DAMIAN NANCE | BRENDAN MURPHY

About the Authors

DAMIAN NANCE, OHIO UNIVERSITY
Damian Nance is Distinguished Professor of Geological Sciences at Ohio University.

PHYSICAL GEOLOGY TODAY

Damian has twice received the College of Arts and Sciences Outstanding Teacher
Award, has been twice nominated for the University’s Outstanding Graduate
Faculty Award, and has toured as a distinguished lecturer for the Atlantic Provinces
Intercollegiate Council for the Sciences. Dr. Nance has also served as a peer review
panelist for the Department of Energy and a research advisor for Argonne National
Laboratories, and serves as Editor of GSA Today and is an Associate Editor of
Gondwana Research and Geoscience Frontiers.

BRENDAN MURPHY, ST. FRANCIS XAVIER UNIVERSITY

Brendan Murphy is Professor of Earth Sciences at St. Francis Xavier University.
Brendan is an engaged teacher who has supervised more than 50 undergraduate
theses, and still manages to maintain an active research program that has allowed
him to publish over 165 papers and secure of $2 million in grants. He has been
honored for his service to the discipline with the Geologic Society of America’s
Distinguished Service Award and with the Geologic Association of Canada’s
J. Willis Ambrose medal. Few geoscientists can match Dr. Murphy’s record of
excellence in professional endeavor, dedication to education, and record of service
to the profession.

OXFORD
Letter from the Authors

Dear Colleague:

Thank you for your interest in our forthcoming textbook Physical Geology
Today, a new introductory physical geology textbook being published by
Oxford University Press.

Physical Geology Today features a process-oriented style that emphasizes

how and why things happen rather than what happens. We hope this
approach will help students understand how the concepts, processes,
and principles presented in this book are relevant to their daily lives. To
help accomplish this goal we stress the interactions between Earth’s vari-
ous spheres, emphasize the importance of change over time, and try to
communicate some sense of the sheer depth of geologic time.

Thank you again for your interest in this title and providing us with your
feedback. Our goal with this text is to help students identify and under-
stand the ways in which geology is constantly occurring around them.

Sincerely,

Damian Nance
Ohio University

Brendan Murphy
St. Francis Xavier University
Oxford Presents
Physical
Geology Today
oxfordpresents.com/Nance

Visit the Nance and Murphy Physical Geology Today

Preview Site to learn more about this forthcoming book.

Spark new classroom discussions with the in-text Living

On Earth case studies (we’ll introduce a new one each
month) and learn more about the authors and book as
Physical Geology Today is being developed.

LIVING ON EARTH CASE STUDIES

Living On Earth case studies introduce topics such
as the effect of tectonic plate cycles on evolution
and climate with a story of Green Turtle migration or
information about the depletion of natural resources
(water) and its impact on the environment/ecosys-
tems with a discussion of our food chain.

VOTE EACH MONTH!

Each month we will share a Living on Earth case study from

the book – tell us which one you’d like to read and share next.

TWO MINUTES WITH DAMIAN NANCE

Get to know author Damian Nance through this
series of short interviews. Each month on the
site, we will share a new short video that relates
to the same chapter as the Living on Earth case
study.
HOW TO USE Physical Geology Today

P hysical Geology Today features a

process-oriented approach that assumes no
prerequisites. This approach will help you,
as a citizen of Earth, apply the concepts,
processes, and principles introduced in this
course to your life. The book is guided by
several key principles:

• The process-approach means the

authors emphasize how and why things
happen instead of what happens.

• Focusing on change over time

highlights the dynamism of Earth
processes and the depth of time those
processes require.

• Clarity and simplicity of presentation

are important. You will find the right
amount of terminology introduced at the
right time, and clear, focused graphics will
not distract you with extraneous material.

Why are you taking this course?

If you’d like to develop a better understanding is the stage upon which all – well almost
of the planet and your environment, then this all – human activity takes place, so know-
book is for you. In order to help you cultivate ing something about how Earth works is an
a real understanding of planet Earth, its min- important part of becoming an educated
erals and rocks, and the modern processes citizen. What you’ll learn from this book will
that shape its surface, Damian Nance and enhance your awareness of the workings of
Brendan Murphy integrate relevant, inter- the planet, of science and how we use it to
esting, and engaging information into every better understand our environment, and of
chapter of Physical Geology Today. If you other important things, such as the origin of
chose this course in order to fulfill a science Earth’s natural resources, and the environ-
requirement, we’re glad you did. Planet Earth mental implications of resource development.
 Additional Features
Physical Geology Today will help you identify and under­stand
the ways in which geology is constantly occurring around you by ART
stressing the interdependence of Earth’s systems. Each chapter Every chapter opens with a large
opens with a large, rich graphic to orient you to the topics that graphic that previews the chapter’s
will be covered and contextualize the material that follows in the most important concepts and
chapter. contextualizes them within both the
The art program has been designed specifically to help you Earth system and the chapter at hand.
visualize how big picture processes manifest themselves at
See Pages 2, 66, 242
smaller scales and in the Earth system in general.

LIVING ON EARTH
Living on Earth case studies highlight
the many intersections between
everyday life and the environment, and
emphasize the reasons why the chapter
content is important and relevant.

See Pages 17, 76, 256, 260

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Each section ends with a short
review question addressing recently
covered key concepts to reinforce
your understanding of the topic before
moving forward.

See Pages 6, 69, 245

SCIENCE REFRESHER
Science Refresher boxes review key
scientific concepts that are critical to
understanding the topic at hand.

See Page 72

IN DEPTH
In Depth features gives instructors the
flexibility to expand upon select themes
by providing additional background
and detail about special topics that are
relevant to each chapter.

See Pages 26, 98, 267

Brief Contents
A more detailed Table of Contents for Physical Geology Today is available at www.oxfordpresents.com/nance.

PART I: The Solid Earth PART III: Sculpting the Solid Earth
01 Foundations of Modern Geology 12 Mass Wasting
Living on Earth: The Earth’s Seasons Living on Earth: Debris Flows in
– A 4.5 - Billion-Year Legacy? the Blue Ridge of Virginia

13 Running Water
02 Plate Tectonics 2
Living on Earth: The Aral Sea -
Living on Earth: The Remarkable
An Environmental Disaster
Journey of the Green Turtle
14 Groundwater
03 Minerals
Living on Earth: The Historical
Living on Earth: Origin of the Chemical Elements
Importance of Aquifers

04 Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks 28 Living on Earth: Water in the Sahara Desert

Living on Earth: Volcanoes 15 Glaciers and Glaciation

and the Air We Breathe Living on Earth: The Origin of the Great Lakes

05 Weathering and Soils 16 Deserts and Winds

Living on Earth: The Food Chain Living on Earth: The Dust Bowl

06 Sedimentation and Sedimentary Rocks 17 Coastlines and Coastal Processes

Living on Earth: Salt of the Earth Living on Earth: Sea Level and Polar Ice

07 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks Living on Earth: Hurricanes and Storm Surges

PART II: Evolution of the Solid Earth PART IV: Earth Resources and the Environment

08 Geologic Time 18 Mineral Deposits and Industrial Materials

Living on Earth: Radioactivity and Radon Gas Living on Earth: The Environmental
Impact of Mining
09 Plates and Plate Boundaries 46
19 Energy Resources
Living on Earth: The Bizarre World Living on Earth: The Dilemma of Fracking
of the Mid-Ocean Ridges
Living on Earth: Tsunami 20 Physical Geology and Climate Change
Living on Earth: Camels in the Arctic!
10 Deformation and Mountain Building
Living on Earth: In the Shadow of the Himalayas
PART V: Beyond the Earth
11 Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior
Living on Earth: Earthquake Prediction 21 The Planets
Living on Earth: Visits from the Celestial Junkyard
– Some lessons from California
Sample chapters

Chapter 2: Plate Tectonics 2

2.1 Continental Drift 2.4 Subduction 2.6 Hotspots : A Plate
2.2 Paleomagnetism 2.5 Moving Plates and Tectonics Enigma

2.3 Seafloor Spreading Plate Boundaries

Chapter 4: Igneous Rocks: Origin and Evolution 66

4.1 Igneous Rocks and 4.3 Textures of Igneous Rocks 4.6 Volcanic Eruptions
the Rock Cycle 4.4 Classifying Igneous Rocks 4.7 Igneous Rocks and
4.2 Magma Formation and Transport 4.5 Evolution of Igneous Rocks Plate Tectonics

Chapter 9: Plates and Plate Boundaries 242

9.1 Plates on Earth’s Surface 9.5 Convergent Boundaries: Recycling 9.7 Hotspots: Tracking
9.2 Plates and Isostasy Crust and Building Continents Plate Movements

9.3 Plate Boundaries 9.6 Transform Boundaries:Fracturing 9.8 Plate Tectonics and Plate-
the Crust Driving Mechanisms
9.4 Divergent Boundaries:
Creating Oceans
 2 Plate Tectonics

2.1 Continental Drift

2.2 Paleomagnetism
2.3 Seafloor Spreading
2.4 Subduction
2.5 Moving Plates and Plate
Boundaries NORTH
AMERICAN
2.6 Hotspots: A Plate Tectonic
P L AT E
Enigma

▸ Key Terms
▸ Key Concepts
▸ Study Questions

A P PA
Transform
plate margin

PA N G E A

I N D IA

G A FRICA
F RI CA

O
N
D
W
A N
A US
U S TR
T R A LI A

Living on Earth:  The

SOOUU TH
TH
A M E RICA
RI CA
TARCT
A N TA RCT ICA
A
I CA

Remarkable Journey of the

Green Turtle  17
In Depth:  Failed Rifts  26

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 2 03/04/14 2:33 PM

 S
IN
TA
N

U
Iceland

O
M
AN
NI
DO
LE
CA
Magnetic
stripes
EURASIAN
P L AT E

E LT
A N B
VARISC
S Mid-Atlantic
IN
Ridge
A
NT
OU

Narrow
Island ocean
M

arc
AN
HI

C
A P PA L A

AFRICAN
P L AT E
Oceanic
transform
fault

Plate
motion
SOUTH
AMERICAN
P L AT E
Continental
rift

IA

Hot spot

Continental arc

Wide ocean

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 3 03/04/14 2:33 PM

 Learning Objectives

A
2.1 Outline Wegener’s idea of lthough scholars have pondered the origin of the forces
drifting continents and
that shape our planet for centuries, it was not until the
describe the evidence he cited
to support his hypothesis as 1960s that scientists first developed the comprehensive
well as the primary objection theory called plate tectonics. According to this theory,
to his claims. Earth’s rigid outer shell is broken into large, moving slabs or
plates. Driven by heat from Earth’s interior, these plates slowly
2.2 Explain how paleomagnetism move, carrying the continents as passengers along with them.
provides support for ­Interaction between neighboring plates occurs along plate bound-
continental drift by providing aries and accounts for the origins of the world’s largest geologic
evidence for the concepts of features, including ocean basins, continents, and mountains.
apparent polar wander and
Plate tectonics has shown Earth to be a dynamic planet with an
magnetic polarity reversal.
internal power source that continually shifts and reshapes the
2.3 Summarize the process of planet’s surface. The evolution of this theory from its proposal
seafloor spreading and the and initial rejection to its universal acceptance is one of the most
evidence that indicates that fascinating chapters in the history of science and forms a uniquely
new ocean floor is instructive lesson in the scientific method.
continuously being created at
mid-ocean ridges.

2.4 Summarize the evidence that 2.1 Continental Drift

old ocean floor is continuously Ever since maps of the Atlantic Ocean were first published in the
being destroyed beneath deep mid-sixteenth century, scholars have pondered the remarkable jigsaw
ocean trenches by a process fit between the ocean’s opposing coastlines (Fig. 2.1). Was this fit
called subduction. ­significant or was it just coincidence? The precision of the match
became more apparent as maps of the Atlantic improved and, at the
2.5 Explain how the theory of beginning of the twentieth century, this jigsaw fit was one of the
plate tectonics provides an many lines of evidence that led the German meteorologist Alfred
explanation for continental Wegener to propose the hypothesis of continental drift. According to
drift and describe the three this hypothesis, the fit of the coastlines was no coincidence. Wegener
types of plate boundaries. proposed that the continents of Europe, Africa, and the Americas
were once joined together and had subsequently broken up and moved
2.6 Describe how volcanic enormous distances apart.
hotspots are attributed to Wegener’s concept of how Earth’s geography had changed with
plumes of hot material rising time is dramatically illustrated by his own maps (Fig. 2.2). In these,
from deep within Earth’s he depicts the continents some 300 million years ago reassembled
interior. into a single landmass or supercontinent. He called this superconti-
nent Pangea (or Pangaea), meaning “all lands.” Although Wegener
presented his ideas in a book first published in 1915, almost half
a century would pass before they gained much support. In fact, as
recently as the late 1960s many introductory geology textbooks men-
tioned continental drift only as a curious, discredited idea.

A CONTROVERSY UNLEASHED
Although others had united the continents in much the same way
before Wegener, the publication of his book sparked an interna-
tional controversy that was to last almost a half century. In the early
1900s, most geologists believed that major features of Earth’s sur-
face were fixed and permanent, having been formed during the for-
mation of the planet. Because it challenged established science,
Wegener’s hypo­thesis of moving continents was met with fierce

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 4 03/04/14 2:33 PM

 CHAPTER 2  |  Plate Tectonics  5

in which the subjective idea comes to be

considered as an objective fact.” Eventually,
following a decade during which continental
drift was one of the most hotly debated issues
in science, Wegener’s hypothesis was discred-
ited and fell into obscurity for more than
25 years.
Today we know that continents do
NORTH indeed move, a realization that has revolu-
AMERICA tionized our picture of Earth. So what hap-
EURASIA
pened to change our understanding of the
planet and why did it take so long? To
answer these questions, let’s first consider
the evidence available in Wegener’s day.

SOUTH AFRICA
AMERICA
LAURASIA

P A N G E A
G
O
N
DW
AN
A
Overlap
Gap

Figure 2.1  Jigsaw Fit of Continents (a) About 300 million years ago

In 1965 Sir Edward Bullard and his colleagues at Cambridge Uni-

versity used a computer to obtain the best fit of the continents
around the Atlantic Ocean. It was found to lie at a depth of about
1000 meters (3300 feet) below sea level, about halfway down
the continental slope.

opposition from a shocked scientific community. Yet his

ideas were not dismissed out of hand, because Wegener
was a reputable ­scientist and had amassed an imposing col-
lection of facts and opinion in support of his hypothesis.
Although some of his evidence was convincing, much was (b) About 50 million years ago
speculative and provoked fierce debate. In the mid-1920s,
at a conference in London, Wegener failed to convince the
majority of his ­audience. A comment from a critic in at- NORTH EURASIA
AMERICA
tendance illustrates a contemporary view. “In examining
ideas so novel as those of Wegener,” he said, “it is not easy AFRICA
to avoid bias. A moving continent is as strange to us as a SOUTH
AMERICA
moving Earth was to our ancestors, and we may be as prej-
udiced as they were. On the other hand, if continents have AUSTRALIA
moved, many former difficulties disappear, and we may be A N TA R C T I C A
tempted to forget the difficulties of the theory itself and the
imperfections of the evidence.” (c) About 1 million years ago
Criticism intensified when a professor of paleontology
Figure 2.2  Pangea
at Johns Hopkins University said that Wegener’s method
“is not scientific, but takes the familiar course of an initial (a) This map shows Wegener’s reconstruction of the superconti-
nent Pangea. (b–c) These representations show the distribution
idea, a selective search through the literature for corro­ of continents produced by the breakup of Pangea (light blue
borative evidence, ignoring most of the facts that are op- areas represent shallow seas). The approximate time ­assigned
posed to the idea, and ending in a state of auto-intoxication to each map was unknown to Wegener and has been added.

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 5 03/04/14 2:34 PM

 6   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

THE JIGSAW FIT OF CONTINENTS Continuity of Ancient Mountain Belts

It was easy for the skeptical world of science to dismiss any Along the Atlantic seaboard of North America and Europe,
significance in the jigsaw fit of continents because coast- several ancient mountain ranges that formed before the
lines were known to be ephemeral features of Earth’s sur- breakup of Wegener’s Pangea are abruptly truncated or cut
face that could be changed by a single storm. How could off by coastlines (Fig. 2.3a). Geologists of Wegener’s day
their shape have any meaning after millions of years of had no explanation as to why this should be so. For exam-
coastal erosion? ple, the Appalachian Mountains of eastern North America
In fact, the best fit between the Atlantic continents has terminate along the Atlantic coast of Newfoundland.
since been shown by computer analysis to lie, not at their Mountains of very similar age and geology are also found
coastlines, but along lines drawn halfway down their con- in eastern Greenland, but the belt is abruptly truncated
tinental slopes at a depth of 1000 meters (3300 feet) below along the coast. On the other side of the Atlantic, the same
sea level (see Fig. 2.1). Unlike coastlines, which mark only is true of the ancient Caledonian Mountains of western
the edge of the land, the continental slopes, which sepa- Europe, which are truncated by the coastlines of western
rate areas of land and shallow seas from the deep ocean Britain and Scandinavia. Rocks of similar age and geology
basins, mark the edge of the continents themselves and so to the Appalachians also occur in the Variscan Belt, an
are far more enduring features of Earth’s surface. But the ­ancient mountain range abruptly cut off by the coastlines
ocean floors had not been mapped in Wegener’s day, so he of southern Europe and northwest Africa.
had no way of knowing the shape of the continental slopes. When the continents are reassembled into Wegener’s
Still, if the continents were single landmass, these ancient mountain ranges are brought
fragments of what was once a together to form two continuous mountain chains. The pat-
CHECK YOUR much larger landmass, as terns on the jigsaw pieces matched. In Wegener’s view these
U N D E R S TA N D I N G Wegener proposed, they might ancient mountain ranges were once continuous but had
• Why was the jigsaw fit be expected to share certain been severed by the opening of the Atlantic Ocean.
of continents so easily large-scale features that had In 1937, a similar argu-
dismissed by scientists ment was made for the south-
formed before the landmass
of Wegener’s day? CHECK YOUR
broke up. Like a c­orrectly as- ern Atlantic by the celebrated
U N D E R S TA N D I N G
sembled jigsaw puzzle, not only South African geologist
• Which mountain belts
would the shapes fit together Alexander du Toit. The Cape
in Europe did Wegener
but the pieces would recreate a meaningful picture. Wegener Fold Belt of South Africa,
­believe to be a continua­
found evidence of such features in ancient mountain ranges tion of the Appalachians?
an ancient mountain range
and in major crustal fractures, each of which was brought into that reaches the coast at Cape
continuity when the continents were reassembled. Town, is closely comparable
ins
nta
Mou

Western
AN D

Sahara
nian

São Luís
Caledo
NL

Major
EE

NORTH SOUTH
Fracture Zone
EUROPE
GR

AMERICA Great Glen AMERICA

Fault AFRICA
n Sierra de la
ai
s

nt Varisc
an Belt Ventana
ou
M Fold Belt
an
l a chi Cabot Fault
A ppa

Cape
AFRICA Fold Belt

(a) (b)
Figure 2.3  Fitting the Continental Jigsaw
(a) In the North Atlantic, ancient mountain ranges in North America and Europe come together to form continuous chains. Similarly,
a major crustal fracture, or fault, in North America (Cabot Fault) lines up with one in Scotland and northern Ireland (Great Glen Fault).
(b) In the South Atlantic, ancient African rocks line up with similar rocks in South America, major crustal fractures in the bight of
Africa line up with those in eastern Brazil, and an ancient mountain range in South Africa lines up with one in Argentina.

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 6 03/04/14 2:34 PM

 CHAPTER 2  |  Plate Tectonics  7

in age and geology to the Sierra de la Ventana Fold Belt (now known to be about 300 million years), and had formed
of Argentina, an ancient range of mountains in South before the breakup of Pangea. Their widespread distribu-
America located just south of Buenos Aires. When these tion across large areas of South America, South Africa,
two continents are brought together in the manner pro- India, and Australia (Fig. 2.4) suggested that these conti-
posed by Wegener, the two mountain ranges connect up to nents had experienced a massive continental glaciation at
form another perfect match (Fig. 2.3b). this time, the scale of which was comparable to the conti-
nental glaciation the northern continents experienced
Continuity of Major Faults during the last Ice Age. However, if the continents had fixed
In addition to the continuity of mountain belts, Wegener’s positions, as scientists of Wegener’s day believed, then the
reassembly of the European and North American conti- distribution of these glacial deposits defied explanation.
nents also brought together major crustal fractures or faults. Rather than a single polar ice cap, the distribution of these
In 1962, for example, the eminent Canadian geophysicist deposits suggested several improbable ice caps at widely
J. Tuzo Wilson proposed that the Great Glen Fault of Scotland different latitudes. If Africa was stationary, for example, the
was a continuation of the Cabot Fault of ­Newfoundland (see presence of these deposits suggested that continental glaci-
Fig. 2.3a). Both structures are major crustal fractures that ation had reached the equator. Similarly, the distribution of
formed before the assembly of Wegener’s supercontinent. these deposits suggested the wholesale glaciation of tropical
The continuity and alignment of these two faults when India. The flow direction of the ice (arrows in Figure 2.4), as
Europe and North America recorded in the grooves and scratch marks carved in the
are reassembled is another bedrock by the glaciers, also defied common sense. In both
CHECK YOUR
U N D E R S TA N D I N G
­pattern match on Wegener’s India and South Africa, the flow of ice was directed toward
continental jigsaw puzzle. the poles from equatorial regions, exactly opposite to what
• How did the continuation
Likewise, major crustal one would expect. In South America and Australia, the di-
of faults support Wegener’s
hypothesis of continental
fractures that reach the coast rection of the glacier movement suggested that the ice had
drift? in the bight of Africa line up defied gravity, flowing inland and uphill from the sea!
with similar fracture zones in All of these apparently contradictory observations
eastern Brazil, and a distinc- were accounted for when Wegener reconstructed the
tive region of rocks, now known to be 2 billion years old, in southern continents into a portion of Pangea now known
the western Sahara continues into the São Luis region of as Gondwana (Fig. 2.5). With the continents reassembled
northeastern Brazil (see Fig. 2.3b). in a jigsaw fit, Gondwana could be home to a single ice cap
centered on the South Pole, then located near the coast
The Enigma of Ancient Climates of Antarctica. The evidence of glacial movement could be
Other matching patterns lay in the rocks themselves and accounted for by an outward flow of ice from the South
provided one of Wegener’s most compelling lines of argu- Pole in a manner typical of a polar ice cap. With the inter-
ment. On many of the southern continents, very distinctive vening oceans removed, ice no longer appeared to have
glacial deposits had been found that were of the same age flowed inland (and uphill) from the sea.

AFRICA
INDIA
SOUTH
AMERICA

AUSTRALIA

ANTARCTICA

Figure 2.4  The Enigma of Ancient Climates

Distribution of ancient glacial deposits (in white) are difficult to explain as separate continental glaciers. The directions of ice flow
(shown by arrows) are also highly improbable.

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 7 03/04/14 2:34 PM

 8   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

changes in Earth’s spin axis, and this has not changed ap-
SOUTH AMERICA preciably for billions of years. According to Wegener, all of
these enigmas could be explained by the drift of continents
AFRICA
through time.

G
O THE PUZZLING FOSSIL RECORD
N Wegener also found evidence for continental drift in the dis-
D tribution of certain fossil species (Fig. 2.6). For example,
INDIA
the Permian reptile Mesosaurus had been found on both
W
sides of the South Atlantic. Although it was a marine reptile,
South A Mesosaurus was not thought to be a strong swimmer and,
Pole
N like the modern alligator, would not have been able to swim
A across an entire ocean. Similarly, fossils of the Triassic reptile
ANTARCTICA Cynognathus had been found in South America, Africa, and
Antarctica, while those of the Triassic reptile ­Lystrosaurus
had been found in Antarctica, Africa, and India. Today,
these regions are separated by major oceans. While it is con-
ceivable that Lystrosaurus, a sheep-sized, land-dwelling rep-
tile, could have walked from Africa to India, it certainly
could not have crossed the polar ocean to Antarctica.
from single polar ice cap AUSTRALIA Wegener found similar evidence in the distribution of
an unusual, apparently stunted assemblage of fossil ferns
known as the Glossopteris flora. This unique flora had been
found in South America, South Africa, India, Australia,
Figure 2.5  Gondwana
and Antarctica, as well as in the Falkland Islands and
When the southern continents are reassembled into Wegener’s ­Madagascar. Because the seeds of Glossopteris were several
reconstruction of the southern continents into a landmass
millimeters across, they could not have been carried great
called Gondwana, we see that a single ice cap, centered on the
South Pole and flowing outward (shown by arrows), provides an distances by the wind and are unlikely to have been able to
elegant explanation for the glacial evidence previously consid- float. As birds had not yet evolved to carry the seeds, how
ered contradictory. had the distribution of this flora been achieved?
The seemingly paradoxical distribution of fossil species
According to Wegener, the ancient continental glacia- such as Mesosaurus, Cynognathus, Lystrosaurus, and the
tion did not take place at tropical latitudes. Instead, the Glossopteris flora is readily accounted for on Wegener’s
southern continents at that time were assembled near the maps, which reassembled
South Pole. Long after the ice age was over, continental the southern continents into
drift dispersed these continents and moved the glacial a single landmass by closing CHECK YOUR
­deposits toward regions closer to the equator. the intervening oceans. With- U N D E R S TA N D I N G
Other rock types that are indicators of past climate out intervening oceans, the • How does continental
also suggested either movement of the continents or unac- distribution of these and other drift account for the distri­
countable shifts in Earth’s major climatic zones. The pres- species plotted on Wegener’s bution of Lystrosaurus
fossils?
ence of coal deposits in Antarctica and the Sahara Desert maps posed no dilemmas.
suggested that swampy subtropical conditions (under which Those opposed to continental
coal forms) had once existed in areas of present-day conti- drift were forced to advocate
nental glaciation and desert. Similarly, the distribution the improbable existence of former “land bridges” that had at
across much of northeastern North America and western one time connected the present continents but which had
Europe of desert sandstones and massive deposits of min- now sunk below the surface of the oceans.
erals formed by evaporation, such as rock salt and gypsum,
suggested that arid conditions had occurred in the past in
areas that today enjoy temperate climates. Remarkably, the THE REJECTION OF WEGENER’S VIEWS
occurrence of reef-building coral limestones in Greenland Although Wegener’s ideas were compelling, much of his
and northern Canada suggested that tropical seas had evidence was viewed to be inadequate, and his views were
once existed north of the Arctic Circle. Because Earth’s rejected by most scientists of his day. By analogy with a
major climatic zones are controlled largely by their lati- court of law, his evidence was viewed by the jury as cir-
tude, radical shifts in Earth’s latitudes were implied. But if cumstantial and insufficient to secure a conviction. While
the continents were fixed, then radical shifts in Earth’s appealing to some, his ideas were dismissed by geophysi-
latitudes could only be accomplished by equally radical cists who found the process of continental drift in defiance

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 8 03/04/14 2:34 PM

 CHAPTER 2  |  Plate Tectonics  9

(c) Evidence of the Triassic

land reptile Lystrosaurus have
been found in
Africa,
India, and
(a) Remains of the Permian Antarc-
coastal reptile Mesosaurus INDIA
have been found
in both Brazil and
AFRICA
southern Africa.

AUSTRALIA
ANTARCTICA
SOUTH
AMERICA

(d) Fossils of the fern

(b) Fossil remains of Cynognathus, Glossopteris, found
a Triassic land reptile approximately in all of the southern
3 m (10 ft) long, have been found continents, suggest
in Argentina, Southern Africa, and that they were once
Antarctica. joined.

Figure 2.6  Puzzling Fossils

The distribution of fossil plants and animals provides further evidence of continental drift. (a) The 2-foot-long freshwater reptile
Mesosaurus lived in Brazil and Africa. (b) Fossils of the land reptile Cynognathus are found in Argentina, southern Africa, and
Antarctica. (c) The sheep-sized land reptile Lystrosaurus lived in Africa, India, and Antarctica. (d) The large-seeded Glossopteris flora
is found on all five continents. The ranges of the reptiles (none of which were long-distance swimmers) and the large-seeded flora
on continents now separated by vast oceans are readily accounted for on this modern reconstruction of Gondwana.

of the laws of physics. As was repeatedly pointed out by the inadequate for the task. Indeed, since tidal friction acts
eminent British geophysicist Harold Jeffreys, the chief like a brake on the spinning Earth, tidal forces strong
weakness in the hypothesis of drifting continents was enough to move continents would long ago have brought
Wegener’s inability to provide a viable mechanism, one Earth’s eastward rotation to a halt, as Jeffreys was quick to
that would allow the process to operate. What force, the point out.
geophysicists argued, could possibly cause the continents So while continental drift was able to explain many
to plough their way across the ocean floors? enigmas: the surprising fit of continents, the enigma of
In an attempt to address these criticisms, Wegener ancient climates, the puzzling fossil record, and the distri-
described the drift of the southern continents away from bution of today’s animals and plants, Wegener was unable
the South Pole as polflucht, or “flight from the poles,” which to provide a workable driving force. As a result, his hypo­
he attributed to the gravitational attraction of Earth’s thesis was rejected and his ideas fell into obscurity until
­equatorial bulge. Such forces certainly exist, but as Jeffreys strange discoveries on the floor of the ocean some 30 years
was able to demonstrate, they later revived his challenging vision.
are far too weak to drag the
CHECK YOUR
southern continents north-
U N D E R S TA N D I N G 2.1 SUMMARY
ward. Wegener also suggested
• What mechanisms did
that the westward move- • In 1915 German meteorologist Alfred Wegener pro-
Wegener propose to
ment of the Americas had oc- posed that all the continents were once joined together
­account for continental
drift? curred as a result of tidal forces and had later broken up and moved apart. Using the
in Earth’s crust produced by jigsaw fit of their coastlines, Wegener reassembled the
• Why were Wegener’s
the gravitational attraction continents into a single landmass he called Pangea,
ideas rejected by the
­scientists of his day? bet­ween the continents and meaning all lands. His idea of slowly moving conti-
the Moon. Again, such forces nents, termed continental drift, unleashed an inter­
exist but are hopelessly national controversy that lasted almost 50 years.

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 9 03/04/14 2:35 PM

 10   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

• Wegener found evidence of a jigsaw fit to continents The orientation of a com-

in features such as ancient mountain belts, major CHECK YOUR pass needle is controlled by
fault lines, and certain distinctive rock formations. U N D E R S TA N D I N G these invisible lines of mag-
Wegener also found matching patterns among conti- • How does Earth’s netic force. The lines cause the
nents through evidence of ancient climate and from ­magnetic field control the compass needle to point north
the distribution of fossils. orientation of a compass but also cause the needle to
• needle? tilt, the north end tilting
Despite all the data that supported continental drift,
• What is magnetic downward in the Northern
Wegener’s ideas found little acceptance ­because he was
­inclination and how can Hemisphere and upward in
unable to provide a viable mechanism that would
it be used to determine the Southern Hemisphere. So
permit the process to take place. latitude? a compass reading really has
two components—a horizon-
tal component, or swing, used
in navigation and pathfinding, and a vertical component, or
2.2 Paleomagnetism tilt, known as magnetic inclination.
Because the amount of inclination progressively in-
The vindication of Wegener’s hypothesis of continental creases with distance from the equator, and the direction of
drift came from geophysics, the very field of science that tilt is different in the Northern and Southern hemi­spheres,
had so effectively discredited the idea during Wegener’s
lifetime. The key lay in the pheno­menon of magne-
tism as revealed by studies of Earth’s magnetic field.
The research that ultimately supported Wegener’s S
hypothesis was not meant to be a study of continen- N
tal drift, but an examination of past patterns in Geographic north pole
Magnetic north pole
Earth’s magnetic field. Yet the discoveries would ser-
endipitously become the key to the acceptance of
continental drift and the birth of the theory of plate
N
S

tectonics.
N

N
S

S
N
EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
Geographic
If you have used a compass, you have witnessed equator S Magnetic
Earth’s magnetic field. It is the force of this field that N
equator S
makes a compass needle point north. Scientists be-
N
S

lieve that the origin of this magnetism is related to

the motion of a liquid layer deep within Earth’s inte-
S
N

rior, known as the outer core. The outer core of Earth

is rich in iron and spins like a dynamo under the
influence of Earth’s rotation. The spinning dynamo, Magnetic Geographic
in turn, generates the planet’s magnetic field (see In south pole S south pole
Depth: Earth’s Magnetism and Its Dynamic Core, in N
Chapter 11). Because Earth’s magnetic field is in part
generated by its rotation about its axis, the position
Compass needles point north
of Earth’s magnetic poles broadly corresponds to Lines of magnetic force but their tilt varies with
that of its geographic poles. The field envelopes Earth form a pattern of closed latitude from vertical at the
loops between magnetic magnetic poles to horizontal
and extends well out into space. A compass needle at north and south poles. at the magnetic equator.
Earth’s surface detects only a tiny portion of Earth’s
vast magnetic field. Figure 2.7  Earth’s Magnetic Field
Earth’s magnetic field behaves as if a simple bar magnet
Earth’s magnetic field, which governs the orientation of com-
were aligned north-south at Earth’s center, producing lines pass needles, resembles that of a simple bar magnet. Lines of
of magnetic force that emerge from the Southern Hemi- magnetic force form a pattern of closed loops that emerge from
sphere and loop through space to return in the Northern the planet at the magnetic south pole and reenter at the mag-
Hemisphere (Fig. 2.7). Therefore, the lines of magnetic netic north pole. Because the magnetic field owes its origin to
force are parallel to Earth’s surface at the equator but the spin of the Earth, the position of the magnetic poles broadly
coincides with Earth’s geographic poles. Compass needles
plunge ever more steeply as the poles are approached, align themselves with the magnetic lines of force and so are
pointing up out of the ground in the Southern Hemisphere parallel to Earth’s surface at the equator, but tilt at ever increas-
and down into the ground in the Northern Hemisphere. ing angles as the magnetic poles are approached.

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 10 03/04/14 2:35 PM

 CHAPTER 2  |  Plate Tectonics  11

90 North Pole weak, we can measure its orientation with a

S
highly sensitive instrument known as a
N

North of Equator magnetometer. In modern basalt lavas, the

compass tilts down
magnetic orientation points to the north
Northern Hemisphere

S
magnetic pole, which lies close to the geo-
N

graphic North Pole.

40
The study and measurement of Earth’s

S
magnetic field from ancient rocks is called

N
Latitude (degrees)

paleomagnetism. When the history of

Earth’s magnetic field was first examined
0 Equator in this way, the results were startling.

N
S
Rather than pointing to the present-day
magnetic poles as expected, the tiny mag-
Southern Hemisphere

netite compass needles in ancient basalt

N
S

lavas were found to point in many differ-

-40
ent  directions. These data indicate that
N either the
S

CHECK YOUR
poles or the
South of Equator continents (or
compass tilts up U N D E R S TA N D I N G
N both) moved
S
SSouth Pole
• What is paleomagnetism
-90 and what instrument is
through geo-
-90 -40 0 40 90
used to study it? logic time.
Up Down As we shall
Magnetic inclination (degrees) now see, yet
Figure 2.8  Magnetic Inclination
more startling were results that suggested
the north and south magnetic poles had in the past repeat-
This figure shows the relationship between latitude and mag-
netic inclination (red line), and its effect on the tilt of a compass
edly swapped positions. Could this be true? The atte­mpts
needle at different locations on Earth’s surface. For example, at to answer these puzzling questions led to the revival of the
a latitude of 40° N, the north end of a compass needle tilts old ideas of continental drift.
downward 50° from the horizontal.

we can use the inclination of a compass needle to determine APPARENT POLAR WANDER
latitude (Fig. 2.8). The position of the magnetic poles is thought to be geo-
But how can we determine the patterns of Earth’s mag- graphically fixed by Earth’s axis of rotation. For example,
netism in the deep past? As we shall see, certain rocks are when modern basalt lava flows, like those of Hawaii, are
able to record these two components of Earth’s magnetic examined paleomagnetically, their tiny magnetite com-
field at the time of their formation. The records from these pass needles are found to point toward the present day
rocks provided the first direct geo-
physical evidence for continental Magnetic
drift. inclination
angle
to form basalt

THE PALEOMAGNETIC S S
RECORD North-south
N N

When basalt lava flows across direction

S
Earth’s surface and starts to cool, N S
N
tiny magnetically susceptible
grains of iron oxide (magnetite) Drilled
Direction of
start to crystallize within it. As rock core
they cool, these grains become of magnetic
Magnetization minerals within
magnetized by Earth’s magnetic direction the rock
field. Once frozen into the rock,
Figure 2.9  Paleomagnetism
they function like thousands of tiny compass needles, cre-
ating a permanent record of the north-south direction Rock cores drilled from a basalt lava flow indicate the direction
in which the magnetic field of the tiny magnetic minerals within
and the magnetic inclination at the point on Earth’s the rock is aligned. From this, the north-south direction and
­surface where the lava erupted at the time it solidified magnetic inclination angle at the time the lava solidified can be
(Fig. 2.9). Although the ­resulting magnetic field is very determined.

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 11 03/04/14 2:35 PM

 12   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

geographic poles. But for ancient basalt lavas this is not the confirmed when Europe and North America were reas-
case. Scientists who analyzed basalts taken from Europe, sembled into the Pangea configuration proposed by
for example, found that all magnetized samples of the same Wegener. The two polar wander curves coincided, indicat-
age pointed to the same location, but not toward Earth’s ing that their present separation came about only when
poles. Moreover, samples of a different age pointed to a dif- Pangea broke up and Europe and North America became
ferent location. When scientists connected these magnetic separate continents (Fig. 2.10b).
pole positions for successively older basalt samples, they The paleomagnetic record was heralded as conclusive
found that the resulting line of locations ­resembled a curve. evidence for continental drift. Wegener’s proposal that
Had Earth’s magnetic poles moved with time? If so, this the continents had moved relative to the poles was now
curve suggested a path of polar wander. Analysis of paleo- supported by geophysical data. Indeed, paleomagnetic data
magnetic rocks in North America also suggested polar from the southern continents
wander. Amazingly to the scientists, the path of the European proved to be consistent with
polar-wander curve differed from the North American one the existence of Gondwana CHECK YOUR
(Fig. 2.10a). Since the locations of the poles are tied to and placed the South Pole U N D E R S TA N D I N G
Earth’s spin axis, surely there couldn’t be more than one near the position proposed by • What is apparent polar
North Pole and one South Pole at a time! If the continents Wegener. However, while the wander and how has it
had fixed positions, these data would be very difficult to paleomag­netic data provided been used to support
­continental drift?
explain. strong support for continental
Supporters of continental drift reasoned that an alter- drift, the quest to find a viable
native explanation for the polar-wander curve of an mechanism still remained.
indivi­dual continent could be that the continent had
moved relative to the poles. And as each continent had a
different polar-wander curve, then the most logical expla- PALEOMAGNETIC REVERSALS
nation was that the continents had moved independently A key piece of the puzzle was provided by an even more
of each other. If so, the curves tracked the movement of startling paleomagnetic discovery—evidence that Earth’s
the continents, not the poles, and recorded, not polar magnetic field periodically reversed itself. Magnetized
wander, but apparent polar wander misleadingly produced samples of basalt from the same locality were repeatedly
as a consequence of continental drift. This hypothesis was found in which the North and South poles had apparently

Europe polar North America

wander path polar wander path

500 mya
500 mya 400 mya Europe polar
400 mya wander path
300 mya
300 mya Curves coincide if
Atlantic closed in
200 mya
200 mya
100 mya
ASIA North America
100 mya polar wander path
NORTH ASIA
Today
AMERICA
EUROPE
NORTH
AMERICA EUROPE

SOUTH AFRICA
AMERICA
AFRICA
SOUTH
AMERICA

mya = Million years ago

(a) (b)

Figure 2.10  Apparent Polar Wander

(a) Apparent polar-wander paths for North America (green) and Europe (red) for the past 500 million years define similar but separate
curves indicating that the two continents moved relative to both the poles and each other during this time interval. (b) The separa-
tion of the two paths is attributed to the opening of the Atlantic Ocean; it is reconciled if the two continents are reassembled in their
Pangea configuration.

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 12 03/04/14 2:35 PM

 CHAPTER 2  |  Plate Tectonics  13

been interchanged. Scientists noticed that the tiny compass quickly many times, eighteen such reversals having oc-
needles produced in basalt lavas from certain eruptions curred in the past four and a half million years (Fig. 2.11).
pointed south rather than north. They quickly realized With no obvious repetition in the duration of these events,
that there were only two plausible explanations for this. the pattern of magnetic reversals resembles a bar code
Did this interchange mean that rocks could somehow on produce in a supermarket.
­reverse their magnetization, or did it mean that Earth’s But as we shall now see, it was CHECK YOUR
magnetic field periodically reversed itself? As larger data- this pattern that unlocked the U N D E R S TA N D I N G
bases were compiled, all rocks of the same age were found secret to a dynamic Earth
• What happens to Earth’s
to have the same polarity. This implied that the process was history with the discovery of magnetic field during a
global in scale and that it was Earth’s magnetic field that the very same magnetic bar magnetic reversal?
periodically reversed itself during an event known as a code in rocks on the ocean
magnetic polarity reversal. floor.
Although the reason why such magnetic reversals take
place is still poorly understood, reversals are now known to
have occurred quite frequently in the recent geologic past, 2.2 SUMMARY
with major reversals occurring every million years or so • Wegener’s ideas were revitalized when geophysicists
and shorter flips lasting a few thousand to a few tens of starting studying Earth’s magnetic field.
thousands of years. For example, for the past 700,000 years,
• When basalt lava cools, iron-rich minerals become
Earth has experienced normal magnetic polarity during
magnetized and record the north-south direction and
which the north ends of all compass needles point toward
the magnetic inclination at the time the lava solidifies.
the north geographic pole. Prior to this, however, Earth
experienced almost 2 million years of reversed magnetic • The magnetic records frozen into ancient basalts were
polarity during which the north end of a compass needle found to have widely varying magnetic directions and
would have pointed toward the south geographic pole. inclinations. Initially, this record seemed to indicate
Some unknown motion of Earth’s liquid outer core is be- that the magnetic poles had been “wandering” for the
lieved to produce these reversals. But whatever their cause, past 500 million years. But when the continents were
their discovery would provide the ultimate confirmation of reassembled into the map of Pangea, the puzzling
continental drift and would unlock the dramatic mecha- ­polar-wander paths coincided. This discovery indicated
nism by which it was accomplished. that instead of the poles having wandered, it was the
As more data on the magnetic orientation of dated continents that had drifted.
basalt samples accumulated from all over the world, a pre- • Through studies of ancient basalts, scientists also
cise time scale was constructed that charted the ­duration ­discovered that Earth’s magnetic field periodically
of each magnetic reversal. From this time scale, Earth’s ­reverses itself, interchanging the north and south
magnetic field was found to have reversed itself quite ­magnetic poles.

Magnetic epoch
Brunhes Matuyama Gauss Gilbert
(Normal) (Reverse) (Normal) (Reverse)
Orientation of

S
N
S
N N
S
N
S

0.71 mya 2.43 mya 3.32 mya 4.50 mya

Normal mya = Million years ago

Reverse

Figure 2.11  Magnetic Reversals

Times of normal and reversed polarity in Earth’s magnetic field during the past 4.5 million years have been established from the
study of magnetized samples from basalt lava flows of known age. In the normal configuration, the north magnetic pole is near the
north geographic pole. In the reverse configuration the north magnetic pole is near the south geographic pole.

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 13 03/04/14 2:37 PM

 14   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

2.3 Seafloor Spreading features on the ocean floor that were first discovered in the
1950s and 1960s.
The clinching evidence for continental drift did not come
from paleomagnetic studies on continents. Instead, it
came from paleomagnetic studies of the ocean floors. MAGNETIC REVERSALS ON THE SEAFLOOR
These studies eventually led three geoscientists in the After the Second World War, the strategic importance of
1960s to propose the hypothesis of seafloor spreading. In the oceans greatly increased. With the advent of nuclear
1963, the Canadian geophysicist Lawrence Morley and the submarines, a major effort was made to chart the ocean
British geophysicists Fred Vine and Drummond Matthews floors. Far from being flat, featureless plains, the ocean
independently proposed that the seafloor moves symmet- floors were found to contain vast mid-ocean ridges, which
rically away from major ridges in the ocean, like two large rose as much as 3 kilometers (1.9 miles) above the deep
conveyor belts, moving the ocean floor and continents ocean floor and girdled Earth like the seam on a baseball.
along with it. But in a cruel twist of fate that reveals both At the same time, efforts were being made to chart the
the ­ongoing opposition to continental drift and a weak- magnetic properties of the ocean floor. So while the mys-
ness in the scientific process of peer review, both of tery of magnetic reversals was being unraveled on land,
­Morley’s papers on the subject were rejected by scientific scientists were towing sensitive magnetometers across the
journals. So Vine and Matthews were the first to publish world’s oceans. These magnetometers revealed that long
and, hence, the first to receive credit for the idea. Today, zebra-like stripes of high-intensity and low-intensity mag-
however, the explanation that these three geoscientists netism alternated across the floors of the oceans. But no
provided for the strange magnetic patterns found when theory existed that could account for these patterns.
the study of paleomagnetism was applied to the ocean One such remarkable survey charted magnetically im-
floors is correctly known as the Vine-Matthews-Morley printed rocks on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean southwest
hypothesis. of Iceland. Here, the stripe-like departures from the ex-
With the scientific confirmation of seafloor spreading pected magnetic patterns, called magnetic anomalies,
in the 1970s, Wegener’s hypothesis of continental drift was were found to be centered on a segment of the Mid-Atlantic
finally provided with the one element it lacked: a mecha- Ridge. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is part of the system of mid-
nism. But what paleomagnetic discoveries were made on ocean ridges that had been found to traverse all of the
the ocean floors, and why did they lead Vine, Matthews, world’s oceans. Science would later show that the magnetic
and Morley to propose the provocative hypothesis of sea- anomalies were actually long strips of rock with normal
floor spreading? To answer these questions and see how and reverse polarity that alternated in a symmetrical fash-
this new hypothesis emerged, we must look at curious ion on either side of the ridge axis (Fig. 2.12).

GREENLAND

ICELAND
Atlantic
Ocean
ge
d
Ri
ic
nt
tla
A
id
M

3 mya
6 mya
9 mya
15 mya

Region of magnetic
survey

mya = Million years ago

Figure 2.12  Magnetic Stripes

Evidence of magnetic reversals is visible in part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge southwest of Iceland. Blue stripes identify ocean floor
rocks showing matching reverse magnetization. Intervening gray stripes correspond to rocks with normal polarity.

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 14 03/04/14 2:37 PM

 CHAPTER 2  |  Plate Tectonics  15

A PATTERN EXPLAINED—SEAFLOOR SPREADING at the ridge crest d­ isplaying the reversed magnetization
The pattern of symmetrical magnetic reversals went unex- (see Fig. 2.13).
plained until 1963, when Morley and Vine and Matthews Morley and Vine and Matthews realized that the sym-
­independently showed that it could be accounted for by a metrical pattern of high and low intensity magnetism on
­hypothesis known as seafloor spreading. According to this either side of the ridge corresponds (respectively) to peri-
hypothesis, partial melting of hot rocks beneath the mid- ods of normal and reversed magnetization. The strips of
ocean ridges causes molten rock or magma to ooze up high intensity magnetism are located where the magnetized
toward the seabed as the seafloor spreads away to either rocks enhance the existing magnetic field of Earth because
side as if it were carried on a giant conveyor belt. If, Morley they have the same polarity. Conversely, strips of low inten-
and Vine and Matthews reasoned, lava flowed out along sity magnetism are located where the magnetized rocks
the center of mid-ocean ridges, then the iron minerals in weaken the existing magnetic field of Earth because they
the cooling lava would become magnetized in the prevail- have opposite polarity.
ing direction of Earth’s magnetic field. Because magma is Because the process of seafloor spreading is symmetric
continually being inserted into the ridge, previously crys- with respect to the ridge axis, the seafloor patterns of
tallized rock is pushed progressively sideways (Fig. 2.13a). magnetism on either side of a ridge mirror each other
The process is similar to that of repeatedly inserting books with matching strips of normal and reversed polarity dis-
into the middle of a bookshelf. The other books on the shelf tributed symmetrically about the ridge axis. In this way,
are progressively pushed to the side (Fig. 2.13b). The magma ­continuous injection of magma at the ridge axis over mil-
is inserted from below rather than the side, but the overall lions of years produces symmetrical strips of normal and
effect is similar. reversed polarity. Each strip forms at the ridge axis only
As the newly generated, magnetically imprinted rock is to be torn in two lengthwise as the seafloor spreads (see
carried away from the ridge at a uniform rate in both direc- Fig. 2.13a). The pattern of magnetic stripes consequently
tions, more lava erupts along the ridge and is, in turn, mag- provides a continuous record of Earth’s history of mag-
netized. As the process is continuous, any reversal in netic reversals frozen into the basaltic ocean floor at the
Earth’s magnetic polarity is recorded as a new strip of rock time of its formation. In conclusive confirmation of this

PALEOMAGNETISM
PALEOMAGNETISM

Sea-Floor Spreading

Sea-Floor Spreading
Continental Drift

Continental Drift
9 mya

6 mya
PALEOMAGNETISM

PALEOMAGNETISM
Sea-Floor Spreading
Sea-Floor Spreading

SUBDUCTION

SUBDUCTION

Continental
Continental

Drift
Drift

3 mya
PALEOM
PALEOM

Plate Tectonics
Plate Tectonics

Sea-Floor Spr
Sea-Floor Spr

SUBDUCTION

SUBDUCTION

AGNE
AGNETIS

Contin
Contin

TISM
eading
eading

enta
en

Today
tal D

l Drif
rift

t
Hotspots

Hotspots

PALE
Plate Tectonics
PALE

Plate Tecton

Sea-Fl
Sea-Fl

Normal Direction of
OMA
OMA

SUBDUCTIO

SUBDUCTIO

oor Sp
oor Sp

magnetic polarity plate movement

Con
GNET
GNE
Con

tine
readin
tine

readin
TISM

ISM

nta

Reversed
nta

ics

l Dri
g
l Dri

magnetic polarity mya = Million years ago

ft
ft

(a) (b)

Figure 2.13  Origin of Magnetic Stripes

(a) Basalt lava erupting along the crest of the ridge records Earth’s prevailing magnetic polarity as it cools and solidifies. Seafloor
spreading carries the rock away from the ridge in both directions as new lava erupts along the ridge axis. Occurring continuously,
this process captures each reversal in Earth’s magnetic field, leading to alternating strips of rocks with normal and reversed polarity
distributed symmetrically about the ridge axis. (b) The process of seafloor spreading is similar to that of repeatedly inserting a pair
of books into the middle of a bookshelf. Each time new books are inserted, the other books on the shelf are pushed sideways so that
the distribution of books is symmetric about the center of the shelf.

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 15 03/04/14 2:37 PM

 16   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

explanation, the pattern of reversals on the

seabed was found to precisely match the pat-
tern of reversals derived from the continents
(see Fig. 2.12). In other words, the bar codes
are the same. This match provided the con-
necting link between the continental and sea-
floor magnetic records. Because the timing
of the magnetic reversals on the continents
had been determined, this match also placed
a timescale on the magnetic stripes of the
ocean floor.
So Morley and Vine and Matthews were
able to correctly predict that ocean floor rocks
at the ridge crest are very young and have to-
day’s normal polarity. On either side of the
ridge, ocean floor rocks become increasingly
older with distance from the ridge crest, and
have polarities that match Earth’s recent his-
Figure 2.14  Glomar Challenger
tory of magnetic reversals found on land. These relation-
ships exist because the rocks at the center of the ridge Until her removal from active service in 1983, the research
vessel Glomar Challenger was capable of drilling and retrieving
are the most recent (like the books in the center of our sediment cores from the ocean floor several kilometers below
bookshelf), whereas those at the edge of the ocean are the sea surface.
the oldest.
The remarkable match, stripe for stripe, with the
magnetic timescale developed on land established the hy- The concept of seafloor spreading offered a radically
pothesis of seafloor spreading and showed the site of mid- different view of the evolution of ocean basins, implying
ocean ridges to be the start of two huge conveyor belts that the ocean basins are very young, with the youngest
that moved the ocean floor aside. It also established the rocks at the mid-ocean ridge. So the conventional wisdom
rate at which the ocean floor was being challenged by a bold new hypothesis. How could
was moving—an average of these competing ideas be tested? Prior to the 1960s, the
CHECK YOUR 2.5 centimeters (one inch) ocean floor was inaccessible. However, new technological
U N D E R S TA N D I N G each year. This rate could be advances resulted in the construction of drilling ships,
• Explain the origin of determined because the time such as the Glomar Challenger (Fig. 2.14), which were able
magnetic anomalies on the between reversals is known to probe the ocean depths between Africa and South
floor of the Atlantic Ocean and therefore scientists were America and recover samples of the seafloor.
southwest of Iceland.
able to measure the width When the core samples were analyzed, the results as-
of crust formed in the time tounded the scientific world and confirmed the bold new
interval between reversals. hypothesis of seafloor spreading. The rocks of the ocean
Furthermore, they could determine the direction of floor proved to be young and only a thin veneer of geo­
motion because it must be perpendicular to the magnetic logically recent sediment was found to cover them. The
stripes. drilling did confirm that the Atlantic Ocean basin had a
hard crustal floor, but it was not the ancient crust the
­conventional view had anticipated. Instead, the record of
SPREADING CONFIRMED BY DRILLING approximately 95 percent of geologic time was missing. The
For centuries, scientists had believed that the ocean seafloor was indeed young, as the hypothesis of seafloor
basins were ancient features of Earth’s surface. The pre- spreading predicted. The sediment also contained fossils of
vailing consensus was that the oceans were floored by a microscopic sea organisms that revealed a progressive in-
rigid crust formed when the planet first cooled from a crease in the age of the earliest sediment on the seafloor
molten ball. The ocean floors were believed to consist of with increasing distance from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The
a crust as old as Earth itself, with a continuous blanket of fossils also verified the rate of seafloor spreading. The drill-
sediment above it. It was expected that drilling through ing confirmed that the crustal floor of the ­Atlantic Ocean is
the layers of sediment into the crust below would yield in motion, moving as if it were part of two huge conveyor
samples that would read like an encyclopedia of geologi- belts that continually carry it away from the Mid-Atlantic
cal time, each layer becoming older as the core got Ridge in opposite directions (see Living on Earth: The
deeper. ­Remarkable Journey of the Green Turtle).

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 16 03/04/14 2:37 PM

 CHAPTER 2  |  Plate Tectonics  17

LIVING ON EARTH

The Remarkable Journey of the Green Turtle

E very year, the tiny equatorial island of Ascension in the
middle of the Atlantic Ocean witnesses a remarkable
mystery of evolution. This barren volcanic peak on the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge is the nesting ground of the green
turtle (Fig. 2A). Each year, large numbers of green turtles,
some weighing as much as 180 kilograms (400 pounds),
crawl ashore on the island’s few small beaches to lay
their eggs in the sand. What makes this event so extraor-
dinary is the enormous distance that each turtle must
swim in order to reach this remote destination. From their
home along the coast of Brazil the turtles embark on a
hazardous, two-month voyage that takes them across
half the width of the Atlantic Ocean, a journey of some
2000 kilometers (1250 miles). They make this journey
without food and against a strong equatorial current. Figure 2A  Green Turtle
Why do they attempt such an arduous passage and why The green turtle of South America makes its home along the
do they travel so far to hatch their young? coast of Brazil. But to lay its eggs, it swims all the way to the
It is understandable that turtles might choose an lonely island of Ascension in the mid-Atlantic, only to swim
island for their nesting site because there are far fewer laboriously back again.
predators on islands. Although hundreds of miles of
sandy beaches lie along the coast of Brazil, the beaches did they know that it was there? Continental drift and sea-
are within reach of a variety of carnivores that would floor spreading provide an elegant explanation of just
devour the eggs as well as the nesting adults. But what how such a situation might have slowly come about over
made the turtles choose such a distant island and how millions of years.

AFRICA
A FRICA

Site of
S O U TH Ascension SO UTH
il

Ascension
ra z

A M E RICA Island AMERI CA Island

fB
to
as

Co

200 Million years ago Today

Figure 2B  Odyssey of the Green Turtle

The green turtle may have acquired its habit of journeying to the distant island of Ascension to lay its eggs before the breakup of Pangea.
Each generation traveled farther than their ancestors as the Atlantic Ocean widened, until today’s marathon journey of some
2000 kilometers (1250 miles) was established.
(Continued)

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 17 03/04/14 2:37 PM

 18   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

Living on earth

The Remarkable Journey of the Green Turtle (Continued)

Green turtles first evolved about 200 million years be seen, each generation of turtles would have traveled a
ago when the supercontinent of Pangea was breaking up. little further than their ancestors. As they did so, natural
At this time, the ocean separating Africa from South selection would have favored the sturdiest swimmers,
America was a narrow sea about as wide as a broad slowly giving rise to the powerful turtles of today that are
valley. Any island on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge would there- strong enough to swim halfway across an ocean to an
fore have been both visible and readily accessible from island that only their instinct tells them is there.
the South American coastline. As the Atlantic Ocean If this is the explanation, then the very genetic code
slowly widened, the distance from South America to any of the green turtle may have been programmed by conti-
island located on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge would have grown nental drift. Shaped by the drifting continents, their re-
progressively longer (Fig. 2B). Unusually active volcanism markable behavior would provide living testimony to the
at this location on the ridge would have ­ensured the con- process of seafloor spreading, which every year carries
tinued existence of an island where Ascension Island now South America a little further from the Mid-Atlantic
stands. Guided by instinct once the island could no longer Ridge.

In the 1970s studies near elsewhere or Earth would swell up like a balloon. So where
CHECK YOUR the crest of mid-ocean ridges are the sites of this destruction? The solution lay in the
U N D E R S TA N D I N G also revealed lava flows and origin of vast features on the ocean floors known as deep
• What did the drilling fissures. These studies gave ocean trenches. Discovered by oceanographic surveys
vessel Glomar Challenger ­evidence that not only is the before the advent of the seafloor spreading hypothesis, these
discover that astounded ocean floor separating sym- trenches are narrow, curved depressions in the ocean floor
the scientific world? metrically along ridge axes, that can reach depths of up to 11.5 kilometers (7.2 miles)
but new ocean floor is being and are thousands of kilometers in length. Here, oceanic
created there as well. But crust was found to lurch violently back into Earth’s heated
what happens to all this crust once it is created? The answer interior through a process known as subduction.
to this question lay beneath another dramatic feature of the
ocean floors and, with it, the final piece in our modern un-
derstanding of plate tectonics was revealed. DEEP OCEAN TRENCHES
Evidence for ocean floor destruction came from map-
ping the location of earthquakes. Earthquakes are not
2.3 SUMMARY distributed randomly, instead they define narrow zones
• In surveys of the basalts of the ocean floors, scientists (Fig. 2.15). Numerous shallow earthquakes trace the wind-
found that long strips of high and low intensity ing course of the world’s mid-ocean ridges as they circle
­magnetism alternated in a symmetrical fashion on the globe on the ocean floor. Others occur beneath the
either side of mid-ocean ridges. The pattern of these world’s great mountain belts. But most earthquakes define
stripes exactly matched the pattern of Earth’s magnetic narrow zones that lie near another important feature of
reversals, suggesting conveyor-like movement of the the ocean floor, the deep ocean trenches. The trenches
crust of the oceans by the process of seafloor spreading. occur in many regions but are especially characteristic of
• the margins of the Pacific Ocean.
According to the hypothesis of seafloor spreading, the
It was the worldwide network of seismic stations set up
ocean floor continuously spreads away from the world’s
to monitor underground nuclear testing during the Cold
mid-ocean ridges in opposite directions, like two huge
War that confirmed trenches as the sites of ocean floor
conveyor belts.
consumption. These stations revealed that earthquakes
• The hypothesis of seafloor spreading was confirmed by bordering the Pacific always occurred on one side of a
analysis of rock samples that scientists recovered trench and not the other. In addition, the depth of the
though ocean drilling. source of the earthquakes generally increased with in-
creasing distance from the trench (Fig. 2.16). The point in
Earth’s interior where an earthquake is generated is the
earthquake focus. The deep ocean trenches mark the start
2.4 Subduction of inclined zones of earthquake foci that plunge into
Scientists quickly realized that the same volume of ocean Earth’s interior. These inclined zones of earthquake foci
crust created at mid-ocean ridges must be destroyed had been identified before the advent of plate tectonics, but

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 18 03/04/14 2:37 PM

 Figure 2.15  Earthquake Zones
The world’s earthquake zones are defined by the distribution of earthquakes (magnitude .5) over a period of nine years between
2000 and 2008. The epicentersRUSSIA
are color-coded according to the depth at which the earthquakes occurred.
CHINA
were now seen as reflecting the violent descent of oce-
anic crust back into Earth’s heated interior.
RUSSIA
CHINA

SUBDUCTION ZONES
The process by which ocean floor is consumed is called
Japan Sea subduction (Fig. 2.17). The inclined zone associated
Japan trench with this process is termed a subduction zone. The in-
A
-
clined zone of earthquake foci is generated along the
Japan Sea Tohoku
JAPAN Earthquakeupper boundary of the subducting slab of oceanic crust
Japan trench 2011
KOREA
A
as it is jolted downward. The process of subduction also
-
JAPAN
Tohoku generates molten rock (magma). Such magmas might
Earthquake
KOREA 2011 be expected since the downgoing slab is heated as it
B reaches greater depths. But only under extreme cir-
Kobe 1995
cumstances are the magmas derived from the subduct-
BEarthquake foci
deeper with distance
ing slab itself. Instead, the magma is generated in the
Kobe 1995 from trench
Earthquake foci
rocks above the subduction zone by water vapor driven
Earthquake foci
deeper with distance off the downgoing slab as it is heated. Water has a great
from trench
Shallow
capacity to carry heat and destabilize minerals. So as this
Earthquake foci
Intermediate water vapor moves upward, it promotes melting in the
Shallow 0 200 400
kilometers rocks above. The resulting magmas rise buoyantly
Deep
Intermediate
0 200 400
Deep
kilometers toward the surface to fuel bow-shaped (arcuate) lines of

Japan
Japan trench Oceanic crust
trench Oceanic crust
0 Figure 2.16  Destruction of Ocean Floor
0 Continental crust Oceanic
Continental crust Oceanic
Continental
Continental Mantle lithosphere
Mantle lithosphere ere sp e
herlithosphere lithosphere This map shows the distribution of shallow, inter-
lithosphere sph ho
tho le lit mediate, and deep earthquakes for part of the Pa-
Depth (km)

lithosphere
Depth (km)

li t
tle an
M
an M cific Ring of Fire in the vicinity of the Japan trench.
Mantle Mantle Note that the earthquakes occur only on one side of
the trench and trace out an inclined zone of earth-
250
250 quake foci that plunges into Earth’s interior. The
0 Distance (km) 750 epicenters are color-coded according to the depth
0 Distance (km) 750
A B
A B at which the earthquakes occurred.

19

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 19 03/04/14 2:38 PM

 20   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

volcanoes. The pronounced line of volcanoes bordering the the existence of two types of subduction zones, one where
trenches that encircle the Pacific is often called the Pacific subduction occurs beneath oceanic crust and the other
Ring of Fire (Fig. 2.18). where it occurs beneath the margins of continents.
The distribution of volcanoes around the rim of the The Aleutian Islands are representative of subduction
­Pacific shows that they occur in two quite different set- beneath oceanic crust. In this setting, the magmas pro-
tings. In the Aleutian Islands, for example, the volcanoes duced by subduction ultimately rise through the rocks
form a curved line of volcanic islands, but in the Andes, of the ocean floor to fuel volcanoes that grow upward
they occur along the edge of a continent within a major from the seabed, eventually rising above the level of the
mountain belt (see Fig. 2.18). This difference reveals sea to form islands (Fig. 2.19). The resulting line of volcanic

Oceanic Deep ocean trench

crust

Oceanic Volcano
lithosphere
0
P la
te
m Continental
ot Con
io tine lithosphere

Depth (k
n
nta
l cru
st
zon

m)
Benof ea
e
ioff rthq
-W uak
ada es

250
ti

Magma is generated
Earthquake above the subduction
foci zone by melting of
wet mantle

Water vapor driven off

the downgoing slab
wets the mantle

Figure 2.17  Subduction

The subduction of oceanic crust shows its relationship to the inclined zone of earthquakes bordering deep sea trenches, and its role
in generating magmas.

ICELAND

nd
s

Mt. St. Helens Eyjafjallajökull

Is la Vesuvius
A l e u tia n

Pinatubo Mt. Fuji

Etna
Mauna Loa Pelée
Kilauea

Kilimanjaro
An
de

Krakatau
s Mountains

Merapi

Chaitén

South
Trenches Sandwich Is.
Volcanoes

Figure 2.18  Pacific Ring of Fire

This map shows the global distribution of recent volcanoes. The almost continuous belt of volcanism around the Pacific Rim is the
Ring of Fire, which lies adjacent to the deep trenches of the Pacific Ocean.

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 20 03/04/14 2:39 PM

 Figure 2.19  Aleutian Island Volcano
Mt. Cleveland volcano erupted on the Aleutian Island of Chuginadak on May 23, 2006.

Earthquake foci Island islands, which is distinctly curved and parallel

Shallow arc to the adjacent ocean trench, is known as an
Intermediate island arc (Fig. 2.20a). Island arcs are curved
Deep Trench Depth due to the curvature of Earth. B ­ ecause Earth
(kilometers) is spherical, the ocean floor has a curved sur-
0 km
face. The trench produced by the subduction
of ocean floor is consequently curved, like a
Oceanic knife cut on the surface of an apple, or an in-
crust dentation on the surface of a ping-pong ball.
Plate
Subduction z Earthquake 200 km
The curvature of the line of volcanoes above
motion one foci a subduction zone is inherited from the
Oceanic
crust curved shape of the downgoing slab as it cuts
Magmas produced by subduction rise to fuel into the crust.
e
nospher volcanoes that eventually build above the The Andes, on the other hand, result from
Asthe level of the sea to form an island arc
(a) subduction beneath a continental margin
(Fig. 2.20b). In this setting, the magmas pro-
duced by subduction eventually rise to fuel
Continental
arc Continental volcanoes on land (Fig. 2.21). En route to the
Oceanic
crust surface, however, the rising magmas may
Trench
lithosphere Depth pond beneath the continental crust. When
(kilometers)
this happens, the base of the continental
0 km
crust may become sufficiently heated so that
it, too, starts to melt. In addition, because con-
tinental crust is much thicker than oceanic
Continental
lithosphere crust, much of the magma never reaches the
Plate Earthquake
motio
n
Subduction zon foci 200 km
e
Figure 2.20  Subduction Zones
Subduction zones beneath (a) oceanic and
e Magmas produced by subduction
os pher rise to fuel volcanoes in a (b) continental crust show their relationship to
Asthen continental arc on land the island and continental arcs, with which they
(b)
are respectively associated.
21

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 21 03/04/14 2:39 PM

 22   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

BO L IVIA
S

B R AZ IL
IN

CHILE PARAGUAY
TA
UN
c Ocean

MO
ANDES

UR UGUAY
an
ce
ARGENT INA
Paci

O
Hudson
c

volcano
ti
n
a
tl
A

Figure 2.21  Andes Mountains Volcano

The three vents of the Mt. Hudson volcano high in the Andes Mountains of southern Chile erupted on October 29, 2011.

surface but, instead, cools • Scientists have confirmed deep ocean trenches as the
CHECK YOUR to form large bodies within sites where ocean floors are consumed. This violent
U N D E R S TA N D I N G the continental crust. This descent of oceanic crust back into Earth’s heated
• Why do earthquakes combination of surface vol- ­interior is called subduction.
occur along the upper canoes and deep-seated in- • The zone along which oceanic crust is consumed is
boundary of subduction trusive bodies forms what is
called a subduction zone. The subduction zone is
zones? known as a continental arc.
­characterized by an inclined zone of earthquake foci.
• Summarize and describe Continental margins where
the process of subduction. such arcs develop are termed • If subduction occurs beneath an oceanic plate, curved
active margins because they lines of volcanoes are produced known as island arcs,
• Why are subduction
zones associated with coincide with active plate the form of which reflects the curvature of Earth.
curved lines of volcanoes? boundaries. If subduction occurs beneath a continental plate,
volcanoes form within major mountain belts as part
of a continental arc.

2.4 SUMMARY
• Deep ocean trenches are narrow, curved depressions
2.5 Moving Plates
that can reach depths of over 11 kilometers (7 miles)
and extend for thousands of kilometers. and Plate Boundaries
• Ocean trenches are associated with earthquakes and The recognition of seafloor spreading at mid-ocean ridges
volcanic activity and are especially common at the and subduction beneath deep ocean trenches led to the
margins of the Pacific Ocean. revolution in Earth sciences we call plate tectonics, named

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 22 03/04/14 2:40 PM

 CHAPTER 2  |  Plate Tectonics  23

from the realization that Earth’s rigid outer shell is broken explanation for the movement of continents and ushered
into huge moving plates and from the Greek tecton, which in our modern view of a dynamic Earth.
means “to build.” Nearly 50 years after Wegener’s provoca- Earth’s plates define the lithosphere, or outer rocky layer
tive ideas were first published, plate tectonics provided the of Earth, and “float” on a weak and partially molten por-
missing mechanism for continental drift, and in so doing, tion of Earth’s mantle below known as the asthenosphere
transformed geology as profoundly as evolution trans- (Fig. 2.23). The lithosphere includes Earth’s crust, which is
formed biology and relativity transformed physics. made up of rocks like those on Earth’s surface, and the
According to plate tectonics, the world’s earthquake solid uppermost portion of Earth’s mantle. The astheno-
zones outline the boundaries between large slabs or plates sphere is a zone within the mantle, which is a broad region
that may be thousands of kilometers across but are only of denser rocks that separates the crust from Earth’s iron-
50 to 150 kilometers (30 to 100 miles) thick (Fig. 2.22). They rich core. We will learn more about the lithosphere and as-
are approximately as thick in proportion to Earth as an thenosphere when we examine Earth’s internal structure
eggshell is to an egg. These plates are in constant motion, in Chapter 11. Plates move away from the mid-ocean ridges
and their incessant jostling, one against the other, causes and toward the deep ocean trenches, but each moves inde-
frequent earthquakes. Plate boundaries therefore lie pendently so that dramatic effects are produced where two
within Earth’s most seismically active regions. So it is no plates meet. It is at these plate boundaries, where plates sep-
surprise that the earthquake zones of Figure 2.15 match arate, converge, or slide past each other, that the effects of
the plate boundaries of Figure 2.22. plate motion are most obvious.
So far, about a dozen large plates and numerous smaller At divergent plate boundaries, where plates move
ones have been identified. Some, such as the Pacific plate, apart, continents may be torn in two with new oceans
are almost entirely oceanic. Others like the Eurasian plate, forming between them, much as ­Wegener envisaged with
are mainly continental. However, most plates, like the the breakup of Pangea and the formation of the Atlantic
North American, South American, and African, carry Ocean. The process starts with continental rifting, which
both continents and oceans so that as the ocean floors is the extension and splitting of a continent as the litho-
move, the continents embedded in the plates travel pas- sphere is stretched and thinned. The crust breaks and set-
sively with them like bags on a carousel. This shift in focus tles along faults to form a rift valley (Fig. 2.24a). At the
from continental drift to plate tectonics provided an same time, magma rising from the asthenosphere below

EURASIAN EURASIAN
PLATE PLATE
NORTH
AMERICAN ANATOLIAN
PLATE PLATE
GORDA
PLATE
CARIBBEAN
PLATE ARABIAN
PHILIPPINE PLATE
PLATE
PACIFIC COCOS
PLATE PLATE
AFRICAN PLATE
INDO-
NAZCA AUSTRALIAN
PLATE PLATE
INDO-
AUSTRALIAN SOUTH
PLATE AMERICAN
PLATE

ANTARCTIC PLATE SCOTIA PLATE

Figure 2.22  Earth’s Lithospheric Plates

Earth’s outer shell is broken into jagged, rigid fragments, much like a giant cracked eggshell. These fragments, or plates, are con-
stantly in motion, as shown by arrows.

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 23 03/04/14 2:41 PM

 24   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

Transform Plate Boundary

Plates slip by
one another along
deep crustal fracture

Oceanic Plate motion Plate m

lithosphere otion
Continental crust
Oceanic crust

Asthe Pla Continental

nosp te
here mo arc
Divergent Plate Boundary tio
n

Mantle Continental
lithosphere
Convergent Plate Boundary Continental
arc
Creation of oceanic

spreading at mid-ocean ridge

Destruction of
oceanic lithosphere
by subduction along
deep ocean trench fuels
volcanoes in overriding plate

Figure 2.23  Plate Boundaries

A cross section of Earth’s outer layers shows the lithosphere, which includes the crust and makes up Earth’s plates, the astheno-
sphere within the mantle over which the plates move, and the three types of plate boundaries that result from their movement.

is injected into the crust. As we shall learn in Chapter 4, at a new mid-ocean ridge and the lavas and the rocks
melts derived from the mantle have the composition of beneath them cool and thicken into a rigid layer
basalts, so when this magma reaches the surface, it erupts (Fig. 2.24c). At the same time, the two continental
on the valley floor as basalt lava flows. Some rifts proceed fragments cool as they move away from the ridge. Their
no further (see In Depth: Failed Rifts). But if divergence margins, which were thinned during divergence, subside
continues, the rift eventually tears the continent in two. below sea level and become buried by sediment to
The valley floor subsides until it is flooded by the sea. form continental shelves, the name given to areas of a
In this way, two smaller continents are produced from continental margin flooded by shallow seas. These conti-
one large continent while the rising magma from the nental margins are called passive continental margins
asthenosphere starts to build new ­basaltic ocean floor because they come to lie far from any plate boundary.
between them (Fig. 2.24b). For this reason, divergent At transform plate boundaries, plates slide past each
plate boundaries are also called constructive plate bound- other along fractures in the lithosphere known as transform
aries. At this stage, continental rifting gives way to faults. Transform faults are most common in the oceans
continental drift and the opening of a new ocean. where they offset the ridges (see Fig. 2.23), but some form
Oceanic lithosphere is created by seafloor spreading great crustal fractures on land, such as the San ­Andreas

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 24 03/04/14 2:42 PM

 CHAPTER 2  |  Plate Tectonics  25

Crustal extension causes continental rifting cause additional melting at the base of the
Flood basalt Rift valley Continental crust
continental crust. This produces magmas of
quite different composition, much closer to
that of granite. As a result, the volcanoes as-
sociated with continental arcs differ from
those of island arcs and, as we shall learn in
Injection of Partial melting
Chapter 4, are often more explosive.
A basaltic magma of asthenosphere If, on the other hand, both converging plates
carry continents, the continents may eventually
collide. Neither plate can subduct completely
Oceanic crust because continental lithosphere is too buoyant
(we discuss this in more detail in Chapter 9). In-
stead, one continent overrides the other and the
collision forces the crust skyward to build great
B
mountain ranges like those of the Himalayas.
Volcanoes are not common in these continent–
continent collision zones because the subduc-
Subsidence of thinned continental crust produces passive margin
tion that creates new magma grinds to a halt
Continental shelf Oceanic Mid-ocean and those magmas that do form are unable to
buried by sediment crust ridge Passive margin
rise through the greatly overthickened crust.
Plate tectonics is a comprehensive theory
about the forces that shape the planet. With

Figure 2.24  Divergent Plate Boundary Explorer

ridge
A divergent plate boundary forms through continental rifting CANADA
and the opening of a new ocean basin. Juan
de Fuca
ridge Subduction
Fault in California (Fig. 2.25). Crust is neither created zone
nor destroyed along transform faults, so transform plate
Blanco Transform fault
boundaries are also called conservative plate boundaries. fracture zone only active between
However along great faults like the San Andreas, ­destructive offset ridges
earthquakes are common as the two plates grind against U N I T E D S TAT E S
each other.
At convergent plate boundaries, one plate bends down- Mendocino
fracture zone San Francisco
ward and is subducted beneath the other. There are two
possible scenarios and both of them involve subduction Relative motion Relative motion of
of the denser lithosphere. Either old oceanic lithosphere is North American Plate
consumed by subduction beneath younger ocean floor, or San Andreas
Los Angeles
oceanic lithosphere is subducted beneath more buoyant fault
Murray
(less dense) continental crust (see Fig. 2.23). This type of fracture zone
plate boundary—also called a destructive plate boundary— MEXICO
consists of a subducting lower plate and an overriding
upper plate. Where the subducting plate bends before sink- Molokai fracture zone Rise
ing, a great ocean trench up to 11.5 kilometers (7.2 miles)
deep is formed. As the subducting slab angles down into Transform fault
Earth and becomes heated, water vapor is driven off, which, Relative motion
as we learned earlier, generates basaltic magmas in the Mid-ocean ridge
overlying mantle that rise to fuel volcanoes in the upper
plate. Where the upper plate lies within an ocean, the result Figure 2.25  Transform Plate Boundaries
is an island arc like that of the Aleutians. But where the Transform plate boundaries are delineated by transform faults,
upper plate is the margin of a continent, the collision along which one plate jostles past another. As illustrated by
the west coast of North America, transform faults form major
causes uplift and the result is a volcanic mountain range oceanic fracture zones that offset mid-ocean ridges, and major
or continental arc like that of the Andes. In continental crustal fractures on land, such as the earthquake-prone San
arcs, the basaltic magmas rising from the mantle may Andreas Fault in California.

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 25 03/04/14 2:43 PM

 26   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

IN DEPTH

Failed Rifts
N ot all continental rift valleys successfully open into
new oceans. Those that fail to do so, either because
initial spreading is not sustained or because it shifts to
a failed rift system that is more than a billion years old can
be traced beneath the sedimentary cover in the midwest-
ern United States (Fig. 2C). Although invisible from the
some other location, are known as failed rifts. A rift that ­surface, its outline can be determined from minute varia-
fails to open ultimately ceases to grow wider, and once the tions in Earth’s gravity known as gravity anomalies, be-
crust cools, it subsides and becomes buried by sediments. cause the dense basalt on the floor of the rift causes a
Even though they are not plate boundaries, these buried slight rise in gravity above it. Slip on a failed rift is respon-
rifts may remain seismically active zones of weakness. sible for earthquake activity near New Madrid, Missouri,
Like wounds that never heal, these zones may continue to where a series of major earthquakes in 1811–12 caused
be the source of earthquakes triggered by stresses trans- church bells to ring in Boston and changed the course of
mitted through the surrounding stable continent. Just such the Mississippi River.

CAN
ADA

Minnesota

Wisconsin

Michigan

Iowa

Ohio Figure 2C  Failed Rift

Illinois Indiana
In this gravity anomaly map of
the midwestern United States,
red colors correspond to areas
Missouri of ­f ractionally higher gravity
(positive gravity anomaly) and
Kentucky trace a feature known as the
Mid-Continent Gravity High,
New Madrid a Precambrian failed rift system
floored by dense basalt lava flows.
0 100 200 Reactivation of the ancient faults
Arkansas Te n n e s s e e miles bordering this and younger failed
rifts is responsible for the present-
Mid-Continent Positive gravity Normal Negative gravity Failed rift day earthquakes of western and
Gravity High anomaly gravity anomaly northern Ohio, and the New
Madrid region of Missouri.

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 26 03/04/14 2:43 PM

 CHAPTER 2  |  Plate Tectonics  27

225 million years ago

A SIA
UR
LA

P
A
N
G
E
G
O 135 million years ago
N
D W A
A N A LAURA
SIA

G 65 million years ago

O
N
D
W
A N NORTH
A ASIA
AMERICA EUROPE

progressively widens the Atlantic Ocean

AFRICA
SOUTH
AMERICA INDIA

EURASIAN
PLATE AUSTRALIA
AMERICAN
PLATE ANTARCTICA
PACIFIC
AFRICAN PLATE
PACIFIC PLATE
PLATE
INDO-AUSTRALIAN
PLATE

Today

ANTARCTIC PLATE

Figure 2.26  Pangea Breakup

These maps show stages in the breakup of Pangea from 225 million years ago to the present. Compare with Figure 2.2.

this revolution in scientific thought, the idea of moving understanding of many of the
continents gained widespread acceptance and it became CHECK YOUR major geologic processes af-
universally accepted by geoscientists that the oceans are U N D E R S TA N D I N G fecting Earth’s surface. In
quite young geological features of Earth’s surface, and the • Why are plate boun­
Chapter 9, we will examine
planet is an active one with a complex and dynamic history. daries associated with plate boundaries and the pro-
In this new view of Earth, mountains, oceans, and conti- earthquakes? cesses associated with them in
nents lost their permanence and became just ephemeral ex- • How does continental
more detail. As we do, the
pressions of a continual cycle of creation and destruction. rifting lead to the forma­ theory of plate tectonics will
Plate tectonics showed that the supercontinent Pangea tion of new oceans? further reveal itself to be a uni­
had indeed existed, just as hypothesized by Wegener. The • What are the three types
fying principle, or paradigm,
southern continents were once united to form Gondwana, of plate boundary? that has provided science with
and Europe and Africa had separated from North and a powerful new way of looking
South America, just as their coastlines suggest (Fig. 2.26). at Earth’s dynamic systems.
But the continents did not have to plough their way
through the solid rock of the ocean floors as ­Wegener had 2.5 SUMMARY
thought. Instead, the ocean floors were themselves
moving, while the continents drifted passively in response • Continental drift, seafloor spreading, and subduction
to that movement, much like baggage on a conveyor belt at unite to form one coherent theory of plate tectonics.
the airport. • According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth’s
The ways in which plates move, and the ways in which outer shell consists of huge plates in constant motion.
they interact with each other, are fundamental to our These plates move in response to the circulation of

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 27 03/04/14 2:49 PM

 28   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

Earth’s heated interior, and carry the continents with Known as hotspots, these enigmatic areas of volcanism
them as they do so. are widely attributed, not to plate tectonic processes, but to
• Earth’s plates comprise the outer rocky layer of Earth, columns of hot material rising from deep within Earth’s
or lithosphere, and move on a weak zone in Earth’s interior, known as mantle plumes. We will examine the
mantle known as the asthenosphere. origin of these plumes and the volcanoes they produce in
Chapter 9. For now, what is important to know is that
• The effects of plate motion are most evident along
where these plumes rise through the mantle to impinge on
plate boundaries, of which there are three types—
the base of the lithosphere, they give rise to localized areas
divergent plate boundaries where plates move
of volcanism, or hotspots, on Earth’s surface (Fig. 2.27).
apart and new ocean f loor is created following con-
This volcanism may occur on land or beneath the sea, lead-
tinental rifting, convergent margins where plates
ing to the eruption of huge volumes of basalts. Where a
collide and oceanic crust is destroyed by subduc-
plume occurs beneath the ocean, individual volcanoes
tion, and transform margins where plates slide
build upward from the seabed to become volcanic islands.
past each other along great crustal fractures.
However, these islands do not remain active for long be-
Because plates constantly jostle each other for
cause the ocean floor is moving while the plume is essen-
position, plate boundaries coincide with Earth’s
tially stationary. A subsiding chain of extinct volcanoes is
earthquake zones.
produced as each new volcano is carried away from the
hotspot by the motion of the plate on which it sits.
Such is the case for the
volcanic island of Hawaii,
2.6 Hotspots: A Plate CHECK YOUR which sits atop a plume in the
middle of the Pacific Ocean
Tectonic Enigma U N D E R S TA N D I N G
(Fig. 2.28) far removed from
• What are hotspots and
Plate tectonics provides an elegant explanation for many of how do they form? any plate boundary. The
Earth’s major surface features, such as mid-ocean ridges, other Hawaiian islands like-
deep ocean trenches, island arcs, and mountain belts. Each wise formed over the same
of these features is the result of the interaction between stationary plume but each
plates along plate boundaries, and it is here, where two has since been moved away and become inactive by the
plates meet, that geologic activity is focused and we find motion of the Pacific plate. As a result, the islands become
earthquakes and volcanoes. Yet isolated areas of active vol- progressively older in the direction of plate motion, a fact
canism also occur far from plate boundaries, and for these that has been borne out by dating the basalts on each
volcanoes plate tectonic theory has no clear explanation. of them.

Plume produces magma

at the base of the plate
Plate motion Flood basalts Volcanic trail

Lithosphere Hot spot

Hot spot
volcanic
activity

Mantle Rising
Mantle plume
rises from plume
Rising
plume core-mantle
boundary
Core-mantle
Mantle Mantle
boundary

2900 km 2900 km 2900 km

Core Core Core
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.27  Hotspots

(a) A plume of hot material rises from deep within Earth’s interior. (b) The plume impinges on the lithosphere, leading to the outpour-
ing of flood basalts on the ocean floor. (c) Waning volcanic activity produces individual volcanoes that are carried away by plate
motion to form a chain of extinct volcanoes.

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 28 03/04/14 2:51 PM

 CHAPTER 2  |  Plate Tectonics  29

Kauai 3.8 to 5.6 Oahu

million years old 2.2 to 3.4 Hawaiian Islands get
Molokai
older with distance
1.3 to 1.8
from hotspot

Maui
0.8 to 1.3

Hawaii
Plate 0.7
motion

plate
t
Hotspo
crust
Oceanic
ere
lithosph Magma
Mantle derived from
plume

Mantle

Figure 2.28  Hawaiian Islands

Movement of the Pacific plate over the fixed Hawaiian hotspot has led to the formation of the Hawaiian island chain. Each island
formed as a volcano arose over the plume and then was carried away by plate motion. The basalt lavas on each island consequently
get older as the island’s distance from the plume increases.

2.6 SUMMARY • Where hotspots occur beneath oceans, volcanoes

• Hotspots are isolated areas of volcanism that can occur grow upward from the seabed to become volcanic
far from plate boundaries and are attributed, not to islands that are then carried away by the motion
plate tectonic processes, but to near-stationary of the plate on which they sit to form an extinct
columns of hot material, known as mantle plumes, volcanic chain.
rising from deep within Earth’s interior.

Key Terms
active margin  22 divergent plate magnetic inclination  10 plate boundary  23
Alfred Wegener  4 boundary 23 magnetic polarity plate tectonics  22
apparent polar wander  12 earthquake focus  18 reversal 13 polar wander  12
asthenosphere 23 failed rift  24 mantle plume  28 reversed magnetic
continental arc  22 fault 7 mid-ocean ridge  14 polarity 13
continental drift  4 Gondwana 7 normal magnetic rift valley  23
continental rifting  23 gravity anomaly  26 polarity 13 seafloor spreading  14
continental shelf  24 hotspot 28 paleomagnetism 11 subduction 19
continental slope  6 island arc  21 Pangea 4 subduction zone  19
convergent plate lithosphere 23 passive continental transform plate
boundary 25 magma 15 margin 24 boundary 24
deep ocean trench  18 magnetic anomaly  14 paradigm 27 transform fault  24
plate 23

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 30   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

Key Concepts
2.1 CONTINENTAL DRIFT 2.3 SEAFLOOR SPREADING
• In 1915 Alfred Wegener proposed that the continents • Seafloor spreading describes the conveyor-like movement
were once joined together into a single landmass called of ocean floor away from mid-ocean ridges.
Pangea (meaning all lands), that later broke up and • The hypothesis of seafloor spreading has been confirmed
moved apart. by ocean drilling.
• Wegener found supporting evidence to the jigsaw fit of • Deep ocean trenches, such as those associated with
continents in features such as ancient mountain belts, the Pacific Ring of Fire, mark the sites of ocean floor
major fault lines, and certain distinctive rock formations. consumption.
If the continents were reassembled, these features could
be seen as continuous.
2.4 SUBDUCTION
• Wegener also found matching climate and fossil patterns, • The descent of oceanic crust back into Earth’s heated
including the distribution of ancient glacial deposits, the interior is called subduction.
flow direction of ice as it carved the ancient bedrock, and • Subduction zones are characterized by an inclined zone
the presence of strikingly similar flora and fauna on con-
of earthquake foci, and by curved lines of volcanoes
tinents separated by major oceans.
called volcanic arcs.
• Despite the data supporting continental drift, Wegener’s
ideas found little acceptance among the scientists of his 2.5 MOVING PLATES AND PLATE BOUNDARIES
day because he was unable to provide a mechanism that • According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth’s outer
would permit the process to take place. shell is broken into large moving plates that ride upon a
yielding layer of Earth’s interior. This comprehensive
2.2 PALEOMAGNETISM theory explains the origins of Earth’s ocean basins,
• When basalt lava cools, iron-rich minerals become mag- continents, and mountains.
netized and record the north-south direction and the • Plates comprise the rocky outer layer of Earth, known as
magnetic inclination at the time the lava solidified. The the lithosphere, and move over a weak zone in Earth’s
position of the north and south poles determined from mantle called the asthenosphere.
ancient basalts suggest they have moved along apparent • There are three types of plate boundaries—divergent, along
polar wander paths.
which plates move apart, convergent, where plates collide,
• Since Earth’s poles are fixed, apparent polar wander and transform, along which plates slide past each other.
paths cannot track movement of the poles and must, Plate boundaries coincide with Earth’s earthquake zones.
instead, reflect movement of the continents on which
the lavas erupted. 2.6 HOTSPOTS: A PLATE TECTONIC ENIGMA
• Paleomagnetism has shown that Earth’s magnetic field • Hotspots are isolated areas of volcanic activity generated,
periodically reverses itself, interchanging the north and not by plate tectonics, but by plumes of hot material rising
south magnetic poles. from deep within the mantle.

Study Questions
1. Wegener did not live to see his hypothesis of continental 4. Explain how scientists deduced that Earth’s magnetic
drift vindicated. Why was this and what does it tell us field periodically reverses.
about science and the scientific method? 5. Explain how the pattern of magnetic reversals on land
2. Why did continental drift remain popular with paleon- may be linked with the magnetic anomaly patterns
tologists but not with geophysicists? across the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
3. How is the polar wander curve of a continent established, 6. How does seafloor spreading account for the pattern of
and why does the curve show only apparent polar wander? magnetic anomalies on the ocean floors?

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 30 03/04/14 2:51 PM

 CHAPTER 2  |  Plate Tectonics  31

7. Explain the statement: “Continental drift is a passive 10. Account for the striking correlation between the
response to seafloor spreading.” distribution of earthquake epicenters (see Fig. 2.15)
8. What do oceanic trenches represent? Why are these and the shape of Earth’s lithospheric plates (see
trenches more abundant in the Pacific Ocean than in the Fig. 2.22).
Atlantic Ocean? 11. Why are there only three types of plate boundaries?
9. Using Figure 2.16, explain the relationship between earth- 12. What are hotspots and why are they not accounted for
quake epicenters and distance from the oceanic trench. by plate tectonic theory?

02-Nance-Chap02.indd 31 03/04/14 2:51 PM

 4 Origin and Evolution
of Igneous Rocks

4.1 Igneous Rocks and the Rock

Cycle
4.2 Magma Formation and
Transport
4.3 Textures of Igneous Rocks
4.4 Classifying Igneous Rocks
4.5 Evolution of Igneous Rocks
4.6 Volcanic Eruptions
4.7 Igneous Rocks and Plate
Tectonics

▸ Key Terms
▸ Key Concepts
▸ Study Questions

Vent Fractures in
overlying rocks
Volcano Stock

Dike

Sill

Dike
Magma

Bedding
Sill planes

Magma
chamber

Pluton

Science Refresher:  Heat,

Temperature, and Magma  72
Living on Earth:  Volcanoes and
the Air We Breathe  76
In Depth:  Can Explosive Eruptions
be Predicted?  98

04-Nance-Chap04.indd 66 03/04/14 4:26 PM

 Weathering
of rocks at
surface Vo
Volcano
olc
lc
lcano
no
n o EErosion
ros
o on and
nd
d Deposition
D
Dep
Deep
epos
o tio
on o
off
sed
d mennt
nt
sediment Mid
M
Mid-ocean
id
d-o
--oc
o
occean
n rridge
dge
dg
d ge
g
tra
transport
r nsppor
ort
ort
r
Bur
Bu
Bur
ur and
Burial nd
Uplift Sedimentary co p
co
com pacacctio
compaction on
Igneous rock rock
Defform
Deformation
o t on and
an
nd
metamorphism
t morph
rphh
Metamorphic
Crystallization
izzat
za
ation
on rock
of magma
ag
gma
ma

Magma
Melting

Source rock
Felsic
magma

Magma
chamber Pa
rt i a
l me
lting
residue

04-Nance-Chap04.indd 67 03/04/14 4:26 PM

 Learning Objectives

T
4.1 Describe how igneous rocks  hroughout Earth’s 4.5 billion year history, ongoing volcanic
relate to the two other rock
activity has brought chemistry from Earth’s interior to its
groups (sedimentary and
metamorphic). surface and has vented gases into Earth’s atmosphere.
Volcanoes are the surface expression of a complex under-
4.2 Describe how magma forms ground labyrinth of chambers and conduits where magma—molten
and the factors that influence rock—resides. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma. By study-
magma’s ascent toward the ing igneous rocks, we can discover much about the intense heat
surface and its cooling history. and pressure in Earth’s dynamic interior, learn at what depth a
magma formed, how it rose toward the surface, how fast it cooled,
4.3 Explain how magmas produce and how much it interacted with its surroundings.
a variety of igneous rocks with
Over geologic time, igneous activity has played a vital role in
textures that vary according to
the formation of the planet on which we stand and the air we
the environment of their
formation. breathe. Volcanic eruptions provide dramatic evidence of the
energy stored beneath Earth’s surface, the unleashing of which
4.4 Compare and contrast the can have catastrophic consequences. Indeed, this fact alone pro-
different types of igneous rock vides a strong motivation to understand the processes responsible
and explain the basis of their so that more accurate predictions of eruptions can be made. But,
classification. while volcanic activity may have catastrophic consequences in the
short-term, it is necessary in the longer term for the very survival
4.5 Explain how the chemical of life on Earth. In order to understand igneous rocks, we must
composition and physical
examine the conditions in Earth’s interior where magmas form
characteristics of magma
evolve as magma cools. and the factors that influence their chemical composition.

4.6 Identify the processes that

cause volcanic eruptions and
the various types of volcanoes 4.1 Igneous Rocks and the Rock Cycle
and volcanic rocks that
Igneous rocks form from cooling magma. Magma is molten or par-
eruptions produce.
tially molten material found beneath the surface of Earth. In addi-
tion to liquid, magma typically contains trapped gases, floating
4.7 Explain the role that plate
crystals and fragments of variably digested rock. Magma that reaches
tectonics plays in the
the surface and flows from volcanoes is called lava.
formation and composition of
Recall from Chapter 1 that igneous rocks are one of three basic rock
magma and igneous rocks.
groups that make up Earth’s continents and ocean floors. The other
two types are sedimentary rocks (Chapter 6) and metamorphic rocks
(Chapter 7). Driven by Earth’s internal heat engine, each of these rock
groups may be transformed into one of the others, a concept elegantly
portrayed in the rock cycle (see Fig. 1.11). The rock cycle is an idealized
cycle of processes that describes the dynamic relationships among the
three main rock types: sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous.
The rock cycle clearly distinguishes between the three rock groups
yet also demonstrates the relationship between them (Fig. 4.1). Igne-
ous rocks (from the Latin word ignis, meaning fire) represent the
products of cooling molten rock and form where magma cools and so-
lidifies. Recall from Chapter 2 that most igneous rocks are the result of
processes that occur near plate boundaries. The magma itself forms
from the melting of preexisting rocks. Conversely, sedimentary rocks
are the product of surface processes such as weathering, erosion, and
deposition, and metamorphic rocks form within the crust where the
pressures and temperatures are high. Within these three groups, rocks
are further classified according to their appearance and their chemical
composition.

04-Nance-Chap04.indd 68 03/04/14 4:26 PM

 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  69

Weathering
of rocks at 3
4 De
Deposition
D
Dep
eep
pos tio
tion
on o
off
surface Vo
Volcano
olc
lc
lcano
c o Erosion
ros
o on
on and
d
sediment
sed
edd t Mid-ocean
Mid
M id
d-oc
-o
oce
o
occ rridge
dge
d ge
g
transport
tra
r nspport
orr
Burial
u andd
Uplift
6 Sedimentary compaction
ccom
co
o p
pacacctio
tio
Igneous rock rock 5
Deformation
D fo t o and
d
t o ph
metamorphism
Metamorphic
2 Crystallization
rock
of magma

1
Magma 7
Melting

Figure 4.1  Igneous Rocks and the Rock Cycle

Processes that result in the generation, ascent, and crystallization are emphasized in this diagram of the rock cycle. The numbers in
the figure indicate the general sequence of events in the cycle but various shortcuts are also possible.

We can see from Figure 4.1 that we need to address sev- noting subtle changes to the magma chemistry as it inter-
eral issues in order to understand the origin and evolution acts with its surroundings. Evidence of the final cooling
of ­igneous rocks, especially why some magmas crystallize history comes directly from the mineral content and the
at depth in large caverns called magma chambers, whereas appearance of the rocks.
others rise and spew out of Earth’s surface to form volcanoes.
Volcanoes are openings in a planet’s surface or crust, which
4.1 SUMMARY
allow hot magma, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from
the magma chamber below the surface. • Igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic
Geologists who study igneous rocks try to determine rocks are the three main rock types.
three things. First, they want to learn about the magma’s • Igneous rocks form when magma or lava cools; we
formation and the composition of the source rock that melted ­classify igneous rocks according to their appearance
to produce the magma. Second, they investigate the transpor- and chemical composition.
tation of the magma, from the site of melting toward the sur-
face, by determining the processes that guided the magma’s
• To learn more about igneous rocks, we study the
nature of the source rock that melts to form magma,
rise through the crust. Finally, they work to determine the
the magma’s transport, and its cooling history.
extent to which the magma interacted with its surroundings
as it rose and how it eventually cooled—what we refer to as
the cooling history of the magma. Geologists use all this
knowledge to understand why the melting began in the first
place, a task that requires incorporating what we have learned 4.2 Magma Formation and Transport
from our discussion of plate tectonics in Chapter 2.
By careful examination of the chemical composition Volcanic eruptions are testament to the presence of molten
and appearance of igneous rocks, we gain insights into magma in Earth’s interior. However, although Earth’s inte-
one of the most fundamental processes involved in Earth’s rior gets progressively hotter with depth, experiments
evolution. In this chapter, we will find that the composition show that most of Earth’s mantle and crust is solid rock
of the source rock profoundly influences the composition and magma only forms in specialized environments. To
of the magma. In addition, a wide range of processes may understand the origin and evolution of igneous rocks, we
change the chemical composition of the magma as it is must start at the beginning, with the process of magma
transported away from its source and through the crust. formation from the melting of solid rock.
As it rises, magma interacts with surrounding rocks. The
extent of this interaction is
CHECK YOUR governed by a variety of fac- SOURCE ROCK
U N D E R S TA N D I N G tors including the composi- Rocks are composed of minerals, and each mineral has a
• What is lava? tions of the magma and the regular arrangement of ions in its crystal structure (see
• What are the three
adjacent rocks. We can obtain Chapter 3). For magma to form, sufficient energy must be
­varieties of rocks? evidence of magma transport supplied to weaken and break down the crystal structure
by careful field observations of minerals in the source rock (see Science Refresher:
and measurements, and from Heat, Temperature, and Magma). Although the mantle is

04-Nance-Chap04.indd 69 03/04/14 4:26 PM

 70   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

mostly solid, the temperatures in the mantle are sufficiently stable part of the source rock does not melt and is known as
close to melting that mantle rocks are soft and can flow. residue. The temperatures required to initiate melting depend
However, for mantle rocks to melt, additional changes on the composition of the source rock. Rocks of the continen-
need to occur, such as a decrease in pressure, an increase tal crust begin to melt at lower
in temperature, and/or an influx of volatiles. Volatiles are temperatures (as low as 650°C
elements or compounds such as water, carbon dioxide, and CHECK YOUR or 1200°F) than those of the
nitrogen that are gases at relatively low temperatures. As U N D E R S TA N D I N G mantle (as high as 1200oC or
we discuss in this section of the chapter, each of these three • What is partial melting? 2190oF). But in either case,
changes can generate magma, especially (although not ex- melting preferentially takes
clusively) when they occur near plate boundaries. place along the junctions be-
A decrease in pressure or an increase in temperature tween different minerals because these are the areas where the
has similar effects on the stability of minerals. Both pro- source rock is least stable. Hence, it is at these sites that the
cesses result in the expansion of minerals. This means that formation of magma generally begins (Fig. 4.2c).
the average distance between neighboring ions increases
so that the chemical bonds that hold the minerals together
become strained. If either process continues, these bonds MAGMA TRANSPORT
eventually break so that the solid rock begins to melt Active volcanoes provide proof that magmas formed at
(Fig. 4.2a). Influx of volatile substances, such as water, also depth in the crust or mantle can rise all the way to the sur-
weakens mineral structures as water molecules tug at the face. Magmas must therefore be able to intrude into the
bonds at the edges of the minerals. In addition, upward- solid rock that lies above them. But how is this achieved?
migrating water is a very efficient carrier of Earth’s internal Although the exact processes involved are still controver-
heat and can supply the thermal energy needed to break sial after more than a century of debate, there are some
these bonds. principles that provide a general understanding.
Irrespective of the processes involved, field observations Magma is less dense than the surrounding source rock,
and laboratory experiments indicate that the amount of so it has a tendency to rise because less dense material is
energy available is only sufficient to partially melt the source more buoyant. When melting begins the volume of magma
rock, a process known as partial melting (Fig. 4.2b). The most is small and is easily held in the spaces between the mineral
grains. But with continued melting,
the proportion of magma increases
until it reaches about 25–30 percent, at
Solid Source rock which point it gains sufficient buoy-
Felsic
magma ancy to begin its ascent through the
overlying rocks. But how exactly does
Ions this happen? Does the magma shoul-
der these rocks aside as it ascends?
Does it digest the rocks above it? Does
Pa
Liquid rt i a
l me
it create and exploit fractures in the
lt i n g overlying crust? Or does it use a com-
residue
bination of these processes? Figure 4.3
(a) (b)
shows a range of possibilities. Magma
can escape through any available
crack, ruthlessly exploiting fractures
y y in the overlying rock to f­acilitate its
x x x x ascent. As magma rises toward the sur-
z y z y face, the resulting decrease in pressure
x x causes the magma to expand like an
x x
y y inflated balloon, potentially producing
new fractures in the surrounding rock,
(c)
known as wall rock, which the magma
Figure 4.2  Processes of Partial Melting can then use to rise even more rapidly.
(a) As the temperature increases, minerals expand. The average In addition, pieces of the wall
distance between neighboring ions in a solid increases until the rock can founder into the
bonds that hold the mineral together break and melting begins magma chamber. It is proba-
CHECK YOUR
and eventually the solid becomes a liquid. (b) Partial melting of
U N D E R S TA N D I N G ble that all these mechanisms
crustal rocks produces a magma and a solid residue. (c) A close-up
look at partial melting shows how the process begins along the • Why do magmas rise? operate to some degree, but
boundaries between mineral grains x, y, and z, and then migrates which are the most important
along those boundaries. is still vigorously debated.

04-Nance-Chap04.indd 70 03/04/14 4:26 PM

 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  71

1 Doming

Weakened
wall rocks Fracture zones
5
3
6 Displacement
Collapse
Extension 2
Collapse of
(a) wall rocks
4
Subsidence Assimilation
and fracturing
Invading magma

(b)

Exploitation Magma
of fractures invading
Crust Buoyancy fault in crust
Exploitation
of faults

Lithospheric
mantle
(c)
Figure 4.3  Mechanisms of Intrusion
Magma ascends because of buoyancy (i.e., it is less dense than the surrounding wall rock). Possible mechanisms for ascent include:
exploitation of fractures; collapse of wall rock into the magma chamber; and exploitation of local faults. The insets illustrate exam-
ples of how mechanisms may work together. Inset (a) shows the rise of buoyant magma is accompanied by (1) doming of the roof;
(2) fracturing of the wall rock as the magma expands; (3) collapse of wall rock into the magma chamber; (4) subsidence of wall rock;
(5) lateral wall rock displacement by faulting; and (6) crustal extension. Insets (b) and (c) show that magma invading fracture zones
encounters weakened and fractured wall rock, increasing the likelihood that chunks of the wall rock will collapse into the chamber.

MAGMA COOLING rock, as well as its mineral

Some magmas rise to Earth’s surface where they fuel volca- CHECK YOUR composition, to distinguish
noes. However, most magma does not reach the surface, U N D E R S TA N D I N G between various types of igne-
but instead cools and solidifies at depth in large caverns • Why do some magmas ous rocks. In this way, the clas-
called magma chambers. This is because several factors fail to rise to Earth’s sification scheme for igneous
work against the ascent of magma. The density contrast be- surface? rocks reflects the ways in which
tween the cooling magma and the adjacent wall rock be- igneous rocks form.
comes less pronounced as the magma cools by losing heat
to its surroundings. Digestion of wall rock by magma ac-
celerates cooling because the magma expends energy in 4.2 SUMMARY
the process. The magma also becomes stickier as it cools, • A source rock melts to form magma when sufficient
thereby increasing its resistance to flow. The cooling of heat is available to break the bonds of its minerals.
magma results in the growth of minerals, a process known The added heat is usually only sufficient to partially
as crystallization, and the formation of solid igneous rock melt the source rock.
(see Science Refresher: Heat, Temperature, and Magma).
• Magma is less dense than its source rock and tends to rise
In this chapter, we will see that the wide variety of ­igneous
toward the surface when it attains sufficient buoyancy.
rocks that occur in nature can be traced to the f­ ormation, evo-
lution, and cooling history of magma. For example, magmas • If magma reaches the surface, it is called lava and is the
may cool at substantially different rates, and this profoundly fuel of volcanic eruptions.
affects the size of the crystals in the resulting igneous rocks • Most magma cools and crystallizes below the surface
and their appearance. ­Geologists refer to the appearance of a in magma chambers.

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 72   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

SCIENCE REFRESHER

Heat, Temperature, and Magma

H eat and temperature are terms we use in casual con-
versation every day. In science, however, they have
precise meanings. Heat is a form of energy, and is de-
simply because it contains more molecules. Thus a pail
of water contains more heat than a cup of water at the
same temperature.
fined as the sum of the kinetic energy of all of a body’s We can now apply these concepts to the crystallization
particles. Kinetic energy is the energy a body has be- of magma. As magma loses energy to its surroundings
cause of its motion, and varies with the body’s mass and as it cools, the rapid, relatively disorganized movement
velocity. of its ions slows down so that its heat content and tem-
The higher the velocity of the particles, the greater the perature are both reduced. The ions also get closer and
kinetic energy of the body and therefore the more heat so begin to interact with each other and bond together,
the body contains. Consider, for example, the heat content eventually resulting in the formation of minerals. Just as
of a crystal. The ions in a crystal structure are not motion- sugar is more soluble in hot tea than in cold tea, mineral
less, but are actually vibrating in a limited fashion. If energy components held in solution in the magma at high tem-
is added to the crystal from an external source, these peratures become less soluble as the magma cools.
vibrations become more rapid, resulting in an increase in Eventually, the magma cools to a threshold level below
kinetic energy of the crystal and, hence, an increase in which the components can no longer be held in solution,
its heat content. Therefore, there is a direct relationship and crystallization begins as minerals start to form (see
between the energy supplied to a crystal from outside and Fig. 4.5).
the crystal’s heat content. If a mineral is given sufficient time to organize its ions,
Temperature is defined as the average kinetic energy and also has space to grow, it will form large, well-shaped
of all the particles in a body. There is a direct relation- crystals. This style of mineral growth is typical of igneous
ship between the heat content of a body and its temper- rocks that cool slowly beneath Earth’s surface. However,
ature because an increase in the total kinetic energy of in a volcanic eruption, the relatively disorganized ions in
a body also increases the average value. If two bodies the lava have little time to organize themselves into
of the same material have the same temperature, then more orderly arrangements. As a result, they form fine-
the average kinetic energy of their molecules is the grained crystals or, in the extreme case, structureless
same. However, the larger body will contain more heat glass.

4.3 Textures of Igneous Rocks organize and form minerals. As a result, any minerals that
form at this temperature are small and the igneous rock is
When we examine specimens of igneous rocks, we are fine-grained (Fig. 4.4b). In fact, cooling is sometimes so
looking at the end result of melting, transport, and cooling rapid that minerals do not get a chance to form at all, and
of magma. We can learn a lot about these processes from a the product is a volcanic glass (Fig. 4.4c). This natural pro-
rock’s overall appearance and from its mineral content. The cess is mimicked in the industrial procedure of manufac-
appearance of the rock is determined by the texture of the turing glass by rapidly chilling molten sand. Magma
rock, that is, the size, shape, and arrangement of its mineral beneath Earth’s surface cools more slowly and conse-
grains. Texture can provide important information about quently has a larger-, coarser-grained texture, which we
the environment in which the rock formed and clues to discuss in the material to come.
the cooling history of the magma. A fine-grained or glassy sample therefore implies rapid
cooling, which usually indicates that the igneous rock is
the product of a volcano (Fig. 4.5). However, the grain size
THE APPEARANCE AND TEXTURE of the rocks produced by volcanoes is not always uniform.
OF IGNEOUS ROCKS A closer inspection of that same fine-grained or glassy
The size of a mineral in an igneous rock is a general indica- sample (with the aid of a hand lens, for example) may reveal
tion of the rate at which the magma cooled, and therefore a small proportion of relatively large minerals surrounded
how far the magma rose toward the surface before it crys- by a much finer-grained material. This finer material is the
tallized. Recall from Section 4.2 that magma that reaches groundmass, which consists of tiny interlocking crystals
the surface is called lava and it is the fuel of volcanic or glass. The relatively large minerals are phenocrysts. A
eruptions (Fig. 4.4a). Most lava serupt at temperatures rock with features like this is said to exhibit porphyritic
between 650°C and 1200°C (1200°F–2190°F), and cool rap- texture (Fig. 4.4d). Phenocrysts crystallize in a magma
idly as they lose heat to the atmosphere. Lava consists of chamber, but become incorporated into the magma during
relatively disorganized ions which have little time to its ascent toward the surface. When phenocrysts are

04-Nance-Chap04.indd 72 03/04/14 4:26 PM

 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  73

(b)

(c)

(d)

(a) (e)
Figure 4.4  Textures of Volcanic Rocks
(a) A volcanic eruption produces a flow of hot lava. Fine-grained igneous rock (b) and volcanic rock (c) are produced by the rapid crys-
tallization of lava flows. Rocks with porphyritic texture (d) enclose coarser phenocrysts in fine-grained groundmass. This example of
flow texture (e) shows the alignment of phenocrysts.

extruded with the molten lava at the surface, they some-

times become aligned like logs floating in a stream, a pat-
Slow
tern known as flow texture (Fig. 4.4e).
Co
o lin A great many volcanic eruptions are explosive and pro-
g
duce little or no lava. Instead, fragments or clasts (from the
Decreasing temperature

Greek, klastos, meaning broken) are ejected from the vol-

Fast Cooli

cano into the air (Fig. 4.6a), and eventually fall to earth to
form a pyroclastic deposit (pyro is from the Greek word
for fire) (Fig. 4.6b). Pyroclastic rocks—the rocks that make
ng

up pyroclastic deposits—are volcanic rocks that typically

contain angular clasts surrounded by a very fine-grained
groundmass. These fragments may vary in size. Coarser
fragments are deposited closest to the site of the eruption,
whereas the finest particles can be very widely distributed.
Volcanic rock Plutonic rock This common pattern of distribution can tell us about past
geologic activity. By systematically mapping the grain size
Figure 4.5  Cooling Rate and Crystal Growth
distribution of pyroclastic deposits in the field, geologists
Lava cools rapidly at Earth’s surface and crystallizes to form can locate the vents of extinct volcanoes.
many small grains, and consequently has a fine-grained texture.
Magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface, and crystallizes to The volume of pyroclastic material associated with a
form relatively large grains, and consequently has a coarse- single eruption can be substantial and its effects can be
grained texture. widespread. In April and May of 2010, pyroclastic

04-Nance-Chap04.indd 73 03/04/14 4:27 PM

 74   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

(a) (b)

SO2 emitted from Pinatubo Volcano

Iceland
Measured on Sept. 21, 1991, for layer at 26 km altitude

Eyjafjallajökull

European airspace completely (red) or partially (orange) closed

on April 18, 2010

(c)

2 4 6 8 10 12
(d) Parts per billion

(e)
Figure 4.6  Pyroclastic Deposits
(a) Eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991 jettisoned pyroclastic material into the atmosphere. (b) These ancient
pyroclastic deposits are from Crater Lake National Park, Oregon. (c) The drift of the ash cloud associated with the eruption of the
volcano Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland caused European airspace to completely (red) or partially (orange) shut down on April 18, 2010.
(d) This map shows the distribution of sulfur dioxide at a height of 26 kilometers in the atmosphere about three months after the
eruption of Mount Pinatubo. (e) Heavy ash fall from the Mount Pinatubo eruption damaged this DC-10 at a nearby air base.

04-Nance-Chap04.indd 74 03/04/14 4:28 PM

 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  75

eruptions of the volcano Eyjafjallajökull (pronounced EXTRUSIVE AND INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS
“AY-uh-fyat-luh-YOE-kuutl-uh”) in Iceland generated an Because magma cools and crystallizes below the surface as
ash cloud, estimated to be between 0.1 and 0.2 cubic kilo- well as on the surface, there are two fundamentally distinct
meters (0.02 and 005 cubic miles) in volume, that spread forms of igneous rocks; extrusive rocks that form on the sur-
over northern and western Europe, causing enormous face and intrusive rocks that form below it. We distinguish
disruption to air traffic (Fig. 4.6c). In 1991, the eruption of between these two fundamentally different types of igneous
Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines (see Fig. 4.6a) jetti- rock based on their texture. As we shall see, this distinction
soned an estimated 5 cubic kilometers (1.2 cubic miles) of is very important in the classification of igneous rocks.
debris into the atmosphere (see Living on Earth: Volca- All extrusive rocks are the product of volcanic eruptions
noes and the Air We Breathe). This is five times more and so are deposited on Earth’s surface. They are produced
than the volume of debris associated with the 1980 erup- either by cooling lava, in which case they are typically fine
tion of Mount St. Helens in Washington state, but only a grained, or even glassy in appearance, or by explosive erup-
fraction of certain past eruptions, some of which are esti- tions of volcanic material that falls to earth as pyroclastic
mated to have ejected as much as 2500 cubic kilometers deposits. All intrusive rocks, conversely, form below Earth’s
(600 cubic miles) of debris. Following the eruption of Pi- surface, where they cool and solidify. They are relatively
natubo, the finest particles and ejected gases were caught coarse grained because they cool more slowly than extrusive
up in atmospheric circulation patterns and distributed rocks. They intrude into their surroundings and so com-
worldwide (Fig. 4.6d), and by blocking the flow of solar monly cut across any layering in the rocks around them.
radiation to Earth, are thought to have been responsible Intrusive rocks occur in an intricate pattern of chambers
for the relatively cool average global temperatures re- connected by an array of pipes and fractures, much like
corded in 1992. At least 20 commercial jet aircraft were the plumbing system in a house (Fig. 4.7). Intrusive rocks
affected by the eruption of Pinatubo, including two that that are the crystallized remnants of large magma cham-
lost engine power. About two dozen airplanes on the bers cool to form large bodies known as plutons. Smaller
ground in the Philippines were also damaged by volcanic plutons are stocks and larger ones are batholiths. Other
ash (Fig. 4.6e). Geologists have identified similar and types of intrusive rocks are thin sheet-like bodies that
even more violent eruptions in the geologic
past by the widespread deposition of beds
that are the fallout from large eruptions (see
Fig. 4.6b).
Volcanoes are the end product of the Vent Fractures in
ascent of hot, buoyant silicate magma and gas overlying rocks
from the interior of Earth toward its surface. Volcano Stock
However, recall from Section 4.2 that much Dike
of this molten rock never reaches the surface
and instead remains trapped in magma Sill
chambers in Earth’s interior.
Dike
Magmas within these chambers cool Magma
very slowly so that their ions have far more Sill Host
time to become organized into crystal struc- rock
tures as they cool. As a result, igneous rocks
­produced deep within Earth’s interior con-
tain an interlocking mosaic of large miner-
Magma
als that are readily visible to the naked eye chamber
(see Fig. 4.4d). Such deep-seated igneous
rocks are described as coarse-grained and Pluton

are termed plutonic after Pluto, the Greek

god of the underworld.
Since plutonic rocks form beneath Earth’s Figure 4.7  Types of Igneous Bodies
surface, you might wonder how we encounter them at all. Magma cools slowly within magma chambers to form coarse-
That these rocks are exposed grained rocks that occupy large plutons (batholiths) or small
CHECK YOUR at the surface is a testament to plutons (stocks). Magma rising toward the surface may crystal-
the rock cycle (see Fig. 4.1d). lize in narrow conduits, called dikes, which are typically oblique
U N D E R S TA N D I N G
We see them because the to bedding. Where magma intrudes along bedding planes, it
• How do phenocrysts cools and crystallizes to form sills. Plutons, dikes and sills are
form? rocks that were above them at intrusive igneous rocks. Magma that reaches the surface is
the time they crystallized have called lava. It usually erupts at volcanic centers and cools rap-
been removed by erosion. idly to form fine-grained rocks.

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 76   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

LIVING ON EARTH

Volcanoes and the Air We Breathe

E arth’s atmosphere consists of gases and trace amounts
of suspended particles from volcanoes, nuclear explo­
sions, and industrial pollutants. Although atmospheric gases
concentrations of the volatile components in the magma
increase as the magma cools. Just as they do in a carbon-
ated beverage, the volatiles rise to the top and are trapped
can be detected up to 700 kilometers (435 miles) above at the roof of the chamber. Like a giant pressure cooker
Earth’s surface, 99 percent of these gases typically occur with a weak lid, the pressure exerted by the volatile gases
within the first 32 kilometers (20 miles). The eruption of steadily builds at the roof until the gases finally explode
Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991 r­ eleased 20 million their way through the overlying rocks and vent into the
tons of sulfur dioxide into Earth’s atmosphere. Within three atmosphere.
weeks of the eruption, a shroud of sulfur dioxide-enriched The composition of Earth’s atmosphere is unique in the
atmosphere had encircled Earth and become part of the at- Solar System. In contrast to its nearest planetary neighbors,
mosphere’s global circulation pattern (see Fig. 4.6 d). Venus and Mars (the atmospheres of which are made up
If one volcano can have such a measurable effect, imag- mainly of carbon dioxide—see Table 4A), Earth’s atmo-
ine the influence on the composition of the atmosphere of sphere is dominated by nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%).
the 4.5 billion years of volcanic activity since Earth formed. The gas argon accounts for most of the remaining 1 percent.
If, as is generally believed, Earth has been cooling down Carbon dioxide accounts for a mere 0.03 percent. These are
since it first formed, then volcanic activity is likely to have average amounts, however, since the concen­tration of some
been far more abundant early in Earth history. Most geosci- gases (most notably water vapor) can be highly variable.
entists maintain that our atmosphere was likely dominated Volcanic activity releases the trapped volatile compo-
by gases vented from volcanoes soon after Earth formed. nents of the inner Earth, and gravitational attraction pre-
The venting of gases to create an atmosphere is the end vents most of them from escaping into space. The larger
product of the igneous processes in magma chambers. As the planet, the greater the gravitational hold on its atmo-
magma chambers cool, the crystals that form first (olivine, sphere. The relatively small size of Mars provides an insuf-
pyroxene, and plagioclase) preferentially exclude volatile ficient gravitational pull on its atmospheric gases. As a
components such as water, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen result, Mars’ atmospheric gases have slowly leaked into
from their crystal structures. These volatile components space. Because volcanic activity on Mars virtually ceased
are important gases in our atmosphere. As a result, the about 1 billion years ago, the leaking of the Martian

Table 4A  Composition of the Atmospheres of Venus, Earth, and Mars

VENUS EARTHa MARSb

Gas Percent Volume Gas Percent Volume Gas Percent Volume

CO2 96.5 N2 (nitrogen) 78.1 CO2 95
N2 3.5 O2 (oxygen) 20.9 N2 2.7
SO2 0.015 H2O (water vapor) 0.05 to 4 (variable) Ar 1.6
H2O 0.01 Ar (argon) 0.9 CO 0.6
Ar 0.007 CO2 (carbon dioxide) 0.03 O2 0.15
CO 0.002 Ne (neon) 0.0018 H2O 0.003
He 0.001 He (helium) 0.0005 Kr Trace
O2 # 0.002 CH4 (methane) 0.0002 Xe Trace
Ne 0.0007 Kr (krypton) 0.0001
H2S 0.0003 H2 (hydrogen) 0.00005
C 2 H6 0.0002 N2O (nitrous oxide) 0.00005
HCI 0.00004 Xe (xenon) 0.000009
a
Compositions are for near-surface conditions, with terrestrial data other than H2O tabulated for dry conditions. CO2 on Earth is probably increasing by 2% to
3% of the listed amount in each decade, because we are burning so much fossil fuel. This activity may be modifying Earth’s climate.
b
Amounts of gases vary slightly with season and time of day. H2O is especially variable. Some CO2 condenses out of the atmosphere into the winter polar cap;
changing cap sizes cause small changes in the total Martian atmospheric pressure.

04-Nance-Chap04.indd 76 03/04/14 4:29 PM

 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  77

atmosphere into space is no longer compensated by the gases emitted from volcanoes? Water vapor emitted from a
addition of volcanic gases. This explains why its atmo- volcano becomes part of the hydrologic cycle. The vast
spheric pressures are so much lower than those on Earth. majority of this water is extracted from the atmosphere as
Although Earth’s volcanic activity and gravitational at- rain or snow and eventually ends up in the oceans. Carbon
traction may account for the existence of its atmosphere, dioxide is highly soluble in water, and so is extracted in
they do not explain its composition. There is an obvious rainfall and absorbed by the oceans. Carbon dioxide is also
mismatch between the composition of Earth’s atmosphere extracted from the atmosphere by its interaction with life.
(which is overwhelmingly dominated by nitrogen and In the presence of sunlight, organisms in the oceans (such
oxygen) and the gases vented from modern volcanoes. as phytoplankton) and vegetation on land (like that of the
Samples taken from active volcanoes show that water vapor tropical rain forests) not only extract carbon dioxide, but
typically comprises between 50 and 80 percent of the gases also introduce oxygen into the atmosphere in a process
emitted. Volcanoes also emit smaller and highly variable known as photosynthesis. But what about nitrogen, the
amounts of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, and most abundant atmospheric gas? Nitrogen is relatively un-
hydrogen sulfide, and trace amounts of hydrogen, carbon reactive, so that its concentration has built up throughout
monoxide, and chlorine. This composition is probably typi- geologic time simply because it has not been extracted
cal of the gases released from ancient volcanoes, because from the atmosphere in any significant way. So emissions
the magma was formed by melting similar source materials from volcanoes may have given rise to Earth’s atmospheric
and would therefore have concentrated similar gases. gases, but processes operating at or near Earth’s surface
So why is there such a profound mismatch between the have changed its composition, resulting in an atmosphere
composition of the atmosphere and the composition of that is dominated by nitrogen and oxygen.

form when magma ascends from magma chambers across existing layers at an angle and are therefore discor-
toward the surface by exploiting weaknesses, such as dant with respect to the layering in the surrounding rock
fractures, in the overlying rock. These rocks also form in (Fig. 4.8a). Sills, on the other hand, intrude along the
the passageways by which magma flows from one magma boundary between layers and are therefore concordant
chamber to another. Magma trapped in these passageways with respect to the layering (Fig. 4.8b).
cools to form planar, sheet-like intrusive bodies that are The texture of dikes and sills varies markedly depend-
either dikes or sills, depending on their orientation relative ing on their rate of cooling. Both tend to cool more rapidly
to the layering in the surrounding wall rock. Dikes cut than plutons because they are generally smaller bodies and

(a) (b)
Figure 4.8  Dikes and Sills
(a) A discordant basalt dike cuts horizontal sedimentary rocks in the Grand Canyon. (b) A horizontal basalt sill intrudes between
layers of sedimentary rock in Salt River Canyon, Arizona.

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 78   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

are closer to the surface. However, since they do not reach in Figure 4.9 and Figure 4.10. Because extrusive rocks are
the surface, dikes and sills cool more slowly than volcanic either formed by cooling lava flows or the deposition of
rocks. As a result, they are commonly medium to fine pyroclastic debris, they are laid down in discrete layers on
grained. Porphyritic texture, characterized by phenocrysts Earth’s surface (see Fig. 4.9). So a volcanic rock is deposited
surrounded by a fine-grained groundmass, is even more as a laterally extensive layer that is younger than the layer
common in dikes and sills than it is in lava flows. This is beneath it and older than the layer above it. The contact
because rising magma containing early-formed crystals may of a layer of volcanic rock with the layers beneath it may
freeze in either a dike or a sill, so that the crystals become be somewhat irregular, reflecting irregularities in the to-
surrounded by a relatively fine-grained groundmass. pography at the time of eruption. The flow of hot lava on
Despite their different cold sediment simultaneously chills the lava and bakes
mode of occurrence and tex- the sediment. The result is the development adjacent to the
CHECK YOUR ture, neighboring intrusive contact of a chilled margin, where volcanic rock near
U N D E R S TA N D I N G and volcanic rocks at Earth’s the contact is fine grained or even glassy, as well as a baked
• How does the rate of surface are often the prod- contact where the heat from the lava locally transforms the
cooling affect plutonic and uct of the same event. Their sediment within a few centimeters of the contact into a
volcanic rock texture?
varying expressions reflect metamorphic rock.
the different
levels of the
crust at which they formed (see Fig. 4.7). In-
trusive plutonic rocks are the crystallized rem-
nants of magma chambers, intrusive dikes and
Sediment layer
sills represent magma that crystallized deposited after the
in sheet-like fractures as it was transported
toward the surface or between magma cham-
bers, and e­ xtrusive volcanic rocks are the prod- Sedimentary layer
6
uct of magma that actually reached the surface.
Because they are the product of the same 5 Fragments of
magma, all three of these types of rocks typi- 4 the volcanic rock
cally have very similar chemical compositions. 3
Their different rates of cooling, however, ensure 2
quite different textures, varying from the coarse 1
grain size of the slowly cooled plutonic rocks to (a)
the fine grain size of the more rapidly cooled
volcanic rocks.

IGNEOUS ROCKS IN THE FIELD

Baked contact
Although textural features provide important
Chilled margin
clues about the origin of igneous rocks, they
Sill
do not, on their own, provide proof of that Chilled margin
origin. There are rare instances, for example, 5 Baked contact
where extrusive rocks may be coarser grained,
4
or intrusive rocks more fine grained, than one
might expect. Also recall that a porphyritic 3
­igneous rock can form in either an extrusive or 2
an intrusive environment, so the texture alone
is not diagnostic of its origin. Proof of the 1
origin of igneous rocks comes from observing (b)
field relationships. Field relationship is a term Figure 4.9  Field Relationships
that describes how igneous rocks relate to one another and These schematic diagrams illustrate the field criteria used to
to their neighbors. The most pertinent type of field rela- distinguish between extrusive and intrusive igneous rocks and
tionship comes from observing the boundary, or contact to establish a sequence of events in relative order. (a) The sedi-
between the igneous rock and adjacent rocks. mentary layer (layer 3) beneath the volcanic rock may show
signs of baking. However, the layer above the volcanic rock
(layer 5) does not (because it was deposited after the lava flow
Contact Relationships cooled) and instead may contain inclusions of the volcanic rock.
Examples of the distinction between extrusive and intru- (b) Sills (layer 3) have chilled margins and exhibit baking along
sive igneous rocks based on field observations are ­illustrated both contacts.

04-Nance-Chap04.indd 78 03/04/14 4:30 PM

 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  79

(a)

(b)

(c) (d)
Figure 4.10  Contact and Thermal Effects
(a) Volcanic rocks are found in the laterally extensive lava flows collectively known as the Columbia River Basalt. An individual layer
of basalt is younger than the layers below it and older than the layers above. (b) This photo shows an intrusive contact where a dike
(dark) intrudes a granite (white). The granite wall rock adjacent to the dike shows baking (pink discoloration). These relationships
indicate that the dike is younger than the granite. (c) Closer inspection of the circled area in (b) shows that a portion of the baked
granite has been ripped off from the wall rock by the dike to form a xenolith. (d) This is a typical xenolith in a granite pluton.

The upper contact of the volcanic rock displays very layered stratigraphy. An intrusive rock is always younger
different characteristics from the lower one. This contact than the rock it intrudes, as we can see in Figure 4.9b and
surface was exposed before the overlying sediment was Figure 4.10b. This makes sense because only a younger
deposited and so may show evidence of weathering, ero- rock can force itself into an older existing rock. Because
sion, or even soil formation. Because the overlying sediment plutonic rocks are large bodies, geologists need to carefully
layer was deposited after the lava cooled, it shows no sign map the distribution of the surrounding rocks to reveal
of baking, and may contain fragments of the underlying the intrusive character. We distinguish plutons according
layer. to their size. Recall that smaller plutons are called stocks
In contrast to extrusive rocks, intrusive rocks cut across (see Fig. 4.7), whereas a pluton with a surface outcrop area
or along the surrounding rock layers and are not part of the greater than 100 square kilometers (38 square miles) is called

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 80   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

a batholith (from the Greek for “deep rock”). Recently, it has rocks, whereas sills are concordant and are parallel to the
become clear that many batholiths are composite, that is they layering. Although individual dikes are generally thin
are the end product of many pulses of magma generation (with widths typically on the order of meters), they often
sometimes lasting over tens of millions of years. For exam- occur in parallel or radiating patterns, or swarms, that may
ple, the Sierra Nevada batholith in California and Nevada is extend thousands of kilo­meters and are locally asso­ciated
the composite product of episodic magmatic pulses span- with major volcanic centers (Fig. 4.12). In fact, some of the
ning an interval of some 120 magma in these dikes may reach the surface along a fracture
million years between about or sets of fractures.
CHECK YOUR 200 and 80 million years ago
U N D E R S TA N D I N G (Fig. 4.11). Thermal Effects
• What are dike swarms The smaller size and sheet- Because magma is generally much hotter than the wall rock
and how do they form? like form of dikes and sills that surrounds it, there is significant heat transfer across
clearly distinguish them from the contact between the two. As the magma cools, the wall
plutonic bodies. Recall that rock is heated. As a result minerals in the wall rock adjacent
dikes are also readily distinguishable from sills because to a pluton may become unstable and react to ­produce new
dikes are discordant and cut across the layering in the wall minerals that are more stable at elevated temperatures.

N 0 10
Scale (km)

First intrusion
Second intrusion
Third intrusion
Fourth intrusion
Magma Magma Magma Fifth intrusion

Figure 4.11  Composite Batholith

This series of diagrams shows the development of a composite batholith that is exposed in Yosemite National Park. This composite
batholith was produced by five distinct episodes of intrusion over an 8 million year period, from about 93 to 85 million years ago.

5 km

East Peak

West Peak

Volcanic neck
Dike

(a) (b)
Figure 4.12  Dike Swarms
(a) This drawing shows the radial dike swarm around Spanish Peaks, Colorado. (b) The eroded remnant of a volcanic neck features
radial dikes. Ship Rock, New Mexico.

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 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  81

Such a change in the mineral composition and texture of a we discuss how we use the variations in ­chemical composi-
rock is a form of metamorphism, a process that will be dis- tion and textures to systematically classify igneous rocks.
cussed further in Chapter 7. Hence wall rocks immediately
adjacent to the contact with plutons commonly exhibit
what is known as contact metamorphism. 4.3 SUMMARY
Dikes and sills are typically thin so they cool more •  ock texture is defined by the size, shape, and arrange-
R
­rapidly than plutons. However, the margins of dikes and sills ment of mineral grains.
cool more rapidly than their interiors and display chilled
margins. At the same time, the wall rock on both sides of the • There are two fundamentally distinct types of igneous
contact warms up, forming baked contacts (Fig. 4.10c). rock. ­Extrusive rocks are deposited at Earth’s surface
As we already noted, iden- as lava flows or pyroclastic deposits. Intrusive rocks
tifying a sill is a little trickier form below Earth’s surface and cut across preexisting
CHECK YOUR
U N D E R S TA N D I N G than identifying a dike be- rock layers as they rise through the crust.
• Explain the origin of cause sills are concordant • W hen lava cools quickly, a fine-grained or glassy
chilled margins and baked with respect to layering in the volcanic rock results that can display flow texture—
margins. overlying and underlying an alignment of small crystals.
rocks. They may therefore be • Explosive volcanic eruptions produce pyroclastic
difficult to distinguish from deposits.
volcanic rocks, which are also broadly concordant with re- • Magma that crystallizes in magma chambers is coarse-
spect to layering. However, since a sill is younger than both grained; the resulting intrusive rocks are plutonic.
the underlying and the overlying rocks, it displays chilled
and baked margins along both its lower and upper contacts • I ntrusive igneous rocks also form where magma crys-
(see Fig. 4.9b). In contrast, a volcanic rock layer is deposited tallizes in narrow conduits to form dikes and sills.
on Earth’s surface, and so it is older than the rocks that
overlie it (see Fig. 4.9a). These overlying rocks cannot ex-
hibit baking along the contact, because they were not pres-
ent at the time of the volcanic eruption. Furthermore, a
volcanic rock is commonly weathered at its upper contact
4.4 Classifying Igneous Rocks
because its surface was exposed (see Fig. 4.8). In contrast, Geologists classify igneous rocks on the basis of their compo-
the upper surface of a sill is not weathered because sills are sition, textures, and field relationships. We describe the com-
intruded at depth. position of an igneous rock in two ways. Mineral composition
refers to the relative abundances of rock-forming minerals
Inclusions such as quartz, plagioclase or pyroxene. Chemical composi-
It is common for the force of intrusion to dislodge blocks tion describes the relative amounts of oxides such as silica
of the neighboring wall rock into the magma. So the pres- (SiO2), magnesium oxide (MgO), and iron oxide (FeO). Be-
ence of fragments of wall rock in an igneous rock is evi- cause these oxides are the building blocks of minerals, there
dence that the igneous rock has an intrusive origin. Some is a direct relationship between mineral composition and
of these blocks are digested by the magma but others sur- chemical composition. The mineral content of igneous rocks
vive as unmelted remnants that we call inclusions. These varies with magma chemistry. For example, minerals such as
inclusions either consist of rock fragments called ­xenoliths olivine and pyroxene contain magnesium and iron, so a rock
(Fig. 4.10 c, d) or crystal fragments called xenocrysts. The containing these minerals is rich in MgO and FeO. Alterna-
word xenolith is from the Greek for “foreign rock” and xe- tively, rocks that contain abundant quartz (SiO2) and potas-
nocyrst means “foreign crystal.” In either case, the inclu- sium feldspar (KAlSi3O8) are rich in SiO2, Al2O3 and K2O.
sions are derived from a rock In coarse- or medium-grained rocks, we can determine
that must be older than the mineral composition by examining a hand-sized sample,
CHECK YOUR age of the intrusive body. or hand specimen, often with the aid of a microscope. For
U N D E R S TA N D I N G
Recognizing inclusions also finer grained rocks, which may contain glass, mineral
• On the basis of field helps geologists deduce how identification is more problematic and the rock’s chemical
­relationships, how would
much influence wall rock as- composition, which is determined by laboratory analysis,
you distinguish between
similation had on the magma may be the more useful method of classification.
a pluton and a dike?
evolution. For most igneous rocks, the total silica (SiO2) content
• On the basis of field
Field relationships provide ranges between 45 percent and 80 percent by weight
­relationships, how would
important information on the (Fig. 4.13). Using this variation, we subdivide igneous rocks
you distinguish between a
sill and a volcanic rock
nature and origin of igneous into four categories: felsic (more than 65% SiO2), inter­mediate
layer? bodies. But igneous bodies also (52 to 65% SiO2), mafic (45 to 52% SiO2), and ultra­mafic (less
vary markedly in chemical than 45% SiO2). Each of these categories is further subdivided
composition. In Section 4.4, by the grain size of the rock, which in most situations depends

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 82   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

FELSIC INTERMEDIATE MAFIC ULTRAMAFIC

80 66 52 45 30 Silica (%)

3 9 16 26 43 FeO + MgO (%)

7 6 5 4 3 2 K2O + Na2O (%)

Dominant
Quartz, potassium feldspar Amphibole Pyroxene Olivine, pyroxene
Minerals

Granite Quartz diorite / diorite Gabbro Peridotite Coarse-grained

Rhyolite Andesite Basalt Komatiite Fine-grained

Acidic Intermediate Basic Ultrabasic Composition

100/0%

Orthoclase (Ca-rich)

Mineral percent
75/25%
Plagioclase

Quartz 50/50%

(Na-rich)
Amphibole Pyroxene Olivine 25/75%

Muscovite Biotite
0/100%
Light-colored Dark grey to black Dark green to black
Medium-colored Color
(Less than 15% (More than 40% (Nearly 100%
(15-40% dark minerals)
dark minerals) dark minerals) dark minerals)

Figure 4.13  Classification of Igneous Rocks

This figure is a guide to the dominant minerals, chemical composition, color, and texture in each of the four main groups of igneous
rocks.

on the rate at which the magma cooled. For example, a fine- the same magma but they formed in different parts of
grained felsic rock is called rhyolite, whereas a coarse-grained the plumbing system. Both rocks contain abundant quartz,
felsic rock is called granite. K-feldspar and Na-rich plagioclase, and are consequently
Systematic variations also occur in important chemical light in color. (Recall from Chapter 3 that plagioclase feld-
components other than SiO2. For example, felsic rocks with spar is the most common mineral in igneous rocks. It has a
higher SiO2 concentrations composition that varies between calcium-rich and sodium-
tend to contain more K2O and rich varieties.) This mineralogy in granite reflects the rela-
CHECK YOUR
Na2O and much less FeO and tive abundance of SiO2, K 2O, and Na2O in the magma.
U N D E R S TA N D I N G
MgO than mafic or ­ultramafic Because of the abundance of feldspar and silica, the rocks
• What is the relationship rocks (see Fig. 4.13). Chemical are described as felsic (see Fig. 4.13). Felsic rocks also have
between grain size and the
variations profoundly affect low densities (around 2.7) because sodium and potassium
cooling rate of magma?
the mineralogy of igneous are relatively light elements.
rocks so that identification of Granite is perhaps the most familiar igneous rock be-
the minerals present aids in cause of its use in public buildings and monuments. In ad-
their classification. We shall now discuss each of the cate- dition to quartz, K-feldspar, and Na-rich plagioclase,
gories and subcategories of igneous rock in detail. granites may contain the shiny white mica known as mus-
covite (Fig. 4.14a). (Recall from Chapter 3 that the mica
group is a set of minerals made up of sheets of silicate tet-
FELSIC IGNEOUS ROCKS rahedra connected to one another by ions.) Together, these
In any particular magma plumbing system, the compo- minerals typically account for 70 percent to 90 percent of
sition of ­i ntrusive and extrusive rocks may be very simi- the rock. The relatively low concentrations of FeO and
lar. For example, any given intrusive rock may have a MgO in granite are reflected in the low abundance (gener-
“volcanic equivalent.” For igneous rocks rich in silica, the ally less than 25 percent) of iron- and magnesium-bearing
coarse-grained plutonic rock granite and its fine-grained minerals such as biotite and hornblende, which are the
volcanic equivalent rhyolite, may have crystallized from most common of these minerals.

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 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  83

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

(f) (g) (h)

Figure 4.14  Igneous Rock Types
Common types of igneous rocks include: (a) muscovite-bearing granite; (b) rhyolite; (c) diorite; (d) andesite; (e) gabbro; (f) basalt
(inset showing phenocrysts in microscopic section); (g) peridotite and (h) komatiite.

Individual mineral grains in coarse-grained granite are comprise less than 25 percent of a granitic rock by volume,
large (often about the size of a thumbnail). It is usually the effect of this mineral combination is to produce a grey
quite easy to distinguish the different minerals in granite rock with a distinctive, speckled appearance (see Fig.4.14a).
on the basis of their appearance. The feldspars are gener- Rhyolite has the same chemical composition as granite
ally rectangular and often the largest grains. They are and is dominated by the same minerals. However, rhyolite
pinkish in the case of K-feldspar, or white in the case of is typically so fine grained that it is difficult to see individ-
Na-rich plagioclase. Quartz, on the other hand, is a glassy ual crystals (Fig. 4.14b). Closer examination of rhyolite
grey mineral and tends to occupy the spaces between the may reveal the presence of a small proportion of quartz
feldspars. Biotite and hornblende are black and usually or feldspar phenocrysts surrounded by a fine-grained
form smaller grains that are plate-like or rod-like, respec- groundmass. Recall from Section 4.3 that phenocrysts
tively. Like biotite, muscovite forms platy thin flaky grains usually reflect an earlier history of cooling and partial
but it lacks iron and magnesium, and so is silver rather crystallization in a magma chamber prior to volcanic
than black. Although these last three minerals typically eruption.

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 84   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

INTERMEDIATE IGNEOUS ROCKS these minerals crystallize in the magma chamber prior to
Igneous rocks that lie between the compositional extremes eruption, they occur as phenocrysts surrounded by a fine-
of felsic and mafic rocks are classified as intermediate. grained or glassy groundmass. Microscopic examination
Rocks with this composition are very common in modern of basalt reveals a groundmass typically consisting of very
mountain belts and geologists cite their presence in the geo- fine-grained plagioclase and pyroxene crystals that exhibit
logic record as evidence for the existence of ancient moun- flow texture.
tain belts. As a result of lower SiO2, K2O, and Na2O contents,
intermediate rocks typically contain much less quartz than ULTRAMAFIC IGNEOUS ROCKS
granite. Similarly, K2O-bearing minerals such as K-feld- As the name suggests, ultramafic rocks contain more
spar, muscovite, and biotite are rare or absent, and plagio- ­magnesium and iron and less silicon and aluminum than most
clase feldspar contains less sodium and more calcium than other igneous rocks (see Fig. 4.13). They are uncommon at
the felsic rocks (see Fig. 4.13). Plagioclase in intermediate Earth’s surface but are thought to dominate Earth’s ­interior in
rocks is generally the dominant light-colored mineral. the region immediately below the crust. Ultramafic rocks are
Since intermediate magmas contain more FeO and MgO, made up of iron- and magnesium-bearing minerals such as
iron- and magnesium-bearing minerals, such as hornblende olivine and pyroxene and so have high densities (around 3.3).
and pyroxene, are more common in inter­mediate rocks than Ultramafic rocks are distinguished from mafic rocks by their
in felsic rocks. For the same reasons, the color, density, and relative lack of aluminum-bearing minerals such as plagio-
mineral content of intermediate rocks lie between those of clase (less than 10% by volume). Coarse-grained ultramafic
felsic and mafic rocks. rocks are known as peridotite (Fig. 4.14g). Ultramafic lavas,
There are two important intermediate rocks, a plutonic called komatiites (Fig. 4.14h), are rare in the geologic record;
rock named diorite, and a volcanic rock named andesite. there are no modern ­volcanoes that produce lavas of this com-
Diorite (Fig. 4.14c) is a coarse-grained rock generally position. However, there are important examples of such flows
dominated by plagioclase and hornblende that can contain early in Earth’s history, suggesting more extensive melting of
relatively minor amounts of quartz or pyroxene. The finer- the mantle, and therefore hotter conditions, at that time.
grained andesite (Fig. 4.14d), named after its occurrence in In this section, we have discussed the classification of
the volcanic rocks of the Andes Mountains of South America, igneous rocks based on their texture and composition. We
commonly contains phenocrysts of plagioclase and/or have seen how composition affects important features such
hornblende in a finer grained as color and density. We have also seen that the grain size
groundmass. Most of the phe- and mineral content of an igneous rock depends on the
CHECK YOUR
U N D E R S TA N D I N G nocrysts are thought to have rate at which the magma cools and on its chemical compo-
formed in magma chambers sition. In Section 4.5, we
• Where are intermediate
prior to eruption, whereas the learn that magmas evolve by
igneous rocks commonly CHECK YOUR
found?
fine-grained groundmass re- changing their chemistry as
flects chilling of the lava at the U N D E R S TA N D I N G
• Why is plagioclase rare
they cool. As a result, a single
surface. episode of magmatic activity
in ultramafic rocks?
can produce igneous rocks of
variable composition.
MAFIC IGNEOUS ROCKS
Mafic igneous rocks are relatively poor in silica and are
4.4 SUMMARY
richer in the heavier elements magnesium (Mg) and iron
(Fe). Because of their higher MgO and FeO contents, mafic • On the basis of silica content, we divide igneous rocks
rocks are dark in color and have quite high densities (around into felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic categories.
3.0). The most common mafic igneous rocks are the coarse- • Felsic rocks are high in silica, and low in iron and
grained plutonic rock known as gabbro and its fine-grained ­magnesium. Mafic rocks are low in silica and high in
volcanic equivalent, basalt. In gabbro (Fig. 4.14e) the grains iron and magnesium. The composition of intermediate
are usually large enough that we can readily deduce its min- rocks lies between those of felsic and mafic rocks.
eral content and texture. Gabbro is typically composed of ­Ultramafic rocks are higher in iron and magnesium
calcium-rich plagioclase and pyroxene, with or without and lower in silica that other igneous rocks.
hornblende and/or olivine.
Because both basalt and
• The mineral content of igneous rocks varies according
CHECK YOUR to magma chemistry.
U N D E R S TA N D I N G gabbro come from the
• How does the composi-
same type of magma, basalt
tion of felsic igneous rocks (Fig. 4.14f) contains the same
minerals as gabbro, namely
differ from that of mafic
calcium-rich plagioclase and
4.5 Evolution of Igneous Rocks
igneous rocks?
pyroxene, usually with some In this section, we describe how the chemical composition
olivine or hornblende. When and physical characteristics of a magma can change as the

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 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  85

magma evolves. Some of these changes are internal pro- plagioclase is the most common mineral in igneous rocks
cesses that occur within the magma as it cools. Others are and has a wide range of compositions that vary between
caused by external influences such as the interaction of the calcium-rich and sodium-rich varieties. As the magma
magma with the wall rock or mixing with magma from cools, the most calcium-rich variety of plagiocase crystal-
other magma chambers. lizes first (Fig. 4.15). With continued cooling, however,
A cooling magma typically becomes richer in elements progressively more sodium-rich varieties become more
such as silicon and potassium and impoverished in elements stable. Each new plagioclase crystal consequently reacts
like iron, magnesium, and calcium. These chemical changes with the remaining liquid almost as soon as it forms, in a
occur because minerals that crystallize early in the cooling continuous cycle of crystallization and reaction. This pro-
process are rich in iron, magnesium, and calcium. As a cess is known as Bowen’s Continuous Reaction Series.
result, a mafic magma evolves toward a more felsic composi- With each reaction in the continuous series, progressively
tion as it cools. At the same time, the physical pro­perties more sodium-rich plagioclase is produced.
of the magma also change since these properties depend It is very important to realize that both series of
on magma chemistry and temperature. For example, felsic ­reactions—the discontinuous reactions that produce mafic
magmas are cooler and more viscous (sticky) than mafic minerals and the continuous reactions that produce
magmas, and so have a greater resistance to flow. We will increasingly sodium-rich plagioclase—operate simultane-
learn more at the end of this section about how the physical ously. However, the continuous reactions differ from the
property of viscosity has direct implications for the explo- discontinuous reactions because they involve only one
sive character of volcanic eruptions, and consequently their mineral (plagioclase) and the reactions occur continuously
impact on human life and the environment. with falling temperatures. In contrast, the discontinuous
reactions occur only at specific temperatures during the
cooling history and produce a sequence of mafic minerals.
CHEMICAL EVOLUTION OF MAGMA Most mafic magmas initially crystallize olivine and
Both internal and external processes play a role in the ­calcium-rich plagioclase. If the magma completely solidifies
chemical evolution of magma. In this section of the chapter
we begin with the internal processes and then go on to dis-
Discontinuous Continuous Types of
cuss the external processes. Branch Branch magma

Internal Processes
Olivine Calcium-rich
In the early part of the twentieth century, the Canadian geo-
plagioclase
scientist Norman Bowen proposed that mafic magmas simi-
Re
action

lar in composition to basalt or gabbro may evolve by cooling (45-52% silica)

and crystallization to produce more silica-rich magmas like
es
eri

Pyroxene
those represented by granite or rhyolite. Using laboratory
nSo

experiments, Bowen monitored the cooling history of basal-

acti
Re

Plagioclase
ac

us Re

tic liquid and established a regular sequence in the order of

ti o n

feldspars
crystallization of minerals.
o

Intermediate
Continu

Bowen’s experiments showed that olivine is typically Amphibole (52-66% silica)

the first mineral to crystallize from the cooling mafic
Re
a c t io

magma. Because it is the first to crystallize, we know that

Decreasing temperature

olivine is the most stable mineral in the mafic magma at

n

high temperatures. However, as the magma continues to Biotite Sodium-rich

cool, it reaches a critical temperature at which pyroxene mica plagioclase
Felsic
becomes the more stable mafic mineral. At that tempera- (>66% silica)
Potassium feldspar
ture, the olivine crystals react with the remaining magma
to produce new crystals of pyroxene. Upon further cool- Muscovite mica
ing, a temperature is reached where amphibole becomes
the more stable mineral. At this point, a reaction between Quartz
the pyroxene crystals and the magma produces amphibole.
At still lower temperatures, biotite is produced by reaction
between magma and the amphibole crystals. This sequ­ Figure 4.15  Bowen’s Reaction Series
ence, where one mineral becomes converted to another at a With decreasing temperature, early-forming olivine crystals
specific temperature in the cooling history, is known as become unstable and react with the melt to form pyroxene (left-
Bowen’s Discontinuous Reaction Series. hand side). Eventually, pyroxene becomes unstable and reacts
with the magma to form amphibole, and so on. Each reaction takes
At the same time that this sequence of mafic minerals is place at a discrete temperature. At the same time, early forming
crystallizing in the magma, plagioclase feldspar is also calcium-rich plagioclase is continuously replaced by more sodium-
crystallizing in the magma. Recall from Section 4.4 that rich plagioclase as the magma cools (right-hand side).

04-Nance-Chap04.indd 85 03/04/14 4:32 PM

 86   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

at this stage, mafic rocks such as basalt and gabbro form. If

Magma
magma is still present, however, these early forming minerals chamber
become unstable as they cool and react with the magma to
produce pyroxene and a slightly less calcium-rich plagioclase.
With further cooling, the pyroxene is replaced by ­amphibole
crystals
and biotite, and the plagioclase acquires a composition inter- sinking
mediate between the calcium- and sodium-rich varieties.
These minerals are commonly found in rocks of intermedi-
ate composition, such as andesite and diorite. At the end of
the reaction series, these intermediate minerals become un- crystals
stable and may be replaced by quartz, muscovite, potassium-
feldspar, and more sodium-rich plagioclase, all of which are (a)
typical of felsic rocks such as rhyolites and granites.
Identification of these reaction series allowed Bowen
to make one of the most important discoveries about igne-
ous processes. Bowen proposed that the composition of
Intermediate
magmas may change as the magma cools, a process known crystals
as fractionation. Fractionation occurs when early-forming sinking
minerals such as olivine and pyroxene are prevented from
completely reacting with the magma. For example, because Intermediate
these minerals are denser than the magma, they may sink crystals
and accumulate as layers of gabbro or peridotite on the
crystals
floor of the magma chamber. This process is known as
crystal settling (Fig. 4.16), and was actually first described (b)
by Charles Darwin between 1831 and 1836.
During crystal settling, as each layer forms, it buries Felsic
the layer beneath it. In this way, the mafic minerals are crystals
effectively prevented from reacting with the magma sinking
above (Fig. 4.16a–c). Because the first minerals to crystal-
lize are richer in iron and magnesium and poorer in silicon Felsic
than the remaining magma, the settling and burial of these crystals
minerals effectively removes iron and magnesium from the Intermediate
crystals
magma. As a consequence, the remaining magma changes
in composition, becoming richer in the remaining elements crystals
such as silicon, sodium, and potassium, and in components
(c)
such as water. The magma consequently evolves from a mafic
composition toward a felsic one as crystal settling proceeds. Figure 4.16  Fractionation by Crystal Settling
For example, the formation of gabbro or peridotite from Early formed minerals have a higher density than the magma
crystals settling at the base of the magma chamber hap- and so settle to the bottom of the magma chamber where they
pens at the same time as the formation of more felsic accumulate. Parts (a), (b), and (c), show progressive stages in
­crystal settling; the magma evolves from mafic to intermediate
magmas within the chamber itself. These liquids ultimately
to felsic in composition.
cool and crystallize to form diorite or granite. In this way a
cooling magma chamber can produce a chemically diverse
range of igneous rocks. Like a set of furniture in a living Crystal settling is one example of an important igneous
room, a set of diverse igneous rocks that share a common process known as fractional crystallization. During frac-
origin is known as a suite. tional crystallization early crystallizing minerals are iso-
The concept of fractionation is similar to eating a box of lated and prevented from further reaction with the magma.
candies, which have a variety of colors (Fig. 4.17). The box In crystal settling this hap-
may originally contain an equal number of each color. pens when the crystals sink
CHECK YOUR
However, if you eat your favorite color first, this color but in other situations, crys-
U N D E R S TA N D I N G
becomes progressively depleted. If you then eat your tals may float rather than
• How do Bowen’s
second- and third-favorite colors, the remaining popula- sink because they are less
­Discontinuous and
tion of candies is very different from (and much less dense than the magma. Pla-
­Continuous Reaction
appealing than) the one with which you started. Similarly, Series help us understand
gioclase is an example of a
the settling of mafic minerals to the floor of the magma igneous processes? mineral that commonly floats
chamber removes iron and magnesium from the magma so to the top of a mafic magma.
that the remaining magma is more felsic. Indeed the pale color of the

04-Nance-Chap04.indd 86 03/04/14 4:32 PM

 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  87

Figure 4.17  Fractionation

Changes in the relative proportion of colored candies as one color is preferentially removed is analogous to the process of fraction-
ation as crystals are effectively removed from a magma by settling and the proportion of the remaining components increases.

highlands on Earth’s Moon has recently been attributed to may be pumped along fractures from one chamber into
the flotation of plagioclase to the top of ancient magma another as pressures rise and fall. This process of magma
chambers that existed below the Moon’s surface more than mixing produces magmas of intermediate composition if
4 billion years ago. Crystals can also become caught up in felsic magma is pumped into a chamber containing mafic
flow patterns of magma within large chambers or may magma (or vice versa).
adhere laterally to the cooler walls of the chamber. Just as There is strong evidence, for example, that mixing of
crystal settling isolates the crystals that sink, the crystals in mafic and felsic magmas occurred immediately prior to the
each of these situations are separated and prevented from 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo. This volcano had been
reacting with the magma. As a result, the chemical compo- monitored for a long time, during which gases emanating
sition of the magma changes. from its vent (the opening of the volcano) were routinely
analyzed. About two weeks before the Mt. Pinatubo erup-
External Processes tion, however, the composition of these gases suddenly
A magma chamber should not be viewed in isolation. The changed. From this, volcanologists immediately deduced
chamber is just part of a complicated interconnected that the chamber below the vent had been invaded by a
plumbing system, not unlike the water system in a muni­ magma of contrasting composition (Fig. 4.18). Like na-
cipality that may have thousands of storage tanks inter­ ture’s equivalent of an upset stomach, this was viewed as a
connected by a labyrinth of pipes. In this context, magma warning that the volcano was about to erupt.

Felsic magma

magma

Magma chamber
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4.18  Magma Mixing
(a) A scientist monitors the composition of gases emanating from the vent of an active volcano. (b) Influx of mafic magma at the base
of the chamber is detected by changes in the gas composition. The mafic magma mixes with a felsic magma to produce one of inter-
mediate composition. (c) In this field example of magma mixing, signs of incomplete mixing of mafic (dark) and felsic (light) compo-
nents are visible.

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 88   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

Magma mixing may also occur if magmas originating ­ ecause silicon forms a network of bonds with oxygen in the
b
from different source regions exploit the same fractures magma and these bonds make the magma less fluid. Mafic
and mix together as they rise toward the surface. In fact, magmas form at a higher temperature than felsic magmas
geologists recognize the role of fractures in guiding the and also have a lower silicon content. This com­bination of
ascent of magma as one of increasing significance. factors means that mafic magmas are far less viscous (and
The chemical evolution of magma can also be influ- therefore flow more easily) than felsic magmas. Volatiles, on
enced by its reaction with, and digestion of, the wall the other hand, have the opposite effect of silicon at high tem-
rocks that it encounters during its ascent. This process is peratures, and tend to break bonds apart, making magma
known as assimilation and includes a combination of more fluid.
chemical (incorporation of soluble chemicals) and phys- We can find an explanation for the increasing viscosity
ical (incorporation and dismemberment of fragments) of silica-rich magmas by comparing the sequence of crys-
processes. tallizing minerals in Bowen’s Discontinuous Reaction
We have now learned that two contrasting processes Series with the arrangement of their respective silicate
can produce rocks of intermediate composition: fractional tetrahedra (Fig. 4.19). Notice the crystallization sequence;
crystallization of mafic magma; and magma mixing be- minerals with increasingly more complicated tetrahedral
tween mafic and felsic liquids. It is not always possible to structures crystallize in sequence as magma cools. This is
tell which of these two processes was the more impor- because the rapid movement of the ions in magma slows
tant  in an igneous body of intermediate composition. down as the magma cools, allowing the ions to adopt a
Magma mixing however rarely produces homogenous more orderly arrangement. As a result, the magma becomes
magma so there is often field evidence of incomplete stickier and has more resistance to flow. Experiments show
mixing (Fig. 4.18c). that before each mineral crystallizes, its tetrahedra are
It is important to realize that the internal and external
processes we have just described are not mutually exclusive.
The chemical evolution of igneous rocks is a dynamic pro- Isolated
cess that may involve one or all of the processes described tetrahedra Olivine
above in any given area. For example, the energy expended
by magma in digesting wall rock results in more rapid cool- Pyroxene
ing that, in turn, promotes crystal fractionation. It is then group
the job of the geoscientist to decide which of these processes Single chain
Continuous
was the most dominant. If you take more advanced courses, chains of
you will learn that there are elegant ways to do this. In the tetrahedra
material that follows, we explain that a close relationship Amphibole
also exists between the chemi- group

CHECK YOUR cal and physical properties of

U N D E R S TA N D I N G magma—a relationship that Double chain

• What is assimilation?
explains the ­dramatic impact
volcanic activity can have on
human life.
Continuous
sheets Micas

PHYSICAL EVOLUTION OF MAGMA

The contrasting compositions and textures of igneous rocks
reflect important variations in the physical properties
of the magma. We have seen that in addition to liquid,
magmas typically contain trapped gases, floating crystals
Three-
and fragments of variably digested wall rock. Some
dimensional Quartz
magmas are very fluid and rise more rapidly than those networks
that are sticky. This difference is expressed in the concept
of viscosity, which, in everyday usage is a measure of a
­liquid’s stickiness or resistance to flow. The less viscous a
magma, the more easily it flows.
The viscosity of a magma is key to understanding the
Figure 4.19  Bowen’s Discontinuous Reaction Series and
explosive nature of certain volcanic eruptions. Viscosity Crystal Structures
depends on the magma’s temperature, chemical composi-
At high temperatures, olivine, which has the simplest crystal
tion, and volatile content. Hotter magmas flow more readily structure, is stable. As a magma cools it loses energy, allowing
than cooler magmas, just as hotter butter flows more readily minerals with progressively more complex structures to become
than cooler butter. Magmas rich in silicon are more viscous stable.

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 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  89

loosely linked together in the melt. This means that prior to common where the crust is under extension, and where the
crystallizing minerals with complex silicate structures, magma is relatively fluid. Fissure eruptions are the domi-
felsic magmas contain tetrahedra that are loosely linked nant style of eruption in regions, such as continental rifts,
into relatively long chains. In contrast, mafic magmas crys- where vast volumes of ­basaltic lava are extruded to form
tallize less complex silicates, so we know that they contain deposits known as flood basalts, and at mid-oceanic ridges
relatively isolated tetrahedra. Because of their more exten- where oceanic crust is being pulled apart and magma is
sive tetrahedral linkages, felsic melts are stickier—more transported upward along steep fractures to the central
viscous—than those of mafic composition. axis of the ridge.
In Section 4.6, we will see that differences in viscosity pro- Vent eruptions occur where magma is extruded at a
foundly affect the explosiveness of volcanic eruptions, which central vent. Figure 4.20 summarizes the various volcanic
range from the spectacular (but relatively harmless) lava landforms—shield, composite, or cinder cone volcanoes—
fountains typical of Hawaii to the devastating pyroclastic associated with this style of eruption. Vent eruptions stem
eruptions of volcanoes like Mount St. Helens and Pinatubo. from a central crater. Some volcanic landforms are tens
of kilometers across (shield volcanoes) and are among the
tallest mountains on Earth. Other landforms (cinder
4.5 SUMMARY
cones) are only 200–300 meters (650 to 1000 feet) high and
• Bowen’s Reaction Series describes how mafic magmas less than 2 kilometers (1.2 miles) in diameter. In the mate-
change during cooling as crystals react—discontinu- rial that follows we will see that the type of landform de-
ously or continuously—with the melt. pends on several factors including the gas content and
• A wide variety of processes causes the composition of a composition of the magma.
magma to change as it cools and crystallizes, a process
known as fractionation. For example, separation of early-
formed minerals by crystal settling causes the composi- ERUPTION OF MAFIC MAGMA
tion of the remaining magma to become more felsic. Recall from Section 4.5 that mafic magmas are less viscous
and more fluid (see Fig. 4.20). Because mafic magmas are
• A variety of processes produce intermediate to felsic
fluid, vent eruptions from basaltic volcanoes like those of
rocks; they include fractional crystallization of mafic
Hawaii tend to flow rapidly, spreading out over wide areas
magma and magma mixing.
to form relatively thin lava flows. As a result, the volcanic
• The physical property of viscosity, which is key to edifice is broad and its slopes are very gentle. Because their
­understanding the explosive nature of certain volcanic shape resembles that of a warrior’s shield, they are known
eruptions, depends on a magma’s temperature, chemi- as shield volcanoes (Fig. 4.21). The vent is located at the
cal ­composition, and gas content. summit and is typically a depressed area, up to 5 kilometers
(3 miles) across, known as a caldera. Calderas form when
magma in the chamber directly below the volcano’s summit
is emptied by an eruption on the volcano’s flank. Lacking
support, the summit collapses into the magma chamber.
4.6 Volcanic Eruptions Subsequent eruptions may fill the caldera to form a lava
Volcanic eruptions testify to the awesome powers of nature lake. Recent studies show that this collapse is often followed
and to the dynamic processes that occur in Earth’s hidden by an influx of groundwater, which may result in short-
interior. Throughout human history, volcanoes have been the lived but highly explosive eruptions.
source of many myths and legends. Over the past 100 years Whether they emanate from fissures or from vents, ba-
our understanding of volcanoes and the processes that cause saltic lavas typically flow at rates between 10 to 300 meters
them has increased dramatically, enabling geologists to con- (33 to 1000 feet) per hour, although flow rates of up to
fidently predict eruptions and their ­ potential impact on 30 kilometers per hour (19 miles per hour) have been mea-
human life. In the short term volcanic eruptions are signifi- sured. The exposed surface of the lava cools and congeals
cant hazards, but over the longer term, we now realize that faster than its interior. Because of this, the otherwise
they are essential to the sustenance of life on Earth. They pro- smooth solid surface of the flow can develop wrinkles re-
vide nutrients to soils and the life that depends on soils, and sembling irregular folds in cloth as the molten lava moves
they replenish our atmosphere with their gaseous emissions. beneath it (Fig. 4.20c). Because of the resemblance to coiled
There are two main styles of volcanic eruption, fissure rope, such flows are known as ropy lava. The native Hawaiian
eruption and vent eruption. We learned in Section 4.3 about word for ropy lava is pahoehoe (pronounced pah-hoy-hoy).
the importance of dikes in transporting magma to the As the molten interior continues to advance, the surface
­surface, and that dikes often occur in radiating swarms, may break up into very sharp, jagged blocks that resemble
some extending for thousands of kilometers from major furnace clinkers. Such flows are referred to as blocky lava.
volcanic centers (see Fig. 4.12). Some of the magma in these The formation of blocky lava is exacerbated by escaping
dikes may reach the surface along a fracture or sets of frac- gases, which produce numerous voids and sharp spines.
tures, to fuel a fissure eruption. This style of eruption is The Hawaiian term for jagged lava of this type is aa

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 90   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 4.20  Features of Mafic Lava Eruptions
Different features of mafic lava eruptions include: (a) a lava fountain (upper left) giving rise to fluid basaltic lava flows, Kilauea vol-
cano, Hawaii; (b) a shield volcano (background) and a cinder cone (foreground) at Mauna Loa, Hawaii (note the broad gentle slopes
of the shield volcano and the slight depression (left of center) at the site of the caldera); (c) contrasting wrinkled surfaces typical of
ropy (pahoehoe) lava flows and sharp, broken surface typical of blocky (aa) flows; and (d) a lava tube at Kilauea volcano, Hawaii.

vent

Sea Level

0 10 Shield Volcano Composite Volcano Cinder Cone

Scale (km) Mauna Loa, HI Mt. Rainier, WA Sunset Crater, AZ

Figure 4.21  Volcanic Landforms

Volcanic landforms that develop around a single vent (all shown at the same scale). Note that shield volcanoes typically form much
larger landforms than composite volcanoes or cinder cones.

(pronounced ah-ah). As the flow continues to solidify, the Because of the low viscosity of mafic lava, gases trapped
molten interior develops a complex labyrinth of passages, as bubbles in mafic lava can escape with relative ease, just
known as lava tubes, as the flow continues to move through as they do in a glass of soda pop. As a result, basaltic erup-
its congealing surroundings. When the eruption ceases, tions are rarely more violent than the familiar jets of in-
the lava drains from these tubes, leaving them hollow candescent lava we call lava fountains (Fig. 4.20a). Like
(Fig. 4.20d). the spray from a shaken bottle of champagne, these

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 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  91

fountains result from rapid expansion and escape of the cover 70 percent of Earth’s
trapped gas bubbles, which occurs when the magma CHECK YOUR surface, pillow lavas are the
reaches Earth’s surface and the pressure on the magma U N D E R S TA N D I N G most common type of volca-
abruptly drops. • Why are felsic magmas nic rock. However, pillow
The eruption of mafic lava is the dominant volcanic pro- more viscous than mafic lavas are rarely observed on
cess on the ocean floors. As these fissure eruptions occur un- magmas? land. Observations by divers
derwater, they produce very distinctive bulbous structures • What is the significance and from deep-sea submers-
known as pillow lavas (Fig. 4.22). Because the ocean floors of pillow lavas in ancient ibles show that when mafic
volcanic rocks? lava is extruded onto the
ocean floor, it rapidly freezes
against the cold seawater,
producing pillow-like bulges (Fig. 4.22a). But the interior
of the pillow remains molten so that new pillows form
when the hot lava from the interior oozes out through
cracks in the pillow surface as the surface cools and
shrinks. The pillow may also fall off the main body of lava,
exposing hot lava to seawater to form yet another pillow
(Fig. 4.22b). Identification of pillow structures in ancient
mafic flows is important because it provides evidence of
extrusion underwater, usually in an ancient marine envi-
ronment (Fig. 4.22c).
(a)

ERUPTION OF INTERMEDIATE
AND FELSIC MAGMAS
The higher viscosity of intermediate and felsic magmas re-
sults in more explosive styles of volcanism. Fissure erup-
tions are rare. In fact felsic magma is so viscous and moves
so slowly that it is rarely extruded as pure lava at Earth’s
surface. Instead, it generally cools underground to form
large plutons of granite.
Where felsic magma does extrude, its high gas content
usually causes violent vent eruptions that produce steep-
sided volcanoes and far more airborne fragments than
­surface lava. As a viscous felsic magma rises toward the
surface, the reduced pressure results in the formation of
(b) gas bubbles, just as it does when you open a can of soda
pop. In this case, however, the bubbles are initially held
captive by the viscous melt. As the magma continues to
rise, a threshold is eventually reached where the pressure
from the gas bubbles explodes the magma into hot fragments.
At first, the solid rock overlying the magma acts like a pres-
sure cooker, temporarily sealing in the violent cauldron
below. However, rocks are an imperfect seal, and when the lid
breaks an explosive eruption is inevitable. Explosive erup-
tions of felsic magma vent mixtures of gases, or aerosols, into
the atmosphere and jettison fragments of the hot magma and
the surrounding rocks into the air. These eventually fall to
Earth to form pyroclastic deposits.
Pyroclastic deposits are classified according to their
particle size (Fig. 4.23; Table 4.1). Recall from Section 4.3
(c) that larger particles fall first so that coarser-grained depos-
Figure 4.22  Pillow Lava its are found closest to the eruptive center. Particles greater
than 64 millimeters (2.5 inches) in diameter are called
(a) Lava freezing in cold seawater produces pillows. (b) When
the tips of pillows break off, the lava beneath escapes to form blocks or bombs, depending on their shape. Blocks are
another pillow. (c) These pillow structures have been preserved solid angular fragments when they are ejected from the
in the geologic record. volcano and these angular fragments are found in many

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 92   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

(a)

(c)
Figure 4.23  Pyroclastic Deposits
Pyroclastic deposits are classified according to grain size. (a) A
bomb is a large rounded object, often with a molten interior.
These examples are 20 cm in length. (b) Lapilli and (c) ash are
medium-grained to fine-grained material, respectively, ejected
from a volcano. The darker fragments in the volcanic ash are
(b) blocks of older volcanic rocks incorporated during the eruption.

Table 4.1  Classification and Nomenclature of Pyroclastic Deposits Based on Clast Size
Pyroclastic Deposit
Clast Size in mm Pyroclast Mainly Unconsolidated (Tephra) Mainly Consolidated (Pyroclastic Rock)

. 64 bomb, block agglomerate bed of blocks or bomb, block agglomerate, pyroclastic breccia
tephra
64 to 2 lapillus layer, bed of lapilli or lapilli tephra lapilli tuff
2 to 1/16 coarse ash grain coarse ash coarse (ash) tuff
. 1/16 fine ash grain fine ash (dust) fine (ash) tuff
Source: After Schmid, 1981.

pyroclastic deposits. Bombs, on the other hand, are fluid volcanic centers. Ash is typically deposited in thin beds,
when ejected, and their shapes are rounded during flight. known as tuffs, and may be dispersed hundreds of kilome-
Finer grained deposits, such as lapilli (2 to 64 mm (.07 to ters from its original source. The finest material may circu-
2.5 inches) in diameter) or ash (, 2 mm (.07 inches) in di- late the globe producing brilliant sunsets as it did following
ameter), and volcanic dust (about 0.001 mm (3.9 3 1025 the 1883 eruption of Krakatau in Java.
inches) in diameter) disperse more widely. Rocks that The various products of explosive eruptions are summa-
form from the deposition of blocks or bombs are volcanic rized in Figure 4.24a. The most devastating of all violent
breccias or agglomerates. The presence of these rocks in eruptions is a ground-hugging avalanche of hot volcanic ash
the field can help geologists locate the sites of ancient known as a pyroclastic flow (see In Depth: Can Explosive

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 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  93

Prevailing wind

Eruption cloud

Ash fall

Eruption column

Acid rain
Debris avalanche (landslide)
Bombs

(b)
Conduit

Tuff
Magma

Fracture

Magma chamber

(a) (c)
Figure 4.24  Volcanic Hazards
(a) This schematic diagram illustrates the typical products of explosive (pyroclastic) eruptions. Note the importance of wind direc-
tion on the eruption cloud. (b) The lahar in this photo is associated with the 2007 eruption of Mount Ruapehu, New Zealand.
(c) A lahar warning posted near active volcanoes of the Taupo Zone, northern New Zealand, warns of road closure and flooding.

Eruptions Be Predicted?). In addition, the instabilities gen- magma then triggered a landslide, which removed part of
erated by pyroclastic eruptions often produce catastrophic the unstable rock that was covering and trapping the
mudflows known as lahars (Fig. 4.24b) when hot volcanic magma. This abruptly reduced the pressure on the magma
ash melts snow or glacial ice, or when rainfall that com- chamber and caused the gases held within the magma to
monly accompanies volcanic eruptions renders the hot ash rapidly expand, triggering a sideways blast. The blast, in
on the slopes unstable. These hot mudflows travel at speeds turn, triggered another landslide that further reduced
of up to 60 kilometers per hour (37 miles per hour) and pressure, initiating an eruption from the volcano’s vent. In
sweep away everything in their path (Fig. 4.24c). less than three minutes, the ejected material had de-
The explosion of Mount St. Helens in May of 1980 was a scended down the northern flank of the volcano and
typical pyroclastic eruption (Fig. 4.25). The ascent of sil- flowed into the forest below.
ica-rich magma to Earth’s surface was temporarily im- Because of their explosive character and high velocity,
peded by the overlying solid rock. When the ascent of pyroclastic flows have claimed the lives of many inhabit-
magma was renewed, the volcano vented steam and ash ants of near-volcano communities. In 1902, for example, a
and there was increased low-intensity earthquake activity. pyroclastic flow erupting from Mt. Pelée destroyed the
In less than three minutes, a sequence of events cascaded nearby port city of St. Pierre on the island of Martinique in
like tumbling dominoes and triggered a series of violent the Caribbean, killing 29,000 people (Fig. 4.26). Although
eruptions. The ascending magma first caused the moun- a pyroclastic flow resembles an avalanche as it thunders
tain to bulge, rendering its northern slope of old volcanic down the flanks of a volcano, it is in fact a glowing cloud
debris unstable. An earthquake caused by the ascent of containing a mixture of red hot rock fragments, molten

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 94   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

Vertical explosion

Lateral blast
Landslide

(a) Time 08:32.43 (PDT) Earthquake triggered collapse

Lateral blast

Landslide

Time 08:32.56 (PDT)

(b) (c)

(d) (e)
Figure 4.25  Mount St. Helens
(a) The eruption of Mount St. Helens in the Cascade Ranges, May 18, 1980, is a classic example of a pyroclastic eruption. (b) An earth-
quake was generated by rising magma. (c) Following the earthquake, the volcano’s north face collapsed in a massive landslide. (d) The
landslide released the pressure on the magma within the volcano, which exploded in a violent sideways blast of pyroclastic ash. Subse-
quent central eruption from the volcanic vent ejected ash to a height of 19 kilometers (12 miles). (e) Resembling flattened straw, entire for-
ests of tree were felled by the blast.

lava, and explosive gases. Pyroclastic flows occur when this atmosphere, small cavities, known as vesicles (Fig. 4.27a),
mixture becomes too dense to be vented upward, and so are left behind. These vesicles are stretched into tubular
collapses under its own weight. Despite their felsic compo- holes by the movement of the flow. When this frothy mix-
sition, these flows are highly mobile because the presence ture cools, a rock called pumice is produced which consists
of gases significantly reduces their viscosity. They can of glass, rock fragments, and stretched vesicles (Fig. 4.27b).
attain velocities exceeding 300 kilometers per hour (190 miles Pumice contains so many vesicles that it is often light
per hour), and may spread as far as 100 kilometers (60 miles) enough to float on water. When this hot mixture comes
from the site of the eruption. to rest, it may retain enough heat that the plastic glass
Because it is full of gas bubbles, magma ejected during a and rock fragments meld together and form a welded tuff
pyroclastic eruption is typically a frothy and highly mobile (Fig. 4.27c). The presence of welded tuffs helps geologists
mixture of liquid, solid, and gas. As the gas escapes into the recognize pyroclastic flows in the geological record.

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 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  95

Figure 4.26  Devastating Volcanic Eruptions

St. Pierre on the island of Martinique in the
Caribbean was destroyed by a pyroclastic flow
from Mt. Pelée in 1902; 29,000 inhabitants were
killed.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.27  Vesicles and Pumice
(a) When gas trapped within lava escapes into the atmosphere, vesicles may form. (b) As the lava continues to flow, these vesicles
may become stretched into tubular holes. This frothy lava cools to form pumice. Pumice is light and can float on water. (c) If the
pumice retains heat for a significant period of time, glass and fragments weld together to form a welded tuff.

In contrast to the relatively gentle slopes associated with

mafic volcanoes, intermediate to felsic eruptions produce
dramatic volcanic edifices. This is because loose pyroclas-
tic material can remain stable on slopes of between 30 and
40 degrees. Around the vent, cinders ejected from the vol-
cano rapidly build a relatively steep-sided cone-shaped
edifice known as a cinder cone (see Fig. 4.20, Fig. 4.21).
Over a two-year period, for example, the volcano Paracutin,
near Mexico City, built a cinder cone up to 400 meters
(1300 feet) in height (Fig. 4.28).
Earth’s most picturesque volcanoes are composite vol-
canoes (also known as stratovolcanoes, Fig. 4.29). These
consist of alternating layers of pyroclastic deposits from
explosive eruptions and lava flows that erupted from either
the central vent or along the flanks of the volcano. This
alternation reflects how eruption types can vary over
time. Each pyroclastic deposit produces a steep slope that
is protected from erosion by an overlying layer of lava.
Over tens or even hundreds of thousands of years, succes-
sive eruptions produce large cone-shaped structures Figure 4.28  Cinder Cone, Mexico
with slopes of between 10 and 25 degrees (Fig. 4.29a). A cinder cone develops in Paracutin, Mexico, 1943–45.

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 96   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

TIME
Alternating layers of Explosive pyroclastic
deposit
pyroclastic deposits

Figure 4.29  Development of a Composite Volcano

These steep-sided volcanoes consist of alternating eruptions of intermediate to felsic lava flows and more explosive pyroclastic
deposits. Over hundreds of thousands of years, alternating eruptions build a large cone with slopes of 10 to 25 degrees.

The majestic landscape of the Cascade Range, in the Pacific Gases may build up slowly in the magma chambers of
Northwest, owes its origins to composite volcanoes such composite volcanoes, eventually triggering violent erup-
as Mount Shasta, Mount Rainier, and Mount St. Helens tions in volcanoes that had been dormant for centuries.
(Fig. 4.30). The devastating eruption of Vesuvius in 79 BC, which

(a)

Cascade Eruptions During the Last 4,000 Years

CANADA
Silverthrone
Franklin Glacier
Meager
Cayley
Garibaldi
Baker
Glacier Pk.
Rainier
St. Helens
WA (c)
Adams
Hood
Jefferson Figure 4.30  Composite Volcanoes
Three Sisters
OR (a) Mount Rainier, Cascade Range is a compos-
Newberry ite volcano in the northwestern United States.
Crater Lake (b) The Cascade Range stretches more than
Medicine Lake 1000 kilometers (600 miles) along the coastline
Shasta of western North America from Mount Garibaldi
CA
Lassen in British Columbia to Mount Lassen in California.
4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 The range includes Crater Lake (see Fig. 4.30),
Years Ago Mount St. Helens, and Mount Rainier. (c) The
ancient city of ­Pompeii was devastated in 79 AD
by the eruption of Vesuvius, a composite vol-
(b) cano, in southern Italy.

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 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  97

buried the ancient city of Pompeii, Italy, and killed most of deep, the caldera was formed about 7700 years ago when
its 20,000 inhabitants (Fig. 4.30c), was such an event. a violent eruption ejected between 50 and 70 cubic kilome-
In contrast to the relatively small calderas found at the ters (12 and 17 cubic miles) of volcanic material. As a
summits of shield volcanoes, the calderas associated with result, the volcanic edifice collapsed to create a caldera,
violent pyroclastic eruptions can measure up to 100 kilo- which was subsequently filled with water. Later volcanic
meters (60 miles) across and have very steep walls. In fact, activity within the caldera built the small cinder cone
many calderas are so large that some escaped detection by known as Wizard Island, an
field mapping and were only discovered when high quality island at the west end of
CHECK YOUR
aerial photographs and satellite images became widely U N D E R S TA N D I N G Crater Lake.
available. Crater Lake in Oregon, is one of the most famous In summary, the compo-
• How does the viscosity
calderas in North America (Fig. 4.31). It occurs at sition of magma profoundly
of a magma influence its
the summit of Mount Mazama, an extinct composite ascent to the surface?
affects its viscosity, which, in
volcano in the Cascade Range. Measuring 8–10 kilometers turn, strongly influences the
(5–6.5 miles) across and nearly 1200 meters (4000 feet) style of volcanic eruptions.

Pyroclastic Caldera collapses Pyroclastic

Composite cone Wizard Cinder
Airfall pumice
Caldera Island Rim cone
and ash

Magma chamber
(a) (b) (c)

(d)
Figure 4.31  Origin of Crater Lake, Oregon
(a) Alternations of pyroclastic deposits and lava flows built a composite cone above the magma chamber. (b) About 7700 years ago,
a violent eruption partly drained the magma chamber resulting in collapse and formation of the caldera. (c) Later eruptions produced
a cinder cone called Wizard Island. (d) Crater Lake formed when the caldera, 8–10 kilometers (4–6 miles) across, subsequently filled
with water.

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 98   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

Because of their lower viscosity, eruptions of mafic lavas 4.6 SUMMARY

are generally not explosive and produce broad volcanic
structures with gentle slopes. Eruptions of relatively
• Silica-poor (mafic) magmas are fluid because they have
low viscosities and tend to erupt as fast-flowing lava flows.
­v iscous intermediate and felsic magmas, on the other
hand,  are violent and produce steep-side volcanic edi- • Silica-rich (felsic) magmas are more viscous, and therefore
fices. In Section 4.7 we will discuss how these contrasting trap gases. As a result, felsic eruptions are explosive and
styles of volcanic activity are elegantly explained by plate produce pyroclastic deposits, which pose a much greater
tectonics. threat to society than eruptions that consist of lava alone.

IN DEPTH

Can Explosive Eruptions Be Predicted?

H ow can explosive volcanic eruptions be predicted?
Like most geological phenomena, the difficulty in pre-
diction is that volcanoes are the product of millions of
neat Mt. Vesuvius, Italy, reveal that a shallow magma
chamber 4–5 kilometers (2.5–3 miles) below the surface
is underlain by a much larger chamber 10–15 kilometers
years of geological activity, which does not lend itself to (6–9 miles) deep. As magma rises to the chamber immedi-
predictions on a timescale of days and weeks. A few days ately below a volcano, the chamber may become inflated.
before the devastating eruption of Mt. Pelée, the residents We can detect this inflation using sensitive tiltmeters and
of Martinique noticed that the volcano began emitting altimeters, tools which respectively measure the slope
steam and fragments. They decided not to evacuate, a de- and elevation (relative to sea level) of Earth’s surface. Sat-
cision that had tragic consequences. Since that time, our ellites and global positioning systems (GPS) can also
greater understanding of volcanic processes has led to detect the changes in slope and elevation that accompany
more successful predictions of volcanic eruptions because inflation of a magma chamber.
we can now identify and interpret the subtle warning signs. Earthquake activity of low to medium intensity often
Volcanic activity is a phenomenon that tends to recur, so accompanies inflation of a magma chamber and the migra-
a region that has not experienced any activity in the recent tion of magma from one chamber to another. Hence, an
past will probably not experience any in the foreseeable unusual amount of earthquake activity usually precedes an
future. Likewise, we can readily identify and monitor regions eruption. In addition, subtle changes in the gases emanat-
that are prone to eruptions in order to identify any unusual ing from the volcano may occur as new magma invades
activity. Activities that commonly precede eruptions include the magma chamber and mixes with the magma already
inflation of the magma chamber beneath the volcano, in- present. For example, the 1991 eruption of Mount Pina-
creased earthquake activity, and subtle changes in the gas tubo in the Philippines was preceded by small but mea-
content emanating from the volcanic vent (Fig. 4A). surable changes in gas emissions, which indicated the
Active volcanoes are fed from an intricate plumbing chamber beneath the volcano had been invaded. This,
system consisting of magma chambers. Magma usually together with increased earthquake activity, was used to
ascends toward the surface by flowing from one magma successfully predict the eruption, and tens of thousands
chamber to another in response to the local buildup and of Filipinos were safely evacuated from the area closest
release of pressure. For example, geophysical surveys to the volcano.

Flank 2
Tilt meter Tilt increases Tilt decreases eruption
earthquake activity / tilt

A B A B
A B A B A B
Earthquake
Increasing

activity

Magma 1
3
reservoir Stressed rock Tilt

1. 2. 3. Volcano delfates Time

Figure 4A  Predicting Eruptions

Three stages are monitored in a typical Hawaiian eruption. 1. The volcano begins to inflate and earthquake activity increases as
the magma chamber swells. 2. Inflation and earthquake activity peak. 3. The volcano erupts and abruptly deflates as earthquake
activity diminishes. The graph shows the relationship between earthquake activity and the tilt of the volcano’s flanks from stage 1
to stage 3.

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 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  99

4.7 Igneous Rocks beneath some modern ridges it appears to have lasted for at
least a hundred million years.
and Plate Tectonics The magma at mid-ocean ridges is stored in magma
We often think of volcanic eruptions as short-lived cata- chambers just a few kilometers below the ridge crest and
strophic events. Although this perception is correct, volca- is transported to the ridge axis along fractures, typically
noes themselves can have lifespans of hundreds of thousands resulting in fissure eruptions. The extrusion of magma is
or even millions of years, during which time they repeatedly related to sea floor spreading and the formation of oceanic
erupt. Within this longer time frame, the theory of plate tec- crust (Fig. 4.33).
tonics provides an explanation for the environment in which Seventy percent of Earth’s crust lies beneath the oceans,
magma forms, the means by which it rises toward the surface, so basaltic rocks produced by the extrusion of mafic
and the igneous rocks that are produced when it cools. magmas at mid-ocean ridges are the most voluminous igne-
ous rocks on Earth’s surface. These magmas undergo much
less fractionation than those that ascend through continental
PLATE BOUNDARIES AND MAGMA crust. There are three main reasons for this. First, the magma
COMPOSITION chambers beneath the ridge crest are c­onstantly being re-
Most magma is formed at or adjacent to plate boundaries, plenished by mafic magma generated in the mantle below, so
such as mid-ocean ridges and volcanic arcs (Fig. 4.32) that their temperature remains high, which inhibits cooling
where the heat necessary for magma to form is supplied. and fractionation. Second, the magmas rise through relatively
thin crust, where they exploit fractures created by seafloor
Mid-Ocean Ridges spreading. Because magmas ascend rapidly to the surface,
The world’s mid-ocean ridges are regions of concentrated they have little time or opportunity to fractionate. Third, the
upwelling of mantle heat where temperatures are high mag­mas rise through oceanic crust, which is similar in com-
enough to partially melt mantle rocks beneath the ridge crest. position to the magma. Hence,
Even in these localities, however, there is only sufficient any contamination with the
CHECK YOUR
energy to partially melt the source rock—a process we U N D E R S TA N D I N G
wall rocks produces relatively
­described as partial melting in Section 4.3. A residue of minor chemical change. As a
• Why is basalt the
­unmelted solid material is left behind. Melting of mantle result intermediate and felsic
dominant igneous rock
rocks in this fashion results in the generation of mafic in oceanic crust?
magmas at mid-ocean ridges
magmas which are rich in iron and magnesium and low in are much more scarce than
silicon. Melting lasts as long as upwelling continues and mafic magma.

Katmai
Bezymianny
EURASIAN
PLATE EURASIAN
Mt. St. Helens
Fujiyama enc
h PLATE
Ale utian tr NORTH Vesuvius
JUAN AMERICAN
DE FUCA PLATE
PHILIPPINE PLATE CARIBBEAN Etna
PLATE PLATE
RIVERA Cape
Hawaiian PLATE Atlantic Verde
“hot spot” Mauna Island
Loa Ocean
COCOS
Cotopax
PACIFIC PLATE
PLATE Galapagos
SOUTH Kilimanjaro
St. Paul
Islands AMERICAN Rock AFRICAN
Tambora Ocean PLATE PLATE
INDO- Tonga Is.
AUSTRALIAN NAZCA
PLATE PLATE
Tongariro Osomo

SCOTIA PLATE

Deception Is.
ANTARCTIC PLATE South
Sandwich Is.

Volcano Divergent margins Convergent plate margins Transform faults

Figure 4.32  Volcanism and Plate Boundaries
Most modern volcanoes are formed at or near plate boundaries and are located along mid-oceanic ridges or near subduction zones
around the Pacific Ocean.

04-Nance-Chap04.indd 99 03/04/14 4:41 PM

 100   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

Summit of
In all arc environments, water is released from the sub-
mid-ocean ridge duction zone and rises into the overlying mantle as the
oceanic slab descends into the mantle. Water is an efficient
transporter of heat, and its presence weakens the bonds in
Central minerals and lowers the melting temperature of silicate
axis
Feeder rocks (Fig. 4.35). As a result, the mantle above the subduc-
0 dike tion zone partially melts to produce mafic magmas that
ascend toward the surface.
Magmas erupted from arc volcanoes, however, undergo
much more fractionation than those at mid-ocean ridges,
1 Lava
and so they produce volcanic rocks ranging in composition
Magma from basalt to rhyolite. In part, this is because the magmas
0 1 2 ascend through much thicker crust and have time to cool
Distance (km) and fractionate. In addition, the crust in most arc environ-
Figure 4.33  Mid-ocean Ridges ments is under compression, rather than extension, so that
Melting beneath mid-ocean ridges results in magma that rises there is less opportunity for magmas to exploit open frac-
through fractures in the oceanic crust to form fissure eruptions tures and to rise rapidly toward the surface. As a result,
dominated by basalt. mafic magmas generated above subduction zones typically
cool and evolve toward intermediate and felsic composi-
tions before they reach the surface.
Volcanic Arcs In continental arc environments, like that of the Andes,
Magmas are also created above subduction zones, forming the ascent of mafic magmas is further impeded by a thick
volcanic arcs such as those of the western Pacific and in the lid of continental crust. This means that an even smaller
Andes of South America (Fig. 4.34). In general, magma proportion of the mafic magma successfully reaches the
compositions in these settings are much more variable than surface without extensive fractionation. In addition, the as-
those at mid-ocean ridges and include significant volumes cending fluid-charged mafic magma is an efficient trans-
of intermediate or felsic magma. In addition, there are im- porter of heat, and provides enough energy to partially melt
portant differences in the relative proportion of mafic to the base of the continental crust. This process produces in-
felsic magmas depending on the thickness and composition termediate to felsic magmas, which may then mix with the
of the crust above the subduction zone. Volcanoes built on mantle-derived mafic magma. Intermediate to felsic rocks
oceanic crust like those of the Marianas Islands in the west- in continental arc environments can therefore be produced
ern Pacific are called island arcs. These arcs are dominated by a number of processes, including fractional crystalliza-
by mafic to intermediate magmas and felsic magmas are tion of a more mafic parent, partial melting of the continen-
subordinate. In contrast, arcs built upon continental crust tal crust, and mixing between mafic and felsic magmas.
(like the Andes) are called continental arcs and are domi- Because of the importance of fluids in the generation of
nated by intermediate to felsic magmas. Mafic magmas are magmas above subduction zones, the volatile content of
subordinate. these magmas is significantly higher than that of mid-ocean

Distance from trench (km) Distance from trench (km)

0 100 200 0 100 200

Oceanic Oceanic Island Oceanic Magmatic

Hydrated arc Hydrated
crust crust crust arc
mantle mantle
0 0
Continental crust
Lithospheric 600°
C Lithospheric
mantle De 1000 mantle Underplating by
hy °C
dr
Depth (km)

Depth (km)

a ti Lithospheric
60 n
o 140
0° of 0°Cmantle
Lithospheric mantle
C sl 100 100
10 ab
00
°C
M
an
tle

Asthenosphere 200 Asthenosphere 200

(a) (b)
(a)
Figure 4.34  Magmatism in Subduction Zone Settings (b)

(a) In oceanic settings, magmas tend to be mafic in composition. (b) In continental settings, magmas are more varied but intermedi-
ate and felsic compositions are dominant.

04-Nance-Chap04.indd 100 03/04/14 4:41 PM

 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  101

Temperature (C) ridge or hotspot magmas. The

0 500 1000 1500 2000 CHECK YOUR volcanoes that tower above
0 0 U N D E R S TA N D I N G subduction zones, like Mount
• Why are felsic rocks Pinatubo in the Philippines
Volatile more common in volcanic and Mount St. Helens in the
induced arcs than at mid-ocean western United States, are
melting ridges? consequently much more ex-

Pressure (kilobars)
Crust plosive than those associated
Depth (Km)

Lithospheric
Meltin with mid-ocean ridges.

Meltin
50 mantle

Geo HOTSPOTS AND MAGMA COMPOSITION

g curv

g curve
ther
Not all magmas are generated adjacent to plate boundaries.
e

Some volcanoes, for example, occur in apparent isolation

m
(wet

(dry b
25
and many are more than a thousand kilometers from the
basalt

asalt)
nearest plate boundary (Fig. 4.36). These hotspots are the
surface expression of thermal upwellings known as mantle
)

100
plumes that originate beneath the plates, possibly at depths
Figure 4.35  Influence of Water on Melting Temperatures of up to 2900 kilometers (1800 miles) below Earth’s sur-
face. The material in the plume is solid, but it is soft enough
Water is an efficient transporter of heat, and so magma can form
at relatively low temperatures. Note how the infusion of water to flow and rises in columns because it is less dense than
dramatically lowers the melting temperature required to melt the rocks of the surrounding mantle.
rock of basaltic composition. For example at a 20-kilometer These upwellings induce melting in the mantle that pro-
depth, the temperature required to melt dry basalt is about duces mafic magmas. Plumes that occur beneath oceanic
1200°C, well above the temperature in the crust at that depth
(about 700°C; given by the curve labeled “geotherm”). How-
domains are overwhelmingly dominated by eruptions of
ever, at the same depth, the temperature required to melt wet basaltic lava. The well-known eruptions on the island of
basalt is about the same as the temperature of the crust, imply- Hawaii are the end result of such a process. The island itself
ing that wet basaltic rocks will begin to melt at that depth while is the summit of an active shield volcano built up from the
dry basalt will not. ocean floor. In contrast, when plumes occur beneath

EU
URA
RASISIA
EURASIANAN
N EURASIAN
PL
P LAT
TE
PLATEE PLATE
NORTH
NO
NORTH H
JUAN
JU AN
JUAN AM
AMER
MER
E IC
CAN
AMERICAN
DE
DE FFUCA
UCA
UC PL
P LATE
T
PLATE ARABIAN
PH
P HIL
I IP
PPPIIN
PHILIPPINE NE
E PL
P LAT
PLATETE
E CARIIBB
CA BBEA
EAN
CARIBBEAN PLATE
PL
LATTE
PLATE E PL
PLATTE
PLATE E
RIIV
VE
ERA
RIVERARA
PLLATE
PLATE E
PAC
ACCIF
IFIC
IF
IFIC
PACIFICC
PLAT
PL TE
PLATEE CO
C OCO
OS
COCOS
P ATE
PL
PLATEE
SOUTH
SO
OUTTH
AMERICAN
AM
A MER
RIC
CANN AFRICAN
NA
NAZZC
CA
NAZCA PLATE
PL TE
PLATE PLATE
IN
NDDO
O-
INDO- PL
P LAT
TE
PLATEE
A
AU
UST
STRALILIAN
IA
AUSTRALIANAN
N
P
PLLATE
TE
PLATE

SC
COT
OTIA
A PLATE
SCOTIA PLATE
T

A TAR
AN ARCT
CT
TIC
I P
ANTARCTIC LATE
PLATE

Hot spot Direction of Divergent margins Convergent plate margins Transform faults
plate movement

Figure 4.36  Hotspots

Hotspots are the surface expression of upwelling mantle plumes that may originate at the boundary between Earth’s mantle and
core, some 2900 kilometers (1800 miles) below the surface.

04-Nance-Chap04.indd 101 03/04/14 4:42 PM

 102   PART ONE  |   THE SOLID EARTH

continental crust, as is the case at Yellowstone National 4.7 SUMMARY

Park, both mafic and felsic magmas are generated. The
mafic magmas represent the successful penetration of melts
• With the exception of hotspots, volcanoes occur at or
adjacent to plate boundaries.
from the mantle through the continental lid. The felsic
magmas are generally attributed to partial melting of the • Partial melting of the mantle, which generates basalt, is
continental crust caused both by the ascent of mafic magma caused by upwelling beneath mid-ocean ridges.
and by rising heat and fluids above the mantle plume. • Magma of varied composition created above subduc-
In summary, mafic igneous rocks are primarily pro- tion zones forms volcanic arcs.
duced by partial melting of the mantle, either in upwellings • If a volcanic arc is built on oceanic crust it is called an
beneath mid-ocean ridges, island arc. Island arc magmas tend to be mafic to inter-
or above subduction zones, mediate in composition. Arcs built on continental
CHECK YOUR
or at hotspots where mantle crust are called continental arcs. Their magmas tend
U N D E R S TA N D I N G
plumes impinge on the litho- to be intermediate to felsic in composition, either as a
• What is the relationship
sphere. Intermediate to felsic result of fractionation of a more mafic parent, or be-
between plumes and
rocks are produced by a variety cause of melting of the base of the continental crust.
hotspots?
of processes including frac-
• Compare and contrast the
tional crystallization of mafic
• Mantle plumes, which rise from great depths within the
composition of magmas mantle, express themselves on the surface as hotspots.
magma, partial melting of the
associated with oceanic and Plumes beneath oceanic crust produce hotspots domi-
continental hotspots.
continental crust, and mixing
nated by mafic magmas; those beneath continental crust
of magmas of more mafic and
produce both mafic and felsic magmas.
felsic compositions.

Key Terms
aerosols 91 dike 77 lava 68 rock cycle  68
agglomerate 92 diorite 84 lava fountain  90 ropy lava  89
andesite 84 extrusive rocks  75 lava lake  89 shield volcano  89
assimilation 88 felsic 81 lava tube  90 sill 77
baked contact  78 field relationships  78 mafic 81 source rock  69
basalt 84 fine-grained 72 magma 68 stock 79
batholith 80 fissure eruption  89 magma chamber  69 texture 72
block 91 flood basalt  89 magma mixing  87 tuff 92
blocky lava  89 flow texture  73 mantle plume  101 ultramafic 81
bomb 91 fractionation 86 partial melting  70 vent 73
Bowen’s Continuous fractional peridotite 84 vent eruption  89
Reaction Series  85 crystallization 86 phenocrysts 72 vesicles 94
Bowen’s Discontinuous gabbro 84 photosynthesis 77 viscosity 88
Reaction Series  85 granite 82 pillow lava  91 volatiles 70
caldera 89 groundmass 72 plutonic 75 volcanic arc  100
chilled margin  78 hotspot 101 plutons 75 volcanic breccia  92
cinder cone  95 igneous rocks  68 porphyritic texture  72 volcanic glass  72
clast 73 inclusion 81 pumice 94 volcano 69
coarse-grained 75 intermediate 81 pyroclastic deposit  73 wall rock  70
composite volcano  95 intrusive rocks  75 pyroclastic flow  92 welded tuff  94
contact 78 komatiite 84 residue 70 xenocryst 81
crystallization 71 lahar 93 rhyolite 83 xenolith 81
crystal settling  86 lapilli 92

Key Concepts
4.1 IGNEOUS ROCKS AND THE ROCK CYCLE • The study of igneous rocks involves the nature of the
• Igneous rocks are one of three main categories of rock type, source rock that melts to form magma, the magma’s
which also include sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. ascent through the crust, and its evolution during
• Igneous rocks form by the crystallization of a cooling crystallization.
magma and are classified according to their texture, field
relationships, and chemical composition.

04-Nance-Chap04.indd 102 03/04/14 4:42 PM

 CHAPTER 4  |  Origin and Evolution of Igneous Rocks  103

4.2 MAGMA FORMATION AND TRANSPORT • The mineral content of igneous rocks varies with magma
• Source rock partially melts to form magma when suffi- chemistry. Felsic rocks are dominated by quartz,
cient heat is added to break the bonds of minerals. K-feldspar, and Na-rich plagioclase, whereas mafic rocks
• Magma tends to rise because it is less dense than its typically contain pyroxene, olivine, or amphibole, and
surroundings. Ca-rich plagioclase.
• Magma that reaches the surface is called lava and is
the fuel of volcanic eruptions. But magma may also 4.5 EVOLUTION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
cool and crystallize below the surface in magma • According to Bowen’s Reaction Series, mafic magmas
chambers. evolve during cooling as crystals react either
discontinuously or continuously with the magma.
4.3 TEXTURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS Magma composition changes as it cools and crystallizes
• The texture of an igneous rock is defined by the size, in a process known as fractionation.
shape, and arrangement of its mineral grains. • Intermediate to felsic rocks are produced by a variety
• Lava cools quickly to produce a fine-grained or glassy of processes including fractional crystallization of a
extrusive igneous volcanic rock. Explosive volcanic erup- mafic parent or mixing of magmas of mafic and felsic
tions produce pyroclastic deposits of extrusive igneous compositions.
ejected material.
• Magmas that crystallize slowly below the surface in 4.6 VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
magma chambers produce intrusive coarse-grained • Mafic magmas have low viscosities and tend to erupt
plutonic rocks that cut across preexisting rock layers. as fast-flowing lava flows.
• Large bodies of intrusive rock are called plutons and • Felsic magmas are more viscous and trap gases so felsic
may produce contact metamorphism in their wall rock. eruptions are explosive and produce pyroclastic deposits
Tabular bodies form dikes and sills that often have chilled which pose a much greater threat to society.
margins and baked contacts.
4.7 IGNEOUS ROCKS AND PLATE TECTONICS
4.4 CLASSIFYING IGNEOUS ROCKS • Most volcanoes occur at or adjacent to plate
• Igneous rocks can be subdivided into felsic, intermediate, boundaries.
mafic, and ultramafic on the basis of silica content. • Upwelling beneath mid-ocean ridges induces partial
• Associated extrusive and intrusive rocks often reflect dif- melting of the mantle, generating basalts.
ferent parts of the same magma plumbing system and so • Magmas generated above subduction zones form
have similar chemical compositions. volcanic arcs and tend to be mafic to intermediate
• Felsic rocks are high in silica, and low in iron and magne- if built on oceanic crust, and intermediate to felsic
sium. Mafic rocks are low in silica and high in iron and if built on continental crust.
magnesium. Intermediate rocks have compositions be- • Hotspots are the surface expressions of mantle plumes.
tween those of felsic and mafic rocks. Ultramafic rocks Plumes that rise beneath oceanic crust produce mafic
have the highest abundances of iron and magnesium and magmas whereas those that rise beneath continental crust
are lowest in silicon. produce mafic and felsic magmas.

Study Questions
1. What is the relationship between the rock cycle and the 7. If pyroclastic flows are associated with viscous felsic
origin and evolution of igneous rocks? eruptions, why are these flows so mobile?
2. Why does cooling magma crystallize? 8. Why are basalt and granite more common than gabbro
3. If a plutonic rock is exposed at the surface, what can you and rhyolite?
say about the history of the region following crystalliza- 9. How does magma generate and exploit fractures?
tion of the magma? 10. Explain why magmas produced at subduction zones have
4. Explain the relationship between magma composition, more varied compositions than magmas produced at
viscosity, and the nature of volcanic eruptions. mid-ocean ridges.
5. Explain how crystal settling influences the composition 11. What is the relationship between plumes and
of a cooling mafic magma. hotspots?
6. Explain why caldera development associated with mafic
eruptions differs from that associated with felsic
eruptions.

04-Nance-Chap04.indd 103 03/04/14 4:42 PM

 9 Plates and Plate Boundaries
Mid-ocean ridge

Ridge
Plate B Plate A crest

9.1 Plates on Earth’s Surface Plate B Plate A

9.2 Plates and Isostasy

Oceanic
crust

9.3 Plate Boundaries Lithospheric mantle

Transform
9.4 Divergent Boundaries: Trench
fault

Creating Oceans Island arc

Back-arc
9.5 Convergent Boundaries: spreading
Recycling Crust and Building
Continents
9.6 Transform Boundaries: Accretionary Hot-spot
wedge
Fracturing the Crust
9.7 Hotspots: Tracking Plate
Movements
Arc
9.8 Plate Tectonics and Plate- magmatism

Driving Mechanisms Asthenospheric

mantle
Mantle
wedge M

ne
▸ Key Terms p

zon
tio
▸ Key Concepts

uc
bd
▸ Study Questions Su
Trench Arc-trench gap

Seamount A
Oc
ea
ni
c pl
Oce

at
e
anic

Oceanic Inactive Inactive Inactive

Deep ocean
crust
pla

trench
Plate
te

Lithosphere
motion

Lithospheric Oceanic
mantle lithosphere Plume head draw
by plate motion

Asthenospheric
mantle
Magma
ne
zo
on
cti

Living on Earth:  The Bizarre Water driven off descending slab

du

triggers melting in mantle wedge.

b
Su

Rising melt fuels volcanic arc.

World of the Mid-Ocean
Ridges 256
Living on Earth:  Tsunami 260
In Depth:  Ophiolites—Clues to
the Structure of Oceanic
Crust 267

09-Nance-Chap09.indd 242 03/04/14 5:57 PM

 San Andreas Fault
Garlock
Fault
SIERRA
N E VA D A

M O J AV E
DESERT

Mid-ocean Transform plate

nsform ridge boundary
ult

Magmatic arc

Accretionary
wedge
etionary Hot-spot
ge Arc 0 km
magmatism Continental
crust
Lithospheric

here
mantle
Lithospheric

osp
mantle

Lith
Asthenospheric Su
mantle bd
uc
t io 200 km
n

thenospheric
zo

ntle
ne

Divergent
plate boundary 400 km
Mantle
plume

600 km

Ocean trench
up to 7km deep

Active volcanic island

Seamount Atollll Barrier reef
with fringing reef
Co
nt

0 km
in
en
ta
l

ental
pl

Contin
Oc

at
e

50 km
ea

Inactive crust
nic

e Inactive Inactive
pla

Magma tal
te

Oceanic tal Continenre

Plate Hot spot ntinen lithosphe
Lithosphere crust Accretionary Subco eric
motion h
wedge lithosp
Oceanic man tl e
crust
Subdu 150 km
Plume head drawn out ctio
Sea leve
l n zo
by plate motion ne
7 km
Plume anic
Suboce eric mantle
Oceanic re h
lithosp
lithosphe

100 km 300 km

heric
nosp
Asthe
e
mantl

09-Nance-Chap09.indd 243 03/04/14 5:57 PM

 Learning Objectives

A
9.1 Identify the physical and ccording to the theory of plate tectonics introduced in
chemical divisions in Earth’s
Chapter 2 Earth’s rigid outer shell, the lithosphere, is
outer layers.
­divided into huge moving slabs called plates. One hun-
9.2 Understand that the dred kilometers (60 miles) or more in thickness, these
lithospheric plates are lithospheric plates are in constant motion, repeatedly interacting
buoyant, and that this along their boundaries as they jostle for position. At speeds of
buoyancy controls the only centimeters per year, plates move slowly, not much faster
relationship between crustal than the rate at which your fingernails grow. Yet over millions of
elevation, crustal thickness, years, this movement can create and destroy entire ocean basins
and crustal density. and carry continents across the face of Earth.
Plates interact in several ways along plate boundaries—splitting
9.3 Compare and contrast
apart, colliding with one another, or sliding past each other—and
the three types of plate
boundaries and describe the it is at their margins that the geologic activity associated with
three main ways boundaries plate movement is most intense. Today, we can actually measure
interact: spreading apart, this movement using GPS. By understanding how plates interact
coming together, and sliding as they move, scientists can explain many of Earth’s major geo-
past one another. logic processes and features, among them the origin and distri-
bution of earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain belts. While
9.4 Describe the processes that many forces may be influencing plate motion, the main driving
occur at divergent boundaries
mechanism is clear: it is the flow of heat generated by radioactive
and explain how new ocean
floor is created. decay from the interior of the planet to its surface. We can think of
plate tectonics as nature’s vast recycling plant and the underlying
9.5 Describe the processes cause of almost every major feature on our planet’s surface. In
that occur at convergent this chapter, we look at plate boundaries and examine the driving
boundaries and explain forces that we believe are responsible for plate movement.
how crust is recycled and
continents are built.

9.6 Describe the motion along

transform boundaries and
9.1 Plates on Earth’s Surface
compare and contrast the Plates are rigid slab-like fragments that comprise Earth’s outer rocky
two principal types of shell, known as the lithosphere. Our first step in understanding what
transform faults. plates are and how they move is to examine Earth’s outer layers.
In this section, we first discuss how heat influences the physical prop-
9.7 Describe the enigmatic erties of these layers, allowing rigid plates to move above a softer,
volcanic regions known as plastic layer called the asthenosphere. We then see how differences in
hotspots and explain how the chemical composition of these layers cause plates to vary in their
they can be used to track rock types and thickness.
the movement of plates.

9.8 Compare and contrast the EARTH’S OUTER LAYERS

three types of force that Recall from Chapter 2 that Earth’s outer layers (Fig. 9.1) can be sub-
may propel plates. divided based on the contrasting physical properties of their rocks:

• The lithosphere, from the Greek for rock zone, a rigid outermost
layer broken into huge moving slabs, or plates
• The asthenosphere, from the Greek for weak zone, a broader
region of soft rocks beneath the rigid lithosphere

09-Nance-Chap09.indd 244 03/04/14 5:57 PM

 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  245

Continent scientists realized that the rocks at

Oceanic crust this depth must be softer. Earthquake
Ocean waves move more rapidly through
rigid material, just as an athlete can
run faster on a hard surface (such as a
10km 50km running track) than a soft one (such
Moho
Continental crust
Lithosphere
as sand).
(felsic) The distinction between the asthe-
(rigid)
Lithospheric mantle
150km
nosphere and lithosphere is therefore
100km
Moho based on the contrasting physical prop-
erties of the rocks in these regions
Upper
Mantle rather than the chemical composition
of the rocks themselves. In fact, the
Asthenospheric mantle
Asthenosphere rocks at the base of the lithosphere are
(weak) 660km
very similar in chemical composition
to those in the asthenosphere, but they
660km act in a rigid fashion because they are
cooler. So scientists position the base of
Lower the lithosphere at a depth where tem-
Lower Mantle
2900km
peratures first become high enough to
Mantle make the rocks soft. Because this may
occur over a broad zone, the boundary
Physical between the lithosphere and astheno-
2900km division
Chemical
sphere is gradual rather than sharp
division and its exact location is sometimes
(Not to scale)
hard to detect.
Figure 9.1  Earth’s Outer Layers
Earth’s outer layers are subdivided into crust and mantle based
on rock type (chemical divisions), and lithosphere and astheno-
LAYERS OF THE LITHOSPHERE
sphere based on rigidity (physical divisions).
An important boundary occurs within the lithosphere that
is based on contrasting chemical composition. The rigid
The rigid rocky lithosphere is what makes up the plates, lithosphere is divided into two main layers, the outermost,
and the weak underlying asthenosphere allows the plates to rocky crust and the denser rocks of the lithospheric mantle
move. The “floating” plates are free to move sideways if upon which the crust rests. There are two types of crust,
acted upon by a large enough force. continental and oceanic, which also differ in their chemistry
Away from plate boundaries, temperatures in the and are distinguished by their contrasting rock types,
­lithosphere—predominantly the upper 100 kilometers ­density, and thickness (see Fig. 9.1).
(60 miles) of Earth—are well below those required for In previous chapters, we learned that the continents are
melting. As part of the lithosphere, Earth’s plates are there- made up of a wide variety of rocks. In general, however, the
fore rigid and strong, and move as coherent slabs on the continental crust is predominantly made up of broadly
weak and partially molten asthenosphere beneath. granitic rocks. The continental crust is the least dense of all
Much of our understanding about Earth’s softer asthe- Earth’s solid layers and varies widely in thickness, averag-
nosphere has come from the study of earthquakes. Earth- ing about 35 kilometers (22 miles) but increasing to as
quakes send out energy in all directions. Because of its much as 80 kilometers (50 miles) below high mountain
potentially devastating consequences, we tend to focus on ranges such as the Himalayas. The oceanic crust, on the
the energy directed upward toward Earth’s surface. How- other hand, is overwhelmingly basaltic (or mafic). Oceanic
ever, this energy is also propagated downward into Earth’s crust is denser than continental crust because, as we learned
interior. When measuring energy patterns released by in Chapter 4, basaltic rocks contain larger concentrations of
earthquakes, scientists noticed that earthquake waves dense elements such as iron and magnesium, whereas gra-
propagated into Earth’s inte- nitic rocks are dominated by relatively lightweight ele-
CHECK YOUR
rior slowed down at depths of ments that typically produce less dense silicate minerals
U N D E R S TA N D I N G about 100 to 250 kilometers such as quartz and feldspar. Oceanic crust is also thinner
(60–150 miles) below Earth’s than continental crust, typically averaging only 7 kilo-
• Why are the rocks
of the lithosphere rigid
surface. Because the speed at meters (4 miles).
and strong? which energy propagates de- The crust rests on the upper mantle, which consists
pends on the type of material ­predominantly of the even denser ultramafic rock called
it encounters along its path, peridotite, which is dominated by olivine and pyroxene.

09-Nance-Chap09.indd 245 03/04/14 5:57 PM

 246   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

Located directly beneath the crust, the upper mantle is Sea level
cool and rigid, and is part of the lithosphere. We therefore 0
call it the lithospheric mantle. Experiments show that Continental crust
Oceanic crust Moho

Depth (km)
50
rocks of peridotite composition extend to a depth of at least
Moho
660 kilometers (410 miles), so from a strictly chemical
Lithospheric mantle 100
standpoint, the upper mantle also includes the soft astheno­
sphere. However, the higher temperatures in the astheno- Asthenosphere Asthenosphere 150
sphere cause the peridotitic rocks it contains to become
weak or plastic. It is important to understand that the rigid Figure 9.2  Crustal Roots
lithosphere therefore includes both the crust and part of The shape of the Moho at the base of the crust mirrors Earth’s
the upper mantle, whereas the soft asthenosphere lies en- surface. The crust thinnest beneath the oceans and thickest
tirely within the upper mantle, as shown in Figure 9.1. beneath high mountains, which are supported by deep crustal
roots.
Although the boundary between the lithosphere and
­asthenosphere is gradual, that between the crust and upper
mantle is sharp and readily detected from earthquake
Moho) has a shape that mirrors in an exaggerated fashion
waves, which travel faster upon entering the denser perido-
the overlying shape of Earth’s surface (Fig. 9.2). In short,
titic rocks of the upper mantle. This sharp boundary, named
the higher the crustal elevation, the deeper its crustal
after its Croatian discoverer, is known as the Mohorovičić
“root”. But why should this be so?
Discontinuity, or Moho for short.
But why do the crustal components of plates vary so much
in thickness? Why, for example, is continental crust variably
thick, whereas oceanic crust is consistently thin? And why
BUOYANCY
The principle that governs this curious relationship bet­
does the continental crust mostly stand above sea level, whereas
ween the Moho and Earth’s topography is one of buoyancy.
the oceanic crust is almost
Floating container ships illustrate this principle rather well
entirely submarine? Indeed,
CHECK YOUR (Fig. 9.3). An empty container ship rides higher in the water
how do the plates “float” on the
U N D E R S TA N D I N G than one laden with cargo because the water flows under the
asthenosphere? The answers
• How is it possible for weight of the heavier ship. As a result, the laden container
to these questions lead us to
mantle rocks to occur in ship sinks to the depth where it displaces a volume of
­another dynamic property of
both the asthenosphere water equal in weight to that of the ship and its cargo.
Earth’s interior, the phenome-
and the lithosphere? We use the term buoyancy here to describe the way in
non known as isostasy, which
which Earth’s crust and the rigid lithospheric mantle be-
we discuss in Section 9.2.
neath it “float” on the plastic asthenosphere below, which,
like the water beneath the container ship, is capable of flow.
9.1 SUMMARY Because the lithospheric mantle is a fairly uniform layer,
this buoyancy depends to a large extent on two factors, the
• Earth’s outer layers are divided into a rigid outermost
thickness of the crust and its density.
layer, known as the lithosphere, and a broader region
of soft rocks beneath it, known as the asthenosphere.
Thickness
• The lithosphere—which is broken into tectonic plates— Where the crust stands highest, it also extends downward.
consists of the crust and the upper mantle, which the In other words, for the crust to stand high, it must have a
crust rests on. deep “root” to support it. The continents stand highest
• Earth’s crust is of two types: continental and oceanic, where there are mountains. Therefore we know these high
and is separated from the upper mantle by the Moho. areas must be supported by crustal roots that project
deep into the mantle (see Fig. 9.2). The crust beneath the
Himalayas, for example, extends almost 80 kilometers
(50 miles). The oceanic crust, on the other hand, is thin and
has no thick roots.
9.2 Plates and Isostasy
We can obtain an image of Earth’s interior analogous to Density
that obtained by the passage of X-rays through a patient CHECK YOUR
Both continental and oceanic
by systematically analyzing how earthquake waves move U N D E R S TA N D I N G crust (and the lithospheric
within Earth. These analyses consistently indicate that the mantle below them) effectively
• Why does the Moho be-
crust is thin beneath the oceans and thickest below high neath the continents mirror
float upon the denser astheno­
mountain belts. In other words, the crust is thin where their surface topography? sphere below. But the granitic
its surface is at a low elevation and thickest where the eleva- continental crust is lighter and
tion is high. This means that the base of the crust (the so rides higher on Earth’s

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 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  247

Container ship empty Container ship loaded with cargo

Displaced
water

Figure 9.3  Buoyancy

Floating container ships illustrate the principle of buoyancy.

surface than the denser ­basaltic (or mafic) oceanic crust. Earth’s area (hundreds of millions of km2)
Because of this, oceanic crust is confined to those areas 0 1 2 3 4 5
8
where elevations are lowest. Water collects at these lowest 12
elevations, so it is not surprising that most of Earth’s oce- 10 Mt. Everest 8.85km
6
anic crust lies beneath the water of the world’s ocean

Elevation (km)

Elevation (mi)
8
basins. 6 4
4 Mean land elevation 840m
2
Earth as a Split-Level Planet 2
Sea level
Viewed from space, our planet shows a striking contrast in 0 0
the elevation of the continents compared with that of the 2
Depth (km)

Depth (mi)
oceans. In fact, we live on a split-level planet, with much of 2
4
Earth’s surface comprising either continental crust at an 6 4
elevation between 1000 meters (3300 feet) above sea level or 8 Mean depth of sea 3,790m
oceanic crust between 4000 and 5000 meters (13,000 and 10 Deepest trench 11km 6
16,000 feet) below sea level. These two elevation ranges can 12
be most easily seen on a graph known as the hypsometric 0 20 40 60 80 100
curve. The hypsometric curve, named from the Greek word % Earth’s area at or above a given elevation
hypsos, or height, measures the proportion of Earth’s sur- Figure 9.4  Hypsometric Curve
face that stands above a given elevation or depth (Fig. 9.4).
The hypsometric curve is a graph that illustrates the proportion
For example the deepest trench plots at 100 percent be- of Earth’s surface at or above a given elevation or depth. Note
cause all of Earth’s surface has a higher elevation, whereas that less than a third of Earth’s surface is above sea level and
Mt. Everest plots at 0 percent because there is no elevation more than half lies below a depth of 3000 meters (10,000 feet).
higher than it. That portion of Earth’s surface between Mt. Everest is shown at 0 percent because none of Earth’s crust
sea level and 1000 meters forms the continental platforms is at a higher elevation than its peak. On the other hand, ocean
trenches are shown at 100 percent because all elevations on
and the surface between 3000 Earth’s surface are higher than them.
and 5000 meters (10,000 and
CHECK YOUR 16,000 feet) below sea level
U N D E R S TA N D I N G forms the oceanic abyssal
• Why is the elevation of plains (Fig. 9.5). standing.” Floating icebergs clearly demonstrate the prin-
continents so much higher Thus Earth’s crust is in a ciple of isotasy (Fig 9.6). According to this principle, the depth
than that of the ocean state of buoyant equilibrium, to which a floating object sinks depends upon its volume
floors? the continents stand highest and its density. All icebergs, being of essentially the same
where they are thickest, and density, sink in water such that about 90 percent of their
the oceans have formed in volume is submerged. Therefore, the larger the iceberg, the
regions floored by denser basaltic crust. This relationship greater this submerged volume will be; indeed, the common
between crustal elevation, crustal thickness, and crustal den- expression “tip of the iceberg” is derived from this concept.
sity is described by the principle of isostasy. If ice above the water level melts, the iceberg rises to main-
tain a consistent proportion of ice above and below the
water line. In Figure 9.6, the larger iceberg rides higher but
ISOSTASY also extends to greater depth than the smaller one.
Isostasy is the balance reached by Earth’s crust as it (and Not only does the principle of isostasy explain why
the lithospheric mantle) floats upon the denser, more plastic mountains stand high, but it also accounts for the subdivi-
asthenosphere. Isostasy comes from the Greek for “equal sion of Earth’s surface into continents and ocean basins

09-Nance-Chap09.indd 247 03/04/14 5:58 PM

 248   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

80°
90° E 100° 110° 120° 130° 140° 150° 160° 170° E 180° W 170° 160° 150° 140° 130° 120° 110° 100° 90° 80° 70° 60° 50° 40° 30° 20° 10°
W 0°
E 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 100° 110° E 120°
80°

N N

70° 70°

60° 60°

50° 50°

40° 40°

30° 30°

20° 20°

N N
10° 10°

0° 0°

10° 10°

S S
20° 20°

30° 30°

40° 40°

50° 50°

60° 60°

70° 70°

This image was generated from digital data bases of land and
sea-floor elevations on a 2-minute latitude/longitude grid (1 minute of
latitude = 1 nautical mile, or 1.853 km). Assumed illumination is from
the west; shading is computed as a function of the east-west slope of
the surface with a nonlinear exaggeration favoring low-relief areas. A
World Data Center for Marine Geology and Geophysics, Boulder

SURFACE OF THE EARTH

Mercator projection was used for the world image, which spans 390°
of longitude from 270° West around the world eastward to 120° East; Report MGG-5R (1994, revised 2000)
S latitude coverage is ±80°. The resolution of the gridded data varies
from true 2-minute for the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Ocean floors
U. S. Department of Commerce
William M. Daley, Secretary
Published by the National Geophysical Data Center S
and all land masses to 5 minutes for the Arctic Ocean floor. Major National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
D. James Baker, Undersecretary for Oceans and Atmospheres Data and Report MGG-5R available from
data sources are as follows: for Ocean Areas between ±72° latitude, A Computer-Generated Image of Color-Shaded Relief
bathymetry is derived from satellite altimetry of the sea surface; Scale: 1:40,000,000 at Equator. Mercator (on Sphere) Projection National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service EN
T OF C O
M
Coverage: 80° North - 80° South Latitude, 270° West - 120° East Longitude Gregory W. Withee, Assistant Administrator for Satellite and Information Services National Geophysical Data Center TM

M
AR
poleward of 72° data are from the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office.

ER
DE P

CE
National Geophysical Data Center Code E/GC3
Land Topography is primarily from various sources collected and
00

10 0000

0 Digital Image by Dr. Peter W. Sloss, NOAA/NGDC

00

00

00
0

00
00

00

CA
UNI
5500
0

325 Broadway
00

50
00

Michael S. Loughridge, Director

55
00

00

20

50
35
10

90

RI
gridded at 30” resolution by the National Imagery and Mapping

TE
-9

-1

http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/images/
-3
-5

D
-7

E
-1

ST M
Boulder, Colorado 80305-3328 AT E S O F A
Agency, U.S. Department of Defense. [email protected]
Meters
80° 80°
90°
E 100° 110° 120° 130° 140° 150° 160° 170°
E 180°
W 170° 160° 150° 140° 130° 120° 110° 100° 90° 80° 70° 60° 50° 40° 30° 20° 10°
W 0°
E 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 100° 110°
E 120°

Figure 9.5  Earth’s Surface

Satellite mapping of Earth’s surface (color-coded according to elevation) shows that most of the planet’s surface lies at the elevation
of the continental platforms (green) or abyssal plains (deeper blue).

and the density of crustal rocks. If either of these (thick-

ness or density) changes, the crust responds by trying to
establish a new “floating” balance or isostatic equilibrium.
During the last Ice Age, for example, the crust beneath
the advancing continental ice sheets was first depressed
under the weight of the ice, only to rise again when the
ice sheet retreated, a response known as isostatic rebound
(Fig. 9.7).
In a similar fashion, as the summits of mountains are
lowered by erosion, the crust rises in response to the
Figure 9.6  Isostasy
­reduced load and the crustal root supporting the moun-
Floating icebergs demonstrate the concept of isostasy. These
tains shrinks (Fig. 9.8). In this way uplift and erosion
two icebergs float in such a way that the same proportion of
each iceberg is above the water line. are processes that are inextricably linked. At the same
time, the deposition of sediment produced by erosion
causes the crust to sink. In this way, readjustments are
(see Fig. 9.5). The edges of continents mark the transition constantly being made in an
between continental and oceanic crust. The crust therefore attempt to maintain isostatic
CHECK YOUR
becomes thinner as it changes its composition from a light- U N D E R S TA N D I N G
equilibrium. These readjust-
weight, broadly granitic one to the dense basaltic composi- ments slowly reduce a moun-
• What happens to crustal
tion that is typical of the ocean floors. As a result, the lighter tain belt to normal crustal
rocks and the upper mantle
continents ride high and the denser oceanic crust rides low, during the growth of conti-
thicknesses. Indeed, it is this
and so forms the floor of the deep ocean basins. nental ice sheets? process of erosion compensated
According to the principle of isostasy, Earth’s major by crustal rebound that makes
topographic variations are a function of crustal thickness the rock cycle (see Chapter 1)

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 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  249

Because plates effectively float, they are also free to move

(1) Crust and mantle sideways and can be carried in this way for thousands of
Continental crust before continental kilometers in response to the flow of heat within Earth’s
glaciation
heated interior. This is the motion that drives plate tecton-
Lithospheric mantle
ics, and it is this movement and the plate boundaries along
Asthenosphere which it occurs that we discuss in Section 9.3.

(2) Weight of glacial 9.2 SUMMARY

Glacial ice ice depresses crust
and lithospheric • The continental crust is relatively lightweight and,
mantle into the with the lithospheric mantle, floats on the pliable
asthenosphere.
asthenosphere below. To stand high, continents must
therefore have deep crustal roots to support their
Flow in asthenosphere weight.
• Oceanic crust is denser and heavier than continental
(3) Ice melts and crust and so rides lower on the floors of the world’s
isostatic rebound ocean basins. Oceanic crust is also of fairly uniform
begins as weight is
removed from crust. thickness.
• The relationship between crustal elevation, crustal
thickness, and crustal density is called isostasy, which
Flow in asthenosphere describes the balance reached by Earth’s crust as it
floats on the mantle beneath it.
(4) Complete
Continental crust isostatic rebound
restores crust to its
original position.
Lithospheric mantle
9.3 Plate Boundaries
Asthenosphere Recall from Section 2.5 that Earth’s plates move relative to
each other like rafts floating on a stream, and all plates
Figure 9.7  Isostasy and Ice Sheets ­interact with neighboring plates along their shared bound-
Continental ice sheets illustrate isostatic depression and rebound. aries. In the simplified diagram in Figure 9.9, movement of
Plate A to the left produces a gap behind, while an overlap
is created in front. As a result, the margins of Plate A actu-
possible by bringing progressively deeper levels of the crust ally simultaneously experience three types of motion. At
to the surface. the rear, the motion relative to Plate B is one of separation
This combination of uplift and erosion has eliminated and extension. At the front, it is one of convergence and
entire mountain belts that may have once rivaled the compression, as one plate is forced beneath the other. The
mighty Himalayas. In the process, the crust may rise as third type of motion occurs along its top and bottom
much as 50 kilometers (30 miles). Yet this distance is tiny ­margins where the plates simply slide past each other, a
compared to the horizontal distances moved by plates. motion known as shear.

Mountains Transport Erosion Continued Continued

transport erosion

Deposition Deposition Continued Continued

deposition deposition

Continental
crust Subsidence Subsidence Subsidence Subsidence

Lithospheric
mantle
Uplift Uplift

Low-density
Asthenosphere
mountain root

Before Erosion and Deposition Erosion and Deposition Continued Erosion and Deposition

Figure 9.8  Isostasy and Erosion

Erosion in mountainous regions causes uplift of the mountain root. Deposition of sediment, on the other hand, causes crustal
subsidence.

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 250   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

Plate B Plates before movement

Plate Plate

Asthenosphere
Plate A (a) Divergent plate boundary

Plate C

Plate Plate
1 Extension:
Asthenosphere
Divergent plate boundary
(b) Convergent plate boundary
2 Compression:
Convergent plate boundary Plate B

Plate
Plate A Plate
Asthenosphere
(c) Transform plate boundary

Figure 9.10  Types of Plate Boundaries

Plate C
3 Shear: This figure illustrates the following three types of plate bound-
Transform plate boundary aries, which are distinguished on the basis of their relative
motion: (a) divergent, (b) convergent, and (c) transform.
Figure 9.9  Plate Movement
As Plate A moves to the left, its margins simultaneously ex- ­ ecause these boundaries destroy old lithosphere, we
B
perience three types of motion: (1) extension, characteristic
also refer to them as destructive plate margins.
of divergent plate boundaries, (2) compression, characteristic
of convergent plate boundaries, and (3) shear, characteristic of • Transform plate boundaries, where two plates slide past
transform plate boundaries. each other, are marked by great crustal fractures called
transform faults. Transform boundaries neither create
nor destroy lithosphere but instead form links between
one plate boundary and another. For this reason, we also
Actual plate boundaries behave in much the same way refer to them as conservative plate margins.
as the example in Figure 9.9. As the plates move away from
mid-ocean ridges and toward deep ocean trenches, they Figure 9.11 illustrates the major lithospheric plates out-
jostle each other for position, interacting in the same three lined by these three types of boundaries. Note how the
ways, separating, colliding, or sliding past each other. As boundaries are associated with earthquakes, which are
we learned in Chapter 2, the three types of plate boundar- a direct outcome of the jos-
ies that result from these interactions are divergent, conver- CHECK YOUR tling of plates along their
gent, and transform, depending on their sense of movement U N D E R S TA N D I N G margins. We now examine
(Fig. 9.10). in more detail the nature of
• What are the three types
of plate boundaries?
each of these plate boundar-
• Divergent plate boundaries, where two plates move ies and the surface features
apart, are marked by spreading. These boundaries they create.
are centered on a ridge and create new oceanic
lithosphere. Because these boundaries form new
lithosphere, we also refer to them as constructive 9.3 SUMMARY
plate margins. • Plate margins interact in three main ways—through
• Convergent plate boundaries, where two plates extension, in which two plates move apart; through
­collide, are marked by subduction zones where one compression, in which two plates converge; and
plate is forced beneath the other and consumed. through shear, in which plates slide by each other.

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 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  251

EURASIAN
PLATE NORTH
JUAN AMERICAN
DE FUCA PLATE
PLATE
CARIBBEAN
PHILIPPINE San Andreas
PLATE
PLATE Fault AFRICAN
AFRICAN PLATE
PLATE
COCOS
PLATE
PACIFIC
PLATE SOUTH
INDO- AMERICAN
AUSTRALIAN NAZCA PLATE
PLATE PLATE
Mid-
Atlantic
Ridge

ANTARCTIC PLATE
SCOTIA PLATE

Earthquakes Divergent boundary Transform boundary Convergent boundary

Figure 9.11  Earth’s Major Plates

This map highlights the boundaries of Earth’s major lithospheric plates. Plate boundaries mark the sites of the main features on
Earth: the mid-ocean ridges of divergent boundaries, the deep ocean trenches of convergent boundaries, and the great crustal faults
of transform boundaries. Most earthquakes take place at plate boundaries.

• Three types of plate boundaries result from these the overlying lithosphere bulges (Fig. 9.12a). As more
interactions: extensional movement produces divergent magma wells up into the continental crust, the crust
boundaries, compressional movement produces stretches and thins, which lowers the pressure in the
­convergent boundaries, and shear movement produces mantle below, resulting in the formation of more basaltic
transform boundaries. magma. The rising batches of magma create a line of
separation, and in the early stages of rifting, large blocks
of continent settle, or subside, along fractures or faults.
This settling of fault blocks forms a steep-walled rift
9.4 Divergent Boundaries: valley (Fig. 9.12b).
This new valley commonly becomes a pathway for major
Creating Oceans rivers so that river and lake deposits accumulate on the
At divergent plate boundaries, plates move apart. Diver- floor of the valley in addition to flows of basaltic lava. The
gent boundaries are born when a large continent is torn in floor of the rift valley may eventually settle to an elevation
two. The process starts with continental rifting, during that is below sea level but remains continental if access to
which progressive thinning of the continental crust occurs the ocean is blocked. However, when the rift tears com-
with the formation of a continental rift valley. Eventually, pletely through the continent and intersects a coastline,
the continent separates into two halves and a new ocean seawater floods in and the first shallow-marine sediments
forms between them. At this point, continental rifting be- are deposited on the rift floor. As the continental plates
comes continental drift, and a new plate boundary (a mid- separate further, more water flows in and the upwelling
ocean ridge) is formed, along which new oceanic lithosphere magma starts to build new basaltic ocean floor (Fig. 9.12c).
is created by seafloor spreading. In this way, continental rifting gives way to continental
drift as a small but progressively widening ocean develops
between the separating continents. The thinned margins of
CONTINENTAL RIFTING AND OCEAN FORMATION the continents slowly subside and settle as they move away
The birth of oceans starts on dry land with the breakup of from the heat source at the zone of divergence, and are
a continent. This process, which takes millions of years to progressively flooded and covered by marine sediments.
complete, starts over an area of mantle upwelling that That portion of the continental margin flooded by shallow
brings heat to the base of the plate. As the plate starts to seas is called the continental shelf. Continental margins
separate, basaltic magma rises from the mantle below and formed in this way are known as passive margins and, as

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 252   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

Arching and stretching Along this divergent plate boundary a slab of

of crust creates rift. continental lithosphere known as the Somali
Fault Rift valley
plate may eventually split from Africa. As rifting
takes place, magmas rise to fill the fissures and
volcanoes are commonplace. The largest,
Mt.  Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, rises almost
Continental crust
5900 meters (19,350 feet) to form Africa’s high-
Lithospheric est mountain. To the north, where the rift
mantle system is flooded by the waters of the Red Sea
Upwelling and the Gulf of Aden, separation has reached
(a) Uplift and fracturing of crust above upwelling mantle the next stage with the birth of a new ocean be-
tween Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. All
three arms of the rift system meet in Ethiopia’s
Magma from mantle Afar Triangle to form a Y-shaped plate junction
upwelling erupts on
known as a triple point. Given sufficient time,
Lava
the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden may open into
Stream wide oceans just as the Atlantic Ocean has done
over the past 180 million years.
Continental rifting, therefore, may eventu-
ally create two plates from one when a new
Fault block
ocean is born that is ­centered along the orig-
Upwelling inal line of separation. If separation occurs,
the original site of continental rifting evolves
(b) Stretching and thinning of crust creates wide rift to become a mid-ocean ridge once the conti-
nents drift apart.

Fault blocks buried

Passive
by blanket of sediment
Continent continental Mid-ocean
along continental shelf. MID-OCEAN RIDGES
margin ridge AND OCEAN OPENING
Ocean
Continent Once the two continents have separated and
oceanic lithosphere has developed between
them, the divergent plate boundary between
New plate boundary the two plates is defined by a mid-ocean ridge,
a submarine mountain chain buoyed by un-
New oceanic crust
derlying mantle heat (See Fig. 9.12c). At the
Rising highest point of the ridge, seafloor spreading
asthenosphere
creates basaltic ocean crust. As the plates move
(c) Crustal thinning continues until one continent becomes two that drift apart apart, fractures open in the rift valley at the
ridge crest and are continually filled by magma
Figure 9.12  Continental Rifting derived from the hot, partially molten mantle below. In
A divergent plate boundary is the site of the breakup of a conti- this way, new oceanic crust continually arises at the summit
nent and new ocean formation. of the ridge, and all previously formed ocean floor progres-
sively slides further and further apart. As we learned in
the ocean continues to open, come to lie far from the diver- Chapter 2, the process is like inserting a series of books
gent plate boundary along which they first formed. The into the center of a bookshelf such that the newer books
Atlantic Ocean, for example, is largely bordered by passive push the older ones aside. As older oceanic lithosphere is
margins that first started to form as continental rifts during carried away from the ridge, it cools, contracts, and sub-
the breakup of Pangea, but now lie far from the Mid-Atlantic sides. It also thickens because the asthenospheric mantle
Ridge that marks the diver- from which basalt is extracted at the ridge crest cools to
gent plate boundary today. become part of the litho-
CHECK YOUR
Just such a progression of CHECK YOUR
spheric mantle as it too moves
U N D E R S TA N D I N G
events is now taking place in U N D E R S TA N D I N G away from the ridge. If the
• What rock types might
East Africa (Fig. 9.13), where plates separate at just a few
you expect to fill a conti- • What are mid-ocean
the Great Rift Valley cuts ridges and why do they
centimeters per year, the
nental rift as it opens into
an ocean? across Ethiopia southward to stand high? ocean widens by tens of kilo-
Mozambique, a distance of meters every million years. In
4500 kilometers (2800 miles). this way, an ocean ­thousands

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 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  253

30°E 50°E of ­k ilometers across may eventually open. The ­central

Dead Sea Transform Atlantic Ocean, for example, formed about 180 million
years ago and is 6500 kilo­meters (4000 miles) wide.
A map of the age of oceanic crust (Fig. 9.14) is a confir-
mation of this process. The youngest crust occurs adjacent

Re
to modern spreading ridges, and the age of the crust in-
d
Se
a
A RA BI AN creases with distance from them. Because the spreading
PLATE ridge runs down the center of the Atlantic Ocean, the age
20°N
distribution of its oceanic crust is symmetric. The young-
est oceanic crust lies in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean,
A F RI CA N
PL AT E while the oldest occurs along its margins. In contrast, the
Fig. 9.12c
.12c spreading ridge in the Pacific Ocean is located closer to its
den
of A
Afar
Gulf eastern margin. Again, the crust is youngest adjacent to the
Triangle ridge, but the age distribution is asymmetric and the oce-
Fig. 9.12b TRIPLE anic crust in the western Pacific Ocean is significantly older
POINT
Fig. 9.12a FUTURE than that in the eastern Pacific.
T

SO MA L I
How fast do ridges spread? Direct measurements using
RIF

PLATE
E GPS show that rates of divergence on modern mid-ocean
AT
N

PL ridges vary significantly, from 17 centimeters (7 inches) per

EASTER

0°
I
year on the fast-spreading East Pacific Rise off South
L
A
M

­America, to a barely perceptible 0.1 centimeters (0.04 inches)

SO

Mt. Kilimanjaro per year in Africa’s Great Rift Valley. Spreading rates along
T

the Mid-Atlantic Ridge are considerably less than those

RIF

on  the East Pacific Rise, averaging about 3 centimeters

N
ER

ST (1.2 inches) per year. We can deduce the average spreading

rate for any segment of the mid-ocean ridge for the past
E
W

Rift valley 160  million years or so by examining the width of each

Oceanic color band in Figure 9.14. From these data, it is clear that
crust
Stretched
spreading rates in the Pacific Ocean have been greater than
Madagascar
20°S
continental those in the Atlantic Ocean for much of this time interval.
crust
Mid-ocean Figure 9.13  Great Rift Valley
ridge
The Great Rift Valley is a system of rifts along which eastern
0 500 1,000 Africa (the future Somali plate) is separating from the rest of
the continent (African plate).

Age of Ocean Floor (millions of years)

ASIA
0–3 56–66
3–5 66–84
5–23 84–113
NORTH 23–34 113–145
AMERICA 34–56 145–180
Mid
M
Mid-Atlantic
d At
A ntic
ttic
icc R
Ridge
dg
d

AFRICA

SOUTH
AMERICA d an O
Indian c
Ocean
AUSTRALIA At t c Ocean
Atlantic Oc

outher
thern O
Southern c
Ocean

o thern
r O
Southern c
Ocean

Figure 9.14  Mid-Ocean Ridge System

The age distribution of Earth’s ocean floors reveals plate divergence at mid-ocean ridges.

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 254   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

DEVELOPMENT OF MID-OCEAN RIDGES (Fig. 9.15b). The elevation of oceanic crust depends on its
Mid-ocean ridges make up the greatest mountain range on temperature and the temperature is much the same every-
Earth. They are found in all of the world’s major oceans where along the ridge crest because it is governed by the
and form an interconnected system, 65,000 kilometers heat from the mantle below. As a result, its elevation is
(40,000 miles) in length, that girdles the globe like a seam quite constant. Away from the ridge (and the mantle heat
on a baseball. Although their slopes are gentle, they consis- source beneath it), the temperature of the crust decreases
tently rise 2 to 3 kilometers (1 to 2 miles) above the abyssal and the crust subsides to the level of the abyssal plain.
plains of the surrounding ocean floor. Only rarely do their However, the distance the crust moves away from the ridge
summits stand above sea level, and only in Iceland is a sig- before it subsides to that level depends on the spreading
nificant portion of a mid-ocean ridge (the Mid-Atlantic rate. Along slow-spreading ridges, the ocean floor does
Ridge) exposed. not move far before cooling so that subsidence to the level
Mid-ocean ridges are a product of extension and sepa- of the abyssal plain occurs close to the ridge. Along fast-
ration. The rift valley at the ridge crests, where basaltic spreading ridges, on the other hand, the ocean floor moves
lavas erupt to create new oceanic crust as the seafloor much further away from the ridge before it cools and sub-
spreads, is evidence of this extension. Mid-ocean ridges are sides to the level of the abyssal plain. Thus the slow-spreading
high, not because they are being compressed, but because Mid-Atlantic Ridge is narrow and steep, whereas the fast-
they are swollen with heat, being thermally buoyed by spreading East Pacific Rise is broad and gentle. In both cases,
the hot mantle beneath. As seafloor spreading carries the the elevation of the seafloor corresponds to its age; only the
oceanic crust away from the ridge, the cooling seabed sub- spreading rates differ.
sides and ultimately becomes part of the flat abyssal plain
of the deep ocean. Insert additional
Rift valleys continue to develop at the books here
crests of mid-ocean ridges for the same Force of gravity
reason that they form where continents are compressional
tearing apart. The influence of mantle heat
GEOLOG

Y G
not only uplifts the mid-ocean ridge, it also

LO
RA
stretches the oceanic crust, causing it to settle
NE
MI
Y

at the crest of the ridge. As a result of this

continual settling, mid-ocean ridges are
heavily faulted regions that are prone to Tablecloth Tablecloth
moving on rollers moving on rollers
earthquakes (see Fig. 9.11). However, because
seismic activity can occur only in brittle
Extensional force Extensional force
rocks and the rigid crust is thin at the summit
of mid-ocean ridges, these earthquakes are Extra tablecloth
coming into rollers from beneath
relatively shallow, most being confined to
(a)
depths of less than 5 kilometers (3 miles). The
restriction of these earthquakes to a narrow
band along the ridge crest shows that only Rift valley Wate
aterr
Water 2 km (1.2 mi)
here, where spreading is taking place, are the
fault blocks actively settling. The mechanism Subsidence
3 km (1.9 mi)
in 10 m.y.
of settling can be likened to the collapse of a
row of unsupported books on a bookshelf. If
an additional book is inserted into the middle Slow spreading
of the row, and the row has no bookends, the
books tip over and slide against each other Rift valley Wate
aterr
Water 2 km (1.2 mi)
as they fall (Fig. 9.15a). The pattern formed
by the fallen books is similar to that produced Subsidence
in 10 m.y. 3 km (1.9 mi)
by the collapse of fault blocks at mid-ocean
ridges.
Although geologists have directly ex- Fast spreading
(b)
plored only a few hundred kilometers of the
mid-ocean ridge system (see Living on Earth: The Bizarre Figure 9.15  Features of Mid-Ocean Ridges
World of the Mid-Ocean Ridges), it has been extensively Characteristic features are associated with spreading ridges.
probed by geophysical instruments. We therefore know it (a) This bookshelf serves as a model for ridge faulting. (b) Spread-
ing rate influences ridge topography. Note that the overall
features high, jagged peaks in the Atlantic and smoother, height of the ridge is the same in both examples because this is
broader ranges in the Pacific. These differences in ridge to- governed by the mantle temperature, which is the same in both
pography reflect variations in the rate of seafloor spreading cases.

09-Nance-Chap09.indd 254 03/04/14 6:22 PM

 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  255

LIVING ON EARTH

The Bizarre World of the Mid-Ocean Ridges

T he mid-ocean ridge system is the largest geologic
­feature on Earth. It is populated by unique communi-
ties of animals, and is a natural laboratory for studying the
was penetrating the ocean crust through fractures, ab-
sorbing heat from the rocks, and returning to release that
heat at the seafloor through some form of hot spring. It
creative forces of the planet at work. Yet humans had was not until the Galapagos Rift was explored, however,
set foot on the Moon before scientists first explored that such submarine hot springs were discovered. Analysis
Earth’s mid-ocean ridges, just a little more than a mile of the hydrothermal fluid (hydrothermal literally means
below the surface of the oceans. When exploration of “hot water”) emanating from these hot springs, also called
mid-ocean ridges finally got underway, the results were hydrothermal vents, indicated that they were rich in chlo-
startling and provided insights into the nature of volcanic rine, and confirmed speculations for a submarine source
activity, the venting of superheated fluids, and the nature of chlorine in ocean water.
of the unique and delicate ecosystems (living communi- The hot springs were surrounded by extraordinary life
ties) that depend on this activity. The surveys also pro- forms that make up one of Earth’s few complex ecosystems
vided fundamental information about the composition not based on photosynthesis (see Fig. 9A). Photosynthesis
of the rocks of the ocean floor and its sediment cover, is the process by which plants convert light energy from
and confirmed scientists’ suspicions about the source of the Sun into the chemical energy they need to grow. But no
chlorine in ocean water. light reaches the floors of the oceans. Instead, the bacteria
The first exploratory dives were carried out in the early that live near deep ocean hot springs harness energy
1970s. Using submersibles, scientists explored the ocean ­liberated when the hydrogen sulfide from the hydrothermal
floor at a dive site chosen some 640 kilometers (400 miles) vent combines with oxygen in the seawater (see Fig. 9A).
southwest of the Azores in an area typical of the Mid-­ They then use this energy to convert inorganic carbon
Atlantic Ridge (Fig. 9A). dioxide in the seawater into organic compounds, a process
The site selected occurs along the divergent bound- known as chemosynthesis.
ary between the African and North American plates, The vent bacteria form the base of a food chain involv-
which are separating at about 2 centimeters (0.8 inches)/ ing animals that either live on the bacteria, live in collabo-
year. This separation is marked by a rift at the ridge ration with them (a relationship known as symbiosis), or
crest, which measures 3 to 30 kilometers (2 to 20 miles) live on the animals that eat the bacteria. Giant, foot-long
across and 1.5 kilometers (1 mile) deep. These dimen- albino clams and mussels live in the vent’s warmth by
sions are similar in scale to those of the Grand Canyon. filtering and digesting bacteria from the warm seawater,
Scientists observed that the ocean floor at this depth which contains as many as a billion bacteria per liter (see
is almost entirely volcanic, comprising basalt which Fig. 9A). Red-plumed tube worms more than 3.6 meters
drapes the valley slopes in bulbous flows called pillow (12 feet) in length also thrive near the vents where they live
lavas. Recall from Chapter 4 that these bolster-like in symbiosis with the bacteria. The bacteria pack the tube
forms are characteristic of lava extruded underwater, worm’s sack-like bodies and use oxygen filtered through
the freezing of its surface producing pillow-like bulges the tube worm’s plumes to metabolize hydrogen sulfide
when it comes into contact with seawater. Because the into food for their hosts. Higher in the food chain lie albino
interior of the pillow is still molten, the pressure eventu- anemones, crabs, and vent fish that eat the clams, mussels,
ally bursts open the pillows and stretches them into and tube worms.
tubes or bulbous extrusions. But these eruptions and Subsequent explorations found similar marine commu-
lava flows differ markedly from those on land. Instead nities at many other locations suggesting that these sea-
of hot molten streams of lava, these pillow basalts dis- floor oases are a common feature of mid-oceanic ridges.
played small red cracks that first gleamed and then Since the process is independent of the Sun and occurs in
winked out as they chilled against the near-freezing an environment shielded from ultraviolet radiation by
seawater. Unlike continental eruptions, their rapid so- ocean water, it may have a significant bearing on the origin
lidification and the enormous pressures at such great of life. Perhaps it was at Earth’s first mid-oceanic ridges
depths prevented the escape of significant quantities of rather than in shallow seas that life first developed from
gases. lifeless molecules.
More dramatic discoveries accompanied a 1979 dive to But what is the origin of the hot springs? At these
the Galapagos Rift, northeast of the Galapagos Islands in submarine vents, seawater seeps down to hot rocks
the eastern Pacific. Although it was known that the mid- beneath the ridge and is superheated to temperatures
ocean ridge system was elevated because the rocks were as high as 350°C (660°F). This hot caustic brine be-
hot, measurements taken at the dive sites found the rocks comes saturated with minerals leached from the sur-
to be cooler than expected. Why would this be the case? rounding basalt. As the superheated water spews back
Geologists at the time speculated that cold ocean water onto the ocean floor, it builds chimneys that form as the
(Continued)

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 256   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

Living on earth

The Bizarre World of the Mid-Ocean Ridges (Continued)

minerals dissolved in the vent water crystallize on sphalerite (zinc sulfide). But how exploitable these ore
meeting the near-freezing sea­w ater (see Fig. 9A). The deposits are so far from land, and who they belong to,
crystalline precipitate forms a sooty soup of particles is uncertain. However, it is clear that many major ore
that belch from the chimneys, called black smokers deposits now on land may have originally formed in this
or white smokers depending on the mineral mix. The way. As techniques to explore these resources become
minerals in the soup include iron and manganese more advanced, exploitation of the seafloor with its
oxides, zinc and copper sulfides, and a little silver. On abundant deposits and delicate ecosystems is likely to
precipitation, they form such commercially important become one of the major environmental issues of the
ore minerals as chalcopyrite (copper-iron sulfide) and twenty-first century.

PORTU G A L
C OL OMB IA SPA I N

AZOR ES
EC UADOR
North
G A LA PA G O S
GA
Atlantic M OR OC C O
PER U Ocean
South
P a c i fi c Canary Islands
Ocean A L G ER I A

NORTH
AMERICA

AFRICA

SOUTH
AMERICA

Figure 9A  Submarine Vents

Clockwise from upper left: L­ ocation of
the Azores and Galapagos Islands; a
black smoker; giant tube worms thrive
around hot springs and “chimneys” in
the Galapagos Rift.

09-Nance-Chap09.indd 256 03/04/14 6:24 PM

 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  257

But where does all the continent-continent collision is summarized here as well
CHECK YOUR oceanic lithosphere created at and we will examine it in more detail in Chapter 10. How-
U N D E R S TA N D I N G divergent plate boundaries go? ever, to understand how the overlap between two plates is
• In what way does To answer this question we achieved, we must first turn to the process responsible.
spreading rate influence must examine another type of
the shape of mid-ocean plate boundary, one that is
ridges? associated with plate collision. SUBDUCTION
We now turn to convergent Along convergent plate boundaries, two plates come to-
plate boundaries, where oce- gether and one angles down beneath the other in a process
anic crust meets it fate. known as subduction (Fig. 9.16). The inclined zone along
which this happens is a subduction zone. In general, the
9.4 SUMMARY denser plate is subducted beneath the lighter, more buoy-
ant one. These two plates are known as the lower plate and
• Divergent plate boundaries are responsible for the ­rifting upper plate, respectively.
of continents, the opening of oceans, and the development When two oceanic plates converge (Fig. 9.16a), it is the
of mid-ocean ridges and passive ­continental margins. denser of the two that is subducted. In this case, the out-
• Divergent plate boundaries are constructive plate mar- come is determined by the relative age of the converging
gins, producing new ocean crust by seafloor spreading plates. Because oceanic lithosphere cools and becomes
at mid-ocean ridges. denser as it ages, ocean-ocean convergence tends to destroy
• As a result of seafloor spreading, the crust moves away the plate with the older, denser oceanic lithosphere. In this
from mid-ocean ridges so that the seabed cools and way, old oceanic lithosphere is preferentially recycled and
subsides to form the flat abyssal plain of the deep ocean. the age of the ocean floor is kept young. This explains why
the oldest oceanic lithosphere is less than 200 million years
old—all ocean floor older than this has been preferentially
destroyed by subduction (see In Depth: Ophiolites—Clues
9.5  Convergent Boundaries: Recycling to the Structure of Oceanic Crust). Many examples of
ocean-ocean subduction occur today in the western
Crust and Building Continents ­Pacific Ocean, where the oldest oceanic crust occurs.
Assuming that the size of Earth is constant, the creation When one of the colliding plates is capped by continen-
of new lithosphere must be balanced by the destruction tal crust, the denser oceanic lithosphere angles downward
of old lithosphere. In contrast to
the maximum ages of continental Island arc
crust (up to 4 billion years), oce- Accretionary
anic crust is less than 200 million wedge
years old (see Fig. 9.14). This con- Oceanic crust Trench Oceanic crust
Sea level
trast suggests that the oceanic lith-
osphere is being preferentially Upper
Lithospheric mantle Lo we Lithospheric mantle plate
destroyed. As Figure 9.9 illustrates, r ( den
s er
the des­truction of lithosphere is ac- Asthenosphere )p
l at Rising magma
e
complished at con­ vergent plate
boundaries, where two plates over-
lap. Precisely what happens at such (a) Ocean-ocean convergence
boundaries depends on whether
Continental arc
the overlapping plates are conti-
nental or oceanic, that is, whether Accretionary
wedge
the lithosphere that is subducted Trench
Oceanic crust
is capped by continental or oce- Sea level
anic crust. Three types of conver- Continental crust
Upper
Lithospheric mantle Lo we
gent plate boundary are possible: r (de Lithospheric mantle plate
nse
ocean-ocean, ocean-continent, and Asthenosphere
r) p
l at
­continent-continent. Although the e
Rising magma
first two types of convergent plate
boundaries both consume oceanic
lithosphere, they have quite differ- (b) Ocean-continent convergence
ent characteristics, and we exam- Figure 9.16  Subduction
ine each in turn. The third type of Subduction occurs at convergent plate boundaries and can involve (a) two ocean plates,
convergent plate boundary, that of or (b) an ocean plate and a continental plate.

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 258   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

beneath it (Fig. 9.16b). The broadly granitic rocks of the (Fig. 9.17b). When the two continents collide, the one on
continental crust are less dense and, hence, far more buoy- the subducting plate is initially dragged down into the sub-
ant and more difficult to sub- duction zone. But continental lithosphere is too buoyant to
duct than the dense basalts of be subducted completely and subduction eventually comes
CHECK YOUR
the oceanic crust. A modern to a halt. Recent geophysical images show that the dense
U N D E R S TA N D I N G
example of this process subducting slab of oceanic lithosphere may conti­nue to
• What is subduction? occurs along the western sink and may eventually break off from the continent and
margin of South America, fall into the mantle.
where the oceanic Nazca Continent-continent collision involves the destruction of
plate plunges beneath the continental South ­American an ocean and the eventual termination of plate boundary ac-
plate. As we shall see in Chapter 10, this process results in tivity at the site of ocean closure. The continents and the
the formation of mountains such as the Andes. Because of plates to which they are attached become welded together
its contrast in density, oceanic lithosphere created at mid- and the mountains that are formed are stranded within a
ocean ridges tends to be destroyed and recycled, whereas single unified plate. The effects of continental collision are
buoyant continental crust is preserved. dramatic, as we shall learn in Chapter 10 when we turn our
When both converging plates carry continents, major attention to the process of mountain building.
collision ensues (Fig. 9.17). Such is the case when subduc- Prior to the terminal development of collisional moun-
tion consumes all of the oceanic lithosphere between two tains, however, other major features are characteristic of
continents, so that eventual collision between them is in- the subduction process. All subduction zones, for exam-
evitable. There are consequently two stages in the develop- ple, are marked by earthquakes, deep ocean trenches, and
ment of this type of plate boundary, one as the continents volcanoes. But whereas some subduction zones create
converge and the other when they meet. The first stage curved chains of volcanic islands, others produce explo-
­involves ocean-continent convergence and produces fea- sive volcanoes along continental margins. We discuss
tures like those described above (see Fig. 9.16b), such that these ­features and how they form in the following section.
Andean-style mountains may exist along the edge of one of
the continents long before they meet. However, as the two
continents continue to converge on each other, the oceanic CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBDUCTION ZONES
crust between them is consumed (Fig. 9.17a), culminating The downgoing oceanic plate in a subduction zone may pen-
in a second stage, that of continent-continent collision etrate deep into the mantle as a cold, rigid slab. Earthquakes
only happen in cold brittle rock, so
the earthquakes associated with
Trench Continental arc
Accretionary
subduction consequently occur at
Ocean much greater depths than the earth-
wedge
becoming narrower
quakes associated with mid-ocean
Continent Continent
Lithospheric mantle
Upper ridges. (Recall that at a mid-ocean
plate ridge, hot magma sits within a few
Low Lithospheric mantle
Asthenosphere er kilometers of the surface, so the
p la
te
Rising magma crust is rigid only at relatively shal-
low depths). In fact, earthquakes
within a subducting slab may occur
(a) Continent-continent convergence at depths as great as 650 kilometers
(400 miles), in contrast to the very
Suture zone
Young mountain shallow depths—less than 5 kilome-
Thrusts
Basin Thrusts belt Basin ters (3 miles)—typical of earth-
quakes at mid-ocean ridges.
Continental crust
Subduction zone earthquakes
Upper
plate have a variety of sources. Some sub-
Lithospheric mantle Low Lithospheric mantle duction zone earthquakes are gen-
er p
Asthenosphere
lat
e
erated where the cold, and therefore
brittle, oceanic plate bends before it
subducts. Others occur if the down-
going slab breaks up before it sinks
(b) Continent-continent collision into the mantle. But most are pro-
Figure 9.17  Collision duced by slippage along the subduc-
These figures illustrate the convergence and collision of continents. (a) When two conti- tion zone itself, where the two plates
nents converge on each other, the oceanic crust between them is first consumed. (b) In the rub together. If these earthquakes
second stage of convergence, continent-continent collision occurs. displace the overlying seabed, they

09-Nance-Chap09.indd 258 03/04/14 6:24 PM

 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  259

may also launch devastating seismic sea waves called Some 75 percent of these volcanoes lie behind the deep
tsunami (see Living on Earth: Tsunami). ocean trenches of the Pacific Ocean, where they bear witness
Because rocks absorb heat very slowly, it takes a long to the subduction of the Pacific
time for the subducting plate to heat up and become soft beneath as many as six differ-
CHECK YOUR
as it descends. Until this softening occurs, the downgoing U N D E R S TA N D I N G ent plates (see Fig. 9.11). The
slab maintains its rigidity and is capable of breaking along volcanoes fueled by this sub-
• Why is subduction asso-
brittle, earthquake-producing fractures within it, in con- duction form the 48,000 kilo-
ciated with an inclined
trast to the far hotter and more plastic asthenosphere that zone of earthquakes?
meter (30,000 mile)-long chain,
surrounds it. Subduction zone earthquakes, like those of known as the Pacific Ring of
Japan (Fig. 9.18), are consequently confined to the subducting Fire, that encircles this ocean.
lithosphere, so their points of origin, or foci, become deeper
in the direction of subduction. In fact, only in subduction Ocean-Ocean Convergence
zones can earthquakes originate from depths of more than Where the upper plate is oceanic, the volcanoes form a
100 kilometers (60 miles). curved line of islands that run parallel to the adjacent
Also recall from Chapter 2 that the site of subduction is trench (Fig. 9.19), like those of the Aleutian Islands (see
marked by a deep ocean trench where the oceanic plate Fig. 9.37) in the northern Pacific. These curved chains of
bends before sinking. Ocean trenches are produced by volcanic islands are called island arcs. The curvature of
frictional drag between the colliding plates, which causes island arcs reflects the spherical shape of Earth, and there-
the subducting plate to pull the edge of the overriding fore the curvature of the surface of the subducting slab.
plate down with it. This process creates some of the deep- As the subduction zone plunges into Earth’s interior, it
est points on the ocean floor. For example, at more than forces the trench to adopt a curved shape, just as a dent in
11,000 meters (36,000 feet) below sea level, the floor of the a ping-pong ball adopts a circular outline.
Mariana Trench in the western Pacific is the deepest point Note that these volcanoes are not formed along the plate
on Earth’s surface. This frictional drag also causes sedi- boundary itself, but instead occur in the upper plate. Ex-
ment to be scraped off the downgoing slab as it is sub- periments show that the subduction zone is too cold to
ducted. Plastered against the overriding plate, this scraped-off form large volumes of magma. However, as the subducted
sediment forms a triangular-shaped body known as an ac- lithosphere descends, it eventually becomes warm enough
cretionary wedge, a feature we will discuss in more detail to release fluids such as water vapor. These fluids trigger
in Chapter 10. Subduction is also marked by curved lines of melting in the overlying mantle and the melts so produced
volcanoes known as volcanic arcs, which tower above the rise through the upper plate to fuel volcanoes at Earth’s
trench and are fueled by ascending magma that forms surface.
above the downgoing slab as it plunges into Earth’s interior Where the subducting oceanic lithosphere is very old,
(see Fig. 9.16). the subduction zone is commonly very steep because the

Japan

Japan Sea Island arc

U
H

S
N
O
H
Trench
0 km
Continental crust

Lithospheric Lithospheric mantle

mantle
–100 km

Asthenospheric ne
mantle tio n zo
duc
Sub
Asthenospheric mantle
–200 km

–500 km –400 km –300 km –200 km –100 km 0 100 km

Figure 9.18  Japanese Earthquakes
This cross section of Japanese earthquakes shows the close correspondence of a subducting slab with the inclined zone of earth-
quake foci (red dots).

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 260   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

LIVING ON EARTH

Tsunami
O ne of the most devastating consequences of subduc-
tion is the generation of the massive ocean waves
known as tsunamis (from the Japanese for “harbor wave”).
above the earthquake and generates powerful seismic sea
waves capable of crossing an entire ocean basin. When
these waves reach the coastline they unleash their energy
Large subduction earthquakes, like the magnitude 9.1 and cause widespread devastation.
earthquake that occurred off the island of Sumatra’s north- Tsunamis are commonly generated along locked (jammed
west coast in December 2004, and the magnitude 9.0 together) segments of a subduction zone when stresses
Tōhoku earthquake that struck eastern Japan in March built up over a long period are suddenly released. If
2011, release vast amounts of energy and cause signifi- the two plates at a subduction zone lock together while
cant vertical movement of the seabed. When this occurs, a the stress from plate motion continues, the front of the
portion of the energy is transferred to the ocean water overriding plate is dragged downward, slowly storing

Plates locked
together
Sumatra
Indian Ocean

Plate motion Upper plate

Lower plate

Prior to earthquake

Overlying water Plates abruptly

pushed away release.
from shore

Upper plate
Lower plate

Earthquake

Plates locked Water returns to

once more shore as tsunami.
Figure 9B  Generation of
Tsunami
Tsunamis are formed above sub-
duction zones as a result of the
drag and release of the upper
Upper plate plate (red line) by the lower one.
Lower plate The overlying ocean water is first
pushed away from the shore, only
to return as a tsunami. In the
case of the Sumatra earthquake,
the tsunami was generated about
10 minutes after the earthquake,
10 minutes after earthquake
slamming into the coast of
­Sumatra just 15 minutes later.

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 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  261

energy like a stretched spring. Finally, it recoils upward, feet high. But the shallower ­seafloor close to land com-
generating a powerful earthquake that releases the presses the wave and focuses its power into a series of
stored energy, lifting the seabed and the ocean water major waves that can reach heights of up to 40 meters
above (Fig. 9B). (130 feet).
So unlike a normal wave, which concentrates its Following the Sumatra earthquake, a killer tsunami
energy at the surface of the sea, a tsunami carries its sped across the Indian Ocean like a ripple across a pond
energy from the ocean bottom (where the displacement but at speeds of about 800 kilometers (500 miles) per hour
occurs) to the surface. Ships at sea scarcely notice (Fig. 9C). Slamming first into Sumatra (Fig. 9D) and
a tsunami passing, for in the deep ocean a tsunami then ­Thailand, Sri Lanka, and India just two hours later,
raises only a broad, gentle swell no more than a few the waves killed over 230,000 people.

A 30 minutes after earthquake B 2 hours after earthquake

C 3.5 hours after earthquake D 5.5 hours after earthquake

Figure 9C  Tsunami following Sumatra Earthquake
This is a computer simulation of the tsunami generated by the 2004 Sumatra earthquake: (a) 30 minutes after
earthquake, (b) after 2 hours, (c) after 3.5 hours, (d) after 5.5 hours. The tsunami crossed the entire Indian Ocean to
reach South Africa 11 hours later.
(Continued)

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 262   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

Living on earth

Tsunami (Continued)
Only five years later, another massive subduction earth- Because it is almost entirely surrounded by subduction
quake off the coast of Japan, the strongest ever recorded in zones, it is the Pacific Ocean that is most at risk for ­t sunamis,
that country, launched a devastating tsunami that slammed and here an oceanwide tsunami warning system exists.
into Japan’s east coast half an hour later (Fig. 9E). Locally Based in Hawaii, this detects tsunami-generating earth-
reaching a height of 40 meters (130 feet), the waves obliter- quakes and predicts the time of the tsunami’s arrival. In this
ated coastal towns, caused meltdowns and radiation release way, those areas at risk can be alerted before the ­t sunami
at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant, and claimed waves arrive and the potential loss of life is greatly reduced.
the lives of almost 20,000 people. In 2011, this was the case for the Japanese tsunami for
Crossing the entire Pacific Ocean, the tsunami reached those living on the Pacific rim, but in Japan itself there was
California and Oregon as a surge up to 2.4 meters (8 feet) little time to warn the affected population because of its
high some ten hours later, damaging docks and harbors and proximity to the earthquake site. In the Indian Ocean, where
causing over $10 million in damage. When it eventually tsunamis are less frequent, no such early warning system
reached the ice shelf of Antarctica, almost 18 hours after the exists. As a result, the death toll of the 2004 Sumatra tsunami
earthquake, the tsunami broke off an iceberg the size of was far higher.
­Manhattan Island.

Figure 9D  Tsunami Damage in Sumatra Figure 9E  Tsunami Comes Ashore
A coastal village in Sumatra lies obliterated by the tsunami This aerial view shows a tsunami wave coming ashore at
launched by the 2004 Sumatra earthquake. Traveling inland, ­Iwanuma on the east coast of Japan on March 11, 2011. The
the wave reached a height of 30 meters (100 feet). 4-meter (13-foot) tsunami swept boats, cars, buildings,
and tons of debris miles inland.

downgoing slab is denser than the underlying astheno- basin it opens behind the arc is a back-arc basin floored by
sphere. As a result, the slab sinks into the asthenosphere, oceanic crust. Much of the western Pacific Ocean is under-
rolling back oceanward as it does so (Fig. 9.20). You can lain by old, dense oceanic lithosphere (see Fig 9.14). As a
mimic this “roll back” by holding a long horizontal sheet of result, this region has been particularly affected by sub-
thin cardboard at one end. Because cardboard is denser duction zone roll-back and back-arc spreading. This ex-
than air, its unsupported free end falls downward and the plains the presence of seas between the islands of the
sheet rolls back toward you. The action of this roll back may western Pacific and the coastline of Asia (see Fig. 9.18). The
tug the upper plate behind the arc, causing its oceanic crust floors of the Sea of Japan and the Philippine Sea, for exam-
to fracture. As molten rock in the mantle rises to fill the ple, were formed by back-arc spreading.
opening fracture, a small spreading zone is created behind As we saw in Figure 9.19, the volcanoes that make up
the island arc, like a miniature version of a mid-ocean ridge an island arc are the product of subduction and occur on
(see Fig. 9.19). This process is back-arc spreading, and the the upper plate. As the downgoing oceanic slab angles into

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 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  263

Island arc above Trench Arc-trench gap

subduction zone.

Oc
ea
ni
c pl
Oce

at
e
ani

Deep ocean Oceanic

c

crust
pla

trench
te

Lithospheric Oceanic
mantle lithosphere

Asthenospheric
mantle
Magma

Ping pong ball

Sedimentary rocks scraped
off downgoing slab form
accretionary wedge.
ne

Dent
zo
n
tio

Water driven off descending slab

uc
bd

triggers melting in mantle wedge.

Su

Rising melt fuels volcanic arc.

shape of the Earth, just as a dent in a

ping-pong ball adopts a circular outline.

Figure 9.19  Ocean-Ocean Convergence

Subduction beneath oceanic crust produces a curved island arc of predominantly basaltic volcanoes. The curvature of island arcs
and the trench reflect the spherical shape of Earth just as a dent in a Ping-Pong ball adopts a circular outline. The volcanoes are not
formed along the plate boundary; they occur in the upper plate.

Earth’s interior it is heated and, when the temperatures for melting. The resulting magmas, like all melts from the
become high enough, the subducted oceanic crust releases mantle (as we learned in Chapter 4), are basaltic in com-
water and other gases formerly trapped in minerals and position. Rising through the overlying oceanic plate, the
fractures. Experiments show that this occurs when the magmas may reach the surface where eruptions build an
subducted lithosphere reaches a depth of about 100 kilo- arc-shaped line of largely basaltic volcanoes parallel to the
meters (60 miles). The released fluids rise into the wedge- trench.
shaped area of mantle (or mantle wedge) above the The gap between the trench and the arcuate line of vol-
subduction zone where they promote melting of the canic islands (the “arc-trench gap”; see Fig. 9.19) reflects
mantle rocks. They do so in the angle of subduction. Magmas cannot be produced until
two ways: (i) the water boiled the downgoing slab becomes hot enough to release its
CHECK YOUR
off the slab carries heat with trapped gases, which requires the slab to reach depths of
U N D E R S TA N D I N G
it, which raises the tempera- 100 kilometers (60 miles) or more. The volcanoes, which
• Why are oceanic
ture of the mantle wedge, form above the point at which melting in the mantle first
trenches the sites of
and (ii) the invading water occurs, consequently lie behind the trench, and so (unlike
­shallow earthquake
­activity but not volcanic
molecules tug at the bonds in earthquakes) are geographically displaced from the plate
activity? the mantle minerals and boundary.
weaken them, thereby lower- Because steeply dipping subduction zones attain this
ing the temperature required depth closer to the trench than shallow-dipping ones, the arc

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 264   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

Arc the neighboring volcanic arc. Like-

wise, the position of the arc always
Oceanic crust Trench defines the upper plate because it is
in the upper plate where arc mag-
Continental crust matism always occurs. Deep ocean
Lithospheric mantle Subduct
in g sl Lithospheric mantle trenches, inclined zones of earth-
ab
quakes, island arcs, and back-arc
Circulation basins are all features typical of
subduction involving ocean-ocean
convergence. Volcanism is largely
Heavy oceanic
slab collapses basaltic, and the distance between
Stage 1
into the mantle. the trench and arc reflects the angle
of subduction. Some of these features
are also typical of ocean-continent
Trench migrates Arc migrates Back-arc basin opens as arc
convergence but, as we shall see,
oceanward. oceanward. A
Arc moves oceanward and the others differ markedly.
plate behind is tugged.
Trench
arc b
Back-arc a n
asi
basin Ocean-Continent Convergence
When the upper plate is continen-
Subduct tal, magma rising from the sub-
in g sl
ab duction zone causes uplift of the
continent’s leading edge to pro-
duce a continental arc—a volcanic
mountain range parallel to the
Heavy oceanic coast like that of the Andes Moun-
Stage 2 slab rolls back tains in South America (Fig. 9.21).
as it collapses. (We will return to examine the
origin of these mountains and
their relationship to subduction
Arc in Chapter 10.)
Trench Oceanic crust
As with ocean-ocean conver-
Widening back-arc basin gence, subduction beneath conti-
nents produces a deep ocean trench
Subduct and an inclined zone of earth-
in g sl
ab quakes. Roll-back and the develop-
ment of back-arc basins may also
accompany ocean-continent con-
Circulation moves arc vergence, in which case a portion of
Roll-back oceanward and widens
back-arc basin. the continental margin and its vol-
continues.
Stage 3 canic mountains may break away
Figure 9.20  Slab Roll-Back
and move oceanward as a back-arc
basin floored by oceanic crust
These figures illustrate the roll-back of a subduction zone as a
subducting slab progressively collapses into the astheno-
opens behind it. Such is the case for the volcanic islands of
sphere. The progression is shown in three stages. Japan, which were once attached to Asia, but were sepa-
rated with the opening of the Japan Sea (see Fig. 2.16).
Unlike ocean-ocean convergence, subduction beneath
continents produces a volcanic arc amid mountains and
produced is also closer to the trench, resulting in a compara- results in volcanic eruptions that are often highly explo-
tively narrow “arc-trench gap.” In either case, however, sive. Such continental margins are therefore referred to as
the relative position of the arc active continental margins since they coincide with a
CHECK YOUR and trench can be used to plate boundary and so are tectonically active, unlike the
U N D E R S TA N D I N G determine the direction or passive continental margins produced by ocean opening.
• How does subduction
polarity of subduction, be- Ocean-continent convergence along active continental
fuel volcanoes? cause the subduction zone margins shrinks the size of oceans, as dense basaltic ocean
always angles down from the floor is subducted beneath more buoyant continental
trench toward and ­ beneath lithosphere.

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 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  265

Chain of active volcanoes

lie above subduction zone Because of its thickness,
in coastal mountain belt. much of rising magma
cools within crust to
form granitic plutons.
Ocean trench
up to 7km deep Molten rock
rises to build
up continental
crust.

Co
nt
0 km

in
en
ta
lp
ental
Contin

la
Oc

te
50 km
ea

crust
nic
pla

Magma ntal
te

tal Contine re
ntinen lithosph
e
Accretionary Subco eric
h
wedge lithosp
Oceanic mantle
crust
Subdu
ctio 150 km
Sea lev
el n zon
e
7 km Plate breaks Descending plate
eanic
Suboc eric mantle along faults
Oceanic re o s p h where it starts overlying mantle.
e lith
lithosph to bend.
Water driven off descend-
ing slab triggers melting in
100 km overlying mantle wedge. 300 km

heric
nosp
Asthe
n t le
ma

Figure 9.21  Ocean-Continent Convergence

Subduction beneath continental crust produces a continental arc comprising coastal mountain belts, such as the Andes, with andes-
itic or rhyolitic volcanoes.

As is the case for convergence between oceanic plates, the felsic (andesitic or rhyolitic) in composition (see Fig. 4.12),
magmas produced above these subduction zones are mainly and are rich in liquefied gases under tremendous pressure,
basaltic, and are formed by partial melting in the overlying giving vent to explosive volcanic eruptions.
mantle wedge where melting is triggered by the addition Recall from Chapter 4 that magma chambers can be
of water and other gases from the subducted oceanic like pressure cookers with lids of brittle crust. As the
crust. Where the upper plate is continental, however, these pressure within the chamber builds, cracks appear in
fluid-charged mafic magmas must push their way through the crustal lid, which are relentlessly exploited by the
the overlying continental crust and often pond beneath it overpressured magma. As pods of melt rise to fill near-
before doing so. The ascending fluid-charged magma is surface magma chambers, the gases trapped within
an efficient transporter of heat and promotes partial melt- them expand. This expansion fractures the overlying
ing of the overlying continental crust to produce granitic rock, enabling the magma to rise still further. This, in
melts. These coexisting but compositionally contrasting turn, allows the magma to surge upward, culminating in
magmas may then mix. violent explosions at the surface in which lava, gases,
Because of the thickness of continental crust, much of and solid particles are jettisoned out of the vent in the
this rising granitic magma cools deep within the crust to form of a pyroclastic eruption.
form granitic plutons. But some reaches the surface where The devastating pyroclastic eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in
it becomes the fuel for active volcanoes. Unlike basalt the Philippines in June 1991 (Fig. 9.22), exemplifies the
magmas, which are very fluid and permit their dissolved often explosive volcanism associated with ocean-continent
gases to escape easily, continental crustal melts are more convergence. This eruption, the largest in over 80 years,
viscous because they are richer in silica, which tends to blasted 5.5 cubic kilometers (1.3 cubic miles) of ash and
make melts sticky. The melts are generally intermediate to some 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere

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 266   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

Figure 9.22  Mt. Pinatubo

This photo of the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo on June 15, 1991, was taken from Clarke Air Force Base in the Philippines.

in a matter of hours. By blocking out sunlight, this blanket SUBDUCTION AND THE GROWTH
of gas and dust cooled the planet by a degree or so for sev- OF CONTINENTS
eral years (see Fig. 1.6). Subduction of dense oceanic lithosphere is nature’s vast
Subduction zone volcanism stands in sharp contrast ­recycling program. As dense oceanic lithosphere is de-
to the generally passive or quiescent volcanism of mid- stroyed by subduction, its destruction triggers melting and
ocean ridges. Mid-ocean ridges do not form such serious the ascent of more buoyant magmas which cool to form
“pressure cookers,” because they lack a thick crustal lid and new crust in island arcs and the volcanic mountain belts of
the basalt magmas they produce are both less viscous and continental arcs. This new crust is more felsic, and hence
less gas-charged than the magmas of subduction zones. more buoyant, than that of the ocean floors. Because of this
Mid-ocean ridges are also highly fractured areas that buoyancy and the elevation of their crust, island arcs, once
facilitate the ascent of magma rather than allowing the formed, generally resist being subducted. Instead, they
buildup of pressure. Mid-ocean ridge volcanism is exem- tend, over time, to coalesce into larger composite bodies
plified by the lava fountains and fast-flowing lava flows through collisions among themselves, or become welded to
­witnessed on the island of Iceland, which sits astride the the leading edge of larger continents if they are swept into
Mid-Atlantic Ridge. ocean-continent collision zones. In this way, they add to
Continental arcs rather than island arcs are therefore the continents so that continental crust can ultimately be
typical of ocean-continent convergence. At the same viewed as a product of subduction and the destruction of
time, volcanism tends to be explosive and is generally of oceanic lithosphere. Because ocean-continent subduction
a more silica-rich andesitic or rhyolitic composition zones where these processes take place can form only at
rather than basaltic. Each of these characteristics re- continental margins, subduction-zone magmas and collid-
flects the presence of a continental plate above the sub- ing island arcs are typically added to the edge of conti-
duction zone. nents. As a result, continents grow sideways with time and

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 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  267

IN DEPTH

Ophiolites—Clues to the Structure of Oceanic Crust

M ost of the ocean floor is hidden from direct observa-
tion by a cover of ocean water. Rocks of the o­ ceanic
crust are also quite rare in the geologic record because of
pillow lavas is a layer dominated by dikes that represent
mafic magma that solidified in conduits leading from the
magma chamber to the surface. The repeated opening of
the efficient subduction of oceanic lithosphere by plate fractures by seafloor spreading creates dike after dike,
tectonics. In rare instances, however, sections of oceanic producing a complex of sheeted dikes. Below these lie
lithosphere may escape this process. This occurs most coarse-grained mafic rocks called gabbros, which formed
commonly near subduction zones. Fragments of ocean from the slow crystallization of magma that once filled
floor preserved in this way are called ophiolites, from the the magma chamber beneath an oceanic ridge. At the
Greek ophis meaning “serpent.” The name reflects the base of the sequence are dark, heavy, magnesium- and
blotchy green, snakelike appearance of some of the rocks iron-rich ultramafic rocks called peridotites. Some of these
that ophiolites contain. peridotites are thought to have formed on the floor of the
Some ophiolites, such as the Troodos Complex of magma chamber that fed the overlying dikes and lavas.
Cyprus, preserve a complete cross section of seafloor Here heavy crystals settling out of the magma chamber as
that demonstrates how the oceanic lithosphere forms it cooled would have slowly ­accumulated to produce con-
(Fig. 9F). At the top of the sequence are deep-ocean sedi- centrated layers of early crystallizing magnesium- and
ments laid down in the ancient sea. Directly beneath iron-rich minerals (see Chapter 4). Other peridotites, how-
these sediments are bulbous pillow lavas, which formed ever, are upper mantle rocks left behind after partial melt-
when basalt magma was extruded onto the seabed and ing had extracted the basaltic magma to form the overlying
chilled against seawater (see Chapter 4). Beneath the oceanic crust.

Seismic Layers

1 Marine sediment Thin-bedded

sediment

2 Pillow basalt and Pillow basalt and

sheeted dikes sheeted dikes
Depth 7 km

? Gabbro
intrusions
?
Gabbro
3 intrusions
Figure 9F  Ophiolite Sequence
Compare the structure of oceanic crust deter-
?
mined from seismic studies and drilling,
shown on the left, to the typical ophiolite
Moho sequence, like that of the Troodos Complex in
Mantle Serpentinized
? Cyprus, found in mountain belts on land,
shown on the right. Note that thicknesses are
­approximate because the sequence is usually
Oceanic lithosphere Ophiolite sequence faulted.

so often have a nucleus of ancient rocks surrounded by pro- in which case the product is an island arc, or it may be con-
gressively younger ones. We will return to the dramatic sumed below continental crust, in which case a continental
story of collision and its role in the growth of continents arc of volcanic mountains is formed. Subduction causes
when we examine mountain building in more detail in magmatism, which may be largely plutonic or mostly
Chapter 10. ­volcanic, and fuels volcanoes that may be basaltic and qui-
The material we have covered in Section 9.5 serves to escent, or inter­mediate to felsic and highly explosive. Sub-
emphasize the wide range of processes associated with duction also leads to collision and, as we shall learn in
the subduction of oceanic lithosphere at convergent plate Chapter 10, this may affect quite small regions, or may be
boundaries. Subduction may occur beneath oceanic crust, climactic and involve entire continents. No other type of

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 268   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

plate boundary exhibits such

CHECK YOUR diversity and, as we shall see Transform plate
1
U N D E R S TA N D I N G in Section 9.6, the complexity boundrary
• What features of ocean- of convergent margins con-
ocean convergence are trasts with the comparative B
also typical of ocean-­ simplicity of the third and A
continent convergence? last type of plate boundary—
that of transform faults.

2
9.5 SUMMARY Lithosphere
• At convergent plate boundaries the denser plate angles
down, or is subducted, beneath the more buoyant one. Asthenosphere
This boundary is characterized by earthquake-prone
subduction zones, above which magmas form.
• Ocean-ocean convergence produces deep ocean Figure 9.23  Transform Boundary
trenches and island arcs such as the Aleutians. This transform plate boundary (A-B) links two subduction zones
• Ocean-continent convergence produces continental (1, 2). Note that motion on the transform fault abruptly ends at
arcs such as the Andes that are home to ­explosive either end of the fault, where it gives way to, or is “transformed”
into, convergent plate motion. In this example, the transform fault
volcanoes. transfers the convergent motion from one subduction zone to the
other. The hole cut into the lithosphere is for viewing purposes.

9.6 Transform Boundaries: elastic energy like a spring. Finally, when the “spring”
snaps, rocks on either side of the fault jerk violently past
Fracturing the Crust each other and earthquake shock waves are sent out in
Transform plate boundaries are major fractures in the all directions. Such stick-slip motion is typical of many
­lithosphere, known as transform faults, along which one faults, including transform faults, and accounts for the
plate slides by another. Most transform faults link plate earthquakes that are often associated with faults. Since
boundaries on the ocean floor so that the earthquakes the fault movement occurs close to the surface, usually at
produced by their jarring motion pose little threat to
­ depths of less than 20 kilometers (12 miles), earthquakes
human populations. But some intersect continents and associated with transform plate boundaries on land are
generate earthquakes that pose a serious
threat to society. Like wounds that never
properly heal, the fractures themselves
remain zones of weakness for hundreds of
millions of years after motion on the plate
boundary has ceased.
Plate motion along transform faults is
horizontal. Hence, the plate boundary is a
“conservative” one, the transform fault
simply being the link from one active plate
boundary to another. Most transform
faults link two segments of an oceanic
ridge. But they may also be the link be-
tween an ocean ridge and a subduction
zone, or the link between two subduction
zones. So at either end of a transform fault,
the movement on the fault abruptly ends
and gives way to (or is “transformed” into)
movement of another kind, such as spread-
ing, subduction, or transform motion on Figure 9.24  Haitian Earthquake
another fault (Fig. 9.23). The Haitian National Palace in Port-au-Prince, Haiti (the second
The transform fault itself is rarely smooth. If the rocks floor of which completely collapsed), was heavily damaged by
the devastating earthquake of January 12, 2010. The magnitude
along a transform fault lock while the stress from plate 7 earthquake was generated by motion along the northern
motion continues, strain builds up on either side of the transform boundary of the Caribbean plate at a depth of just
fault so that the rocks slowly bend or deform, storing up 13 kilometers (8 miles).

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 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  269

often more damaging than deeper ones of similar magni- right of each ridge segment must move to the right. Only
tude. Such was the case for the destructive earthquake in between the offset ridge crests is the seafloor moving in op-
Haiti in January 2010, which devastated the country’s posite directions, so only this segment is a transform fault
capital city of Port-au-Prince (Fig. 9.24). Caused by abrupt separating different plates. Likewise, it is only this segment
movement along the transform fault that forms the north- that is seismically active. Beyond the offset ridge crests, the
ern boundary of the Caribbean plate (see Fig. 2.19), the seafloor moves in the same direction on either side, so the
focus of this magnitude 7 earthquake lay at a depth of fracture is merely a seismically inactive scar and the litho-
only 13 kilometers (8 miles). As a result, the city felt the sphere on both sides belongs to the same plate. Earth-
full force of the earthquake, which proved to be among quakes on oceanic transforms are generally both frequent
the deadliest in history—one estimate placing the number and shallow. However, they do not generate tsunami because
of fatalities at 316,000. the motion on a transform fault is largely horizontal, so that
Transform boundaries are of two principal types: Oceanic the seabed is not lifted and seawater is not displaced upward
transforms, which link offset mid-ocean ridges and Conti- as it is with the ­tsunami-launching earthquakes of subduc-
nental transforms, which separate two continental plates. tion zones.
In this section, we discuss each type in turn and then dis- It is thought that transform offsets in mid-ocean ridges
cuss some famous examples of each. result when two oceanic plates begin to diverge along a
curved boundary (Fig. 9.27a). At that point, the original
curves are forced to readjust into a series of right-angle
OCEANIC TRANSFORMS segments. Offsets may also be inherited from faults that
Transform faults are most common in oceanic settings were active during the initial continental rifting stage of
where they link two segments of a mid-ocean ridge that ocean creation (Fig. 9.27b) where preexisting lines of
are offset from each other. They are perpendicular to the weakness in the continent produced rifts at an angle to the
ridge crests, producing a rectilinear pattern of ridges direction of spreading. As the continents begin to sepa-
and transforms that is characteristic of spreading centers rate, these lines of weakness
(Fig. 9.25). CHECK YOUR
evolve into transform faults
At first glance, it looks like the mid-ocean ridges were U N D E R S TA N D I N G that offset the developing
once continuous and were then offset by horizontal move- ridge segments. The geom-
• What is thought to cause
ments along the transform faults. But the direction of move- transform offsets in mid-
etry of the new ocean may
ment along oceanic transforms is precisely the opposite of ocean ridges? be  profoundly influenced by
that which seems to produce the ridge offsets. In Figure 9.26, preexisting weaknesses in the
for example, the ridge is offset to the left. However, the direc- flanking continents.
tion of movement is imposed by seafloor spreading at the Other oceanic transform faults link mid-ocean ridges to
ridge crests. Because of seafloor spreading, the crust to the subduction zones or link one subduction zone to another
(see Figs. 9.9 and 9.23). In so doing,
transform faults enable movement of
oceanic lithosphere from the site of its
creation to that of its destruction. In the
northeastern Pacific, for example, the
Mendocino transform fault permits oce-
anic crust of the Juan de Fuca plate to be
transported to the Cascade subduction
zone beneath the Pacific Northwest,
Mid-Atlantic whereas the Queen Charlotte transform
Ridge fault off the coast of British Columbia
transports ocean floor from the Juan de
Oceanic
transform
tr Fuca Ridge toward the Aleutian subduc-
fault tion zone beneath Alaska (Fig. 9.28).

CONTINENTAL TRANSFORMS
Only a few transform faults intersect
continents. Those that do are usually
longer and more continuous than their
Figure 9.25  Oceanic Transforms oceanic counterparts. They also lack
The submarine topography of the central and northern Atlantic the simple rectilinear geometry of oceanic transforms. As
Ocean shows oceanic transform faults offsetting the Mid-Atlantic they cut through the various materials of the continental
Ridge at more or less right angles. crust, continental transform faults continually exploit any

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 270   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

Mid-ocean ridge weakness they encounter. As they

Inactive Fracture Zone do so, they may bend and alter
Beyond offset ridges
plates move in the same
their path. These bends along the
direction. fault zone cause small basins to
Plate B Plate A
Ridge open and produce localized areas
crest
of uplift.
Continental transform faults
Transform Fault
serve as links between other plate
Plate B Plate A
Between offset ridges boundaries. The resulting stick-
plates move in opposite slip motion threatens the sur-
directions. Oc
Oce a
ani
Oceanic
crust
cru stt
rounding region with earthquakes.
When continental transform faults
bend, the rocks on either side are
Lithospheric mantle either extended or compressed de-
pending on the direction of the
bend and the direction of move-
ment of the fault (Fig. 9.29). As a
Figure 9.26  Offset Ridge simple demonstration of this, cut a
piece of paper in two along a line with a kink in it like a Z,
Look carefully at the arrows in this figure of a transform fault
across a mid-ocean ridge. Between the two ridge crests, the and then slide the two pieces of paper along the cut line.
crust is moving in opposite directions and the fault is active. Depending on which way the paper is moved, the kink
But along the other segments, the crust is moving in the same generates either a gap between the pieces or a zone of local
direction and the fault is inactive. compression where the edges stick and the paper folds.
These two reactions mirror releasing and restraining bends
along a transform fault.
At releasing (separating) bends
in a transform fault, the crust
stretches until it breaks and col-
lapses to create a long, narrow de-
pression, called a pull-apart basin,
which may collect sediment or
become filled with water. The basin
and its contents may superficially
resemble that of a young continen-
Series of tal rift. However, pull-apart basins
right-angle are restricted to releasing bends
segments
whereas rifts are continuous linear
(a) Curved plate boundary
troughs. Examples of pull-apart
basins include the Dead Sea on the
Dead Sea Transform between Jordan
and the West Bank (Fig. 9.30), and
Rifts at an the Salton Sea on the San Andreas
angle to the Fault of southern California.
direction of
spreading
In contrast, at restraining bends
where the transform fault curves in
Weakness the other direction, plate motion
jams the blocks of crust together
creating folded mountains, called
transverse ridges, across the line of
the fault. California’s Transverse
(b) Pre-existing line of weakness Ranges, north of Los Angeles, occur
at a restraining bend in the San
Figure 9.27  Origin of Ridge Offsets
­Andreas Fault. In fact, it was movement on a buried or
Transform offsets in mid-ocean ridges occur when plates di-
“blind” fault within this bend that was responsible for the
verge. They can result from: (a) a curved plate boundary be-
tween oceanic plates; or (b) a preexisting line of weakness devastating Northridge earthquake in January 1994, which
between continental plates.

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 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  271

Transverse ridges Restraining Pull-apart Releasing

(folding) bend basin bend

ALASKA

Aleutian
subduction zone

Queen Charlotte fault Figure 9.29  Origin of Pull-Apart Basins and Transverse
Ridges
The model shows how local zones of compression and exten-
CANADA sion may occur along a transform fault leading to the develop-
ment of a pull-apart basin and transverse ridges at bends in a
transform fault.
Juan de Fuca ridge

Juan de Fuca plate claimed 61 lives and resulted in damage estimated at 20

billion dollars.
Both pull-apart basins and transverse ridges vary in
Cascade size but are often heavily faulted areas with minor volca-
subduction zone nism and hot springs. As the San Andreas Fault system il-
lustrates, both may develop simultaneously on the same
Mendocino continental transform depending on the direction of the
fracture zone bends in the fault trace.
UNITED The best known continen-
S TAT E S CHECK YOUR
tal transform faults are the
U N D E R S TA N D I N G two we just introduced: the
Dead Sea Transform, where
• What happens when
San Andreas fault a continental transform
the two plates (African and
bends? Arabian) move in the same di-
rection but at differing speeds,
PACIFIC and the San Andreas Fault,
PLATE where the adjacent plates (North American and Pacific)
move in opposite directions. We discuss these two faults in
Gulf of California more detail in the following material.

The Dead Sea Transform

The Dead Sea Transform (see Fig. 9.30) is an extension of
MEXICO Africa’s Great Rift system linking the spreading ridge in
the Red Sea to part of the convergent zone of the Taurus-
Zagros Mountains in Turkey (see Fig. 9.13). As the Arabian
plate split away from the slower moving African plate, sep-
Rivera fault
arating in a direction perpendicular to the Red Sea, hori-
zontal motion along the Dead Sea Transform caused one
side of the Jordan Valley to slip sideways past the other.
Both sides are moving north, but the Arabian plate moves
COCOS PLATE faster, causing displacement along this continental trans-
form fault. Like two athletes running in the same direction
Figure 9.28  Western North America
but at different speeds, their relative motion creates an
This map of plate boundaries along the west coast of North
offset. The Dead Sea, at over 400 meters (1300 feet) below
America shows the Queen Charlotte, Mendocino, and San
A ndreas transform faults, the Juan de Fuca and Gulf of
­ sea level, is the lowest landlocked body of water on Earth.
­California ridges, and the trenches of the Aleutian and Cascade It formed in the pull-apart basin between two overlapping
subduction zones. strands of the transform fault separating the two plates.
Relative motion between the Arabian and African plates

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 272   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

Dead Sea Transform

Arabian
Re

plate
d
Se
a

African
plate
Mediterranean Overlapping
Jordan River
Sea faults
Jerusalem
Medaba
African
Bethlehem Jordan Plate
Israel
Dead
Dead Sea
Sea
African Plate Arabian Plate

Gaza
Strip Arabian
Dead Sea Plate
occupies a
Mt. Sedom pull-apart
Egypt 10 km basin

Figure 9.30  Dead Sea Transform

The Dead Sea Transform forms the eastern margin of the Arabian plate, which is separating from Africa with the opening of the Red
Sea. The transform separates the northward moving Arabian plate (right) from the slower moving African plate (left). Overlapping
faults between Jordan and the West Bank outline a crustal depression in which the Dead Sea resides.

began 15 million years ago and the total offset along the
Dead Sea Transform has now reached almost 110 kilometers
(70 miles).

The San Andreas Fault

The San Andreas Fault system links the spreading center
in the Gulf of California to the subduction zone beneath
the Cascade Mountains (see Fig. 9.28). In California, the
fault forms a 1600-kilometer (1000 mile)-long scar most
clearly visible in the Carrizo Plain (Fig. 9.31), northwest
of Los Angeles, where offset streams testify to active
transform movement. Almost half of the over 20-meter
(65-foot) offset on these streams occurred during the
1857 Fort Tejon earthquake (Fig. 9.32). In April 1906, up
to 6.5 meters (21 feet) of abrupt movement on the San
Francisco segment of the San Andreas Fault produced
one of the worst earthquakes in US history. At magni-
tude 8.3 on the Richter scale, the San Francisco earth-
quake rippled the ground in waves 1 meter (3 feet) high
and 20 meters (65 feet) from crest to crest, tilting and
destroying buildings at least 30 kilometers (20 miles)
from the fault. However, most of the damage, and most
of the estimated 700 lives that were lost, occurred as a Figure 9.31  San Andreas Fault
result of fires ignited by overturned kerosene lamps and The San Andreas Fault on the Carizzo Plain, northwest of Los
wood stoves. Within a few days, the city of San Francisco Angeles (shown in the color photo), separates the North Ameri-
sustained over half a billion dollars in damage, and can (left) and Pacific (right) plates. The black and white photo
shows destruction in the downtown area of San Francisco follow-
almost 3000 acres of the city center lay in ruins. ing the 1906 earthquake and fire.
The San Andreas Fault separates the North American and
Pacific plates and, on average, moves at about 3.5 centimeters Fort Tejon, northwest of Los Angeles. This offset of once
(1.5 inches) per year. Volcanic rocks cut by the fault at uninterrupted volcanic rocks shows that 315 kilometers
Pinnacles National Monument, southwest of Hollister (195 miles) of movement has occurred on the fault in the
(see Fig. 9.32), are found on the other side of the fault near 23 million years since the volcanic rocks erupted. In another

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 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  273

San Andreas Fault

Garlock
Fault
SIERRA
N E VA D A
CALIFORNIA

M O J AV E
DESERT

San Andreas
Lithospheric
Santa Rosa SSacramento
acr to
o
mantle
N E VA D A

NOORTH TH
Continental crust
San Francisco 1908
A M ER I C AAN
Hayward SSaa Jose
San P
PLAT
L A T E

Loma Prieta 1989 Ho

H stter
Hollister

Pinnacles National
Monument Sierra
Sie
S ierr
rra Nevada
r Ne
Nev
vad
d

PACIFIC
PLATE

Carrizo
Ca
C
Car
arrrriz
izzo
Fault creep
Plain
PPllla n
Pla
Rate in mm per year Garlock
Ga
Gar
G rloc
o k
oc
SSanta
t
Locked or less than 5 Barbara
arb
rb
b r Sa
S
San
an
For
FFo
Fort
orr
o
5-10 TTejon
ejo
jo
on
on An
And
A ndr s
nd
Andreas
11-20 San
S
Sa
21-35 Northridge 1994 Fernando
F rnand
Fe do Sa
San
an
San
Los Angeles
Undetermined Be
Berna
n d no
nad no
Bernadino
Mtn
Mtn
Mttns
Mtns.
Major earthquakes
Salton
S to n Sea
on S
Magnitude on the
Richter scale
San Diego
5-5.9
6-6.9
7-7.9
8 and higher

Figure 9.32  Movement of the San Andreas Fault

This map of the San Andreas Fault of California shows rates of fault creep and the distribution of major (magnitude greater than 5)
earthquake epicenters.

30 million years, Los Angeles on the Pacific plate will have numerous earthquakes occur on the California-Nevada
moved north of San Francisco on the North American plate. border. This indicates that not all the plate motion is ab-
However, segments of the San Andreas Fault are not sorbed by the San Andreas Fault system and that the plate
moving at uniform rates. Some segments are not moving at boundary is really a broad
all because they are presently locked, whereas other seg- fragmented zone rather than
CHECK YOUR
ments are moving slowly but continuously—a process U N D E R S TA N D I N G a single major fault.
known as fault creep. Those with rates of fault creep of over
• Why are moving
2 centimeters (0.8 inches) per year are unlikely to experience Ancient Inactive Transform
­segments of a fault less
severe earthquakes because continuous movement ensures likely to experience
Faults
that the stresses are relieved as fast as they build up. How- ­earthquakes than locked Although both the Dead Sea
ever, other segments, like the one that runs through San segments? and San Andreas transform
Francisco, are locked and therefore are building up strain faults are active plate bound-
that must one day be released in a major earthquake. aries, ancient inactive trans-
Because locked segments on the fault stay jammed, on form faults still scar mountain belts that developed along
average, 125 years before they snap forward, the segment in ancient plate boundaries. For example, Loch Ness on
greatest danger is that north and east of Los Angeles, where ­Scotland’s Great Glen Fault is home not only to the fabled
such a jolt is now overdue since the Fort Tejon earthquake Loch Ness Monster but it also straddles part of an ancient
occurred well over 125 years ago. Figure 9.32 also shows that, transform fault that, in vivid testament to Wegener’s theory
while many earthquake epicenters lie along the fault itself, of continental drift, was torn apart with the opening of the

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 274   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

Atlantic Mid-Atlantic Ridge Scotland

Ocean Loch
Fault Ness
Great Glen
Cabot Fault Fault

Ireland
Continental
shelf edge
Newfoundland

310 million years ago Today

Figure 9.33  Great Glen and Cabot Faults

The Great Glen Fault of Scotland and the Cabot Fault of Newfoundland represent an ancient transform plate boundary that was active
310 million years ago but was severed when the Atlantic Ocean opened 180 million years ago.

Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 9.33). Some 310 million years ago, when isolated areas that lie far from any plate boundary. Termed
Europe and North America were part of the same continent, “hotspots,” these puzzling features are not readily accounted
a San Andreas-like transform fault cut across the future for by plate tectonic theory, yet they are thought to play a fun-
­islands of Newfoundland, Ireland, and Great Britain. When damental role in the breakup of continents. Their existence
the Atlantic Ocean opened about 200 million years ago, the has even been used to document plate motions. But how can
old fault broke apart so that the continuation of the Great such features be both related and unrelated to plate tectonics?
Glen Fault now lies more than 4800 kilometers (3000 miles) Although the existence of hotspots was first proposed
away in the Cabot Fault of Newfoundland. by the eminent Canadian geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson more
These ancient scars never quite heal and remain as fun- than 50 years ago, their origin is still not fully understood.
damental zones of weakness in the continental crust. In the Recall from Chapter 2, that, as their name suggests,
future, when the Atlantic Ocean starts to close and subduc- hotspots are small, isolated areas of higher than average
tion begins along its margins, these wounds will be among heat associated with volcanoes. Hot material rising through
the first to reopen. In fact, modern stresses along the eastern the mantle from deep within Earth’s interior impinges on
seaboard of North America, although far smaller than those the base of the lithosphere and give rise to localized areas
of active plate margins, generate hundreds of microseismic of volcanism—hotspots—on Earth’s surface.
events each year, many of which are sited on the ancient Although some hotspots lie on plate boundaries, most
transform faults of the Appalachian Mountains. occur in the interior region of plates. Therefore, unlike
most volcanic activity, hotspots cannot be directly tied to
processes occurring at plate boundaries. Instead, they are
9.6 SUMMARY
widely attributed to giant plumes of heat, called mantle
• Transform plate boundaries are marked by major plumes, which well up from the deep mantle. When they
crustal fractures that occur either on the ocean floor, reach the base of a plate, these mantle plumes, the existence
where they affect mid-ocean ridges, or between two of which was first proposed in 1971 by Jason Morgan at
continental plates, where they create earthquake-prone Princeton University, heat the overlying lithosphere,
faults such as the San Andreas. doming it like a blister. They also generate magmas that
• At releasing bends in continental transform faults, fuel volcanoes on the plate above, forming a “hot spot.”
pull-apart basins such as the Dead Sea are produced But the plate on which the volcano erupts is moving,
as the rocks on either side of the fault are extended. whereas the mantle plume beneath it is essentially fixed. So
Conversely, at restraining bends, transverse ridges like just as a sewing machine generates a line of stitches as the
those of California’s Transverse Ranges are formed as needle repeatedly punctures the moving cloth, a plume re-
the rocks on either side are compressed. peatedly punctures the crust as the plate moves past. In
this way, a line of extinct volcanoes is produced as the
• Ancient inactive transform faults remain as zones of
moving plate carries each hotspot-built volcano away while
weakness in the continental crust.
a new one is built over the plume. In the oceanic realm,
hotspots form volcanic islands that slowly subside and
become extinct. In tropical waters, the active volcanic
island often develops a fringing reef of corals, while the line
9.7 Hotspots: Tracking Plate of extinct volcanic islands first develop barrier reefs as they
subside and eventually become atolls. Finally, the island
Movements chain becomes a line of submerged seamounts as the ocean
Although volcanoes are characteristically associated with floor cools and subsides and the volcanoes are beveled by
plate boundaries, active volcanism also occurs in certain the sea (Fig. 9.34).

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 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  275

Active volcanic island

Barrier reef Atoll Seamount
with fringing reef

Inactive
Inactive Inactive Inactive

Oceanic Hot spot

Lithosphere Plate
crust
motion

Plume head drawn out

by plate motion
Plume

Figure 9.34  Seamount Chains

Linear chains of volcanic islands and seamounts are produced by movement of an oceanic plate over a stationary mantle plume. The
age of the islands increases to the right. According to this model, the plume originates from a thermal disturbance deep within the
mantle. The hotspot is the hot region within the plate directly above the plume.

ORIGIN OF HOTSPOTS suggested that mantle plumes come from much shallower
Although this model explains the pattern of volcanism, the sources. The number of hotspots is also uncertain, with esti-
origin of hotspots remains enigmatic because they often lie mates ranging from 20 to 120. Figure 9.36 shows the distribu-
far from plate boundaries where most volcanoes are located. tion of some of the better-known hotspots.
Given that hotspots remain in relatively fixed positions over We distinguish two types of hotspots, oceanic and con-
very long periods of time, most geologists think that the tinental, on the basis of the type of crust on which they
plumes that underlie them must arise from a very deep occur. While the origin of the two types may be the same,
source in the mantle, one that is much deeper than the base there are major differences in the nature of their volca-
of the plates. The most commonly cited explanation attri- nism, which we discuss in the following material.
butes hotspots to columns of heat that rise from a thermally
unstable layer, which exists deep within Earth’s interior at
the core-mantle boundary (Fig. 9.35). At this boundary, the OCEANIC HOTSPOTS:
solid lower mantle is in contact with the liquid outer core. EVIDENCE OF PLATE MOVEMENT
What initially creates these rising columns is speculative Oceanic hotspots provide dramatic evidence of the move-
but they are thought to rise in a manner analogous to the ment of Earth’s lithospheric plates. Best known of all
colored oils of a lava lamp. Other geologists, however, have the world’s hotspots is Hawaii. The Hawaiian-Emperor

Spreading plume

Rising plume Old plume

Core
Lower Core-mantle (a) (b) (c) (d)
mantle boundary
Asthenosphere
Crust and lithospheric mantle

Figure 9.35  Mantle Plumes

Most geoscientists believe that mantle plumes ascend from the core-mantle boundary, about 2900 kilometers (1800 miles) below
Earth’s surface (left). The ascent of a mantle plume is modeled using a buoyant solution of glucose syrup (right). (a) The plume
establishes and maintains a relatively narrow central feeder pipe known as a plume tail, and (b, c) balloons below the lithosphere
to eventually form (d) a plume head some 400–1000 kilometers in diameter. The plume causes volcanism and uplift of the litho-
spheric plate above it. As the plume material cools, it may “underplate” (adhere beneath) the lithospheric plate.

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 276   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

EURASIAN EURASIAN
PLATE Yellowstone PLATE
NORTH Azores
AMERICAN
PLATE
CARIBBEAN
PACIFIC PLATE
PLATE Canaries
COCOS
Hawaii PLATE
Galapagos Reunion
Islands SOUTH
Island
AMERICAN
PLATE AFRICAN
NAZCA
INDO- PLATE
PLATE
AUSTRALIAN
Easter
PLATE Society Island
Islands

ANTARCTIC PLATE

Hotspot Direction of plate movement

Figure 9.36  Global Distribution of Major Hotspots

seamount chain (Fig. 9.37) marks

the passage of the Pacific plate over
80 mya a plume for the past 80 million
Meiji d s years. The oldest seamounts,
Seamount 70 mya Aleutian Islan
now  eroded by time, stand at the
line’s  northern end where the Pa-
cific plate dives beneath the Aleu-
P
PAC
PACIFIC OCEAN tian Trench. Other hotspots pepper
Emperor S eam

the  Pacific. The Society ­Islands in

the southern Pacific, for example,
50 mya and  Easter Island and Darwin’s
­G alapagos Islands in the eastern
ount

40 mya ­Pacific formed over other mantle

plumes. In the Atlantic Ocean, the
s

Hawaiian-Emperor Bend Direction of

plate motion Azores and Canary Islands formed
30 mya
20 mya above plumes. Likewise, the island
of Reunion lies above a plume far
10 mya
from rifts and subduction zones in
Hawa
iian
the Indian Ocean. Because the
Ridg Kaua
Kauai 5 mya
e Hawaii source of melting lies over plumes
<1 mya in the  mantle, all of these volcanic
P
Position ­islands are overwhelmingly basaltic
mya = million years ago of Loihi in composition.
Figure 9.37  Hawaiian-Emperor Chain
The progressive increase in the
age of volcanic ­ activity to the northwest of Hawaii is
Movement of the Pacific plate over the Hawaiian hotspot has
carried away volcano after volcano to form a hotspot trail com-
­evident in the increasingly eroded—and hence older—­
posed of the Emperor Seamounts and Hawaiian Islands. The appearance and lower elevation of the volcanoes in this di-
bend between the two reveals that the Pacific seafloor once fol- rection. This apparent increase in age is also borne out by
lowed a more northerly course. The usually hidden topography radiometric dating (Fig. 9.38). Present-day volcanic activity
of the ocean floor in the northwest Pacific Ocean is shown in is observed on Mauna Loa and Kilauea, which lie over the
this view without the veneer of ocean water.
Hawaiian plume on the southeast side of Hawaii. Further

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 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  277

thinking of how a line of stitches

Kauai bends if there is a change in the di-
3.8-5.6
million years rection of movement of the cloth.
Because hotspots remain more or
less stationary, seamount chains
Molokai provide evidence of the direction
Oahu 1.3-1.8
2.3-3.3 million years and speed of the plate on which
million years they sit. Geologists can reconstruct
Maui
0-1.3 past plate configurations by sliding
million years the plate back toward the present
hotspot along the seamount track.
Direction of Thirty million years ago, for
plate motion Mauna example, the island of Midway
Loa Kilauea was located where Hawaii is today,
directly above the plume. Since
then, the Pacific Plate has moved
Hawaii
0 50 100 mi
0.7 million years 2600 kilometers (1600 miles), car-
LLoihi
0 50 100 km to present undersea rying Midway in a northwesterly
Recent A
Active volcano volcano direction away from the plume.
volcanism
Dividing distance by time, the
average rate of plate movement
Figure 9.38  Age of Hawaiian Volcanism during this time interval has been
Volcanism in the Hawaiian Islands progressively increases in almost 9 centimeters (3.5 inches) per year. Hence the kink
age to the northwest, the direction in which the Pacific plate is between the Hawaiian and Emperor chains suggested to
moving. Morgan that the presently northwest-moving Pacific plate
was moving directly north prior to 40 million years ago.
This idea has since been borne out by dating.
southeast, the submarine volcano Loihi, which is within Morgan’s proposal is further strengthened by the exis-
960 meters (3150 feet) of the sea’s surface, is inching its way tence of similar kinks of identical age in nearby hotspot
toward islandhood, and will one day become the newest trails (Fig. 9.39). In a neat geochronological fit, the kink in
member of the chain as the islands move northwest. each hotspot trail occurs in the vicinity of a 40-million-
Northwest of Kauai, the Hawaiian island chain continues year-old seamount. The
as a dotted line of atolls, sand islets, and seamounts that timing of this change in
CHECK YOUR
stretch all the way to Midway Island, a distance of 3500 kilo- U N D E R S TA N D I N G movement of the Pacific plate
meters (2200 miles). These little islands subsided as they coincides with a global reor-
• What are kinked hotspot
were transported away from the plume and have been worn ganization of plate motion
trails and how are they
flat by the sea during their long journey. But they are, in fact, produced?
thought to have been brought
among the world’s tallest mountains, built flow by flow from about by the collision of India
the ocean floor 6 kilometers (4 miles) beneath the sea to form with Asia.
a chain of more than fifty extinct volcanoes. On Hawaii,
Mauna Kea, which has lain dormant for 3600 years, is the
world’s tallest mountain, rising 10,000 meters (33,000 feet) CONTINENTAL HOTSPOTS: SOWING THE SEEDS
from the seafloor (Mt. Everest is the highest, but is not the OF CONTINENTAL BREAKUP
tallest). Mauna Kea is also the world’s largest single moun- Continental hotspots may play an active role in determin-
tain, with a volume of 40,000 cubic ­kilometers (9600 cubic ing the position of certain plate boundaries. Repeated ex-
miles). periments suggest that hotspots and their underlying
Beyond Midway Island, the hotspot track continues in plumes play a major role in the rifting of continents
the ­Emperor Seamount chain, which reaches as far as the (Fig. 9.40), first doming and then cracking the continental
Aleutian trench, a distance of 2500 kilometers (1550 miles). crust into characteristic Y-shaped rifts, and then providing
All of the extinct volcanoes in this chain have subsided the magma that rises between the diverging continents.
below sea level as they cooled over time. In keeping with These rifts meet at a triple point like that of Ethiopia’s Afar
his idea of stationary mantle plumes, Jason Morgan attrib- Triangle at the southern end of the Red Sea where the East
uted the kink between the Hawaiian and Emperor sea- African Rift meets the Gulf of Aden (see Fig. 9.13). Conti-
mount chains to a change in the direction of movement of nental hotspots may consequently play a fundamental role
the Pacific plate at the age of the seamount at the kink, in the initiation and geometry of continental breakup and
about 40 million years ago. This can be imagined by the opening of ocean basins. The hotspots in these cases

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 278   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

Emperor
Seamounts

Hawaii

Ma ert Is
Gilb
rsh
Line

all ands
Islands

and
l
Tuamotu
Islands
Austral
Easter Island
Islands
Macdonald
Seamount

Hot spot

Figure 9.39  Kinked Hotspot Trails

Kinked hotspot trajectories in the Pacific. The kink in each island chain occurred about 40 million years ago and is related to a change
in the direction of motion of the Pacific plate.

would be located in the new ocean basin once the conti-

Dome nents separated. So it is possible that some oceanic hotspots
Continent had earlier continental histories.
Typically two of the radial rifts that meet at a triple point
Continental
widen into oceans while the third may either widen as well
crust or becomes inactive to form a special type of failed rift
called an aulacogen from the Greek aulax, meaning furrow.
Aulacogens are depressions that channel major rivers into
Dome forms over mantle plume the new ocean and slowly become filled with sediment. An
excellent example of an aulacogen occurs at the elbow of
Africa’s west coast where the Benue Trough brings the River
Rift
Niger to the Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 9.41). Following continen-
tal breakup, the hotspot beneath such a triple point will ul-
timately lie near a mid-ocean ridge. This explains the large
number of hotspots located at or close to the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge as well as the mid-ocean ridges of the southern
Indian Ocean (see Fig. 9.36). The hotspot that created the
Benue Trough is thought to lie today beneath Ascension
Y-shaped rifts develop
Island in the Central Atlantic (see Living on Earth: The Re-
markable Journey of the Green Turtle in Chapter 2).
In contrast to oceanic hotspots like Hawaii, magmas
Narrow Stream produced by mantle plumes beneath continents must rise
Ocean through many kilometers of granitic continental crust. As a
Aulacogen result, the record of activity for continental hotspots sug-
Oceanic gests long volcanic silences punctuated by short cataclysmic
crust
explosions of pyroclastic material. Voluminous mantle-
derived basaltic magma contains sufficient heat to melt
Continents separate creating aulacogen
the over­lying granitic continental crust during its ascent.
Melting of continental crust produces magma with the
Figure 9.40  Continental Breakup same composition as granite. This gas-rich magma is less
Mantle plumes may create the wedges that drive continents apart. dense but more viscous than basalt, so that it retains its

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 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  279

Cretaceous Recent
Red Sea
Arabia
Y-shaped
0˚ rift Afar
East
0˚ Magma African
SOUTH Gulf
AFRICA BenuearchesRift
AMERICA Swelling magma chamber of Aden
Trough
and fractures overlying rocks.
Ascension
Island

Y-shaped rift

Recent Volume of magma erupted

Red Sea Fractures tap gas-charged rhyolite in
Arabia magma chamber releasing pressure
d
Afar
East
0˚ African
FRICA Benue Rift Gulf
Trough of Aden
Ascension
Island

Y-shaped rift

Crust collapses to form caldera.

Figure 9.41  Benue Trough

The Benue Trough is thought to be an aulacogen that formed
as a result of hotspot-facilitated continental rifting between
Africa and South America during the Cretaceous period, about
140 million years ago. The hotspot is now located beneath
Ascension Island in the central Atlantic. The East African Rift
Valley may also be an aulacogen that formed when Africa and
Arabia began separating 25 million years ago.
Figure 9.42  Formation of Yellowstone Caldera

gases as it rises, allowing pressures to build explosively. This figure illustrates four stages in the development of the
Yellowstone caldera 600,000 years ago.
Bulging beyond capacity, the ground above the magma
chamber finally cracks, releasing the pressure and trig-
gering a catastrophic eruption. Only after this eruption exploded again 1.3 million years ago and again 600,000
does the deeper basaltic magma flood out as lava flows years ago, both explosions strewing 1000 cubic kilometers
(Fig. 9.42). (240 cubic miles) of ash across the western United States
Such is the history of the Yellowstone hotspot in Wyoming, from Montana to Louisiana. In each case, collapse of the
which is manifest at Earth’s surface today by hot springs, ground following the violent escape of huge volumes of
geysers, and other hydrothermal activity. Although we do ash and lava produced massive crater-like structures.
not associate Yellowstone National Park with volcanic Recall from Chapter 4 that large, steep-walled and broadly
eruptions, huge explosions rocked the region three times in circular structures produced by the collapse of volcanoes
the last 2 million years and are likely to do so again. Each following an eruption are called calderas.
has occurred on a fairly regular schedule of once every The size of the Yellowstone caldera is so large that it was
700,000 years. The first and largest occurred about 2 mil- not discovered until detailed mapping was carried out in
lion years ago, and blew 2500 cubic kilometers (600 cubic the 1950s and 1960s. Forests and younger volcanic flows
miles) of ash skyward in an explosion 15,000 times greater now obscure much of its outline so that it is very difficult
than the 1980 explosion of Mount St. Helens. Magma to see from ground level. But its size is readily apparent

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 280   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

s­ection to the potential driving

CANADA mechanisms for plate tectonics.
Mt. Baker

9.7 SUMMARY
Mt.
Trench Rainier • Hotspots are isolated areas of
Mt. St. Columbia
River
higher than average heat that
Helens M O N TA N A
basalt are associated with volcanoes.
Most hotspots occur, not at
plate boundaries, but in
Mt. Hood Yellowstone
a plate’s interior.
0.6
Cascade • Hotspots are thought to be
Volcanic IDAHO
Chain
Basalt 1.2 produced by giant columns
4
of heat, called mantle plumes,
Crater Lake 6
WYOMING
that well up from the core-
Caldera 10 mantle boundary.
11 • Oceanic hotspots provide dra-
Mt. Shasta 12 matic evidence of the move-
Snake River
16 14 Plain ment of Earth’s tectonic plates.
Continental hotspots may play
a role in continental rifting.

Figure 9.43  Yellowstone Hotspot Track

The track of the Yellowstone hotspot (arrow) across southern 9.8 Plate Tectonics and Plate-Driving
Idaho is revealed by the flood basalts (in red) of the Snake River
Plain and the broadly circular calderas (in orange—numbers give
Mechanisms
age in millions of years) buried beneath them. Although there may be many forces influencing plate motion,
the main driving mechanism is clear. It is the flow of heat
from the interior of the planet to its surface and the return
on satellite imagery and from the park’s geology. Beneath flow into the interior as Earth cools by convection (see
the caldera, earthquake waves have detected a column of ­Science Refresher: Convection in Chapter 1). The convective
heated rock extending more than 400 kilometers (250 miles) circulation of Earth’s heated interior is powered by the energy
down into Earth’s interior, supporting the presence of a released from the decay of naturally occurring radioactive
mantle plume below the national park. Southwest of the elements in the mantle. This convective circulation locally
park, the Snake River Plain marks the passage of the North causes plates to move apart or spread, to come together or
American plate over the plume for the past 20 million years collide, or to slide past each other in shear. How convection
(Fig. 9.43). Comprising flow upon flow of basaltic lavas, actually makes the plates move, however, is still not fully un-
which have buried earlier calderas that become progres- derstood. Are they pulled from the front, pushed from
sively older to the southwest, the length of the track indi- behind, dragged from below, or is it some combination of
cates that the North American Plate has moved southwestward these? Given these options, geologists have shown that plates
over the plume at a rate of about 4 centimeters (1.6 inches) could be propelled by three types of force: slab pull, ridge
per year. push, and mantle drag (Fig. 9.44).
Because all hotspots are
• During slab pull, the weight of the subducting slab
essentially stationary, they
CHECK YOUR pulls the rest of the plate behind it toward a trench and
provide dramatic evidence
U N D E R S TA N D I N G down a subduction zone. This movement is much like a
of plate tectonics, recording
• How can continental tablecloth, which slides off a table when enough is
not only the direction but
hotspots evolve to become hanging over the edge. This gravity-driven force occurs
also the speed of plates that
oceanic hotspots? because the subducting slab is denser and heavier than
move over mantle plumes.
• In what way might the asthenosphere through which it is sinking.
They may also play an in-
hotspots drive the wedge strumental role in the • During ridge push, the plate slides downslope under
that splits continents apart?
breakup of continents and the influence of gravity toward a trench from the ridge
the opening of ocean basins. crest. Here, the elevated position of the ridge allows the
But hotspots do not tell us plate to simply slide downhill like a toboggan.
why the plates are moving. So what causes plate movement, • During mantle drag, the plates are carried by convec-
what forces are involved, and to what do they owe their tive circulation in the asthenosphere. In this case the
origin? To answer these questions, we turn in the next plates move like rafts in a moving stream.

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 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  281

Plate slides away from

elevated ridge axis under
Seamount chain
Oceanic crust Mid-ocean ridge Accretionary wedge
Continental crust

Lithospheric mantle Ridge Lithospheric mantle

push
Plume push
Mantle drag

Plate pushed Mantle Plate pulled by

away from plume heavy subducting
plume by Plate dragged by slab as it sinks.
ballooning convection currents
plume head. in mantle. Slab
Asthenospheric mantle pull

Figure 9.44  Forces That Move Plates

The forces that cause plates to move are thought to be created by gravity-driven slab-pull or ridge-push mechanisms. Mantle drag occurs
between the upper mantle and the asthenosphere and may also contribute to lithospheric plate movement, or may slow it down.

In addition to these three forces, the ballooning heads of the fastest moving. The fact that they are not suggests that
mantle plumes (see Fig. 9.35) may push plates away from mantle drag is a frictional force that opposes slab pull and
hotspots. Such “plume push” forces may be important during ridge push, and slows the plates rather than carries them.
continental rifting, given the role of mantle plumes in split- The presence of continental crust may also slow plates
ting continents (see Fig. 9.40). down. This is because the ­continental lithosphere has deep
The most important of these forces appears to be slab roots that may exert a drag as they plough through the
pull because the fastest moving plates, such as the Cocos asthenosphere, much like a sea anchor slows the move-
and Nazca plates of the eastern Pacific, are those with the ment of a boat. Clearly, there is much to be learned about
greatest lengths of subducting edges relative to their size. the driving mechanisms behind plate motion.
On the other hand, because nonsubducting plates like the
North American plate also 9.8 SUMMARY
move, ridge push must also
CHECK YOUR
be important. The role of • The plates of Earth’s outer shell collide, split apart, or
U N D E R S TA N D I N G slide past one another, driven by forces from Earth’s
mantle drag is uncertain. If it
• Which plate-driving heated interior.
was a major driving force,
mechanism is the most
important and how do
those plates with the larg- • Plates may be propelled by three types of force: slab
we know?
est  surface areas over which pull, ridge push, and mantle drag. “Plume push”
the  force could operate, like forces may also be important during continental
the Pacific plate, should be rifting.

Key Terms
accretionary wedge  259 continental shelf  251 mantle drag  280 subduction 257
active continental convergent plate mantle plume  274 subduction zone  257
margin 264 boundary 250 mantle wedge  263 transform fault  268
asthenosphere 244 divergent plate mid-ocean ridge  252 transform plate
aulacogen 278 boundary 250 Moho 246 boundary 250
back-arc basin  262 fault 251 oceanic crust  245 transverse ridge  270
back-arc hotspot 274 ophiolite 267 triple point  252
spreading 262 island arc  259 pull-apart basin  270 tsunami 259
buoyancy 246 isostasy 247 ridge push  280 upper mantle  245
continental arc  264 lithosphere 244 rift valley  251 volcanic arc  259
continental crust  245 lithospheric mantle  246 slab pull  280

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 282   PART TWO  |   THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLID EARTH

Key Concepts
9.1 PLATES ON EARTH’S SURFACE • Subduction zones generate earthquakes and are the sites
• Earth’s outer layers comprise a rigid lithosphere with a of volcanism.
weaker asthenosphere below. • Ocean-ocean convergence produces deep ocean trenches
• The lithosphere is broken into moving plates that com- and island arcs.
prise the crust and uppermost mantle. • Ocean-continent convergence produces the volcanic
• Earth’s crust is either continental or oceanic, and is sepa- mountain ranges of continental arcs.
rated from the upper mantle by the Moho.
9.6 TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES:
9.2 PLATES AND ISOSTASY FRACTURING THE CRUST
• Continental crust floats buoyantly on the mantle and, like • Transform plate boundaries are marked by major
an iceberg, stands highest where it is thickest. crustal fractures along which plates slide past each
• Dense oceanic crust is less buoyant and so forms the other.
floors of the world’s oceans. • Oceanic transform faults offset mid-ocean ridges.
• The balance between crustal elevation, crustal thickness, • Continental transforms create earthquake-prone faults
and crustal density is called isostasy. like the San Andreas.

9.3 PLATE BOUNDARIES 9.7 HOTSPOTS: TRACKING PLATE MOVEMENTS

• Plate margins interact through extension, compression, • Hotspots are solitary areas of volcanism thought to result
and shear. from mantle plumes.
• Extensional movement produces divergent boundaries, • Most hotspots occur in a plate’s interior rather than at
compressional movement produces convergent boundar- plate margins.
ies, and shear movement produces transform boundaries. • Oceanic hotspots provide a record of plate movement.
• Continental hotspots may play a role in continental rifting.
9.4 DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES: CREATING OCEANS
• Divergent plate boundaries rift continents, open oceans,
9.8 PLATE TECTONICS AND PLATE-DRIVING
produce mid-ocean ridges, and create new oceanic crust.
MECHANISMS
• Plates move in response to the flow of heat from Earth’s
9.5 CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES: RECYCLING CRUST interior.
AND BUILDING CONTINENTS • Three types of force may move plates—slab pull, ridge
• At convergent plate boundaries the denser plate is push, and mantle drag.
subducted beneath the more buoyant plate.

Study Questions
1. From the hypsometric curve (see Fig. 9.4), it is evident that 3. Explain the marked difference in the depth of earth-
there is a difference in elevation between continental and quakes at mid-ocean ridges and subduction zones.
oceanic crust. Why is this and how does it support models 4. What is back-arc spreading and how does it account for
of isostasy based on both crustal thickness and density? the presence of seas between the islands of the western
2. How does the “bookshelf” model for a mid-oceanic Pacific?
spreading ridge (see Fig. 9.15a) account for the distribu- 5. Transform faults are so called because they permit one
tion of earthquakes and age patterns of the ocean floor type of plate motion to be “transformed” into another.
(see Fig. 9.14)? What is meant by this and how is it achieved?

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 CHAPTER 9  |  Plates and Plate Boundaries  283

6. Lines of volcanic islands such as those of the Hawaiian 9. Why do earthquake foci outline the upper boundary of a
chain are not readily accounted for by plate tectonic descending slab in a subduction zone?
theory, yet can be used to deduce the direction of plate 10. Subduction zones predominantly rim the Pacific Ocean.
motion. Explain this paradox. However, the type of subduction varies significantly
7. Oceanic trenches are characterized by a deep topo- from the Andes of South America to the western Pacific.
graphic depression and abundant earthquakes. Explain Compare and contrast these variable characteristics of
how these features form. subduction and provide an explanation for them.
8. Figure 9.36 shows that the African plate is bounded pre- 11. Why does plate tectonic activity appear to be confined to
dominantly by spreading ridges. What might this mean Earth’s lithosphere?
in terms of the direction of plate motion and the pre- 12. Explain the kinked track of the seamount chains in the
dominance of hotspot activity concentrated on the plate’s Pacific Ocean.
continental crust?

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