Sag-Tension 324 PDF
Sag-Tension 324 PDF
Sag-Tension 324 PDF
SAG-TENSION CALCULATION
METHODS FOR OVERHEAD LINES
Task Force
B2.12.3
June 2007
Convenor of WG B2.12:
Secretary of WG B2.12:
Task Force 3 Leader
Task Force 3 Secretary
Copyright 2007
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N ISBN : 978-2-85873-010-0
Table of Contents
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... v
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................. i
Introduction...................................................................................................................... i
The Catenary Equation ................................................................................................... ii
Mechanical Coupling of Spans ...................................................................................... iii
Conductor Tension Limits ............................................................................................. iv
Conductor Elongation Elastic, Plastic, and Thermal .................................................. iv
Sag-tension Calculation Methods ................................................................................... v
Parameter Sensitivity ...................................................................................................... v
Conclusions.................................................................................................................... vi
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................ 1
KEY WORDS..................................................................................................................... 1
DEFINITIONS.................................................................................................................... 2
TERMS ............................................................................................................................... 5
1.0
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 7
1.1
Conductor Naming Convention .......................................................................... 7
1.2
The Catenary Clearance Envelope...................................................................... 7
2.0
THE CATENARY ................................................................................................ 10
2.1
Catenary and parabolic solutions for sag in level spans ................................... 10
2.2
Total Conductor Length.................................................................................... 12
2.3
Conductor Slack................................................................................................ 12
2.4
Total and Horizontal Tension ........................................................................... 14
2.5
Engineering accuracy of sag calculations ......................................................... 16
2.6
Effect of change in conductor loading per unit length...................................... 17
2.7
Inclined spans.................................................................................................... 18
3.0
MODELING MECHANICALLY COUPLED SPANS ....................................... 21
3.1
Mechanical Equilibrium at Suspension Points ................................................. 22
3.2
Ruling Span Sag-tension Calculations.............................................................. 26
4.0
CONDUCTOR TENSION LIMITS ..................................................................... 28
4.1
Conductor tension limits under high ice and wind loading .............................. 28
4.2
Avoiding Aeolian Vibration Fatigue ................................................................ 29
5.0
CONDUCTOR ELONGATION - ELASTIC, PLASTIC, AND THERMAL...... 31
5.1
Overview of Conductor Elongation Models ..................................................... 31
5.2
Linear Thermal and Elastic Elongation ............................................................ 34
5.2.1
Linear Elastic Strain - All Aluminium Conductors .................................. 34
5.2.2
Linear Thermal Strain All Aluminium Conductor................................. 36
5.2.3
Linear Elastic Strain - Non-Homogeneous ACSR (A1/Syz) Conductors 37
5.2.4
Linear Thermal Strain - Non-Homogeneous A1/S1x Conductor ............. 38
5.3
Simplified Plastic Elongation (SPE) Model ..................................................... 39
5.4
Experimentally Measured Plastic Elongation of Stranded Conductors ........ 43
5.4.1
Stress-strain testing of stranded conductors.............................................. 43
5.4.2
Plastic elongation under initial high loading ............................................ 47
5.4.3
Long-time Metallurgical Creep - Plastic Elongation for Persistent
Moderate Loading..................................................................................................... 49
5.4.4
Long-time Creep Plastic Elongation with non-homogeneous stranded
conductors ................................................................................................................. 53
5.4.5
Summing Plastic Elongation..................................................................... 53
6.0
SAG-TENSION CALCULATION METHODS .................................................. 54
6.1
Sag-tension for A1 Conductor with LE (Linear Elongation) Model ................ 56
6.2
Sag-tension for A1/S1A Conductor at high temperature with Simplified Plastic
Elongation (SPE) Model ............................................................................................... 58
6.3 Sag-tension Calculation with Experimental Plastic Elongation (EPE) Model ....... 61
6.3.1
Maximum conductor tension with the EPE model ................................... 61
6.3.2
Final sag-tension accounting for aluminum creep with the EPE model... 63
6.3.3
Calculating Final sag-tension at high temperature with EPE model ........ 65
7.0
CONDUCTOR PARAMETER STUDIES ........................................................... 68
7.1
Conductor Weight............................................................................................. 68
7.2
Elastic Elongation ............................................................................................. 69
7.3
Plastic Elongation ............................................................................................. 70
7.4
Thermal elongation ........................................................................................... 71
7.5
Errors at elevated temperature .......................................................................... 73
7.6
Thermal elongation at low temperature. ........................................................... 74
8.0
References............................................................................................................. 75
ii
List of Figures
Figure 1 - Catenary variation with conductor temperature, ice & wind loads, and time
after installation where Tmax is the maximum conductor temperature. ..................... i
Figure 2 Conductor Stress (H/A) and Sag (D) vs. %Slack (100*(L-S)/S) where
L=conductor length and S=Span length based on the catenary equations................. iii
Figure 3 - Conductor elongation diagram.......................................................................... iv
Figure 4 - Influence of variation in the coefficient of thermal elongation on high
temperature sag. ......................................................................................................... vi
Figure 5 Catenary variation with conductor temperature, ice & wind loads, and time
after installation where Tmax is the maximum conductor temperature. .................... 8
Figure 6 - The Catenary Curve for Level Spans ............................................................... 10
Figure 7 Catenary Stress (H/A) and Sag (D) vs. %Slack (100*(L-S)/S) for Bare Drake
ACSR in a 300 m span at a tension of 20% RTS (69.5 MPa) at 15C....................... 14
Figure 8 - Comparison of catenary y(x) and difference between exact and parabolic
approximate solution as a function of x for ACSR Drake at a tension of 28020 N.. 16
Figure 9 - Heavy radial ice buildup on a relatively small bare overhead conductor. ....... 18
Figure 10 - Sag-tension for inclined spans. ...................................................................... 19
Figure 11 - Typical strain angle structure used to terminate a transmission line section. 21
Figure 12 - Typical suspension structure .......................................................................... 22
Figure 13 - Conductor Tension Variation with Temperature for 250m and 350m "Dead
end" Spans of Drake A1/S1A (ACSR) installed to 35 kN at 15oC........................... 23
Figure 14 - Moment Forces acting on a ceramic, glass, or composite Insulator Suspension
String......................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 15 Unbalanced horizontal tension vs. horizontal deflection for a 1.8m long
Insulator String weighing 890N supporting a 300m weight-span of Drake ACSR.. 25
Figure 16 - Elongation diagram of stranded conductor in a catenary............................... 33
Figure 17 - Assumed linear stress-strain behavior of a 402-A1-37 Arbutus conductor with
and without plastic elongation. ................................................................................. 36
Figure 18 Knee-point temperature as affected by creep elongation of aluminium
strands. ...................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 19 Typical stress-strain test results with 1-hour initial curve drawn and both
initial and final modulus shown................................................................................ 44
Figure 20- Stress-strain curve for 37 strand A1 conductor............................................... 45
Figure 21 - Raw data from a stress-strain test of A1/Syz conductor ................................ 46
Figure 22 - Raw data for a stress-strain test performed on the steel core alone for the
A1/Syz conductor whose composite test results are shown in Figure 21. ................ 46
Figure 23 - Initial plastic strain as a function of tension................................................... 48
Figure 24 - Creep elongation curves resulting from a series of tests at different tension
levels, all at room temperature.................................................................................. 50
Figure 25 - Creep elongation curves for A3 stranded conductor...................................... 51
Figure 26 - Graphical determination of creep elongation for a 37 strand all aluminium
stranded conductor at a constant tension equal to 20% of the RTS over 10 years. .. 52
Figure 27 - Sag-tension calculation for A1 conductor with High wind loading............... 58
Figure 28 - Sag-tension at High Temperature with SPE model for Drake ACSR in 300 m
span. .......................................................................................................................... 60
iii
iv
List of Tables
Table 1 - Examples of Conductor Naming Methods .......................................................... 7
Table 2 - Sag & Vertical force in a 300 m inclined span with Drake ACSR at H = 28000
N................................................................................................................................ 20
Table 3 Resultant Force between 250m and 350m dead-end spans of ACSR Drake at
100oC......................................................................................................................... 25
Table 4 - Comparison of sag-tension for two spans which are mechanically independent,
perfectly coupled, and coupled with actual tension inequality. ................................ 27
Table 5 Sag-tension for maximum ice and wind load and for high temperature shown as
a function of initial stringing tension for a 300m span of Drake ACSR................... 28
Table 6 - H/w limits on unloaded conductor tension - Drake ACSR in a 300 m span. .... 30
Table 7 - Typical Linear Elastic Modulus for All Aluminium Conductors...................... 35
Table 8 - List of Conductor Final Modulus Values .......................................................... 38
Table 9 Maximum excess sag (m) due to the built-in aluminium stress posited by
Rawlins, at temperatures above the kneepoint, as estimated with the Alcoa SAG10
computer program..................................................................................................... 43
Table 10 - Initial settling and one-hour creep strain as a function of conductor type and
stress from Harvey & Larson.................................................................................... 48
Table 11 - Stress-strain data from IEC 1597 Table 3 ....................................................... 49
Table 12 - Typical Sag-tension Calculation Results where the permanent elongation of
the aluminum strands is determined by the maximum wind and ice load rather than
by metallurgical creep at everyday temperature. ...................................................... 54
Table 13 - Characteristics of 37-strand A1 and 26/7 strand A1/Sxy ................................ 56
Table 14 - "Knee-point temperatures" of A1/S1 (ACSR) as a function of stranding and
span length determined by the Alcoa graphical method. All conductors have an
aluminium strand area of 403 mm2. ......................................................................... 67
Table 15 - Table of Basic Sag-tension Sensitivities ......................................................... 73
Table 16 - Various high temperature sag errors................................................................ 73
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This technical brochure specifies and explains the primary elements of the sag-tension
calculation process, a process which is essential to the design and construction of
overhead lines. The various mathematical tools and conductor data considered herein are
used to predict sag and tension of catenaries at the full range of conductor temperatures
and ice and wind loads that occur over the rather long life of an overhead power line.
The goal of the document is not to develop a unique or best calculation method, but to
describe the overall process and explain the common calculation methods.
Introduction
Historically, for most overhead transmission lines, the sag of conductors (or tension) is
measured at the time of construction when the line is not energized. At the time of
installation, the conductors are at a temperature of 10oC to 35oC and tensioned to no more
than 10% to 30% of their rated tensile strength. Once the line is constructed, the phase
conductors may be subject to high temperatures during periods of high electrical loading
and both the lightning shield wires and phase conductors must remain intact during high
ice and wind load events for an expected useful life of 40 years or more. Under all
foreseeable conditions, the conductors must not break under high tension, fatigue under
persistent wind-induced motions, nor sag such that minimum electrical clearances are
compromised.
Span Length
GROUND LEVEL
Figure 1 - Catenary variation with conductor temperature, ice & wind loads, and
time after installation where Tmax is the maximum conductor temperature.
To assure that these conditions are met over the life of the line, the engineer must specify
initial measured (i.e. stringing) sags, based upon the following sag-tension calculations:
i
Sags and tensions after plastic elongation of the conductor due to occasional
severe ice and/or wind loads and to long-term creep elongation of aluminium
strand layers under normal everyday tension (difference in sag between the Initial
and Final Sag at 15oC in Figure 1).
Sags and tensions for all foreseen temperatures, over the life of the line, including
those (above 50oC) which may result from high electrical current loads (See sag at
maximum electrical load in Figure 1).
The maximum conductor tension under ice and wind loads which strain
structures (i.e. dead-end and angle) must withstand and the corresponding
maximum sag which must not infringe on minimum electrical clearances.
Conductor tensions during the coldest periods of winter to allow for sufficient
self-damping to prevent aeolian vibration-induced fatigue over the life of the line.
ii
200.0
15.0
180.0
13.5
160.0
12.0
STRESS [H/A]
140.0
10.5
SAG [D]
120.0
9.0
100.0
7.5
80.0
6.0
60.0
4.5
40.0
3.0
20.0
1.5
0.0
Catenary Sag - m
0.0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
% Slack [100*(L-S)/S]
Figure 2 Conductor Stress (H/A) and Sag (D) vs. %Slack (100*(L-S)/S) where
L=conductor length and S=Span length based on the catenary equations.
Manufactured Length
Settlement
& strand
deformat'n
Strain
Thermal
Strain
Elastic
Tensile
Strain
Long-time
or high
tension
plastic
Strain
iv
As discussed in the brochure, the Experimental Plastic Elongation model has several
advantages: (a) it yields realistic structure tension loads; (b) calculation of high
temperature sags with ACSR (A1/SA1) is more accurate; and (c) the plastic elongation of
the conductor can calculated based assumed loading events rather than using a typical
value based on experience.
Parameter Sensitivity
In the final section of the brochure, some insight is provided into the influence of various
key parameters used in sag-tension calculations. For example, variation in the thermal
elongation coefficient of a stranded aluminum conductor can have considerable influence
on the sags calculated for a line at high conductor temperatures. As shown in Figure 4,
the sag at 100oC (9.7 m) increases by 200 and 500 mm when the coefficient of thermal
expansion is increased by 10% and 30%, respectively.
20
Initial
40
Final
60
80
100
Final (CTE+10%)
120
140
Final (CTE+30%)
Conclusions
The sag-tension calculation process, with both exact and approximate catenary equations,
is described in some detail. Three conductor elongation models are defined and the more
complex, experimentally based model is recommended because its use allows the line
designer to estimate both high temperature sags and maximum structure tension loads
with superior accuracy.
Given the prevalence of numerical calculation tools, there is little need to use the
approximate catenary equations or the simplified elastic conductor elongation models but
the ruling span assumption of tension equalization between spans appears to be
sufficiently accurate to be used in many new line designs.
Regardless of the calculation technique and conductor elongation model selected, it is
concluded that there continues to be a need for sufficient clearance buffers in the design
of new lines and the uprating of existing lines because of uncertainties in modeling the
load sequence and detailed mechanical behavior of bare stranded overhead conductors.
vi
ABSTRACT
This brochure identifies and describes the most essential elements of the sag-tension
calculation process and the various mathematical and experimental methods used to
predict sag and tension of catenaries over the whole range of conductor temperatures and
ice and wind loads that may occur over the life of a line. The goal is not to develop a
unique calculation method, but to explain the overall process and identify the alternative
modeling methods that are available.
Calculating the sag of conductors as a function of temperature and ice/wind loads and
calculating the tension that these conductors exert on supporting structures is an essential
part of the process of designing overhead power lines. The engineer is provided with a
basic explanation of the sag-tension calculation methods that are in common use
throughout the world and with a physical understanding of the processes and
mathematical relationships that underlie these methods.
KEY WORDS
AAC (Ax) - All Aluminium Conductor, ACSR (A1/Syz) - Aluminium Conductor Steel
Reinforced, Creep Plastic Elongation, Electrical Clearance, Elastic Elongation, Plastic
Elongation, Thermal Elongation, Initial Plastic Elongation, Knee-point Temperature,
Manufactured Conductor Length, Maximum Allowable Conductor Temperature, Rated
Tensile Strength (RTS), Ruling (Equivalent) Span, Stress-strain Curves, Thermal Rating,
Weight per unit length, Weight Span, Wind Span.
DEFINITIONS
AAAC (Ax) - All Aluminium Alloy Conductor (the x identifies the type of aluminium
ally).
AAC (Ax) - All Aluminium Conductor (the x identifies the type of aluminium ally).
ACAR (A1/Ay) - Aluminium Conductor Alloy Reinforced (the y identifies the type of
aluminium alloy used for the core wires).
ACSR (A1/Syz) - Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced (y represents the type of steel
and z represents the class of zinc coating on the steel core wires).
Ampacity - The maximum constant line current which will satisfy the design, security
and safety criteria of a particular line on which the conductor is installed. In this
brochure, ampacity has the same meaning as steady-state thermal rating.
Annealing - The process wherein the tensile strength of copper or aluminium wires is
reduced at sustained high temperatures, usually above 75oC and 90oC respectively.
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials.
Creep Elongation see Elongation, Plastic
Design Loading Plastic Elongation see Elongation, Plastic
EC (grade aluminium) Electrical Conductor grade aluminium also called A1 or
1350-H19 alloy.
EHS (S3) Steel Wires - Extra High Strength steel wires for ACSR (A1/S3y).
EDS (Everyday Stress) The tension or stress that a conductor normally experiences for
most of its service life, typically at a conductor temperature of 0oC to 25oC without wind
or ice.
Electrical Clearance - The distance between energized conductors and other objects such
as conductors, structures, buildings, and earth. Minimum clearances are usually
specified by regulations.
Elongation, Elastic Bare overhead conductors elongate under tension, increasing in
length with increasing tension and decreasing in length with decreasing tension. Elastic
elongation of conductor is spring-like. The conductor returns to its original length
(unloaded length) when tension is removed.
Elongation, Plastic Aluminum strands and, to a much lesser extent, steel strands, used
in bare overhead conductors, undergo plastic (i.e. permanent) elongation as the result of
tension applied over time. Initial plastic conductor elongation includes strand
settlement and deformation which occurs during stringing and sagging (Initial Plastic
Elongation), plastic elongation which occurs during relatively brief, high tensile-load
events, and long-time metallurgical creep elongation which occurs at everyday tension
levels over the life of the line. Metallurgical creep of aluminum is accelerated at
sustained high temperatures (above 20oC). The components of plastic elongation are not
additive (e.g. the plastic elongation rate at high tension is less after the line has been in
place for 10 years than when the line is first installed).
Elongation, Thermal - Bare overhead conductors will expand or contract with changes in
temperature. The rate of expansion or contraction is dependent on the conductor material
and magnitude of temperature change. For ACSR conductors, the differential rates of
expansion also shift tensile load between the aluminum strands and steel core.
HS Steel (S2) - High Strength steel core wires for ACSR (A1/S2y).
I.A.C.S. or IACS - International Annealed Copper Standard.
IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission.
Initial Plastic Elongation see Elongation, Plastic
Knee-point Temperature - The conductor temperature above which the aluminium
strands of an ACSR (A1/S1A) conductor have no tension or go into compression.
Manufactured Conductor Length The conductor manufactured length as wound onto a
reel with little or no tension. Normally, for ACSR, the manufactured lengths of the
aluminum layers and the steel core are assumed to be the same (at zero tension) under
everyday temperatures of 15 to 20oC.
Maximum Allowable Conductor Temperature - The highest conductor temperature at
which an overhead power line can be safely operated (Also referred to as the line
design or templating temperature).
Rated Tensile Strength (RTS) - The calculated value of composite conductor tensile
strength, which indicates the minimum test value for stranded bare conductor. Similar
terms include Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS), Rated Breaking Strength (RBS), and
Calculated Breaking Load (CBL).
Ruling (Equivalent) Span - A hypothetical, equivalent level span length where the
variation of tension with conductor temperature or ice and wind load is the same as in a
series of contiguous suspension spans with perfect tension equalization between spans.
Stress-strain Curves These are plots of the complex relationships between mechanical
tensile stress and conductor elongation. In the simplest case, these curves are
TERMS
A - Aluminium coefficient of linear thermal elongation, oC-1
S - Steel coefficient of linear thermal elongation, oC-1
AS - Composite aluminium-steel coefficient of linear thermal elongation, oC-1
AS - The strain in all the strands of an ACSR conductor.
A - The strain in the aluminium strands of a stranded conductor (AAC, ACSR, etc.).
CA Total plastic elongation of aluminum strands, .
S - The strain in the steel core of an ACSR conductor.
- The total strain in any conductor including both plastic, thermal, and elastic strains,
s.
HS - The horizontal component of the tension in the steel core of an ACSR conductor.
L Length of conductor between supports, m
LH - Length of conductor under horizontal tension H, m
LREF - Reference length of conductor under horizontal tension for no ice or wind load at
everyday temperature HREF, m
S Span length, m
x Horizontal distance from conductor low point to supporting structure, m
w Conductor weight per unit length, N/m
T Total or support tension in the conductor, N
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The goal of sag-tension calculations is to predict the catenary sags and the conductor
tensions under all design conditions of conductor temperature and ice and/or wind loads.
Maximum conductor tension is an important factor in structure design. Maximum
conductor sag largely determines structure heights and locations in order to maintain
electrical clearances throughout the life of the line. Thus both the mechanical and
electrical integrity of an overhead transmission or distribution line is directly dependent
on the accuracy of sag-tension calculations.
Sag-tension calculations are necessary when transmission lines are initially designed or if
they are subsequently modified. While there are a number of different methods available,
used by engineers in different countries, this technical brochure is intended to explain the
most common methods and to provide a clear description of the most important
assumptions underlying the common methods. This is especially important when many
utilities are no longer able to support in-house experts in the subject and when new types
of conductors are becoming commercially available.
Furthermore, given the trends in many countries toward deregulation of utilities,
increased utilization of existing assets, and the often fierce opposition to building new
lines, there is a need for increased accuracy in such calculations to avoid the possibility of
electrical clearance violations.
1.1
Naming and identifying bare stranded overhead conductors can be confusing due to
different practices used by various utilities. This document will use both common
conductor names (e.g. 403mm2 26/7 Drake ACSR) and IEC conductor designations
(e.g. 403-A1/S1A-26/7) [1][2]. In either case, the designated area (e.g. 403) is that of the
conductive material in square mm. Some examples of common and IEC conductor
names are listed in Table 1.
Table 1 - Examples of Conductor Naming Methods
IEC Conductor Designation
403-A1/S1A-54/7
523-A1/S1A-42/7
403-A1/S1A-26/7
685-A1-61
1.2
must remain at safe distances from people, other conductors, vehicles, buildings, and any
other reasonably anticipated activities.
To ensure safe minimum electrical clearances under all conditions, the height and lateral
position of the conductor between support points must be calculated for all wind, ice and
temperature conditions which the conductor may experience. These calculations are
commonly referred to as sag-tension calculations and are the subject of this brochure.
Transmission line supporting structures are typically spaced a few hundred meters apart.
This distance between supports is called the span length. Under most conditions, the
flexural and torsional rigidity of stranded conductors can be neglected. Hence, the only
conductor stresses that affect the sag between the conductor support points are axial
tensile stresses along the wires.
Span Length
GROUND LEVEL
Figure 5 Catenary variation with conductor temperature, ice & wind loads, and
time after installation where Tmax is the maximum conductor temperature.
It has been mathematically demonstrated that a suspended bare cable, when subjected to
uniform loading per unit length, takes the form of a catenary between support points. The
shape of the catenary curve, changes with temperature (thermal elongation), ice and wind
8
loading (design loading plastic elongation), and time (creep plastic elongation), as shown
in Figure 5.
2.1
Conductor sag and span length are illustrated in Figure 6 for a level span. More detail is
provided in [3,4,5,6,7,8,9]
H/w
X axis
y ( x) =
H
w
w x
cosh
1
H
w x
2 H
(1)
The expression on the right side of equation (1) is an approximate parabolic equation
based upon the first term of the MacLaurin expansion of the hyperbolic cosine. The
approximate parabolic equation is valid as long as x2 w2/12H2 << 1.
10
For a level span, the low point is in the center, and the sag, D, is found by substituting x =
S/2 in the preceding equations. The exact catenary and approximate parabolic equations
for sag become the following:
2
H
wS wS
D = cosh
1
w
2 H 8 H
(2)
Under these conditions the sag of the span, according to equation 2, is:
D=
28000
15.97 300
1 = 6.420m
cosh
15.97
2 28000
15.97 3002
= 6.417m
8 28000
In this particular case, the difference is calculated sag is only 3 mm. Since it is unlikely
that the sag can be measured with an accuracy of less than 100 mm, the difference is
negligible.
11
The horizontal component of tension, H, is the same at all points within the catenary.
The total conductor tension is equal to H at the point in the catenary where the conductor
slope is horizontal (for a level span, this is the midpoint of the span) but, as shown in
section 2.4, the total tension increases as one approaches the support points.
2.2
H
x 2 w2
w x
sinh
x 1 +
w
6 H 2
H
(3)
For a level span, the conductor length corresponding to half of the total conductor length
is at the spans midpoint (X = S/2), thus:
L = 2 L( x =
S
S 2 w2
2H
S w
+
)=
sinh
S
1
24 H 2
2
w
2H
(4)
The parabolic equation for the total conductor length can also be expressed as a function
of sag, D, by substitution of the sag parabolic equation (2):
8 D2
LS+
(5)
3 S
For the example calculation, the exact total conductor length is:
2 28000
300 15.97
L=
sinh
= 300.366 m
15.97
2 28000
The parabolic approximation gives the same conductor length of 300.366 m. Note that
the total conductor length is only 0.366 m (about 0.1%) longer than the horizontal span
length of 300 m.
2.3
Conductor Slack
Conductor slack is the difference between the total conductor length, L, and the chord
distance between supports. For a level span the distance between supports is the span
length, S. Equating and rearranging the preceding exact equations for L and S, the slack
(L-S) for the example problem is:
wS
2H
LS =
S
sinh
2H
w
(7)
While slack has units of length, it may also be expressed as a percentage of the span
length. In the preceding example calculation, the exact length of the conductor was
found to be 300.366 m and the slack is 0.366 m (i.e. 0.122 % of the span length).
12
As noted previously, the parabolic (approximate) equations offer some additional insight
into the interaction of slack, span length, and tension that the exact equations do not. For
a level span:
w2
8
D2
(8)
L S S 3
2
3 S
24 H
From this equation, one can see that slack is approximately proportional to the 3rd power
of span length. Thus for a series of suspension spans having the same horizontal tension,
H, the slack of a 400 m span is eight times as large as the slack in a 200 m span. As
shown later in this brochure, the cubic dependence of slack on span length is the reason
sag-tension behavior of multiple suspension spans is largely determined by the longest
spans.
The approximate equation for slack can also be inverted to obtain equations showing the
dependence of sag, D, and tension, H, upon slack, L-S:
D
3 S (L S)
8
wS
S
2
6 (L S )
Clearly, as the slack of the span becomes very small, the conductor sag approaches zero
and the tension becomes very large.
H
To illustrate the impact of small changes in slack on tension and sag, consider the
preceding 300 m level span example of Drake, 403mm2, 26/7 ACSR (403-A1/S1A-26/7)
conductor with 0.366m of slack. If only 100 mm is added to the total conductor length,
the sag and tension are approximately equal to:
D=
H=
15.97 300
300
= 24.8 kN
2
6 (0.366 + 0.1)
Ignoring for the moment any change in length with tension in this example, adding 100
mm to the conductor length yields an 800 mm change in sag and a 13 % reduction in
tension (3.2 kN). The slack concept is thus very useful in explaining how very small
changes in conductor length such as those caused by thermal, elastic or plastic
elongation, have major effects on the sag of overhead line spans.
Given span length, S, and conductor weight per unit length, w, the exact catenary
relationship between slack (and length) and horizontal tension, H, is found with equation
(7) and the exact relationship between sag and tension is found with equation (2). For the
sample problem described previously, with a span length of 300 m, the bare Drake
13
15.0
180.0
13.5
160.0
12.0
STRESS [H/A]
140.0
10.5
9.0
100.0
7.5
6.4
80.0
6.0
Sag - m
Stress- MPa
SAG [D]
120.0
69.5
60.0
4.5
40.0
3.0
20.0
1.5
0.122
0.0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.0
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
% Slack [100*(L-S)/S]
Figure 7 Catenary Stress (H/A) and Sag (D) vs. %Slack (100*(L-S)/S) for Bare
Drake ACSR in a 300 m span at a tension of 20% RTS (69.5 MPa) at 15C
Looking to later discussions in this brochure, note the following about this plot:
1. Any increase in conductor length (% slack) yields a reduction in stress and an
increase in sag.
2. A similar pair of curves can be plotted for other conductor weights per unit length
due to ice and wind pressure.
3. Conductor plastic, elastic and thermal elongation curves can be plotted with the
same horizontal axis if it is noted that marginal change in % slack ((L-S)/S) is
essentially the same as marginal change in % elongation ((L-Lo)/Lo).
2.4
As noted previously, at the low point of the catenary, the conductor tension is equal to the
horizontal component of tension. At every other location within the span, including the
end supports, the total conductor tension is greater than the horizontal component.
For a level span, at the supports, the vertical component of tension is equal to half the
weight of the conductor:
14
wS
V = w L / 2 = H sinh
2 H
At the end supports, the total tension is the vector sum of the horizontal and vertical
tension components:
T2 = H2 +(
wL 2
)
2
Substituting the equation for length, L, from section 2.2, and taking the square root of
both sides of this equation, we obtain:
wS
wS
T = H 1 + sinh 2
= H cosh
2H
2H
To relate the total tension to the sag in this level span, the equation can be rearranged as:
wS
T = H + H cosh
H
2H
H
wS H
T = H + w cosh
2H w
w
Substituting equation (2) for sag, we have:
T = H + wD
Given the conditions in the preceding example calculation for a 300 m level span of 403A1/S1A-26/7 (ACSR) Drake, the total conductor tension at the attachment points, T, is
28.0 kN and exceeds the horizontal component of tension H by only 102 N (0.36%)
T = 28000 + 15.97 * 6.420 = 28000 N + 102 N
The approximate (parabolic) catenary curve equations are useful for order of
magnitude checks and provide more insight into the physics of sag-tension (e.g. sag is
dependent on the square of span length) but there is little advantage to their use in
numerical calculations. For most cases, except those of long and deep catenaries, the
difference between the exact and approximate solutions is small. As shown in Figure 8,
the difference in calculated catenary position, y(x), as a function of x is quite small for
horizontal distances up to about 300 m (equivalent to a level span of 600m). For a 500 m
horizontal distance (1000 m level span), however, the sag error is about 0.5 m.
15
y diff
100
2.0
90
1.8
80
1.6
70
1.4
60
1.2
50
1.0
40
0.8
30
0.6
20
0.4
Difference in calculated y(x)
10
y exact
0.2
0.0
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
2.5
In practical line design engineering, several factors limit the accuracies that can be
achieved in sag calculations, unless extraordinary measures are taken to correct
seemingly minor error sources. Some of the basic error sources include:
1. Uncertain weight of the conductor - The nominal values for conductor weight
corresponds to the minimum acceptable weight. In reality, the weight of the
conductor typically exceeds the nominal value by 0.2% to 0.6%. During a
conductors life, the conductors mass typically increases slightly by tarnishing
effects. Also, the weight of a wet conductor can exceed the dry-weight by 1.5% to
2.5%.
2. End of span effects - The catenary equations assume that the conductor is fully
flexible. If the bending stiffness of the conductor is taken into account, the actual
sag in spans supported in suspension clamps is found to be less than that of
catenary calculations. If the ends of the span in the prior example consist of 30
cm long suspension clamps, the effect of the suspension clamp and the bending
stiffness changes the length of the effective catenary to 299.37 m and reduces the
sag from 6.41 m to 6.38 m, i.e. a reduction of 0.4%. If the suspension clamps are
16
equipped with armor rods, the sag reduces to 6.35 m, i.e. a reduction of 0.9%.
Conversely, if both ends of the span are terminated into dead-end insulator
strings, the sags increase. If both ends of the example span are terminated in 2m
long insulator strings, with a total mass of 100 kg each, the sag increases from
6.41 m to 6.45 m (i.e. a sag increase of 0.5%). The use of composite insulators
would yield a smaller sag increase.
3. Flexibility of structures - Changes in conductor tension at angle and dead-end
strain structures causes elastic and inelastic structure deflections. If the resulting
deflection of a dead-end structure in the preceding example is 1 cm, the sag
increases from 6.41 m to 6.49 m, i.e. a change of 1.2%. Pole structures may
deflect considerably more than steel lattice.
Other lesser effects, such as survey errors, also occur. In combination with those cited
above, such uncertainties yield a typical sag calculation error of 1% to 2% for even the
simplest single span line.
As is discussed in Section 7, there are additional errors in sag-tension estimates due to
uncertainties regarding the elastic, plastic, and thermal elongation of the bare concentric
stranded aluminium conductors typically used in overhead power lines.
2.6
Overhead power lines, particularly during periods of low electrical current, can
accumulate ice and snow under certain atmospheric conditions. This increases the
loading per unit length of the bare overhead conductor. Also, wind blowing across the
line increases the loading per unit length. Wind forces can occur during times when the
conductor is iced and hence the resulting conductor loading is the vector sum of wind
force on the iced conductor, the weight of the ice and the weight of the bare conductor.
17
Figure 9 - Heavy radial ice buildup on a relatively small bare overhead conductor.
If the conductor is inextensible, then the increase in loading per unit length due to ice and
wind load would increase the tension but there would be no change in conductor length,
thus leaving the sag unchanged. However, bare overhead conductors do elongate under
tension load and, depending on the mechanical response characteristics of the conductor,
both the tension in the conductor and its length (sag) change during ice accretion and/or
high wind events.
2.7
Inclined spans
For inclined spans (see Figure 10), if the span is divided into two sections, one to the
right and the other to the left of the low point, the catenary equations introduced
previously may be used to determined the conductor position and tension. The shape of
the catenary, relative to the semi-span position (i.e. low point) is not affected by the
difference in suspension point elevation (span inclination), h.
In each direction (i.e. for xL or xR) from the low point of the catenary, the conductor
elevation, y(x), relative to the low point is given by equation (1):
2
H
w x w x
cosh
1
w
H 2H
And the sags relative to the supports are:
y( x) =
DL = DR + h
(9)
18
Of course, as shown in Figure 10, the low point is not in the center of the horizontal span
as for a level span. In fact the low point may even be beyond the end of the span
depending on the difference in support elevations or conductor catenary constant.
DR
S H
h/2
x R = sinh 1
2 w
H sinh S / 2
w
H / w
(10)
300
10 / 2
= 91.6m
xR =
1754 sinh 1
2
1754 sinh 300 / 2
1754
The elevation of any point in the inclined span can be calculated using the basic catenary
equation with x being the horizontal distance from the low point, which for the example
is 91.6 m into the span from the right support and 208.4 m from the left.
19
In the example span, as the difference in support heights increases, the low point of the
catenary moves further toward the low support, eventually going beyond it as shown in
the following table:
Table 2 - Sag & Vertical force in a 300 m inclined span with Drake ACSR at H =
28000 N.
h [m]
Xr [m]
Xl [m]
Dr [m]
Dl [m]
Vr [N]
Vl [N]
Tr [N]
Tl [N]
0.00
150.00
150.00
6.42
6.42
2397
2397
28102
28102
5.00
120.80
179.20
4.16
9.16
1929
2865
28066
28146
10.00
91.60
208.40
2.39
12.39
1463
3334
28038
28198
15.00
62.42
237.58
1.11
16.11
996
3803
28018
28257
20.00
33.27
266.73
0.32
20.32
531
4273
28005
28324
25.00
4.15
295.85
0.00
25.00
66
4744
28000
28399
30.00
-24.93
324.93
0.18
30.18
-398
5216
28003
28482
35.00
-53.97
353.97
0.83
35.83
-861
5688
28013
28572
40.00
-82.95
382.95
1.96
41.96
-1324
6161
28031
28670
20
Given the free longitudinal movement of the attachment points at each tangent
suspension structure, the horizontal component of the conductor tension in all the spans
in a line section is approximately equal. This simplifies the sagging of conductor after
stringing. Since the horizontal tension is equal in each span, the sag is simply
proportional to the square of the tangent span length. Some suspension structure supports
allow only free longitudinal movement (V-strings) but restrict movement transversely to
the line.
21
3.1
In a practical transmission line, it is neither possible nor necessary to make all span
lengths equal.
During stringing of conductor [10] and subsequent sagging, stringing blocks (pulleys) are
attached to the bottom of the suspension insulators. In level terrain, the sagging tension
in all spans is approximately equal and sags in each span are simply proportional to the
span length squared as shown in equation (2). In uneven terrain, the unequal inclination
angle of the conductor at adjacent spans requires the calculation of sag adjustments and
clipping offsets.
Once the sag is adjusted, the blocks removed, and the conductor clamped (clipped) to the
end of the insulator, changes in conductor temperature or load per unit length will yield
different tensions in each span. Small movements of the suspension points, however,
equalize the tension between spans. For example, consider Figure 13 which shows the
tension difference that develops between an adjacent 250m and 350m span without
insulator swing when the tension in each span is equal at 15oC.
22
Conductor Tension - N
50000
45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
-40
-20
20
40
60
80
100
Figure 13 - Conductor Tension Variation with Temperature for 250m and 350m
"Dead end" Spans of Drake A1/S1A (ACSR) installed to 35 kN at 15oC.
The longitudinal movement required of the insulator string in order to equalize tension in
adjacent spans is usually very small. However, when the spans are sharply inclined or
the conductor tension is very low, the typical suspension insulator configuration may not
be able to fully equalize tensions. The amount of insulator tilt can be calculated by
summing the force moments about the insulator attachment point as shown Figure 14.
23
Pivot
Attachment
Point
Tilt
Angle
T
Winsul
Hspan1
Insulator
Length, Li
Hspan2
Wspan2
Wspan1
Based upon the moment force balance illustrated in Figure 14, for a 1.8 m long insulator
string weighing 890 N, with a bare Drake conductor having a total weight span (Wspan1
+ Wspan2) of 300m (a vertical conductor weight of 4791 N), Figure 15 shows that only
modest force is required to move the insulator string out of plumb.
Reading from Figure 15, a horizontal movement of only 20 cm (i.e. a tilt angle of 6.3
degrees) is enough to equalize a span to span conductor tension difference of 580 N.
24
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
Longitudinal movement - cm
5.89
5.73
5.56
5.48
5.39
5.37
5.36
5.34
5.33
5.32
9.91
10.04
10.17
10.24
10.30
10.31
10.33
10.34
10.34
10.35
0.3700
0.3500
0.3300
0.3200
0.3100
0.3080
0.3060
0.3040
0.3030
0.3020
0.7483
0.7683
0.7883
0.7983
0.8083
0.8103
0.8123
0.8143
0.8153
0.8163
21177
21774
22424
22772
23136
23211
23287
23363
23402
23440
24670
24347
24036
23885
23737
23707
23678
23649
23635
23620
-3493
-2573
-1612
-1113
-601
-496
-392
-286
-233
-180
0
58
116
145
174
180
186
191
194
197
25
Note that when initially plumb, the effect of small insulator swings (e.g. 0.0 to 0.02 m) on
the moment due to tension difference (e.g. 3493 N to 2573 N) is much greater than the
increase in restoring force due to insulator swing (e.g. 0 to 58 N). Any final residual
tension imbalance will be due only to the force provided by the insulator swing.
3.2
In an overhead line, a typical line section can consist of as few as one and as many as
40 or 50 suspension spans (depending on the utility design philosophy) between dead-end
strain structures.
If all of the suspension spans were the same length and reasonably level, and all were
subject to the same ice and wind loads, then the sag and tension change with ice and wind
and conductor temperature would be the same for all spans. Sag-tension calculations for
any one of the suspension spans would apply to all, the tension and sag variation in each
suspension span would be similar, and there would be little or no movement of the
suspension strings between spans.
In most line sections, however, the suspension spans vary in length (though typically not
over a large range), the sag and tension variation with ice, wind, and temperature changes
in each span is different (e.g. see Figure 13), and the suspension insulators do not remain
plumb. To solve this complex coupled mechanical system, sag-tension calculations must
be performed for each span, the suspension point supports modeled mechanically, and the
sag-tension variation in each span determined by numerical analysis. This exact
calculation of sag-tension for multiple, mechanically coupled suspension spans, is
certainly possible in this age of digital computers, but it may not always be necessary.
As an alternative to the exact solution for sag-tension in a line section consisting of two
or more reasonably level suspension spans, sag-tension calculations can be performed for
a single ruling span (also called equivalent span) [11, 12]. The ruling span method is
possible because of the efficient tension equalization that occurs naturally at suspension
points, as described in the preceding section of this brochure. The ruling span tension
variation with ice and wind loading, time, and conductor temperature is essentially the
same as the tension variation for any span of the line section, and the sag variation is
proportional to the suspension span over ruling span length squared.
The ruling span is defined by equation (11):
Where:
3
RS =
RS
S1
S2
=
=
=
S1 + S 2 + - - - - + S n
S1 + S 2 + - - - - + S n
(11)
Sn
Note from equation (11) that the value of the ruling span is greatly influenced by the
longest spans since the numerator depends on the cube of span length.
Since the tension in all of the suspension spans is equal (or nearly so), once the sag and
tension for a ruling span has been calculated, the sag in any of the corresponding
suspension spans can be calculated as follows:
Di = D RS
S
i
S RS
(12)
In Case 3, the insulator string has swung 1.7 degrees toward the longer span at 100oC.
Note that the errors in the ruling span approach (perfect tension equalization) are modest.
A recent technical paper [13] provides some guidance concerning line conditions in
which sag errors resulting from the ruling span concept may become significant. The
conclusion of the reference is that errors are modest except in those line designs where
there are relatively large variations in span length and where the conductors are operated
at temperatures above 100oC.
27
4.1
28
15 to 25% RTS with no ice or wind at 15oC the conductor being in its final
condition (after the conductor has been exposed to a heavy ice and wind loading
event or has been in place for many years.)
Notice that, while limiting the initial unloaded conductor tension limits subsequent
maximum conductor and structure loads (e.g. see Table 5), unloaded tension constraints
are primarily imposed to limit aeolian vibration to manageable levels. While limiting
initial and final unloaded tensions to certain ranges of %RTS is common as a means of
vibration control, recent work by CIGRE WG B2.11 suggests that limiting the catenary
constant (H/w) for the coldest month is better. This is discussed briefly in the following
section.
4.2
Historically, as noted above, a common design practice used to avoid conductor fatigue,
due to aeolian vibration, was to limit the unloaded tension to 15% to 25% of RTS.
Specifying an unloaded %RTS value at everyday conditions does not consider the
following important fatigue endurance issues:
The effect of persistency of wind speed and direction relative to the line section;
Terrain covers of trees, shrubs and buildings and the terrain itself, which can have
a marked effect on the degree of wind turbulence;
Short-span construction with high tensions at low-temperature operation, where
significant damage may occur during months of winter temperatures;
The effect of conductor stranding and the percentage of steel in ACSR, which
influences effects on mass and strength.
CIGRE WG B2.11 has suggested a better approach where the tension control parameter
is tension-over-weight (H/w). The H/w parameter is more closely related to aluminium
stress, and therefore to the self-damping properties of the conductor. Three papers [14,
15, 16] have been published concerning single undamped conductors, damped single
conductors, and bundled conductors, respectively. In these papers, the H/w parameter is
justified and other influences such as span length and terrain are considered.
For unprotected round strand, single conductors (no armor rods, dampers, nor AGS
clamps), the recommended maximum values of H/w range from 1000 to 1425 m under
initial unloaded low temperature conditions [14]. As can be seen in Table 6, for Drake
ACSR in a 300 m span, this acceptable range of H/w values where dampers are not used,
corresponds to an unloaded initial tension of between 10% and 15% RTS at 15C.
If dampers are used, then a higher H/w level would likely be acceptable, but the WG
B2.11 references repeatedly make the point that avoiding conductor fatigue from aeolian
vibration over the entire life of an overhead line can be complex. Terrain, span length,
annual weather variation, conductor design, and external damping must all be considered.
Simply choosing an installed unloaded tension in %RTS is not usually sufficient.
29
Table 6 - H/w limits on unloaded conductor tension - Drake ACSR in a 300 m span.
Initial, unloaded
conductor
tension at 15oC
[%RTS]
10
15
20
25
Initial unloaded
H/w at average
temp. for coldest
month)
[m]
900
1500
2100
2700
Tension at
max ice and
wind load
[kN]
31.6
44.4
53.8
61.0
Final sag
at 100oC
[m]
14.6
11.0
9.4
8.4
30
5.1
As explained in Section 6 of this document, the sag and tension of a given span or line
section can be calculated as a function of conductor temperature and ice/wind loads by
equating the catenary length to the conductor length. This is normally done numerically
although it is explained graphically.
At the time of installation, the conductor sag or tension is measured with the conductor
unloaded at a known temperature. Sag and tension typically change as: (a) the conductor
weight increases due to ice and wind loading; (b) the conductor temperature changes due
to changes in air temperature, solar heating and electrical current; and (c) as the
conductors aluminium layers elongate plastically over time or with design ice and wind
loading.
In order to calculate the sag and tension under various loading, temperature, and time
conditions, one must be able to model the change in conductor length due to each factor.
Once the various conductor elongation models are known, then the tension can be found
at which the total conductor length, L, of loaded conductor equals the sum of the original
length (unloaded length) and any plastic, thermal and elastic changes in length due to
changes in tension, time, loading, and temperature.
Clearly, the methods of sag-tension calculation are a function of the conductor elongation
models. If conductor elongation, due to changes in temperature and tension, is
represented by simple linear elongation models, sag-tension can be determined quite
simply. If plastic conductor elongation is represented by typical values based on field
experience, then the sag-tension calculation method is only marginally more complex,
but if plastic conductor elongation is calculated based on non-linear equations which
depend on high tension load events and time, then sag-tension calculations become quite
complex and must be done graphically or numerically[17].
Although the working group investigated a great variety of sag-tension calculation
methods, we were able to classify the different sag-tension calculation methods into one
31
Linear Elastic (LE) Model Overhead conductors are modeled as linear springs
with a single elastic modulus and a single coefficient of thermal elongation. An
effective elastic modulus and effective coefficient of thermal elongation must be
calculated for non-homogeneous conductors (e.g. ACSR). Typical values of
modulus and CTE are used.
Normally, the conductor elastic modulus and coefficient of thermal elongation are
single valued but for non-homogeneous conductors such as ACSR (A1/S1A), the
different tensions in the aluminum layers and steel core can be calculated for the
typical plastic elongation but the variation with design loading cannot. For high
conductor temperatures, a typical knee-point temperature can be calculated but
any dependence on conductor type, design load, and span length cannot.
The excessively high initial loaded tensions that result from ignoring the initial
non-linear behavior of the aluminium layers are usually reduced by experienced
engineers or used as an additional safety margin in structure design.
Clearly, there are many variations on these three elongation models. For example,
though the calculation methods differ considerably in detail, both the strain-summation
and the Varney graphical calculation methods utilize similar experimental conductor data
and thus may be considered to be variations on the EPE model.
Similarly, in estimating typical plastic elongation in the SPE elongation model, the
assumed plastic elongation will vary considerably based on the experience and judgment
of engineers in different countries, using different line designs, in various types of terrain.
Nonetheless, in each application, the plastic elongation is based upon experience and not
upon laboratory experiments and loading assumptions.
32
Manufactured Length
Settlement
& strand
deformat'n
Strain
Thermal
Strain
Elastic
Tensile
Strain
Long-time
or high
tension
plastic
Strain
All three elongation models assume linear elastic elongation under tensile load and linear
thermal elongation due to changes in conductor temperature. They differ in the manner
in which plastic elongation is calculated.
In North America, EPE models are used almost exclusively. The Varney Graphical
method, implemented in a computer program which utilizes experimental conductor test
data, is in wide use. Experimental stress-strain and creep data, represented by 4th order
polynomials, is widely available for all common conductor types and sizes [18].
33
Conductor test data for use in the SPE and possibly the EPE elongation models can be
found in IEC Technical Report 1597 [2]. This report also describes a method whereby
the linear modulus of stranded homogeneous and non-homogeneous conductors can be
estimated from the cross-sectional area(s), the stranding, and the wire material. The
typical plastic elongation of aluminium and A1/Syz (ACSR) conductors, which occurs
over extended periods of time, for use with the SPE model, is also to be found in this
publication.
5.2
The original length of the conductor is assumed to be that produced by the manufacturer
(manufactured length) at the time that the conductor was stranded and wound on the
reel for delivery. On the reel as delivered, the conductor tension is nearly zero. If the
conductor has a steel core, then the length of steel core and the aluminium layers wound
around it are nearly equal. Rawlins [19] has suggested that there may be residual stresses
in the aluminium layers as a result of the stranding process but this is only important
when estimating high temperature sag.
In the LE and SPE conductor elongation models, the stranded aluminium conductor is
assumed to elongate linearly and reversibly in response to modest changes in tension
(Elastic Elongation) and to modest changes in conductor temperature (Linear Thermal
Elongation). The linear and reversible change in length (elongation) in response to
modest changes in tension and temperature is assumed to behave as was shown in
equations (8) and (9). The stranded conductor is represented as a linear spring which
changes length in response to changes in tension and temperature, returning to its original
length when the tension or temperature is returned to their original value.
With the EPE conductor elongation model, the stranded aluminum conductor is assumed
to elongate non-linearly with tension when first loaded due to strand deformation and
settlement. However, once loaded to a tension H1, the conductor behaves linearly at
tensions below H1. According to the EPE model, if the conductor tension subsequently
exceeds H1, the conductor again elongates non-linearly as a result of additional strand
settlement and deformation up to a new, higher tension H2, yet linearly afterward at
tensions below H2.
Thus, in all three elongation models, the conductor is assumed to behave linearly with
tension under all or most field conditions.
EA
(13a)
34
L
H
= =
EA
L
Where:
(13b)
According to IEC 1597, reasonable values for the modulus of all aluminium stranded
conductors, regardless of alloy are shown in Table 7. These values are in rough
agreement with other recommendations from the literature.
Table 7 - Typical Linear Elastic Modulus for All Aluminium Conductors
Number of Strands
Elastic Modulus - GPa
7
63.3
19
61.2
37
58.9
61
58.3
According to equation (13), for a 403-A1-37 strand conductor, the elastic strain
corresponding to the application of a 12kN (20% of its RTS) tension is 506 s (0.000506
or 0.0506%). For a 300 m length of conductor, the change in length corresponding to
application of a tension of 12 kN is only 152 mm.
Notice that the conductor strain unit micro-strain is abbreviated s. As may be
seen in equations (13), the use of GPa for modulus, E, and mm2 for the area, A, yields
conductor strain in s.
35
Elongation [Microstrain]
1000.0
Elongation relative to unstressed
length with plastic elongation of
150 microstrain
800.0
600.0
400.0
200.0
0.0
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
-200.0
-400.0
-600.0
Tension - N
The preceding equations (13), the calculation example, and Figure 17 all show how
stranded A1 conductors, assumed to have a linear stress-strain characteristic, elongate
under load. Notice that the assumption of linear stress-strain behavior does not preclude
consideration of unstressed length changes due to reversible changes in temperature or
to irreversible length changes due to plastic elongation. The top curve in Figure 17
illustrates the linear stress-strain behavior of the all aluminium conductor after it has
experienced a permanent plastic length increase of 150 s due to either a temperature
change or due to plastic elongation.
L
= A TC
L
Where:
(14)
Notice that equation (14) can be used to convert a change in strain into an equivalent
change in conductor temperature. 115 s is equivalent to a temperature change of 5oC
(11510-6/2310-6) for an all aluminum conductor.
36
H AS = H A + H S
(15)
The strains of the aluminium and steel components must be equal since the two
components are bound together at the ends of the conductor:
AS = A = S
(16)
Given the link between stress and strain in each component as shown in equations (13),
the composite elastic modulus, EAS of the non-homogeneous conductor can be derived by
combining the preceding equations:
` AS
H AS
HS
HA
=
=
AAS E AS
AA E A AS E S
(17)
H A = H AS
E A AA
(18a)
E AS AAS
and
H S = H AS
E S AS
(18b)
E AS AAS
Finally, in terms of the modulus of the components, the composite linear modulus is:
E AS = E A
A
AA
+ ES S
AAS
AAS
(19)
The two terms on the right hand side of this equation are sometimes referred to as the
virtual modulus of the outer layers and the core, respectively. Note that a stress-strain
plot for ACSR showing the component modulus multiplied by the area fraction can be
simply added to find the total modulus.
As noted in Table 8, typical values of ES = 190 GPa and EA = 55 GPa are suggested in
[2] for stranded steel and aluminium components, respectively.
According to equation (19) and Table 8, even modest steel areas (e.g. 11% of total area)
greatly stiffen aluminium conductors, increasing the composite modulus from 55 to 6870 GPa (approximately 25%). Such stiffening reduces the sag increase under heavy ice
and wind loads and yields higher maximum tension loads on angle and dead-end
structures.
The presence of a steel core also reduces thermal elongation and increases the rated
tensile strength of the conductor (e.g. the RTS of 26/7 ACSR is 225% that of an all
aluminum conductor with the same electrical resistance).
AS = A
AA
AAS
E
+ S S
E AS
AS
AAS
(20)
The linear thermal elongation coefficient of aluminium is twice that of steel. Therefore,
as the temperature of an A1/Syz conductor increases, while the entire conductor
elongates according to the composite coefficient of linear thermal expansion shown
above, there is also a transfer of tension from the aluminium strands into the steel strands.
38
For example, with 403mm2, 26/7 ACSR (403-A1/S1A-26/7) Drake conductor, the
composite modulus and thermal elongation coefficient, according to (19) and (20) are:
402.8
65.8
E AS =55
+ 190
= 74 MPa
468.6
468.6
55 402.8
6 190 65.8
6
+ 11.5 10
= 18.84 10
74 468.6
74 468.6
AS = 23e 6
5.3
The preceding equations apply to the elastic elongation of aluminium and steel wires in
A1/Syz stranded conductor where both components are under load. But the aluminium
wires also elongate plastically under tension. This plastic elongation of aluminium can
be divided into three categories (refer to Figure 16):
1. Strand settlement & deformation (Initial Plastic Elongation) When first loaded to
a tension of 15% to 25% of RTS, during the process of stringing and sagging, the
aluminium layers of the conductor elongate plastically by an amount which
increases with tension.
2. Short-time high-tension plastic elongation (Design Loading Plastic Elongation)
After the conductor has been sagged and clipped, ice and/or wind may raise the
tension to much higher levels (e.g. 30% to 80% of RTS) for relatively short times
(1 hour to 24 hours). This causes additional plastic elongation of the aluminium
layers and lesser plastic elongation of any steel core.
3. Long time metallurgical creep elongation (Creep Plastic Elongation) After the
conductor has been sagged and clipped, the aluminium layers will continue to
elongate plastically even for moderate everyday tensions of 15% to 25% of
RTS. Over 10 years or more, the plastic elongation of aluminium layers due to
such long-time creep elongation may exceed that associated with high short-time
loads. This is especially true in geographical areas not subject to ice or hurricane
force winds.
With reference to the Linear Elongation (LE) model defined previously in section 5.2,
plastic elongation is completely ignored. In the Simplified Plastic Elongation (SPE)
model, plastic elongation of the conductor is represented by a typical value based on
experience and engineering judgment. Only in the Experimental Plastic Elongation
(EPE) model (section 5.4) are the three types of plastic elongation considered separately
and the combined resultant plastic elongation calculated as a function of tension,
temperature, and time.
39
In the SPE model, a typical value of plastic elongation is specified to represent the
combined effect of strand settlement and deformation, high tension load events, and
sustained everyday tension of the life of the line. For a homogeneous conductor (e.g. all
aluminum) the initial unstressed length of the conductor is simply increased by the
amount of plastic elongation and the final greater sag and decreased tension are
calculated by one of the methods described in section 6. For a non-homogeneous
conductor (e.g. ACSR), however, the calculation is more complex because the creep
elongation of the steel core wires is normally negligible. As the aluminum wires elongate
plastically in ACSR, three things occur: the fraction of composite tension in the
aluminum layers decreases; the fraction of composite tension in the steel core increases;
and the composite tension decreases while the composite strain (i.e. sag) increases.
For ACSR conductor, neglecting any steel core plastic elongation, the final tensions in
the steel core, HS, and in the aluminum layers, HA, is a function of the plastic aluminium
strand elongation, CA, as shown in equations (21).
H'
H 'A
H 'S
=
+ CA =
AAS E AS AA E A
AS E S
(21a)
Rearranging the preceding equations, the fractions of the final component tension in
the aluminium and steel core can be found as a function of the component areas, the
component elastic modulus of aluminium and steel, and the aluminium plastic strain:
EA
H ' A E A AA
)
=
(1 CA ,
,
H
EA
H
(21b)
EA
H , S E S AS
)
=
(1 + CA ,
,
H
EA
H
(21c)
As noted in IEC 1597, one can conclude from these equations that:
1. Plastic elongation in the aluminium strands (CA) reduces the fraction of the total
conductor tension (see equation 21b) which is carried in the aluminium strands
and increases the fraction carried in the steel core strands (equation 21c).
2. The increase in composite conductor length is a result of the increased elastic
elongation of the steel core.
3. If the plastic elongation of the aluminum layers is sufficiently large, the tension in
the aluminium strands can reach zero and then be negative (i.e. in compression).
Finally, note that the tension shifts described in these equations also occur at increased
conductor temperatures because of the higher thermal elongation rate of aluminium as
compared to steel. Plastic elongation in the aluminium layers reduces the conductor
temperature at which the aluminium tension reaches zero (the knee-point temperature)
with A1/S1x conductor.
40
Assuming that a Drake ACSR conductor is recently installed at 28 kN and 15oC, and that
the aluminium strand layer plastic elongation due to settling and initial loading is CA =
300 s, then according to equations (21b) and (21c), the initial tensions in the
aluminium layers and steel core are:
HA =
28 55 402.8
300 10 6 74 468.6
(1
) = 11.2kN
74 468.8
28
H S = 28 11.2 = 16.8kN
If the conductor temperature then increases to 45oC, the aluminium strands elongate at
twice the rate of the steel core which causes an additional strain shift from the aluminium
to the steel as follows:
HA =
H S = 28 3.6 = 24.4kN
According to equation (21a), this tension shift at constant composite conductor tension
can only occur with a composite strain of:
24.4
= 1952 s
65.8 190
At somewhat higher temperatures, the aluminium tension goes to zero and all the tension
is carried by the steel core. Beyond this temperature, the A1/S1x conductor elongates
with temperature at the rate of steel. This temperature is commonly referred to as the
knee-point temperature because it corresponds to the point at which the rate of increase
of sag with temperature changes, showing as a knee on a plot of sag versus
temperature. When the temperature of the conductor decreases, the aluminium strands
once again come under tension and the conductor behaves according to the composite
modulus and thermal elongation equations above.
For example, Figure 18 depicts 10 years of creep elongation of the aluminium strands
which causes the knee-point to occur at a lower temperature because the plastic creep
elongation has resulted in stretched aluminium strands requiring a lower temperature
increase to fully unload to the steel core.
41
Sag Kneepoint of 26/7 A1/S1 Drake installed to 20% RBS at 15C in 300 m span
10
Kneepoint after
aluminum creep
Kneepoint before
aluminum creep
Sag - meters
6
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Note how the knee-point temperature of the example (Drake A1/Syz in a 300 m span)
moves from 135oC when the conductor is first installed to 60oC after aluminium creep for
10 years has occurred.
Tests of multi-layer A1/Syz, however, indicate that the full hard H19 aluminium layers
support a modest level of compression beyond the knee-point temperature. Several
theories have been proposed to model the composite conductor thermal elongation in this
transition region beyond the knee-point temperature.
Rawlins [19] found that the increased sag at temperatures above the kneepoint are due to a
combination of residual stress in the aluminium layers (a result of two-pass manufacturing
stranding process) and interference between the helical layers trying to expand radially
(lending the aluminium component layers a small compression modulus). Barrett [20]
suggested that the aluminium layers can support up to 10 MPa (1500 psi.) of compression
which can be increased by the relatively high radial temperature gradients that can occur at
high current densities. Barrett notes a high level of random variation in the observed levels
of thermal elongation beyond knee-point. Rawlins study found that the compressive
aluminum stresses beyond the knee-point temperature to be insignificant. In Barretts
studies of compression levels in A1/Syz, he found that the aluminium layers supported
between 7 and 21 MPa (1000 and 3000 psi.).
Given the variability of sag calculation at high temperatures, and the uncertainty of the
details, it seems prudent to take a conservative approach in accounting for aluminium
42
43
Stress-Strain Test
45,000
300
One Hour
Modulus
40,000
35,000
30,000
200
Initial
Modulus
25,000
Stress
[MPa]
20,000
70% RBS
50% RBS
15,000
100
30% RBS
10,000
Final
Modulus
5,000
0
0.000
0.050
0.100
0.150
0.200
0.250
0.300
0.350
0.400
0.450
Strain
% %Strain
Figure 19 Typical stress-strain test results with 1-hour initial curve drawn and
both initial and final modulus shown.
Note that:
1. The settlement and 1-hour creep plastic elongation increases with tension.
2. The curve drawn through the 1-hour hold points is designated as the initial
stress-strain curve.
3. The slope of the stress-strain curve during unloading and re-loading the
conductor after each hold period is the same. This slope is called the final
stress-strain modulus of the composite conductor.
4. The final modulus is greater than the initial modulus.
If the conductor consists entirely of aluminium wires, then only one stress-strain test is
required. As a result of numerous stress-strain tests, with conductors provided by a
number of different manufacturers, stress strain curves including both initial and final
curves have been made available by the Aluminium Association. Figure 20 shows stressstrain curves for 37-strand, all-aluminium (A1) conductor.
44
45
A second test must be performed on the steel core alone. The result of a test on the S1A7 steel core alone is shown in Figure 22.
Figure 22 - Raw data for a stress-strain test performed on the steel core alone for
the A1/Syz conductor whose composite test results are shown in Figure 21.
46
Notice that the permanent elongation of the steel core at each of the three hold points is
much less than the elongation of the composite conductor. Based on the test results
shown in Figure 21 and Figure 22, an initial stress-strain curve for the aluminium
layers alone can be derived. To do this, note that the total tension, HAS, in the conductor
is the sum of the tension in the aluminum layers, HA, and the tension in the steel core, HS,
and that the stress in the component parts is equal to the component tension divided by
the component area. The total stress in the conductor is therefore:
H AS
A A
= AS = A A + S S
AAS
AAS
AAS
(22)
47
160000
140000
Final Aluminum
Stress- kPa
120000
Initial Aluminum
Plastic Elong
@50%
100000
80000
Plastic Elong
@30%
60000
40000
20000
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Percent Elongation
Harvey and Larson [21, 22, 23] reviewed data from a large series of stress-strain tests to
determine the initial settling and strand deformation values of plastic elongation shown in
Figure 23 for various types of aluminum conductor. They noted that there was
considerable random variation between test samples but that the values shown in Table
10 were generally consistent with the tests they reviewed. They also noted that these
values were not dependent on the rod source (continuous-cast or rolled aluminum rod) or,
for A1/Syz, on the stranding.
Table 10 - Initial settling and one-hour creep strain as a function of conductor
type and stress from Harvey & Larson.
30% RTS
50% RTS
70% RTS
A1
240
570
1180
A1/Syz
370
830
1760
A2
260
500
1120
A1/A2
200
580
1530
48
Similar data is presented in Table 3 of IEC 1597 [2] but the IEC data indicates a
discernable difference as a function of ACSR stranding. Table 11, below, summarizes
the IEC data.
The plastic elongation due to initial settlement and strand deformation as a function of
tension can be derived from the values given in Table 11.
Table 11 - Stress-strain data from IEC 1597 Table 3
Plastic Settlement & 1-hour creep as a
function of stress [s]
Type
A1 or A2
A1 or A2
A1 or A2
A1 or A2
A1/S1
A1/S1
A1/S1
A1/S1
A1/S1
A1/S1
A1/S1
A1/S1
A1/S1
A1/S1
A1/S1
Stranding
7 strand
19 strand
37 strand
61 strand
6/1
18/1
22/7
26/7
45/7
54/7
54/19
72/7
72/19
84/7
84/19
Efinal-GPa
63.3
61.2
58.9
58.3
79.0
68.0
71.0
74.2
64.5
67.1
69.7
61.1
61.0
66.6
66.5
25MPa
105
92
76
71
84
132
148
163
212
127
141
291
290
125
124
50MPa
310
283
251
342
167
265
196
226
325
255
183
382
380
149
148
75MPa
515
575
527
714
151
397
444
389
437
382
324
573
570
374
272
100MPa
1020
1066
1002
1285
234
629
592
452
650
510
465
763
761
598
496
125MPa
1925
2058
1978
2256
418
862
739
615
962
737
707
1054
1151
923
820
Cf = 0.01698
49
as described in two excellent Electra articles [24, 25], aluminium strands also undergo
significant plastic elongation when even moderate tensions are applied for extended
periods of time.
This long-time plastic elongation of aluminium at moderate tension levels is commonly
referred to as metallurgical creep or simply creep plastic elongation. Since bare overhead
conductors are typically installed to tensions on the order of 20% RTS, and sag increases
with conductor length, the accurate calculation of conductor creep plastic elongation over
the life of the line is an important factor in maintaining electrical clearances.
As for stress-strain testing, there is a standard method for measuring the creep plastic
elongation of concentric stranded bare overhead conductors [26, 27]. The preferred test
length is the same as for stress-strain tests 12.5 m. When tested at room temperature,
the conductor specimen is allowed to stabilize to room temperature. After the test tension
is applied, the specimen length is measured at one hour and at subsequent time intervals
up to 1000 hours.
For a series of such creep elongation tests (each with a different new sample of
conductor) the data can be plotted on log-log giving a series of creep curves as
shown in Figure 24.
Creep Test
1.0
Extrapolate out
to 10 Years
Creep in
% Strain
0.1
45% RBS
35% RBS
0.01
25% RBS
15% RBS
0.001
0.1
10
100
1000
10,000
100,000
Time in Hours
50
These curves do not allow estimate of creep plastic elongation at times less than 1 hour.
For such short times, the plastic elongation is estimated from the stress-strain
measurements. Also, the straight lines on log-log paper indicate the decreasing rate of
creep elongation with time. In general, the increase in elongation between 10 and 100
hours is the same as the change between 100 and 1000 hours. The rate of creep
elongation decreases by a factor of 10 as the time increases by a factor of 10.
The data shown in Figure 24 can be represented algebraically. Harvey & Larson suggest
the following equations for plastic creep elongation of A1 stranded conductor at everyday
temperatures:
120000
Initial "1-hour"
Aluminum
70% RBS
100000
Linear Modulus
Stress- kPa
80000
50% RBS
12 mo
creep
60000
6 mo
creep
30% RBS
40000
10 yr
creep
20000
0
-0.05
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
Percent Elongation
51
For example, the creep elongation of this 37 strand all aluminium stranded conductor can
be calculated for an elapsed time of 10 years at a stress of 30.6 MPa. Re-plotting Figure
25 into Figure 26, we can see that the total conductor creep over 10 years, including
initial settling strain, is approximately 0.09% or 900 s.
Initial "1hour"
35000
30000
12 mo
creep
Linear Modulus
Stress- kPa
25000
6 mo
creep
20000
10 yr
creep
15000
10000
5000
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.2
Percent Elongation
52
53
Temp
C
-20
-40
0
15
25
50
75
100
Initial
Tension
N
44386
25996
22146
21018
20340
18864
17636
16601
RTS
%
31.7
18.6
15.8
15.0*
14.5
13.5
12.6
11.8
54
55
The initial catenary conditions can be calculated based on the exact catenary equations
described in Section 2 of this brochure:
Table 13 - Characteristics of 37-strand A1 and 26/7 strand A1/Sxy
Example #2
Sag-tension Case
Example #1
Conductor Name (IEC)
403-A1-37
403-A1/S1A-26/7
Conductor Common Name
403 mm2 37 AAC
403 mm2 26/7
ACSR
Span Length [m]
300
180 or 300
Outside Diameter [mm]
26.1
28.1
Bare Wt. per unit length [N/m]
10.89
15.97
Rated Tensile Strength [kN]
61.8
140.1
Final Elastic Modulus [MPa]
58.9
73.9
Total Area [mm2]
402.9
468.6
Steel Area [mm2]
65.8
56
With the bare A1 conductor installed at 15.33 kN (25% RTS) in a 300 m span, the initial
sag at 15oC is 8.0 m according to equation (2). If, after being installed, the conductor is
subjected to a wind pressure of 430 MPa at 15C, the conductor weight per unit length
increases from 10.89 N/m (bare) to the vector sum of the bare conductor weight (10.89
N/m) and the horizontal wind force (430*0.0261 = 11.2 N/m) or 15.6 N/m.
If the conductor were completely inelastic, then the sag of the bare conductor (8.0 m)
would be unchanged, and the new conductor weight per unit length of 15.6 N/m would
yield a conductor tension of 22 kN (15.33*(15.6/10.89)=22.0).
But the conductor is assumed to elongate linearly (LE model) with tension so the
conductor length and sag will increase and the conductor tension will be somewhat less
than if it were inelastic. To determine the new sag-tension value under this high wind
loading, the catenary equations and the elastic elongation equation can be solved
iteratively. This is conveniently done by searching for a tension value at which the
increase in conductor strain due to the increased conductor tension is equal to the increase
in catenary strain ([L-S]/S) due to the increased weight per unit length and tension.
The increase in conductor strain under tension is given by a form of equation (8) with the
final or elastic modulus of the Arbutus A1 conductor as 58.9 GPa:
H =
L 300.5682 H ( N ) 15.33 10 3
=
9
6
300.5682
58.9 10 403 10
The increase in catenary strain under increased conductor weight and the corresponding
increase in tension are given by a rearrangement of equation (4):
L 300.5682
2 H [N ]
300 15.6
LCAT =
=
1
sinh
300.5682
300.5682 * 15.6
2 H [N ]
Setting the increases in conductor strain equal, we have the following equation which can
be solved for the new tension, H:
2H
H 15330
300 15.6
58.9 109 402.9 10 6 = 300.5682 * 15.6 sinh 2 H 1
The horizontal component of tension which satisfies the equation is:
H=20745 N
From equation (2), the corresponding sag is:
D=
H
w S 20745
15.6 300
cosh
cosh
1 =
1 = 8.5m
w
2 H 15.6
2 20745
57
The resulting conductor tension under this wind load (i.e. 20.75 kN) is higher than when
initially installed (i.e. 15.33 kN) but less than if the conductor did not elongate (i.e. 21.94
kN). At the equilibrium tension, the tension has increased by 5415 N, the sag has
increased by 0.5 m, and the conductor strain has increased by 228 s.
The preceding calculation can be illustrated graphically as shown in Figure 27. The slope
of the linear stress-strain curve is equal to the conductor elastic modulus. The
intersection of the stress-strain curve (at A) with the bare conductor catenary curve
occurs at a conductor stress of 38 MPa (15.33 kN divided by 402.9 mm2).
60
50
High Wind
Catenary
13.4 MPa
40
30
Bare Conductor
Catenary
20
10
0.021%
0
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
% Elongation
The solution for sag-tension at the high wind load condition is shown in Figure 27 at B,
the intersection of the linear stress-strain curve and the high wind catenary curve. It can
be seen that the stress has increased to about 51 MPa and the elongation increased by
about 0.021% (210 micro-strain) which compares favorably with the exact value of 228
s.
58
In the SPE conductor model, plastic elongation is assumed equal to a typical value based
on historical experience and the tension induced elongation is assumed elastic.
With a steel-cored aluminum conductor, plastic elongation occurs primarily in the outer
layers of aluminum strands. Unlike all-aluminum conductors, since there is little or no
permanent elongation in the steel core, any plastic elongation of the composite ACSR is
limited by the core.
For example, with 795kcmil-26/7 Drake ACSR conductor, the composite modulus and
thermal elongation coefficient, according to (19) and (21) are:
0.6247
0.1017
E AS =8.6
+ 27.0
= 11.2 Mpsi
0.7264
0.7264
This equation applies to the ACSR conductor as long as both the steel core and the
aluminum layers are in tension.
Since we are only interested in calculating the high temperature sag of this conductor, for
which the conductor weight per unit length remains the same, only the bare conductor
catenary curve is shown in Figure 28. Since we are using the SPE conductor model, the
stress-strain behavior of the conductor is assumed to be simply linear and the plastic
elongation is equal to a fixed, typical value, based on experience and engineering
judgment.
The calculation begins with the bare conductor installed initially to a stress of 48 MPa at
15C as shown at point A in Figure 28. The unstressed initial elongation of the
conductor is found from the intersection of the elastic modulus (starting at A) with the
zero stress abscissa.
To calculate the final unloaded tension at 100oC, one must account for plastic
elongation over the life of the line and for thermal elongation in going from the conductor
temperature when installed (i.e. 15oC) to the higher value (100oC) .Since we are using the
SPE elongation model, it can be assumed that a typical plastic elongation of the
conductor has been established based on field investigations or a conservative
engineering estimate. We will assume that this typical plastic elongation is 600 microstrain (or 0.06%).
With reference to Figure 28, the initial unstressed conductor elongation at 15oC is
found by moving from point A to point B (Notice that the elongation is reduced by
approximately 0.065%). The typical plastic elongation of 0.060% is represented in this
diagram by moving from point B to point C. The increased conductor sag at 15oC
due to this plastic elongation is found by following the linear modulus from point C to
point D where the elastic modulus intersects the bare catenary curve. At point D, the
stress is 43 MPa and the elongation is 0.0245%.
59
60
Bare
Catenary
50
A
D
40
F
30
20
10
Plastic
Elongation
0
0
0.1
Thermal Elongation
15C to 100C
C
0.2
E
0.3
0.4
% Elongation
Figure 28 - Sag-tension at High Temperature with SPE model for Drake ACSR in
300 m span.
Converting this stress and elongation to final tension and sag at 15oC, we get:
H = 43MPa 468.6 = 20.1kN
D=
20,100
15.97 300
cosh
1 = 8.95m
15.97
2 20100
Under final conditions, the initial installed tension has decreased from 28.0 kN to 20.1
kN and the initial installed sag of 8.0 m has increased to 8.95 m.
The final sag-tension condition at 100oC is found by shifting the intersection of the
elastic modulus curve and the zero stress axis to the right (C to E) by the change in
%elongation corresponding to the conductor temperature change from 15 to 100oC (i.e.
0.160% or 1600 micro-strain).
The final sag-tension condition at 100oC is then found by moving up the elastic modulus
curve from E to F where the elastic modulus intersects the bare catenary curve. The
final sag and tension values at 100oC are found to be 15.9 kN (34 MPa) and 11.3 m
(0.39%).
60
61
468 mm2, 26/7 Drake ACSR (with EPE model) in 180 m span
with 12.5 mm glaze ice and 383 Pa wind loading.
120.0
Difference in maximum
tension of 4200 (9MPa)
100.0
STRESS - MPa
F
Catenary Curve for
conductor w. ice & wind
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
D
-0.15
-0.1
0.0
-0.05
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
% ELONGATION
Though not shown in Figure 29, the sag of the conductor can be found for any
%elongation by application of equation (8) or from the stress (tension) and conductor
weight according to equation (2). For example, at point A, where the bare conductor is
initially installed, the sag is:
D=
H
w S 60 468.6
15.97 180
cosh
cosh
1 =
1 = 2.3m
15.97
w
2H
2 60 468.6
Since the ice and wind loading occurs at -18oC, the unstressed lengths of the steel core
and the aluminum layers must be reduced, moving the unstressed %elongations to the
left, from C to D. Since the aluminum layers contract twice as much as the steel core, the
zero-tension lengths of the steel core and the aluminum layers for the EPE model are
nearly equal at the reduced temperature. Also, in this particular case, the %elongation
shift for the linear LE/SPE model at -18oC yields nearly the same zero tension length at
point D.
Starting at the % elongation which corresponds to the unstressed length of the conductor
at -18oC, both the linear LE/SPE and the non-linear EPE stress-strain curves are traced to
their intersection with the loaded catenary at points E and F. Above the initial installed
stress of 60 MPa, with the EPE model, further strand deformation and settling occurs.
62
Since the LE/SPE models are linear, this additional plastic elongation of the aluminum
layers is ignored. The additional plastic elongation predicted by the EPE model results in
a lower estimate of maximum conductor tension (point F) than that predicted by the LE
or SPE models (point E).
Notice that the more realistic EPE elongation model gives both a more realistic estimate
of maximum structure tension loading and that the difference between the linear estimate
and the non-linear estimate will be larger in severe ice and wind load areas.
The use of the EPE model makes it possible to calculate the plastic elongation of the
aluminum layers as a function of realistic high mechanical loading events rather than
ignoring it in the LE model or using a typical value in the SPE model. In addition, the
plastic elongation of the aluminum layers due to deformation and settling during high
tension load events can be compared to metallurgical creep plastic elongation to obtain a
more accurate estimate of actual plastic elongation. This, in turn, yields a better estimate
of final sags under high conductor temperatures as demonstrated in Section 6.3.3.
6.3.2 Final sag-tension accounting for aluminum creep with the EPE model
One of the very basic limitations of the linear elongation (LE) and Simplified Plastic
Elongation (SPE) conductor models is that, for non-homogeneous conductors, the
changes in component tensions which result from aluminum creep and the higher thermal
elongation rate of aluminum are usually ignored. Even with the SPE model, where a
typical plastic elongation of the aluminum layers could be selected, the selected plastic
elongation value would not be a function of loading events or time.
In contrast, Figure 30 shows how the EPE model allows one to keep track of the
component tension levels in aluminum layers and steel core for ACSR. In developing
Figure 30, the ACSR conductor is assumed to be installed (sagged and clipped) initially
to a total conductor tension of 60 MPa (28 kN) at 15oC. In applying this initial tension to
the previously unstressed, non-homogeneous conductor, the composite conductor is
elongated by about 0.105% as the conductor elongates along the AL-I + ST curve from A
to B.
The component stresses in the aluminum layers and the steel core can be plotted on the
same figure by noting equation (19) from section 5.2.3:
E AS = E A
A
AA
+ ES S
AAS
AAS
(19)
The component stress-strain curves shown in Figure 30 are the actual stress-strain curves
multiplied by the ratio of the component area to the total area. The composite stress is
then simply the sum of the component stresses shown in the figure in accordance with
equation (19).
63
60.0
STRESS - MPa
50.0
AL-F+ST
40.0
C
30.0
AL-I+ST
AL-I
20.0
AL-F
10.0
ST
-0.1
A
-0.05
B
0.0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
% ELONGATION
From the component stress-strain curves shown in Figure 30, the initial component
tensions in the aluminum and steel core can be seen at the points marked C (31 MPa)
and D (29 MPa), respectively. Even though during the initial loading process, the
aluminum layers and the steel core are elongated equally, the strand settlement and
deformation in the aluminum layers during initial sagging, permanently lengthens the
aluminum strand layers but not the steel core. This can be seen by reducing the total
conductor tension. The aluminum layer elongation decreases along the final stressstrain curve AL-F and the steel core elongation decreases along the same ST stressstrain curve which it followed initially (no plastic elongation of the steel core).
The composite conductor elongation decreases along the total curve AL-F+ST reaching
a composite elongation of approximately -0.025% when the aluminum stress becomes
zero. At this point, the composite conductor curve changes suddenly to that of the steel
core alone (if we ignore the possibility of compressive forces in the aluminum layers).
If the Drake conductor, initially installed at a tension of 60 MPa, remains in place without
high ice and wind loads for 10 years, the aluminum layers will elongate plastically due to
metallurgical creep but the steel core will not. This is demonstrated in Figure 31.
64
The permanent creep elongation of the aluminum layers due to metallurgical creep over
10 years yields the following results:
- The composite conductor tension is reduced from 60 to approximately 49 MPa as
may be seen by following the bare conductor catenary curve from A to A.
- The composite conductor elongation increases from 0.045% to 0.065%.
- The aluminum layer tension is reduced from 31 to 17 MPa (B to B)
- The steel core tension increases from 29 MPa to 32 MPa even though the
composite conductor tension decreases.
486 mm2 26/7 Drake ACSR in 180 m span showing final
component tensions after 10 years of creep at 15C
70.0
A
60.0
AL-I+ST
STRESS - MPa
50.0
A'
40.0
AL+ST after
10 yr creep
30.0
B
C
20.0
C'
B'
10.0
D
-0.1
-0.05
Plastic Elongation of
Aluminum Layers 15C
0.0
D
0.05
0.1
0.15
% ELONGATION
As is typical of creep in ACSR conductor, the plastic elongation of the aluminum layers
yields an increase in the elastic elongation of the steel core.
65
60.0
A'
STRESS - MPa
50.0
40.0
C'
A''
30.0
20.0
B"
B'
10.0
Th elong of Steel core
0.0
-0.1
-0.05
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
% ELONGATION
The thermal elongation of the aluminium layers of the Drake ACSR (A1/S1A) conductor
is twice as much as the steel core per degree increase in temperature. The zero-tension
%elongation of the aluminum layers at 15oC (after 10 years of creep elongation) is
0.03%. It increases to 0.022% when the conductor temperature increases to 100oC. The
zero-tension %elongation of the steel core at 15oC is -0.06%. It increases to +0.04% as
the core temperature increases to 100oC. As a result of the difference in thermal
elongation rate of the aluminum layers and the steel core, and the permanent creep
elongation of the aluminum layers, the tension at 100oC is entirely in the steel core and
any further increase in sag at higher temperatures occurs at the thermal elongation rate of
the steel core alone.
For this ACSR conductor, in this span, the knee-point temperature is found to be 90oC.
Thus under these final conditions, the ACSR conductor is supported entirely by the steel
core at temperatures at 90oC. For ACSR conductors with a single layer of aluminum
strands, the aluminum layers cannot support significant aluminum compression force at
temperatures above the kneepoint but ACSR with multiple layers of aluminum wires can
support some modest amount of compression. Thus with multiple aluminum layer
ACSR, the compressive force in the aluminum layers increases the tension in the steel
core causes more
The kneepoint temperature also depends upon the span length and upon the relative
area of steel and aluminium in the A1/S1 conductor. Generally, as is shown in Table 14,
66
taken from Technical Brochure 244, the kneepoint temperature is lower for A1/S1
conductors with a high percentage of steel and for short spans.
Table 14 - "Knee-point temperatures" of A1/S1 (ACSR) as a function of stranding
and span length determined by the Alcoa graphical method. All conductors have
an aluminium strand area of 403 mm2.
A1/S1
Steel
Span
Kneepoint Temp [oC]
Name
Stranding
mm2
m
No Alum
20 MPa of
Compression
Alum
Compression
Tern
Condor
Drake
Mallard
45/7
54/7
26/7
30/7
28
53
66
92
300
300
300
300
150
100
70
32
156
112
88
52
Drake
Drake
Drake
Drake
26/7
26/7
26/7
26/7
66
66
66
66
450
300
200
100
74
70
55
42
100
88
71
50
Table 14 lists the kneepoint temperatures for these conductor spans under final
conditions, that is, they include the plastic elongation of the aluminium strands that
occurs as a result of tension loading over time. When first installed, the kneepoint
temperatures are higher.
67
7.1
Conductor Weight
As pointed out in Section 2.4, conductor weight usually exceeds the nominal value by
0.2% to 0.6%. Also, during the life of an overhead line, the conductors mass can be
greater due to tarnishing effects, humidity or pollution, which can lead to greater sags and
tensions than expected.
However, this slight increase in weight normally does not significantly affect final sags
due to its small quantity. In this example, an increase of 3% in the conductor weight has
been considered, and sag increments at any temperature are not greater than 0.19 m (see
Table 15). These increments are very constant with temperature. In general, for the same
Ax/Sxy conductor the kneepoint temperature shifts upward as conductor weight
increases.
68
20
Initial
40
Final
60
80
Final + 3%Weight
100
120
140
Final + 5% Weight
Tensions at low temperatures, which can have importance due to aeolian vibrations, are
minimally affected. For this case, an increase of 3% in conductor weight produces an
increment of only 0.1 kN on the final tension at 15C.
In the improbable case that the weight of the conductor would increase considerably (say
by 5%) the sags would also increase by 0.3m with respect to the nominal calculation
values.
7.2
Elastic Elongation
All of the sag-tension calculation methods recognize that the stress-strain behavior of
stranded conductors is essentially linear for short times and moderate stress levels once
the conductor has been installed. This can be seen from the final curve of the load-strain
method, whose slope is the final modulus of the conductor. But in reality the elastic
modulus of the materials used for overhead conductors are a function of temperature and
exact values are not always correct.
Variations of elastic modulus of either steel or aluminium change the final value of the
conductors coefficient of thermal expansion. Also, when considering composite
conductors, variations in elasticity directly affects the kneepoint temperature, resulting in
sag differences.
69
Nevertheless, variations in the conductors elastic modulus do not greatly affect sagtension values. For example, an increment of 10% of the value of both the aluminium and
steel elastic modulus can cause a sag decrement of only 0.02m at 60C, and 0.04m at
120C.
At low temperatures, there are also no significant differences in tensions, so elastic
modulus has minimal effect on aeolian vibration risks.
26/7 A1/S1 DRAKE. 300 m Span, 28 kN @ 15C Initial
Sensitivity oto Differences in Elastic Modulus
10.50
10.00
9.50
9.00
8.50
8.00
7.50
7.00
6.50
6.00
5.50
0
20
Initial
40
Final
60
80
100
Final + 10% E
120
140
Final + 100% E
7.3
Plastic Elongation
The accurate determination of a conductors plastic elongation, either due to long time
periods at modest tension levels (creep) or short time periods at high stress (design
loading), is very important with regard to maintaining adequate electrical clearances
along the line during its lifetime. As described in Sections 5 and 6, Load-Strain and
Strain Summation Methods use experimental data to model the long-term creep
elongation in aluminium strands, and the plastic elongation due to high load events.
Conversely, linear methods approximate these plastic elongations by general formulae or
typical values, as described in IEC Technical Report 1597. For example, a typical value
of 0.05 % is given for A1/Sxy conductors.
The different ways in which permanent plastic elongation is modeled may lead to
significant differences in sag, even (or specially) at moderate temperatures. Additionally,
70
the conductor stress-strain model under high stress events has an influence on the
maximum conductor tension transmitted to the towers. In order to simplify and evaluate
only the value sensitivity, rather than the method, the creep and the permanent elongation
due to high loads have been combined as plastic elongation, in the same way as the
Linear Methods approximates these effects. Again, in this case the kneepoint temperature
is significantly affected. As plastic elongation increases, the kneepoint temperature
decreases, causing sag differences at low temperatures only, assuming no creep of the
steel core. On the other hand, for homogeneous All Aluminium Conductors this is not an
issue, but plastic elongation is much more critical.
The results for this example are shown in Table 15, where it can be seen that for
moderate conductor temperatures the difference between considering a plastic elongation
of 0.03% (equivalent temperature shift of approximately 20C) or 0.05% (equivalent
temperature shift of approximately 33C) can cause a sag difference of about 0.44m.
These differences come to zero above the kneepoint temperature. If we consider 0.06 %
plastic elongation (equivalent temperature shift of approximately 40C), the sag
difference can reach 0.72m at 15C.
26/7 A1/S1 DRAKE. 300 m Span, 28 kN @ 15C Initial
Sensitivity to Differences in Plastic Elongation of Aluminum
10.50
10.00
9.50
9.00
8.50
8.00
7.50
7.00
6.50
6.00
5.50
0
20
Initial
40
60
Final (0.03%)
80
100
Final (0.05%)
120
140
Final (0.06%)
7.4
Thermal elongation
As with plastic elongation, thermal elongation variations translate directly into sag
clearance variations and can have an influence when determining sags at elevated
operating temperatures. On the other hand, thermal contraction at low temperature affects
the tension attained during periods when aeolian vibration is most damaging.
71
Although most calculation methods assume that the coefficient of thermal expansion is
constant, in reality it is a function of the stress and the elastic modulus [29]. The values
used for aluminium and steel strands are usually 23*10-6 and 11.510-6 per oC,
respectively, and the composite coefficient is determined as described in Section 5.2.
The variations in coefficient of thermal expansion can cause relevant changes in
calculated sags at elevated temperatures. An increase of 10% of both aluminium and steel
thermal expansion coefficients (i.e. an increase in 10% of composite coefficient) causes
an increase in sag of 0.18m at 90C and 0.22m at 120C. This sag variation can reach
0.56m at 120C for an increase of 30% of both aluminium and steel thermal expansion
coefficients.
It can be noted in this case again that the knee-point temperature decreases as thermal
expansion coefficient increases.
For low temperatures, increments of thermal expansion coefficient cause decrements of
sag and increments of tension. For a 10% increment of both aluminium and steel thermal
expansion coefficients we obtain a tension increment of 0.22kN at 0C and for a 30%
increment we obtain a tension increment of 0.67kN at 0C.
26/7 A1/S1 DRAKE. 300 m Span, 28 kN @ 15C Initial
Sensitivity to Coef. Thermal Expansion (CTE)
10.50
10.00
9.50
9.00
8.50
8.00
7.50
7.00
6.50
6.00
5.50
0
20
Initial
40
Final
60
80
100
Final (CTE+10%)
120
140
Final (CTE+30%)
72
Table 15 shows some values, demonstrating some of the sensitivity of the different
parameters involved in the sag-tension calculation in the example case given in section
2.1.
Table 15 - Table of Basic Sag-tension Sensitivities
26/7 A1/S1 DRAKE. 300 m Span. 28,02 kN @ 15C Initial
Sag in m
15C
60C
90C
Initial Condition
6.42
7.82
8.71
Final Condition (0.03% plastic elongation)
7.12
8.65
9.24
Sag variation (in m) with respect to Final Condition (0.03% plastic elongation)
15C
60C
90C
3% Increment in Conductor Weight
+0.19
+0.16
+0.17
5% Increment in Conductor Weight
7.5
+0.31
+0.27
+0.28
120C
9.57
9.72
120C
+0.16
+0.26
+0.00
-0.02
-0.08
-0.04
+0.00
-0.10
-0.13
-0.06
+0.44
+0.05
+0.01
+0.01
+0.72
+0.06
+0.01
+0.01
+0.00
+0.15
+0.18
+0.22
+0.00
+0.34
+0.43
+0.56
As with plastic elongation, thermal elongation errors translate directly into sag clearance
errors and can have an important influence on the public safety. Given the increasing
tendency to operate transmission lines close to their thermal limits, there is a genuine
concern that minimum electrical clearances may not be adequately maintained.
Technical Brochure 244 contains a thorough discussion of the various sources of sag
error at high temperature. Table 2 from that brochure summarizes the most important
sources of sag error at high temperature:
Table 16 - Various high temperature sag errors.
Typical error magnitudes in high temperature sag calculations
Aluminium area (strands)
Steel area (strands)
Final tension at 20oC
Equivalent span length
Sag at 20C
ACSR Drake
403 mm2 (26)
66 mm2 (7)
25 800 N
250 m
4.84 m
ACSR Condor
403 mm2 (54)
53 mm2 (7)
23 150 N
250 m
5.06 m
ACSR Tern
403 mm2 (45)
28 mm2 (7)
19 100 N
250 m
5.36 m
7.78 m
7.53 m
7.73 m
8.53 m
8.53 m
8.53 m
73
+0.03 m
+0.15 m
0
+0.6 to -1.0
0
+/- 0.14
+0.05 m
+0.11 m
0
+0.5 to -0.9 m
+ 0.07 m
+/- 0.12
+0.06 m
+0.06 m
+0.50 m
+0.5 to -0.8 m
+0.05 m
0
Table 16 lists the sag errors produced by different knee-point assumptions. It also
includes estimates of sag errors due to other relatively minor sources of calculation
error including consideration of radial temperature differences between the steel core and
outside of the conductor, changes in elastic modulus with temperature, non-ideal ruling
span effects, etc. Note that the errors due to non-ideal ruling span effects are generally
larger than those due to the other factors. Sags are usually greater than predicted in the
shortest spans and less than predicted for relatively long spans.
7.6
Thermal contraction at low temperature affects the tension attained during periods when
aeolian vibration is most damaging. Sag-tension calculation errors are unlikely to be
large enough to be important in estimating aeolian vibration levels given the variation
and uncertainty in other factors such as terrain and air temperature.
74
8.0 References
Documents listed in the Reference Section are specifically referred to in the brochure.
1 IEC 1089, Round wire concentric lay overhead electrical stranded conductors,
First Edition, 1991.
2 IEC 1597, Overhead electrical conductors Calculation methods for stranded
bare conductors, First Edition, 1995.
3 Aluminum Association, Aluminium Electrical Conductor Handbook, Second
Edition 1982, New York.
4 Barrett, JS, Dutta S., and Nigol, O., A New Computer Model of A1/S1A (ACSR)
Conductors, IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-102, No. 3, March 1983, pp 614-621.
5 Dwight H.B., Sag Calculations for Transmission Lines, AIEE Transactions,
May, 1926, pp.796-805.
6 Ehrenburg, D.O., Transmission Line Catenary Calculations, AIEE Paper,
Committee on Power Transmission & Distribution, July 1935.
7 Lummis J., Ficher H.D., Practical application of sag and tension calculations to
transmission line design, AIEE Transactions, paper 54-501
8 Martin J.S., Sag calculations by the use of Martins Table (book), Copperweld
Steel Co., Pa, 1031
9 Southwire Company, Overhead Conductor Manual, 1994.
10 IEEE Subcommittee 15.11, IEEE Guide to the Installation of Overhead
Transmission Line Conductors, IEEE Standard 524-1993, Published by IEEE, New
York, NY.
11 Thayer, E.S., Computing tensions in transmission lines, Electrical World,
Vol.84, no.2, July 12, 1924
12 Healy, E.S., Wright, A.J., Unbalanced conductor tensions, AIEE Transactions,
Sept. 1926, pp.1064-1070
13 IEEE Subcommittee 15.11, Limitations of the Ruling Span Method for Overhead
Line Conductors at High Operating Temperatures. Report of IEEE WG on Thermal
Aspects of Conductors, IEEE WPM 1998, Tampa, FL, Feb. 3, 1998
14 CIGRE SC22/WG11.04 Safe design tension with respect to aeolian vibrations. Part I: Single unprotected conductors, ELECTRA, no.186, October 1999, pp. 53-87.
75
76