsylvanicus
/
'
Ambystoma, metamorphosed
/
Geochelone
o |
^
UJ
^S
*'
/ Ambystoma. metamorphosed
/
^
Terrapene llanensis
Oryzomys fossilis
/
/ Geochelone
i1
Terrapene llanensis
\
.
,
Holbrookia texana
maritime
Quarry
tr
o_
Sigmodon
(
,.
Microtus
pennsylvanicus f
^ --
Mesothermal, subhumid,
UJ
allopatric \
Ambystoma, neotenic
Sorex cinereus
Citellus richardsoni
Sangomon
Cragin
<
species now
Microtus pennsylvanicus
Sorex cinereus
(D
Mild - winter
elements
Mesothermal, semiarid,
Jones
SHIFTS
Cool - summer
elements
continental
Wisconsin
icn
FAUNAL
AND
SIGNIFICANT
GEOLOGIC DATA
Living
RECENT
279
Sigmodon hilli
Spilogale cf. S. ambarvalis
Ambystoma. neotenic
.
.
Sorex cinereus
S. lacustris
S. megapalustns
.
^
Mrcrosorex pratensis
\
_
, .
*
%
Synaptomys (Mictomys) 1
'
Microtus paroperarius /
_ s
No
o
c
climatically
Se ger
significant
'
Sonders
Mesothermal, subhumid,
maritime
Af tonion
Some warm-
Mesothermal,
maritime
Deer Park
o
Sigmodon intermedius
Bensonomys meadensis
Pliolemmus antiquus
elements from
Ambystoma, metamorphosed
'
temperate and
subtropical
Rexroad fauna
species
'
|
>
Geochelone
Pliopotamys
meadensis
Pliolemmus antiquus
z
No
Nebraskan
significant
CD
UJ
climatically
Un named
_J
species
r
Mesothermal, subhumid,
B end er
maritime
*i
l
Mammalian
not
fauna
published
UJ
o
o
-1
colich
Mesothermal, subhumid,
maritime
Figure 30.1. Late Cenozoic faunal shifts and inferred climatic changes
in the southern Great Plains. Note the Pearlette Ash bed between the
1 Geochelone rexroadensis
^ 1 Notiosorex jacksoni.
Nerterogeomys
minor
Bassariscus
cosei
Baiomys spp.
1 Sigmodon intermedius
280
Everett H. Lindsay
are correlated to a warm interval near the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary. Radiometric age calibration according to Berggren et al. (1985).
can Quaternary land mammal faunas must be based on superposition, morphologic evolution of common taxa, isotope dating, and
magnetic-polarity sequences, not on climatic inferences.
Present state of North American Plio-Pleistocene
correlations
Among the relatively recent attempts to correlate the North
American Quaternary mammal faunas are the following: those
of Repenning (1979, 1987; Repenning, Fejfar, and Heinrich,
1990; Repenning and Brouwers, 1992), based on the evolution
and dispersal of microtine rodents; that of Schultz, Martin,
Tanner, and Corner (1978), based on the grouping of faunas
according to taxonomic similarity; and that of Johnson, Opdyke,
and Lindsay (1975), based on magnetostratigraphic correlations
tied to detailed biostratigraphy in the southwestern USA. It
should be pointed out that those and most other studies of North
American Quaternary mammals (e.g., Kurten and Anderson,
1980) have included Blancan as well as Irvingtonian and
Rancholabrean land mammal ages, since at least part of the
Blancan has frequently been considered Pleistocene.
Microtine rodent event-stratigraphy
Repenning (1979) divided the Blancan intofivesequential faunal
intervals, and the Irvingtonian and Rancholabrean into two
intervals each, characterized by the appearances of immigrant
species of microtine rodents closely related to European faunas,
or characterized by newly evolved species. In a follow-up,
Repenning (1987) expanded on that study with some slight
revisions (Figure 30.3). His chronologic sequence was based on a
Ma
WEST OF DENVER
M I C R O T I N E
EAST OF DENVER
F A U N A ,
U . S . A .
EUROPE
AGE
MICRO
HRON
MEGA I
* TEICHERT, CA
0.5
DOWNEY DUMP. I
SNOWVILLE, UT
H LIVERMORE, CA
UPPER TECOPA, CA
BARREL SPRINGS, CA
HIGH ALAMOSA, CO
URRIETA, CA
IRVINGTON,
* CENTERVILLE. CA
TEOUISOUINAHUA, MEX
SANOALL, TX
EZABECK. KS
KANOPOLIS. KS
SLATOM, TX
ANGUS. NE
x CUMBERLAND CAVE. MD
CUDAHY. KS o TOBIN, KS *VERA, TX
WILSON VALLEY, KS
_, ~ B e e l , -,
CONARD FISSURE, AR R 0 C K CREEK. TX
JOCOTOPEC, JAL
FYLLAN CAVE, TX
* LITTLE SIOUX COUNTY. IA
0.5
1.0
+ SAPPA, NE
GILLILAND. TX
+ BORCHERS, KS
OLIVE DELL. CA
1.5
^CURm RANCH. AZ ' ^ V J V A ^ I
2.0
DECEIT,
THAYNE,
BIG SPRINGS, NE
MULLEN, NE (In part)
BEAVER, UT
* HIGH III RANCH, Ai
CALIFORNIA WASH , AZ
ELK HILLS, C
WILD HORSE BUTTE, ID GRAND VIE
2.5
WHITE ROCK, KS
BLANCO. TX
*BOYLECDW|TCH
TUSKER. AZ
ARROYO SECO. CA
FLATIRON BUTTE, ID
CLARKDALE, AZ
3.0
BROAOWATER, NE
MENDEV.L RANCH. AZ
SAND POINT. ID
JNJ50N,_AZ
3.0
* COSO MTS. CA
RED CORRAL. TX
PLIOPOTOMYS MINOR. PHopotamy
PANACA, NV
DUNCAN, AZ
3.5
. ID|
TAUNTON. WA
x SAND DRAW, NE
K DEER PARK, KS
x REXROAD 3, KS
ORCHARO,
.VERfit AZ.1
4.0
x FOX CANYON, KS
_ Zl I"_ J I l _ _ _
WHITE BLUFFS. WA
-4.5
CONCHA, CHIHUAHUA
MAXUM, CA
UPPER ALTl
-5.0
-5.5
3.5
REXROAD 2, KS
I. ID
4.0
-2.0
YEPOMERA, CHIHUAHUA
LINO COULEE, WA
MT EDEN, CA
MCKAY, OR
CHRISTMAS VALLEY, OR
g o
Propllophanacomya parkarl
5.0
PROMIMOMYS MIMUS
5.5
WARREN, CA
-6.0
6.0
-
nm
WHITE CONE. AZ
6.7
Figure 30.3. Correlation of microtine dispersal events in North America to subdivisions of the
land mammal ages. (From Re penning, 1987,figure1, courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey.)
Everett H. Lindsay
282
r^-i
HOLOCENE
tt
CO
<
(Late Wisconsinan)
WISCONSIN GLACIAL
Z
U
! tt j
^
(Early Wisconsinan)
SANGAMON INTERGLACIAL
Sheridanian
o
z
Faunal-assemblage subdivisions
Schultz et al. (1978) provided names for the faunal assemblages
of Plio-Pleistocene age that are, in effect, subdivisions of the
conventional Blancan and Irvingtonian mammal ages (Figure
30.4). Early Blancan faunas were grouped into the Rexroadian
sub-age (considered pre-Blancan by Kurten, 1972), and later
Blancan faunas into the Senecan sub-age. Early Irvingtonian
faunas were grouped into the Sappan sub-age, and later
Irvingtonian faunas into the Sheridanian sub-age; the Cudahy,
Port Kennedy, and Conard Fissure faunas were left, however, as
an unnamed middle Irvingtonian group. Rancholabrean faunas
were not discussed, although early and late Wisconsinan
intervals, as well as a Sangamon interglacial division, were
illustrated as Rancholabrean (Schultz et al., 1978,fig.1). In this
chapter, species differences (Smilodon californicus vs. S. fatalis,
and Castoroides kansensis vs. C. nebraskensis) separate Rancholabrean from Irvingtonian faunas. The appearances of
modern species of microtines, and the earliest certain record of
Bison, distinguish Sheridanian from Sappan faunas, and the
appearances of the vole Allophaiomys and the lemming Synaptomys (Mictomys) distinguish Sappan from Senecan faunas.
Schultz et al. (1978) also questioned whether or not Mammuthus
appeared at the beginning of the Irvingtonian (Sappan).
Schultz et al. (1978) vacillated on placing the PliocenePleistocene boundary between the Blancan and Irvingtonian, or
between the egregious Kimballian (= early Hemphillian) (Lindsay et al., 1984) and Blancan. Schultz and Hillerud (1978)
reiterated the Great Plains Pleistocene mammal sequence of
Schultz et al. (1951), based on the concept of a five-terrace
sequence cut into and built on Pliocene rocks (Figure 30.5). The
oldest terrace (Terrace 5) includes the late Blancan Broadwater
formation and fauna (noted earlier), underlain by a gravel
interpreted as a Nebraskan glacial till; that was given an inferred
age of 3.2 Ma, which may or may not be the same age as the
beginning of the trend toward Pleistocene climates noted at
about that time in mid-Pliocene marine sequences (Thunell and
Williams, 1983; Shackleton et al., 1984, 1985; Shackleton, Hall,
and Pate, 1995). A critical examination of Schultz and Hillerud
(1978) (Figure 30.5) suggests that terraces 1, 2, and 3 are
Sappan
(NEW NAME)
Senecan
(NEW NAME)
2
^
Rexroadian
KIMBALLIAN/HEMPHILLIAN
CLARENDONIAN
VALENTINIAN
f Sappal.f.
| Wat hen a l.f.
Java 1. f.
Grandview l.f.
White Rock l.f.
Dixon l.f.
Seneca l.f.
' Broadwater l.f.
Lisco l.f.
Blanco l.f.
Hagerman l.f.
Sand Draw l.f.
PROVINCIAL AGES
OF LOCAL FAUNAS
FROM OGALLALA
GROUP SEDIMENTS
Figure 30.4. Provincial land mammal age subdivisions for the North
American Quaternary and late Tertiary proposed by Schultz et al.
(1978, figure 1). (Courtesy of Nebraska Academy of Sciences.)
Complex
of local fills, loesses)
silts, paleosols, and
khhorizons
T-5
200-50 m
Valentine Fm.
( m a x l thickness 7 S m ) i n :
10,500- 12,5O0y.BP
(time of valley erosion)
Figure 30.5. Diagrammatic interpretation of the sequence of post-Kimballian terrace
fills developed in the Great Plains of Nebraska. (From Schultz and Hillerud, 1978,
figure
Everett H. Lindsay
284
DECLINATION
400CLAYSTONE
f~|
GRANITE WASH
B |
MARL I I I
SANOSTONE
270*
360*
90*
180*
270*
-120
300- - 9 0
H
OLDUVAI
SILTSTONE
H |
-60
TUFF P H I
Figure 30.6. Variation of magnetic declination with stratigraphic level at Curtis Ranch. In
this and other magnetic-polarity
columns, the black sections represent normally magnetized strata,
and the white sections represent
reversely magnetized strata. Eight
fossil levels in the San Pedro Valley sequence are indicated by
bone symbols to the left of the
lithologic column. These fossil levels, named in order of increasing
age, are Prospect, Glyptotherium
(of Gidley), Gidley level, Johnson
Pocket, Cal Tech, Horsey Green
bed, Honey's Hummock, and Bonanza. (From Johnson et al.,
1975, with permission of the Geological Society of America.)
PALEOSOL
FOSSILS
100- - 3 0
stratigraphic datum) at the base of the Mammoth subchronozone of the Gilbert chronozone, the Nannippus HSD
(highest stratigraphic datum) at the base of the Matuyama
chronozone, and the Ondatra idahoensis LSD near the Reunion
subchronozone of the lower Matuyama, are associated with the
Blancan land mammal age. The youngest datum event, the
Lepus LSD at the base of the Olduvai subchronozone, has been
associated with the Curtis Ranch fauna of earliest Irvingtonian
land mammal age. Unfortunately, the taxon previously recorded
as Lepus in the Curtis Ranch fauna is now identified as a large
species of another rabbit, Sylvilagus (White, 1991). A smaller
species of Sylvilagus appears stratigraphically lower in the San
Pedro Valley strata in the California Wash fauna, associated
with the Ondatra idahoensis datum event (Lindsay et al., 1990).
Perhaps a more significant biochronologic event is the replacement of archaeolagine rabbits (e.g., Hypolagus and Pewelagus)
by leporine rabbits (e.g., Sylvilagus and Lepus) in the late
Blancan (White, 1987). It appears the San Pedro Valley faunal
KAENA
3
I n
0--0
UJ
COCHITI
3
-100 -J30
285
FAUNAS
DECLINATION ()
M.
FT.
DATUM PLANES
?Euceratherium LSD
Smilodon LSO
0T 0
2000
I Odocoileus LSO
lypolagus HSD
2000-
4000-
Tremarctos LSO
f. Equus LSO
1000
6000
4000-
Geomys LSD
80006000
2000
8000
10.000
12.00010.000 -3000
Ptiohippus HSD
-14000
Figure 30.8. Mammal datum planes in the Anza-Borrego Badlands sequence. (From Opdyke et al., 1977, with permission of the University
of Washington Press.)
12.000
1-4000
ANZA BORREGO
Blancan-Irvingtonian boundary
Everett H. Lindsay
286
VGP LATITUDE
4--
2--
287
A/Vl
HAGERMAN
VERDE
CHIHUAHUA
HEMPHILL
i xx 4.4-4.8
QUIBURIS
WIKIEUP
CHAMITA
I xx 5.5-5.9
5.3-5.7
xx 4.2 -6.3
VAA;
Ma
MPTS
LSD
HSD
-0
o- I
I -
Mammuthus ( 0
2-
3-
4-
5-
6-
7-
i Neotoma (0
BvfEquustD.Trigonictis (I),Castor(I),Ursus(I),
\Ophiomys (W), Pliopotamys(I),Thomomys(I)
Pliophenacomys(A,M),Geomys (M)
Paenemarmota (M), Prosigmodon(M),Notolagus(M)BNr'Agriotherium(M),Prosthennops(M)
LDinohippus(M), Aphelops (M)
LDin
-Onohippidium (A)
v |'Calomys(Bensonomys)(A),Paronychomys(A)
V Agriotherium(T),Rhynchotherium (T),
i . lProdipodomys(A),Galushamys(A)
UPlesiogulo (NM), Pliotaxidea (NM),
V Dinohippus interpolatus(NM), Astrohippus ansae(NM)
loipoides (NM), Hypolagus vetus (NM)
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
Figure 30.11. North American late
Cenozoic mammal-datum events,
based on data summarized by Lindsay et al. (1975, 1984).
288
Everett H. Lindsay
289
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Index
67,71,73,79,87,275
canids, see Canis; Cuon; Nyctereutes;
Vulpes
Canis (wolf, jackal, coyote), 115, 118-119,
134, 149-153, 194, 219, 228, 249
Canis etruscus as indicator of PliocenePleistocene boundary, 118, 219
Capo Rossello section (Sicily), 146-147
Capra (goat), 118, 174-175
Capreolus (roe-deer), 119
carabao, see Bubalus
carbonate cycles in deep sea related to glacial climate cycles, 97-102
Carpinus, 107-112
291
292
Index
Enhydriodon, 249-250
Ensenadan land mammal age, 123-124
Eolagurus, 118, 227, 229
Eopleistocene, xx, 221, 228, 230
Equus (horse), 114-115, 118-124, 149, 152,
172-175, 186, 216, 219, 227-229, 233236, 249-250, 285
Equus-Elephas-Bos datum of Haug as indicator of Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary,
236; see also Elephas-Leptobos-Equus
datum
Erpfingen (Germany), 194
Etouaires (France), 114, 178, 181
Eucastor, 248
Euceratherium lowest stratigraphic datum,
285
Eucladoceros, 115, 121, 151-152, 172, 174,
204, 249
Eucommia (chinese elm), 107, 110, 185,
195, 204
Euryboas, 228
Fagus (beech), 107-112, 191, 195, 242
Farneta faunal unit, 143, 152, 194
faunal turnover, mammals, 114, 119, 123,
152-153, 236, 259-260
felids, see Felis; Panthera; Lynx; see also sabertooths, cheetah
Felis, 175, 228, 249-250
first glaciation, see earliest glaciation
fish, Vrica section, 21, 32
fission-track ages, 34-35, 54, 122, 135, 178,
242, 269, 276
Flabellipecten planomedius, 169
foraminifera, benthic, Plio-Pleistocene, 2829, 52, 145, 148, 230. 250
foraminifera, planktonic, Plio-Pleistocene,
25-28, 87-92, 142, 161, 169-170, 232,
250
Forest Beds (England), 152
fox, see Vulpes
Galerian land mammal age, 152, 174-175
Gallogoral 114-115, 174-175
Garba (Ethiopia), see Melka-Kunture
Gauss-Matuyama boundary as criterion for
Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary, see
Pretiglian concept; Middle Villafranchian
concept
Gazella (gazelle), 115, 119, 149, 228, 247249
Gazellospira, 115, 118, 175
Gelasian stage, xv, 34, 145
geomagnetic time scale, see paleomagnetic
data
Geomys (gopher) lowest stratigraphic datum, 285
Gephyrocapsa aperta, 47
Gephyrocapsa caribbeanica, 35, 47, 52
Gephyrocapsa group, xv, 23, 35, 63-66, 7 1 73,79
Gephyrocapsa oceanica, 23-24, 35, 38, 52,
64-65, 70, 144, 146-147, 162-163, 167,
250
Gephyrocapsa sinuosa first appearance as in-
Index
Hexaprotodon, 236
Higueruelas (Spain), 172
Hipparion, 115, 119, 124, 172, 216, 227,
247-249
Hippopotamus, 118, 120, 153, 174-175
hippos, see Hippopotamus; Hexaprotodon
Holsteinian interglacial flora, 107
hominids, see Australopithecus;
Gigantopithecus; Homo erectus; Homo
ergaster; Homo habilis; Homo rudolfensis; Meganthropus; Paranthropus;
Pithecanthropus
Homo erectus, xix, 118, 120-121, 129-135,
175, 223, 250, 255-258, 268
Homo ergaster, 129, 132
HomoMbilis, 119, 129-135
Homo rudolfensis 131, 135, 223
horses, see Equus; Hipparion; Nannippus;
Pliohippus; Proboscidipparion
Huescar (Spain), 175
hunting-dog, see Lycaon
Hyalinea baltica, first appearance in Mediterranean, xv, xx, 4, 29, 32, 38, 67-70,
73, 141, 147-148, 163-164, 167-168; first
appearance in China, 250-251
hyenas, see Chasmaporthetes; Crocuta;
Pachycrocuta
Hypolagus, 211, 247, 284-285
Hystrix (Old world porcupine), 175, 179
ice ages, xvi, xix, 70
ice-rafted debris, xv
Icenian Crag, 181
Icenian stage, 186, 198
Ilex (holly), 107-112, 203
Iliyskaya (Kazakhstan), 120
INQUA (Internation Quaternary Association), 4, 6, 8-11, 37-38, 46-47, 70, 147,
221,239
intercontinental migrations of mammals during ice ages, 121, 123, 266, 271, 280, 282
interglacial climates, see Brunssumian;
Reuverian; Tiglian; Waalian; Holsteinian; Eemian
Ionian stage, xv
IRD, see ice-rafted debris
Irish elk, see Megaceros
Itantsa faunal complex, 228; see also
Tamanian
Irvingtonian land mammal age, 122-123,
278-286
IUGS (International Union of Geological
Sciences), xii, 11, 39
Ivanovce (Slovakia), 180
jackal, see Canis
Jaramillo subchron, see magnetostratigraphy; paleomagnetic data
Java Man, see Homo erectus
Juglans (walnut), 107-112, 240-242
K/Ar ages, 34-35, 129-135, 172, 178-179,
184, 255-259, 269, 276
Kabuh Formation (Java), 121, 134, 268-270
Kadzielna (Poland), 124, 181
293
294
Index
Index
Paradolichopithecus, 219
Parailurus, 216
Paracamelus, 227, 249
Paralactaga, 248
Paranthropus, 119, 131, 133
Parapapio, 119
Paratethys tectonic-sedimentologic concept
of Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary, 209210, 220
Pecten jacobaeus, 169
Pelorovis (giant sheep), 119-120
Peninj (Tanzania), 132, 258
Perrier, see Peyrolles
Perrier-Etouaires, see Etouaires
Petaurista (flying-squirrel), 179
Petralona (Greece), 133
Peyrolles (France), 152
Phacochoerus (wart hog), 119
Phenacomys, 123
Phyllodendron, 107-109
Piacenzian stage, xv, 7, 11, 66, 145, 223; see
also Castell'Arquato
Picea (spruce), 33-34, 47, 107-112, 204,
217, 229, 240-242
pigs, see suids
pikas, see Ochotona; Ochotonoides
Pinjor stage, 121, 234-236
Pinneberg warm-climate period, 196
Pinus (pine), 33-34, 107-112, 204, 217,
229, 240-242
Pithecanthropus, 134; see also Homo erectus
Pitymys (pine mouse), 152, 222, 249; see
also Microtus
Platycarya, 111-112, 204
Pleistocene boundary, definition of, xi, xix,
4, 7, 9, 11, 15, 38, 66, 70, 224, 250; see
also Cromerian (end-Villafranchian) concept; earliest glacial climate; Paratethys
tectonic concept; Pretiglian concept;
Lower Villafranchian concept; Middle
Villafranchian concept
Pleistocene boundary, local recognition of,
96,141,164,181,184,188,198,204,211,
219,221,225,250-251,256-259,271,276
Pleistogene, xii
Pliohippus highest stratigraphic datum, 285
Pliomys, 115, 222
Pliopentalagus, 247-248
PMTS (paleomagnetic time scale), see
paleomagnetic data
Podocarpus (black pine), 33, 47, 242
Podpusk (Siberia), 120, 181
Podpusk-Lebyaginsk faunal complex, 120,
222, 227, 230
pollen, see paleobotanic data
porcupine, see Hystrix
Porika glaciation (New Zealand), 273
Potamides, 217
potassium-argon age, see K/Ar age
Praedama, 115
Praeovibos, 115, 175
Pretiglian (Praetiglian) cold-climate phase,
Pretiglian stage, 34, 96, 178-179, 185189, 195-198, 223; see also mid-Pliocene
cold-climate interval
295
296
Index