Youth

Patrick Williams

The study of youth subcultures has rich histories in the USA and UK, yet has
remained a marginal subfield within cultural sociology. In this article, I begin by
reviewing the significance of the Chicago school, strain theory, Birmingham
school and post-subcultural studies traditions of youth-cultural and youthsubcultural research. I then conceive of a series of significant analytic concepts
that over time have proven themselves to be core components of
youth-subcultural studies. These analytic concepts include subcultural style,
resistance, subcultural space and media, societal reaction, and identity and
authenticity. In each analytic section, I explore major conceptual frames and
discuss significant empirical research, on youth subcultures including punk
goth, straightedge, riot grrrl skateboarding, rave and club cultures, among
others.

Youth-subcultural phenomena continue to be popular topics at colleges

and universities in the USA, the UK, Europe, and Australia. Sociologists
and cultural studies scholars regularly participate in research- and teachingrelated seminars on youth cultures and subcultures in conferences around
the globe. There has been a plethora of monographs and edited research
volumes on youth subcultures in recent years, covering a rich and diverse
history of theoretical and methodological traditions. Peer-reviewed
research can be found in a variety of journals, and university courses on
youth subcultures are well attended. At the same time, however, some
scholars have called for the abandonment of the subculture concept in
favor of newer alternatives. This has sparked reactions from those scholars
who believe in the analytic potential of the subculture concept. Given all
this attention, there is a need to take account of the past and present in
the field of youth-subcultural studies and to consider the diversity of
epistemological, theoretical, conceptual, and substantive issues at hand.
Subcultural studies emerged out of two distinct sociological traditions
yet has been affected by and affects many other scholarly fields. The
earliest coherent set of subcultural studies was carried out by sociologists
at the University of Chicago from the 1920s to 1940s, although these
sociologists did not identify themselves explicitly as subcultural scholars.
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Youth-Subcultural Studies: Sociological Traditions and Core Concepts 573

In Britain, an explicitly subcultural approach to the study of working-class

youths was developed at the Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies
(CCCS) in the late 1960s and 1970s. In this article, I offer a brief
overview of the significance of these traditions for subcultural studies. My
intent here is not to artificially narrow the complexity of subcultural
studies in either the past or present, but rather to offer a heuristic frame
through which to view that complexity. My first goal is to discuss the
emergence of the field of subcultural studies and how it is currently
situated. My second goal is to outline a set of concepts that over time
have come to form the core of subcultural studies and to offer some basic
insight into those concepts. I will begin with historical overviews of the
American and British traditions of subcultural studies, noting their theoretical and methodological underpinnings, significance, and weaknesses.
I will then discuss the current state of the field by organizing it into a series
of nondiscrete analytic topics that covers a range of research being done
on subcultures and subculture participants (subculturalists) today.
Sociological traditions
American subcultural studies

The American tradition of subcultural studies arose out of two strands of

academic work: the Chicago school and functionalist theories of strain.
The Chicago school represented a tradition of American sociology that
extended from the early twentieth century until the 1950s and relied on
an ecological model of society in equilibrium and on the belief that
subcultures in the US arose in part as a result of urbanization. This
argument can be traced to early essays such as Parks (1925) The City,
important because of its emphasis on collective lifestyles, the relevance of
moral order and social control within groups, and the call for in-depth,
qualitative, empirical analyses of how cultural life is experienced. Sociologists have argued for and against the idea of a coherent Chicago school
tradition (cf. Becker 1999; Faris 1967; Tomasi 1998), while others have
drawn attention to some of the Chicago facultys collective interests in
social (dis)organization, social distance and social isolation arguably all
aspects of subcultures.1
Early sociological research on youth subcultures in the USA predominantly concentrated on the deviant aspects of youth and is typified by the work
of some Chicago faculty and students in urbanism, culture, and deviance.
Perhaps the most conspicuous aspect of the reputation of the city of Chicago
in the 1920s was the magnitude of its crime. Beer wars, bombings, racketeering,
holdups, and gang murders made newspaper copy all over the world. ... Since
it was apparent that most patterns of criminal behavior are acquired during the
criminals youthful days, research into the origins of juvenile delinquency
appeared to be of strategic importance. (Faris 1967, 72)
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Significant effort was put into the qualitative study of deviant processes.
Thrashers (1927) The Gang and Cresseys (1932) The Taxi-Dance Hall are
two examples of Chicago-based research into deviant lifestyles among the
marginalized urban poor. Social problems such as delinquency challenged
the ecological model of society in equilibrium, and the subculture concept
became useful in explaining social pathologies. Subcultures were recognized as relatively distinct social subsystem[s] within a larger social system
and culture (Fischer 1975, 1323) with the terms subculture and subsystem being coterminous. Subcultural research emphasized ethnic enclaves,
youth, criminals, and other peripheral cultural groups, but did not
adequately distinguish normative (i.e., cultural) structures from social
organization.
The Chicago school model was not the only iteration of subcultural
theory in the USA. Merton (1938) also theorized deviance within a
functionalist framework, positing that disjunctures between the cultural
goals of a society and the ability of its members to achieve those goals
caused psychological strain for individuals. His strain theory linked deviant
individuals behaviors to dominant social structures through various potential types of action. The type of deviant actions in which they engaged
vis--vis the dominant cultures goals depended on the type and effect of
anomie people experienced. Relying on unconventional means to achieve
mainstream cultural goals or rejecting mainstream cultural goals and
strategies promoted the formation of subcultures.
Cohen (1955) developed Mertons strain theory to describe how deviant
behaviors continued to occur in the face of psychological strain by claiming
that subcultures represented inverted sets of values and norms that participants internalized. A new subculture brought psychological and emotional
well-being to its members. Cohens version of strain emphasized that
subcultures emerged when a number of actors with similar problems of
social adjustment interact with one another and innovate new frames of
reference (Cohen 1955; cited in Thornton 1997, 13). This conceptualization highlighted social fragmentation within modern urban areas and
emphasized that both social structures and cultural milieux combined to
shape both the problems youths experienced and their possible solutions.
The work of Cloward and Ohlin (1960) on delinquent subcultural youths
also began by asserting disjunctures between mainstream cultural goals and
working-class youths marginalized opportunities. However, in their theory
the inability to succeed was not understood by individuals as their fault,
but rather as the fault of the system, which caused individuals to lose faith
in the legitimacy of the dominant social order. When a critical mass of
similarly disenfranchised individuals was reached in a given geographical
area, a subculture (or multiple subcultures) would emerge. Whereas Cohen
(1955) argued that subcultural participants inverted mainstream cultural
values, Cloward and Ohlin (1960) insisted that subcultural participants had
the ability to create new alternative subcultural frames of reference.
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Youth-Subcultural Studies: Sociological Traditions and Core Concepts 575

In sociology, the subculture concept was further elaborated in the 1960s

and 1970s through the concepts of counterculture and contraculture, among
others (see Roberts 1978; Yinger 1960). With the passing of the hippies
in the early 1970s, however, the youth subculture concept moved away
from mainstream sociology and into criminology, where deviance remains
a key analytic variable. The sociological study of subcultural youths has since
developed in North America within the field of criminology. Criminological work often takes youth culture at face value, focusing on correlations and effects rather than on cultural processes (e.g., Baron 2007),
although some criminologists remain analytically interested in culture
(Ferrell 1999). Most problematic from a subcultural studies perspective is
the criminological interest in the links between subculture and crime
(e.g., Holt 2007), which represents youths as a social problem.
The first wave of American subcultural studies suffered from several
weaknesses. Early ecological and strain theories were overly deterministic,
conceptualizing subcultural formations primarily as reactions to mainstream or dominant cultural forces. Strain theories tended to limit an
explanation of subcultural emergence to the disjunctures between the
desire and means for economic success, discounting or minimizing other
variables. Analyses were also limited to poor and/or minority populations
in large cities. Development of the subculture concept in the USA slowed
in the 1960s and 1970s, just as a radically different approach to subcultures
was emerging in the UK.
British subcultural studies

During the 1960s and 1970s, the interdisciplinary field of cultural studies
emerged in the UK, particularly at the CCCS (Sparks 1998). There, a
group of scholars with backgrounds in the social sciences and humanities
researched, among other things, various aspects of working-class youth
cultures. Their collective work analyzed a variety of British youth subcultures, including teddy boys, mods, rockers, hippies and punks. Their
subcultural theories represented a break with the American traditions of
structural functionalism and deviance, preferring instead a neo-Marxian
approach to class and power. CCCS work explored how subcultures
provided symbolic solutions to working-class youth (Clarke et al. 1976).
Subcultural participation was no longer understood as deviant, but as a
form of resistance that reflected larger class struggles: the most fundamental
groups are the social classes, and the major cultural configurations will be,
in a fundamental though often mediated way, class cultures (Clarke et al.
1976, 13). Subculture and class were only analytically separable as two
sides of the same coin.
The CCCSs goal was to explain the emergence of youth subcultures
in post-World War II Britain, not all subcultures across time and space.
Accordingly, they believed that British subcultures represented working-class
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youths struggles to differentiate themselves both from their parents workingclass culture (dead-end jobs or unemployment; alcoholism and family
strife) and the dominant bourgeoisie culture (lawmakers and police;
bosses and teachers). Subcultures were therefore framed not in terms of
strain, but as sites of resistance to cultural hegemony the struggle
between the bourgeoisie and proletariat for cultural and social power.
Subcultural youth formed sites of resistance on the street corners, in the
dance halls, on the open road, and in the weekend holiday spots. But
while these sites offered space and time for youth to do their own thing,
the subcultures failed to offer them anything more. At the end of the
weekend, working-class youths likely had only vocational school or their
dead-end jobs to which to return (Willis 1981).
To the extent that subcultural youths did engage in resistance, it was
allegedly most obvious in their style, which was seen as a symbolic
resource for youth insomuch as the dominant culture dismissed, marginalized, or rejected its appropriateness (Clarke 1976b; Hebdige 1979). This
is the major methodological difference between the American and British
traditions of subcultural studies: instead of an ethnographic approach,
CCCS studies were primarily grounded in semiotic analyses of style. The
semioticians job was to deconstruct the taken-for-granted meanings that
were attributed to subcultural objects and practices. This deconstruction
required the semiotician to interrogate how taken-for-granted meanings
were created, distributed, and consumed. The meanings of cultural objects
and practices arose through hegemony as the ruling and working classes
struggled over definitions of reality (Gramsci 1971). Within this struggle,
subcultures appropriated and inverted cultural meanings, often through
the consumption of clothing, music, and other leisure commodities.
Through rituals of consumption ... the subculture at once reveals its
secret identity and communicates its forbidden meanings. It is basically
how commodities are used in subculture which marks the subculture off
from more orthodox cultural formations (Hebdige 1979, 103). From this
perspective, all meaning was suspect even the subcultural youths themselves did not always understand what their objects and practices really
meant. Only the trained semiotician could see the ideological dimension
of subcultural style.
CCCS theorists acknowledged at least three problems with studying
youth subcultures. First, they argued the importance of making the
distinction between subculture and delinquency (Cohen 1972, 30).
Second, they pointed out that most youth never entered into subcultures,
hence, there was little if any generalizability to youth culture available
from subcultural analysis. Third, they recognized that subcultural participation was not necessarily rooted in a desire to achieve economic success
through noninstitutionalized means, nor was resistance always firstand-foremost on participants minds. Like many preceding American
researchers, British scholars focused primarily (if not exclusively) on
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lower-class culture, as well as limiting their analyses primarily to males and

whites. Researchers focus on class limited their ability to make sense of
how different subcultures used different sets of symbols to resist dominant
culture from within the same working-class parent culture. CCCS theorists were also charged with being overtheoretical and failing to rely on
adequate empirical data. Finally, subcultures were theorized as static and
homogeneous entities vis--vis a dominant cultural regime, and subcultural variability was explained away as ideological struggle rather than an
area to be empirically explored. The CCCS tended to ignore what
subcultural participants actually said or did, focusing instead on reading
their resistance through style and ritual.
Contemporary subcultural studies

Despite the critiques leveled against the American and British traditions,
each tradition has been fundamental in building theoretical, conceptual,
and methodological bases for the study of youth subcultures. Numerous
theory and research strands have emerged over the last 30 years in both
the USA and UK. Although a review of them all would require more
space than is available, it is worth mentioning that research in symbolic
interactionism, conversation analysis, sports sociology, and cultural studies
(itself divided into several theoretical strands, including post-CCCS,
Manchester school, and post-subcultural studies) have each furthered
social scientific understanding of youth-subcultural phenomena. One
significant feature of subcultural studies today is the critical insider
perspective that has emerged (Hodkinson 2005). Much criminological
research on youth subculture is etically framed in terms of gangs, violence,
or delinquency. In contrast, subcultural studies collectively seek to emically
explore the functional, participatory, and lived aspects of young peoples
material and non-material cultures.
Perhaps the most significant debate in subcultural studies in recent years
concerns the conceptualization of contemporary youth collectivities.
Relegating subculture to a useless catch-all concept in favor of the term
neo-tribe, Bennett (1999, 2005) argued that youth grouping which have
traditionally been theorized as coherent subcultures are better understood
as a series of temporal gathering characterized by fluid boundaries and
floating memberships (1999, 600). Scholars have weighed in on the debate
in various ways, usually either by additionally criticizing the CCCSs
subcultural studies (Bennett and Kahn-Harris 2004; Weinzierl and Muggleton 2003) or by defending the concepts continued relevance (Gelder
2005; Hodkinson 2002). At least two problems, themselves contradictory,
continue to plague current polemics. The first is a lack of proper attention
to previous work by sociologists in the development of the subculture
concept. Scholarship by Irwin (1977) and Fine and Kleinman (1979), for
example, is decades old, yet offers clear analytic inroads to the useful
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578 Youth-Subcultural Studies: Sociological Traditions and Core Concepts

development of the subculture concept. For the most part, however, their
work has been ignored by British scholars who have given themselves over
to what Gelder (2005, 1) refers to as a rhetoric of newness. The second
is an avoidance of the fact that multiple layers of analytic concepts must
be usefully employed to make sense of the incredible diversity of youthcultural phenomena being studied today. Rather than pit concepts against
one another as if they were all epistemologically equal and competitive,
scholars might instead focus on the cleavages and boundaries among
concepts, recognizing that some youth phenomena may be best understood as subcultural, and others not.
Core concepts
Reviewing the literature makes it clear that, regardless of the strands to
which individual scholars subscribe, a number of analytic issues are significant in the field of subcultural studies. In order to provide insight into
these issues without being overly pedantic, I have divided the remainder
of the article into a series of analytic topics. I consider these to be core
concepts of the field because much of the current scholarship being
done in subcultural studies today seems to utilize one or more of them.
They are style, resistance, space and media, societal reaction, and identity
and authenticity.
Style

The study of subcultural style is best known through work done by

CCCS scholars in the 1970s. CCCS theory tended to emphasize leisure
over other social realms, such as the family or school, because leisure
spaces were relatively free of dominant cultural forces (at least in youths
minds) and thus were where subcultural expressions were most likely to
appear. And it was in the leisure sphere that style emerged as subculturally
significant. Cohen (1972) identified four dimensions of style: dress, music,
ritual, and argot. These modes can be usefully recategorized into cultural
objects and cultural practices. Style is not an essential quality of any of these
dimensions:
The various youth sub-cultures have been identified by their possessions and
objects. ... Yet, despite their visibility, things simply appropriated and worn (or
listened to) do not make a style. What makes a style is the activity of stylization
the active organization of objects with activities and outlooks, which produce
an organized group-identity in the form and shape of a coherent and distinctive way of being-in-the-world. (Clarke et al. 1976, 54)

Thus, for CCCS theorists, styles significance lay in its capacity to solve
problems. Mod style represented the ideological contradictions of desiring
a middle-class lifestyle on the one hand and a commitment to their
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working-class background on the other, while Skinhead style attested to

disdain for middle-class culture altogether. In short, CCCS theorists
conceptualized style as an essential subcultural component.
Studying clothing has been common in subcultural studies because
sartorial distinctiveness is highly salient in everyday life one can spot a punk
or a goth a mile away, so to speak.2 Why some young people choose to dress
in ways that alienate them from many of their peers is partially explained
by the concept of bricolage: the re-ordering and re-contextualization
of objects to communicate fresh meanings ... (Clarke 1976b, 177). Subcultural members do not attribute the same meanings to their clothing
that outsiders do. Therefore, when punks draw a swastika on a jacket or
jeans, they may not mean to signify fascism, but rather simply to shock
narrow-minded parents, teachers, and peers. Some youths may wear black
clothing to signify a collective identity (Hodkinson 2002), while others
wear it because, maybe when I get up in the morning Im feeling pissed
off (Bovone 2003, 209). This basic distinction represents a shift by some
scholars from more communal studies that highlight collective identities
and practices to postmodern approaches that emphasize the precarious
nature of stylistic choice. In one example of this postmodern line of
research, Muggleton (2002) focused on how clothing styles are used to
distinguish individuals not only from mainstream culture, but from other
subculturalists, for example, as forms of distinctive individuality.
Youths subcultural practices become meaningful through stylization,
from slang terms and secret hand-signs to food preferences, music and
dance forms. Music has proven to be a particularly potent aspect of
meaning-making among young people. Speaking about musics importance for adolescents, Ian MacKaye (member of punk bands Minor Threat
and Fugazi ) once said that music is the soundtrack for the transition to
adulthood (Berwick n.d.). Music was identified by Chicago school
scholars as a dimension of subcultural activity. Cressey (1932) studied the
devolution of young womens moral careers through participation in the
taxi-dance subculture. In that research, music was a backdrop for deviant
behavior. Subsequent Chicago-trained scholars, however, brought music
to the foreground. Beckers (1963) research on jazz musicians is an exemplar of how music stylization functions to maintain cultural boundaries
between hip subculturalists and the square mainstream. Contemporary
scholars have identified a complex web of music and culture that includes
the increased feasibility for youths to make their own music (Bennett
2001), commitments to consuming particular music genres (Kahn-Harris
2007; Sardiello 1998), the use of music as an identity-making resource
(Bennett 2000; Cushman 1995) and the relations between music and
politicaleconomic structures of power (Grossberg 1992; Rose 1994).
Subcultural style-as-practice goes far beyond creating and consuming
music. For participants in the modern primitive subculture, the practice
of body modification tattooing, branding, and piercing is as important
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580 Youth-Subcultural Studies: Sociological Traditions and Core Concepts

as its objective effects on the body (Winge 2003), while skateboarders,

bike messengers, and graffiti artists resignify urban environments through
their leisure practices (Borden 2001; Kidder 2005; MacDonald 2001;
Peralta 2002). Such practices are ineffably subcultural, as one graffiti artist
points out: the politics and rationalization of [such practices] are indiscernible to the outside world (Teck, cited in MacDonald 2001, 153 4).
Subcultural slang systems (Gelder 2007, 14 17; Johnson et al. 2006;
Miller 2004), dietary choices (Cherry 2006), and even digital signature
files (Williams 2003) represent ritualized and stylized practices that set
participants off intersubjectively from mainstream society. Yet, stylization
results in objective effects as well. Young people are regularly labeled
as deviant for their stylistic choices (see Societal reaction below) and
abhorrent behavior is often reduced to an individuals clothing or
habits, as it was in the case of the Columbine shooters being linked to
Goth-subcultural participation.
Resistance

For many youth-subculture participants, style operates as a form of resistance to the adult world. From obnoxious hair styles and clothes to
obscene lyrics, many youths revel in how uncomfortable mainstream folk
become when confronted with difference. But analytically speaking, is a
hair style a form of resistance? And if so, resistance against what? Some
youths behaviors might signify a pleasurable phase of rebellion between
childhood and adulthood, a moment of deviance from the norms of
society, or contestations direct against specific agents of control (Raby
2005). For others, it might represent a liminal aspect of their adolescence
or a struggle with inequalities and injustices they experience in their
everyday lives. Subculture scholars have considered a variety of activities
as resistant, rebellious, or deviant, depending in part on their own academic
perspectives. In each case, concepts are predicated on complex relationships between human actors and their social environments. What they all
share is their framing of resistance as a sign of opposition or alternative to
existing power relations.
We must first determine whether youth practices are resistant. Subcultural resistance was first theorized by CCCS scholars. On street corners,
in dance halls, on the open road, and at weekend holiday spots, teddy
boys, skinheads, mods, and rockers created social spaces and stylistic
practices that represented resistance to dominant culture at the symbolic
level (Clarke et al. 1976). The skinhead style of work boots, jeans, and
suspenders, for example, was seen as an ideological desire to reconstitute
the traditional working-class community that in real life was deteriorating
(Clarke 1976a), while the teddy boys appropriation of Edwardian suits
represented the disjuncture between economic and cultural capital.3 In
short, their styles were conceptualized as merely symbolic or magical
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insomuch as they ultimately failed to improve the youths lives structurally.

While not untrue, the magical solution thesis structuralist, neo-Marxist
approach ignored how resistance may be framed social psychologically or
culturally. Lowney (1995) studied a group of teenage Satanists in a small
town in the American South and found that their practices were less
about a commitment to Satanic worship and more about a desire to upset
the local Christian, sports-oriented high school culture that they found so
oppressive. At one level, their resistance appears magical because their
religious style does not improve their status or educational outcomes. Yet,
through style (including appearance and rituals) they generate a form of
collective identity ... outside that ascribed by ... education. This is ... in no
sense a real material solution, but one which is solved at the cultural level
(Brake 1985, vii).
Other scholarship has critiqued this thesis by noting that many subcultures, including punk, straightedge, and riot grrrl, are explicitly framed in
terms of sincere desire for social change (Copes and Williams 2007;
Haenfler 2004; Moore 2007; Schilt 2003). Such active resistance occurs
at the micro-level of individual action, but is often supported at the
meso-level by subcultural frames of reference. In their research on the
straightedge subculture, Haenfler (2004), Williams (2003, 2006), and
Wood (2003) independently found that many participants framed resistance in terms of personal lifestyle choices, that is, that their desire to resist
mainstream culture preexisted their subcultural participation. Haenfler
went on to explore how this individualized resistance is often balanced by
an outward-focused political orientation that does emphasize broader
social change (see also Martin 2002).
Schilt (2003) also explored the personal and collective dimensions of
resistance by studying the cleavages between covert and overt forms of
resistance among riot grrrls. Subculturalists sometimes express defiance
and disgust through overt channels such as political activity, yet marginalized
communities often prefer to engage in more covert resistance through
private rituals, out of site of adults and voyeurs. This type of resistance,
like Lowneys Satanists, may appear relatively passive, offering an empowering identity or community of friends to social outcasts without changing
the larger social structure, but it is not simply magical. Schilt found that
resistance was not simply covert or overt, however, and used the concept
of c/overt to signify how resistance incorporates aspects of both at the
same time. Girls may publish fanzines with only a small group of friends
in mind for example, yet the personal changes that occur may diffuse
across readers other social worlds.
Research on resistance is often framed to some extent in terms of class,
race, ethnicity, or gender. Early Chicago school work focused on immigrants, African Americans, and the working poor, while CCCS scholarship
was grounded explicitly in terms of British class struggles. Whiteness and
maleness, however, remained an implicit focus (cf. McRobbie and Garber
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1976). Recent research has been more inclusive. Ruddick (1998) and
Hetherington (1998) each studied subcultures that were economically separated from mainstream middle-class culture, but in different ways: the
former emphasizing resistance within urban environments and the latter
emphasizing resistance to them. Warren and Aumair (1998) and Lucas
(1998) used the concept of moral panic to relate fears of racialized Vietnamese and Hispanic youths in Austrialian and California, respectively.
These two studies, as well as Roses (1994), explored the intersection of
class and race vis--vis white dominant culture and how subcultural
practices resist through the appropriation of space and meaning. Riot
grrrls have served in recent years as go-to material for gender analyses of
youth subcultures, not least because they highlight the collective strength
that is possible in a girls-only subculture. But the popularity of riot grrrl
among researchers partially obscures other significant research that has
focused on the embodied experiences of female punks (Leblanc 2000;
Roman 1988), rockers (Schippers 2002) and skateboarders (Porter 2007)
as well as young women in other societies, such as Kogals (Miller 2004;
Suzuki and Best 2003). Masculinity is beginning to receive more critical
attention as well (e.g., Buechele 2006; Haenfler 2006; Macdonald 2001).
This new wave of racialized and gendered subcultural studies has brought
increasingly complex theorizations of resistance with it.
Space and media

Gelder (1997, 2007) has noted a distinction between a romantic view of

subcultures as dis-placed as homeless or nomadic in the sense of
Mayhews (1968 [18612]) work, versus subcultures as firmly rooted in
space and/or place. Many subcultural activities today seem divorced from
familial and other controlled spaces, but a review of the literature suggests
that most subcultural studies have either explicitly or implicitly tied space
and culture together. From the urban street corner to festivals and
conventions to internet forums and peer-to-peer networks, we can usefully
distinguish types of subcultural space in local, translocal, and virtual terms
(Peterson and Bennett 2004).
Many sociologists have studied subcultural activities in specific social
spaces. Cressey (1932) focused his attention on the taxi-dance hall as a
social setting where young women developed and played out retrogressive
moral careers. Other examples include Barons (1989) study of street
punks, Cohens (2002 [1972]) study of mods and rockers, Gaines (1992)
study of heavy metal kids, and Leblancs (2001) research on punk girls.
These studies highlight the significance of bounded geographical spaces
for embodied, situated social action. Other research has mapped out local
spaces themselves, as in the example of Fonarows (1997) geographic analysis
of indie music gigs, Marsh et al.s (1997) social analysis of soccer stadiums,
and Lincolns (2004) analysis of girls bedroom culture.
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However localized embodied practices may be, youth subcultures

typically cover wide geographies. The skinhead subculture, for example,
evolved in both the USA and UK and to some extent, its evolution was
facilitated through various transatlantic interactions (Moore 1993).
However, skinhead subculture evolved differently in different locations,
with the US containing significant numbers of nonracist skinhead groups
that are subculturally distinct from racist skinheads (Wood 1999). Punk,
hardcore, straightedge, goth, and other contemporary youth subcultures
are also translocal, with participants from around the globe. Peterson and
Bennett (2004, 6) describe translocality as widely scattered local scenes
drawn into regular communication around a distinctive ... lifestyle. To
analytically distinguish between cultural levels, Fine (1979, 734) distinguishes between an idioculture a system of knowledge, beliefs, behaviors,
and customs shared by members of an interacting group and a subculture
a larger set of idiocultures that are interlocked through networks of
direct and indirect communication (Fine and Kleinman 1979). Translocal
subcultures may, thus, be understood as networks of local idiocultural
groups that are interlocked through the distribution of music, traveling
groups (such as touring bands), and conventions and festivals (such as
Burning Man or Rainbow gatherings) among others.
Scholars also study subcultural spaces that belie traditional geographic
sensibilities. For some time, scholars have been critically aware of virtual
spaces formations in which people that are physically dispersed create a
shared identity and culture. In his ethnography of a straightedge subcultural
internet forum, Williams (2006; Williams and Copes 2005) found that the
internet has enabled new possibilities for subcultural participation, allowing
people to participate in subcultures through an internet connection rather
than in a face-to-face scene. Before the internet, fanzines functioned for
decades as the quintessence of subcultural communications (Thornton
1996, 138). Fanzines, or zines, are typically homemade collections of
subcultural news, insider accounts, scene information, and first-person
opinions, produced in paper or electronic form (Leonard 1998). Several
scholars have noted the significance of virtual spaces (in print and digital
media) as sites of resistance (e.g., Garrison 2000; Kearney 1998; Leonard
1998; Schilt 2003). Virtual spaces such as internet forums and zines allow
people to keep up-to-date in their local scene as well as facilitate translocal
interaction that may be regional, national or global (see, for example,
Hodkinson 2002; Jenkins 1992; Williams 2007).
Societal reaction

The types of media I have just described represent what Thornton (1996,
137) calls micro-media: media utilized by subcultural insiders. Most
popular information about any particular subculture, however, is generated
by outsiders. Outsiders are responsible for categorizing, labeling, and
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584 Youth-Subcultural Studies: Sociological Traditions and Core Concepts

either marginalizing or spectacularizing subcultural styles, events, and

actions (see, for example, Moore 2005). As previously noted, a significant
amount of subcultural participation is grounded in a pragmatic conception
of resistance to the mainstream. Yet, some youth objects and activities get
defined as resistant from outside, thus requiring or legitimizing adult
intervention.
Cohen (2002 [1972]) first explored how mainstream, dominant
culture constructs youth subculturalists as folk devils through his study of
the moral panics surrounding mods and rockers in England in the 1960s.
Cohen lays out the steps through which moral panics develop:
A condition, episode, person or group of persons emerges to become defined
as a threat to societal values and interests; its nature is presented in a stylized
and stereotypical fashion by the mass media; the moral barricades are
manned by editors, bishops, politicians and other right-thinking people; socially
accredited experts pronounce their diagnoses and solutions; ways of coping are
evolved or (more often) resorted to; the condition then disappears, submerges
or deteriorates and becomes less visible. (Cohen 2002, 1)

Of particular interest to Cohen are the news media, which regularly

sacrifice accuracy of information in exchange for higher ratings. But as
his model suggests, the media not only builds up negative portrayals of
subculture, their constant coverage results in subcultures becoming
normalized and banal (see also Hebdige 1979, 929).
Subcultural youth are especially prone to stereotypification when their
styles differ from the cultures that surround them and gross simplifications
of youths actions and motives are common. In a study of urban youths
in Melbourne, Australia, Warren and Aumair (1998) found that adults
labeled many young people as gang members based on the youths race
and choice of clothing. Significantly, adults reported receiving most of
their information about those youths through either hearsay or the news
media (see also Lucas 1998). Paterlines (2000) research on Deadheads
showed significant correlations between media representations of subcultural deviance, public restrictions on Deadheads use of public space,
and the numbers of arrests made by police around concert venues. He similarly reported little direct interaction between subculture members and
local mainstream populations, except law-enforcement officials.
Mainstream populations negative biases toward subcultural participation
result in objective consequences for young people. Run-ins with police
are one objective effect of being labeled subcultural, as the studies above
indicate. Other subculturalists from diverse modern nation-states have
experienced similar treatment. In their study of swing kids, Wallace and
Alt (2001) explored how middle-class German youths in the late 1930s
and early 1940s, many of whom had parents who were active in the Nazi
Party, were subjugated to resocialization efforts or forced into labor camps
because of their consumption of American Jewish and black music. In the
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Youth-Subcultural Studies: Sociological Traditions and Core Concepts 585

1980s, csves punks in socialist Hungary were imprisoned for public

incitement to disaffection based on their style (Krokovay 1985). At the
same time in California, heavy metal and punk youths who failed to
abandon subcultural fashion, including wearing studs, leather, or band
T-shirts were implicitly threatened with admission to mental health facilities or juvenile detention (Rosenbaum and Prinsky 1991). In the 1990s,
three heavy metal teens (known as the West Memphis Three) were
convicted of murdering three young boys in Arkansas. The media stirred
a moral panic around alleged Satanic activity, and the prosecution used
discreditable experts to tie heavy metal style to murderous inclinations
(Berlinger and Sinofsky 1996).
Societal reaction may also spectacularize youth-subcultural processes in
more positive ways. As Thornton (1996) studied the medias responsibility
for acid houses mutation into rave culture, Bennett (2000) explored how
the growth in popularity of ethnic Punjabi music in the UK resulted in
an increased number of venues and events upon which young fans could
rely. The rise of raps popularity has similarly allowed for the global spread
of a racialized and classed black sensibility that stands ostensibly in contrast
to a white, middle-class culture (e.g., Decker 1994).4 In my own discussions with young people who participate in a variety of subcultures,
they have repeatedly told stories about how they first learned about a particular subculture through a TV show, a radio program, or by surfing
the web. These examples suggest the roles that large-scale media may play
in facilitating the growth and/or change of youth subcultures.
Identity and authenticity

Once studied primarily by social psychologists, identity and selfhood have

become increasingly popular as analytic concepts in recent decades with
the cultural and discursive turns in the social sciences.5 American subculture scholars were concerned with the relationship between subcultural
participation and its impact on the self, at least implicitly, from the beginning. The Chicago schools emphasis on naturalistic inquiry and the
empirical study of experience led to early insights into the social and
experiential dimensions of subcultural participation. In recent decades,
many subcultural studies have framed identity in terms of insider/outsider
dichotomies or internal hierarchies.
Insider/outsider distinctions have a long history in the study of culture.
This is partly because of an underdeveloped conceptualization of subcultures as interactionally embedded within larger social and cultural
networks. But equally if not more importantly, many subculturalists
objectify insider/outsider distinctions by describing their identities in
contrast to a mainstream or dominant culture. In his study of jazz musicians, Becker (1963) articulated the insiders perspective that jazz players
possessed a degree of hipness that separated them from mainstream
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586 Youth-Subcultural Studies: Sociological Traditions and Core Concepts

squares. Identity discourse may be further differentiated into two analytically distinct layers: a social identity that people use to identify themselves
as members of groups; and a personal identity that people used to identify
themselves as unique subculturalists, separate even from fellow participants
(Williams 2006; see also Widdicombe 1993). Some sociologists have inadvertently objectified subculturalists talk about identity into reified identity
categories. For example, Foxs (1987) study of real punks and pretenders
concluded that subcultural identity was simultaneously dichotomous
(there were such things as real and fake punks) and hierarchically structured
(pretenders served various functions on the periphery of the subculture).
Her analysis failed to consider the contingent nature of subcultural
boundaries and identities. Recently, a more nuanced understanding of
identity has emerged, partially from the sociological study of social identity
( Jenkins 2004) and partly from the cultural study of taste and cultural
capital (Bourdieu 1984, 1986).
Thorntons (1996) study of club cultures in the UK extended
Bourdieus concepts to the idea of subcultural capital, capital that insiders
use to both distinguish themselves from outsiders and internally differentiate themselves from others in the scene. Subcultural capital may be either
objectified, for example, through hair styles or record collection, or
embodied through knowing how to talk, dress, or dance in appropriate
ways. Both forms objectified and embodied are purposively used by
young people to express the personal and social layers of subcultural
identity. As a method of insider/outsider distinction, subcultural capital
is either present or absent. As a method of creating internal hierarchies,
it is valued, traded, and expressed in specific situations. Subcultural
capital thus signifies a more general socialpsychological practice of social
identification.
Thorntons work also highlights the negotiated value attached to claims
of authenticity. The concept of authenticity was used by CCCS subculture
scholars as an antonym for mass culture. According to Hebdige (1979),
subcultures were authentic because they signified unadulterated, pure
resistance the mainstream. That authenticity, however, only existed at the
moment of the subcultures creation; too quickly, participants styles and
identities were commodified and resold to them for profit, thus killing the
authentic version of the subculture. Subsequent work has either teased out
some of the details of Hebdiges assertion (e.g., Jasper 2004), or argued
against it, primarily by highlighting the socially constructed nature of
authenticity as a standpoint ontology. In a decidedly postmodern approach
to identity, Muggleton (2002) found that British youths believed in an
authentic subcultural self even when they did not follow typical subcultural styles. His approach is very different from more modernist conceptions of subcultural authenticity such as Lewin and Williamss (2007)
conceptualization of authenticity as the transcendence of style altogether,
or McLeods (1999) social constructionist approach to American hip-hop,
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Youth-Subcultural Studies: Sociological Traditions and Core Concepts 587

which focused on the semantic dimensions of authenticity (social-psychological, racial, political-economic, gender-sexual, social-locational, and
cultural) from which participants crafted subcultural identities. Like each
of the preceding concepts, identity and authenticity do not have fixed
meanings within the subcultural studies literature; each concept is deployed
in multiple (and sometimes antagonistic) ways.
Conclusion
Sociologists at the University of Chicago began studying the collective,
cultural dimensions of young adults everyday lives nearly a century ago.
Since then, a diverse set of theoretical and methodological perspectives
have been used to further that research. Today, the interdisciplinary field
of subcultural studies is a robust, growing area of scholarship. Yet, there
remain gaps between academic disciplines, as well as between academic and
popular conceptions of youth subcultures. In terms of the latter, subcultural youth are often vilified in the news media. Especially when some act
of youth violence occurs, reporters and editors assume that subcultural
connections will be uncovered to explain the behavior (e.g., Canham
2004; Goldenberg 2006). As for academics, we remain divided in how we
approach and frame youth-subcultural activities. Cultural studies work
tends to emphasize the positive (almost heroic) aspects of participants,
partially because of the growing numbers of insider researchers, while
criminological research still tends to construct youth cultures in terms of
delinquency and/or criminal behavior. Meanwhile, young sociologists
with subcultural interests (i.e., insiders) often take a nave stance in their
research because they are unaware of the research literature that already
exists. In this article, I have given a broad overview of some of that
literature with a focus on some of the fields core concepts. Identifying
these concepts is an important part of moving the field of subcultural
studies forward.
The interest in youth culture and subcultural studies is currently strong,
yet more research needs to be done to build our sociological understanding
of youth-collective behaviors. I advocate cultural sociologists looking both
inside as well as outside the discipline in search of theories and concepts
that offer insight into subcultural phenomena. In this article, I reviewed
work in sociology, cultural studies, social psychology, geography, and
criminology, and more briefly in communication studies and anthropology,
among others. There is and has been much research in these other fields
that will offer us new insights. Second, I advocate that more studies of
non-western, non-white, non-male, non-spectacular subcultures be
added to the literature. Subcultural studies has retained its white, male
history all too well. Lastly, I advocate for the continuing use of the
subculture concept to the extent that it remains analytically appropriate.
While scenes, neo-tribes, and club cultures may be increasingly common
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588 Youth-Subcultural Studies: Sociological Traditions and Core Concepts

on the youth cultural landscape, subcultures also remain highly salient and
significant. Subcultural studies will strengthen as scholars bring insights
from interdisciplinary and cross-cultural research to bear in their analytically
precise research.
Short Biography
J. Patrick Williams earned his PhD from the University of Tennessee after
studying in the departments of Sociology and Cultural Studies, and is
currently an Assistant Professor of Sociology at Arkansas State University.
For several years, Dr. Williams has focused on the socialpsychological
and cultural dimensions of authenticity in youth subcultures, most notably
the straightedge subculture. He has published ethnographic research on
youth subcultures and digital culture in several peer-reviewed journals,
including Symbolic Interaction, Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, International Journal of Deviant Behavior, and Media International Australia, as well
as in two edited books, Gaming as Culture: Essays in Social Reality, Identity
and Experience in Fantasy Games, and Youth Subcultures: Exploring Underground America. Dr. Williams is also the coeditor of two books, Gaming as
Culture: Essays in Social Reality, Identity and Experience in Fantasy Games
(2006), and The Players Realm: Studies in Video Games and Gaming (2007),
both with McFarland Press. He is currently preparing a new book,
Subculture Studies: An Introduction for Polity Press.
Notes
* Correspondence address: Department of Criminology, Sociology, and Geography, Arkansas
State University, PO Box 868, Jonesboro, AR 72467, USA. Email: [email protected].
1

The Chicago school and the Department of Sociology and Anthropology at the University
of Chicago are not synonymous. I do not wish to assert that the Department as a whole had
a collective interest in a narrow set of epistemological and methodological premises (e.g.,
pragmatism; ethnography). I do wish to assert, however, that pragmatism and urban ethnography
influenced specific scholars in the department, and that their legacy is collectively recognized
as the Chicago school.
2
Subcultural affiliation and identity is often reduced to clothing. Research by Muggleton (2002)
and Widdicombe (1993, 1998; Widdicombe and Wooffitt 1990, 1995) took sartorial distinctiveness as the basis for studying the extent to which young people self-identified as subcultural.
3
Teddy boys were a rough-and-tumble culture of lower working-class youths, most of who
were children during the hard years of World War II. The Edwardian suits they preferred had
been expensive upper-class fashion a few years earlier but had fallen out of style and became
available through thrift stores at a fraction of their original price. Teddy boys were manual
laborers who earned a relatively good living during the postwar economic boom in England,
their income quickly outpacing their cultural upbringing.
4
Of course, the rap songs most likely to hit the Top 10 are those least likely to valorize a
subcultural or countercultural logic. Instead, radio rap typically celebrates the accumulation of
wealth and the objectification of women.
5
Unfortunately, identity has also become a buzzword that some subculture scholars utilize
uncritically. The title of Epsteins (1998) book, for example, contains the word identity, yet there
is no explicit reference to identity as a sociological or social psychological concept in his writing.
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Youth-Subcultural Studies: Sociological Traditions and Core Concepts 589

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