Solid Rocket Motor Igniters
Solid Rocket Motor Igniters
Solid Rocket Motor Igniters
SPACE VEHICLE
DESIGN CRITERIA
HASA SP-8051
(CHEMEAL PROPULSION)
WlARCM 1971
FOREWORD
NASA experience has indicated a need for uniform criteria for the design of space
vehicles. Accordingly, criteria are being developed in the following areas of technology:
Environment
Structures
Guidance and Control
Chemical Propulsion
Individual components of this work will be issued as separate monographs as soon as
they are completed. This document, part of the series on Chemical Propulsion, is one
such monograph. A list of all monographs issued prior to this one can be found on the
last page of this document.
These monographs are to be regarded as guides to design and not as NASA requirements,
except as may be specified in formal project specifications. It is expected, however, that
these documents, revised as experience may indicate to be desirable, eventually will provide uniform design practices for NASA space vehicles.
This monograph, Solid Rocket Motor Igniters, was prepared under the direction Of
Howard W. Douglas, Chief, Design Criteria Office, Lewis Research Center; project management was by John H. Collins, Jr. The monograph was written by Donald H. Barrett
of Rocketdyne Solid Rocket Division, North American Rockwell Corporation, and was
edited by Russell B. KeIler, Jr. of Lewis. To assure technical accuracy of this document,
scientists and engineers throughout the technical community participated in interviews,
consultations, and critical review of the text In particular, Harold E. Childress of AerojetGeneral Corporation, Louis Lo Fiego of Bermite Division, Whittaker Corporation, and
Samuel Zeman of Thiokol Chemical Corporation reviewed the monograph in detail.
Comments concerning the technical content of this monograph will be weicomed by the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research Center (Design Criteria
Office), Cleveland, Ohio 44135.
March 1971
For sale by the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22151 - Price $3.00
Both sections have been organized into decimally numbered subsections so that the
subjects within simi!ar!y ntmbered subsections correspond from section to section. The
format for the Contents displays this continuity of subject in such a way that a particular
aspect of design can be foIlowed through both sections as a discrete subject.
The design criteria monograph is not intended to be a design handbook, a set of specifications, or a design manual. It is a summary and a systematic ordering of the large and
loosely organized body of existing successful design techniques and practices. Its value
and its merit should be judged on how effectively it makes that material available to
and useful to tile designer.
iii
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
........................................................
45
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
2. S T A T E OF T H E A R T
GLOSSARY
......................................................................
95
SUBJECT
GENERAL
Design Requirements
Ballistic Performance
System Interface
Use Environment
Ignition Theory
Theoretical Treatments of the Physical and Chemical Processes
Evaluation of Igniter Energy Release
and Transmission
Prediction of Propellant Response to
Externally Applied Energy
I N I T I A T I O N SYSTEM
Types of Initiation
Electroexplosive Devices
Through-Bulkhead Devices
Mechanical Devices
Other Devices
Low-Voltage Electroexplosive Devices
Bridgewire-Prime Charge Design
Prime-Charge Characteristics
S T A T E OF T H E A R T
101
DESIGN CRITERIA
2.0
3.0
45
2.0.1
3.0.1
45
2.0.1.1
2.0.1.2
2.8.1.3
2
4
4
3.0.1.1
3.0.1.2
3.0.1.3
46
46
47
2.0.2
2.0.2.1
2.0.2.2
10
2.0.2.3
12
2.1
1s
2.1.0
16
2.1.0.1
2.1.0.2
2.1.03
2.1.0.4
16
16
16
17
2.1.1
1s
3.1.1
49
2.1.1.1
2.1.1.2
18
23
3.1.1.1
3.1.2.2
49
49
3.1
49
SUBJECT
High-Voltage Electroexplosive Devices
Exploding Bridgewire Systems
Voltage-Blocking Devices
Overload Protection
Through-Bulkhead Initiators
S T A T E OF T H E A R T
2.1.2
3.1.2
50
2.1.2.1
2.1.2.2
3.1.2.1
3.1.2.2
3.1.2.3
50
52
52
2.1.3
3.1.3
52
3.1.3.1
3.1.3.2
3.1.3.3
3.1.3.4
52
53
53
53
3.1.4
54
3.1.4.1
3.1.4.2
3.1.4.3
54
54
54
2.1.5
3.1.5
55
2.1.5.1
2.1.5.2
2.1.5.3
2.1.5.4
2.1.5.5
3.1.5.1
3.1.5.2
3.1.5.3
3.1.5.4
3.1.5.5
55
56
56
57
57
2.2
3.2
58
2.2.1
3.2.1
58
3.2.1.1
3.2.1.2
3.2.1.3
3.2.1.4
58
64
68
68
3.2.2
68
3.2.2.1
3.2.2.2
3.2.2.3
68
69
69
3.2.3
70
3.2.3.1
3.2.3.2
3.2.3.3
70
70
72
2.1.4
Characteristics
Pressure Output
Chemical Properties
Safety Features
Safe/Arm Systems
Sensitivity to Firing Stimuli
Sensitivity to Induced Current
Sensitivity to Electrostatic Discharge
Delay Systems
ENERGY RELEASE SYSTEM
Basic Requirements
Heat Flux and Pressure
Pressure Output Rate
Release Rate Effects
Ignition Shock
Pyrogens
2.2.2
Energy Output
Propellant Characteristics
Energy Propagation
Pelleted Pyrotechnics
Energy Output
Pyrotechnic Characteristics
Configuration
DESIGN CRITERIA
2.2.3
SUBJECT
S T A T E O F THE A R T
DESIGN CRITERIA
2.2.4
'It
2.2.5
34
2.2.5.1
2.2.5.2
2.2.5.3
34
34
34
Igniter Location
2.2.6
34
Restart Systems
2.2.7
35
2.2.7.1
2.2.73
35
35
2.3
36
3.3
72
2.3.1
36
3.3.1
72
3.3.1.1
3.3.1.2
3.3.1.3
3.3.1.4
72
73
73
74
2.3.2
37
3.3.2
74
2.3.2.1
2.3.2.2
37
38
3.3.2.2
33.2.2
74
76
2.4
39
3.4
79
2.4.1
39
3.4.1
79
2.4.1.1
2.4.1.2
2.4.1.3
2.4.1.4
2.4.1.5
2.4.1.6
2.4.1.7
39
40
40
41
41
41
41
3.4.1.1
3.4.1.2
3.4.1.3
3.4.1.4
3.4.1.5
3.4.1.6
3.4.1.7
79
79
79
80
80
80
2.4.2
42
3.41
81
Pyrogens
2.4.2.1
D,.,,+,,h,:nc
1 J *".L\.Y*..CI1
2.4.2.2
42
42
3.4.2.1
3.42.2
81
81
Minor Types
Films and Coatings
Jelly Roll
Ignition Cord
Programmed Restarts
Demand Restarts
HARDWARE
Initiation System
Pressure
Housing
Housing
Housing
vii
81
SUBJECT
Hardware
S T A T E OF T H E A R T
2.4.3
DESIGN CRITERIA
42
3.4.3
82
3.4.3.1
3.4.3.2
3.4.3.3
3.4.3.4
82
82
82
82
2.4.4
43
3.4.4
82
2.4.4.1
43
3.4.4.1
82
2.4.4.2
43
3.4.4.2
83
2.4.4.3
44
3.4.4.3
83
Structural Adequacy
Corrosion Resistance
Moisture Resistance
Environmental Capability
Complete Igniters
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
Title
........................
13
14
21
......................................
22
........................................
25
..................................................
31
Through-bulkhead initiator
Pyrogen igniter
Pyrodyne igniter
Pelleted pyrotechnic
.................................................
32
..............................................
32
10
11
12
13
14
........................
59
....................
62
............................
65
..................................
65
............................................
66
LIST OF TABLES
Table
I
I1
Title
Page
..........................
26
2.0 General
Figure 1 illustrates the components of a typical solid rocket pyrogen ignition system. As
the name implies, the initiation system actuates the motor ignition process. A mechanical,
electrical, or chemical input stimulus is converted, within the initiator, to an energy Output that ignites the energy release system. The energy release system supplies the
energy, normally heat, required to ignite the propellant in the rocket motor. The initiator
and the energy release components are physically retained by hardware components such
as igniter bodies, cases, nozzles, and housings. This hardware also provides the means
for mounting the igniter (1) as a permanent part of the motor pressure vessel; ( 2 ) on a
temporary support, either consumed or ejected; or ( 3 ) on a launcher-retained mounting.
Many types and variations of solid rocket igniters have been used successfully to ignite
solid propellant rocket motors. Detailed discussions of the characteristics of the different
initiation systems, energy release systems, and hardware comprising these types are
presented in sections 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3, respectively. One of the first tasks a designer
must understake is to determine the type of system to be used for a specific application.
In making this selection, it is important that the factors influencing design be assimilated
and evaluated. These factors generally fall into one of three areas: ballistic performance,
system interface, or environmental conditions of use.
Ballistic Performance
Ballistic performance includes ignition times, ignition transient characteristics, and shock
level outputs. Limits on these characteristics are dictated by the end use requirements,
and may be expressed in many different ways, as illustrated by the following examples:
(1) Specified time to attain a given performance level, e.g., 10 percent of maximum pressure, 75 percent of average thrust, etc.
Specified
envelope for thrust, pressure, or impulse versus time.
(2)
Specified
limit
on rate of thrust onset or pressurization.
(3)
Initiation
System
Output
Contact pins,
*arge7
Y'
L
Restrictor
/'
Prime chargeJ
Energy release
system
Closure)
Nozzle insert
Hardware
Figure l.-Typical
The intended mission of the motor may also require an intentional time delay between
application of the activating energy and motor ignition by the igniter. The delay may
range from a few milliseconds to several seconds, and it may involve sequencing several
motors or several pulses in one motor. These delays normally are made an integral part
of the initiator.
Having defined the specified performance requirements, the designer must evaluate the
influence of motor design features on the choice of igniter type. The internal configuration of the motor, the grain design, propellant properties, and the type of nozzle closure
all affect the choice of an igniter.
2.0.1.2
System Interface
Physical limitations on size, weight, and configuration usually are imposed on a solid
rocket motor to ensure proper fit with other components and overall compliance with
the system objectives. These limitations affect igniter features, e.g., the mating connections with the electrical system or other means of firing the igniter, attachments to any
safe/arm actuation methods involved, and envelope dimensions that restrict the size or
location of external igniter components. The method of initiation and its design features
must be consistent with the type, magnitude, and source of power provided by the SYStem as an initiating impulse.
2.0.1.3
Use Environment
Environmental conditions that igniters are required to withstand depend primarily on the
application and storage conditions of the end item, and usually are specified at the start
of the design effort. These conditions are covered by general specifications, e.g., MIL-I23659 (ref. l ) , MIL-STD-322 (ref. 2), or MIL-E-5272 (ref. 3 ) . Some of the more common
requirements and appropriate test procedures are presented in table I. The best use of
requirements and tests is made when the test method is evaluated with respect to the
actual anticipated environment of the igniter before the test is invoked as a requirement.
The use of general environment specifications in total, when only portions are actually
required, is a common and expensive fault of component specifications.
I
t
c
c,
W
*M
P
(Do:
-0
z4
h
4
9
N
Ir,0
0
W
L,
(3)
Development of methods for reliable prediction of the response of the propellant to externally applied energy.
Consequently, separate discussions of ignition theory for these areas are presented.
2.0.2.1
An adequate description of the propellant ignition process must consider the energy
contributions from the external source and the exothermic reactions induced at or
near the propellant surface as a result of this energy input. Because of the complexity and variety of solid propellant ingredients, the possible chemical reactions and
forms of thermal feedback are so numerous that no single theory capable of describing all types of ignition behavior has been developed, or is anticipated. However,
for certain propellants, one or two rate-controlling reactions probably exist that can
be isolated and defined analytically and that are sufficiently dominant to permit
adequate predictions of the ignition characteristics. These controlling reactions vary
among propellant types and ignition conditions, and this variability may account for
many of the anomalies between data and theories of different investigators.
In most practical ignition systems, solid propellant ignition is dominated by a thermal induction interval during which the temperature of the propellant surface is
raised by external heating to the temperature at which chemical reaction rates become significant. Propellant exothermic reactions rapidly become the dominant heat
source and ignition of the propellant is achieved.
The search for an adequate theory to explain fully the solid propellant ignition process
has resulted in the creation of several analytical models, three of which appear to
represent the primary schools of thought. These three models are generally referred
to as the solid-phase, heterogeneous, and gas-phase ignition theories. Although each
theory has demonstrated some credence under certain conditions, no one theory is
universally accepted by specialists in the field. The primary differences among the
models are the location of the exothermic reaction with respect to the propellant
surface and the physical state of the reacting ingredients. One of the most comprehensive analyses of the theories encountered is provided in reference 5. This reference is the major source of information for the following ignition theories review and
the implications of the assumptions involved in them.
2.0.2.1.1
Solid-Phase Theory
The first analytical model describing the solid-phase theory of solid propellant ignition is generally attributed to Hicks (ref. 6 ) . This model defines the transient
temperature of the propellant surface during ignition in terms of heat transferred to the
surface from externally applied heat flux and heat generated by exothermic chemical
reactions of the solid prapellant. Making the c ! s z ~ i c azsszm>timz
~
cf cze-dimennisnal
heat flow in a semi-infinite solid, the thermal heating is described by the partial
differential equation
where
p
T = temperature, OK
t = time, sec
Z
E
R
x
In more recent studies, terms have been added in the equation to include additional
factors that influence the energy accumulation rate. The total equation is then written
where
pcr
P q exp
q
I
I
(2a)
(25)
In addition, the coefficient Z may be modified to show the effect of change in concentration of reactants caused by depletion during the ignition transient. Boundary
conditions and assumptions involved are presented and critically analyzed in reference 5 and documents referenced therein.
*Symbols are defined in the Glossary.
This theory has been referred to as the solid-phase thermal theory, because of the
neglect of any details of chemical kinetics or diffusion or of any participation of
gas-phase species. The theory was developed in connection with the behavior of
double-base propellants, which were known to have exothermic condensed phase reactions. The primary weaknesses of this theory lie (to date) in neglect of the true
physical nature of a reacting surface layer, which would be different from the original propellant surface because of chemical change, bubbling, melting, etc. Further,
the theory neglects processes involving gas-phase species that, from experiments, are
known to be important in the reactions.
2.0.2.1.2
Gas-Phase Theory
where
)( :
= K1
cf
( ax2
)
a2
CIC,Zexp ( - E / R T )
= thermal diffusivity
( = $ ) , cmZ/sec
Tests to evaluate the gas-phase theory have been conducted in shock tube experiments (ref. 10) using an oxidizing atmosphere to produce ignition. The details of
the model are chosen lo match ihesc: pdiiicuiar enpekiirit2ll~, wi& ihc &iSuiiipihfi
that beginning with the amval of the shock wave at the propellant surface the surface temperature rises discontinuously to a value causing fuel pyrolysis. The ignition delay is then caused by the time for diffusion of fuel into oxidizer to a degree
providing self-sustaining exothermic gas phase reactions. Since it is assumed in the
existing gas phase models that the oxidizer comes from the gaseous environment
rather than the propellant, there remains some uncertainty about the detailed relevance of the models to practical propellant ignition processes. The related shock
tube experiments have been conducted primarily with oxidizing atmospheres that
conform to the analytical models but do not resolve the question of relevance. Both
the models and experiments do, however, exhibit a dependence of ignition behavior
on atmospheric environment similar to that obtained in rocket motor situations, a
dependence the condensed phase model fails to explain.
2.0.2.1.3 Heterogeneous
The capability of certain oxidizing liquids and gases to react exothermically on contact with solid propellants has resulted in an ignition theory constructed around this
heterogeneous reaction. This theory consists of a one-dimensional model with mass
and energy diffusion into a semi-infinite oxidizing gas domain and heat conduction
into a semi-infinite solid. The surface reaction, which provides the total available
energy, is assumed to be rate dependent as a function of temperature, as described
by an Arrhenius-type relationship. Ignition is defined as the point where some arbitrarily selected high rate of temperature change is attained at the propellant surface. The theory is described mathematically by the following model, with initial
and boundary conditions as defined in reference 11:
(%)
=a,
(-=)
Discussion
2.0.2.2
The response of the motor propellant to a given externally applied level of energy
was discussed in the previous section. The problem of designing an igniter to deliver
this level of energy, however, was not considered. Research and theoretical develop-
ments in this area have been much less extensive; nevertheless, some significant
progress in refining design techniques has been achieved.
The determination of the energy transferred to a propellant surface from a given
igniter design requires (1) definition of the space-time relationship of the igniter
energy efflux, and (2) knowledge of primary modes of heat transfer and their associated heat-transfer coefficients.
To obtain the total rate of heat input to the propellant surface, the heat transmitted
through convection, conduction, radiation, recombination, chemical reaction, and condensation at the propellant surface must be included. Equations for each of these
are provided in reference 12. However, during the thermal induction interval the
convection and radiation modes are strongly dominant, and other effects are normally neglected. For this condition, the heat transfer at any point along the flow
channel in the rocket motor may be expressed in the relationship
where
(OK)
This relationship restricts the problem to defining h, T,, and E . In many applications
(e.g., pyrogens in motors with small ports), the radiation effect is negligible and
the heat flux reduces to
The development of an adequate relationship to predict the value for h has been
pursued by a number of investigators (refs. 13 through 18). Each investigator uses
a correlation of the ReynoIds number (Re), Prandtl number (Pr), and Nusselt number (Nu) in the form
where D, is the motor port diameter and k, is the thermal conductivity of the flowing gas. However, there are differences in the empirically derived numbers assigned
11
where
t9
= TJT,
The recently developed analytical methods discussed above represent significant advances in the ability to describe the ignition process as a function of igniter and
motor variables. However, the accuracy and applicability of the methods are limited
by the assumptions involved and by uncertainties in values of the constants. These
limitations are assessed carefully before any attempt is made to apply the analyses
in a given situation.
2.0.2.3
The theoretical and empirical treatments discussed in section 2.0.2.2 have been concerned with determining the increase in propellant surface temperature induced by an
12
igniter energy efflux. To apply the treatments properly, the designer must have
knowledge of the propellant temperature profile required to obtain sustained ignition
for the specific propellant ander the cocditions sap!icdAe t~ a pattic~a!as motor.
Despite a lack of agreement on the controlling reactions in solid propelIant ignition,
research and theoretical explorations involved in the previously described experimentation (sec. 2.0.2.1) have provided some valuable basic data on the response of
propellants to applied flux. The quantity of energy required to ignite commonly used
motor propellants has been evaluated by use of convective heating (refs. 19 through
21), conductive heating (ref. 22), radiative heating (refs. 23 through 26), and chemical heating (ref. 27). Effect of the rate a t which energy is applied, environmental
pressure, and environmental gas composition have each been evaluated and found
to be a significant factor under certain conditions.
The arc-image furnace, which uses radiative heating, has been used extensively to
evaluate propellant ignition characteristics. This furnace permits closely controlled
flux intensities to be varied independently of such environmental conditions as pressure, gas composition, and gas velocity. A significant contribution so obtained is the
determination of pressure effect on propellant ignition. It has been established that
most propellants exhibit a critical ignition pressure below which ignition cannot
be achieved and that ignition energy requirements tend to decrease as pressure is
increased above this level until a pressure-independent regime is reached. This characteristic is illustrated graphically in figure 2 (ref. 28).
0
W
v)
cv
E
3
x
-3
LL
I
0.1
I I
0.4
4 6 1 0
Pressure, atm
Figdre ?.-Effect
nf pressure on propellant ignition time at various heat flux values (ref. 28).
13
A useful method of presenting data, common to many laboratories, is a plot on logarithmic coordinates of the ignition time t versus heat flux 4. This practice is based
on the following heat conduction equation relating surface temperature T, to exposure time t at a constant flux:
Thus, if a critical surface temperature exists at ignition (T, = T,) and the initial
temperature To is fixed, the terms to the right of the equation are essentially constant when time t = t , and the plot will result in a straight line having a slope of
-2. An example is given in figure 3 (ref. 28).
0.75
0.96
3.0
0.04
10
20
40
100
2
Flux, cal/cm -sec
Figure 3.-Effect
It is obvious from the effects shown in figure 3 that the assumption of a single constant ignition temperature is not valid under all conditions, especially at low pressures and high flux levels. Samples become increasingly difficult to ignite as the lowpressure deflagration limit is approached, with increasing pyrolysis of the surface
before ignition is achieved. Under these conditions the surface temperature at the
moment of ignition depends on the extent of pyrolysis, on heating rate, and on pressure.
Since the period of pyrolysis may be comparable to the period of thermal induction
of the solid, major deviation from the relation 4 V T = constant is to be expected,
as exhibited in figure 3. The concept of ignition temperature is not very useful under
these low pressure-high flux conditions.
14
On the other hand, the ignition temperature becomes a more useful concept at elevated
Pressure, because the thermal induction time becomes the dominant part of the ignition
time (1.e.. the time to achieve rapid self-heating after the onset of pyrolysis at Some
temperature T, is very short). Hence all data fall near the T = T, line shown by the
broken line in figure 3.
Most propellant ignition data have been obtained by the arc-image furnace method because of its convenience and low operational cost as a laboratory tool. The principal
drawback of this method stems from the fact that radiant energy transfer usually is not
the dominant mode of surface heating in rocket motors. Some propellant ingredients are
rather transparent, and radiant energy may be absorbed a t an appreciable depth, yielding
a temperature-time history different from that produced by simple conductive heating
from the surface. The extent to which this may give different ignition times at the same
heating rate is discussed in reference 29. In view of the factors in favor of the radiant
ignition techniques, its use probably will continue. However, nonreactive opaque surface
coatings and radiant sources in a wavelength for which all ingredients are opaque (C02
lasers are coming into use) are needed improvements.
As noted in reference 19,there is a need both to obtain more uniformity in the methods
and procedures used with the arc-image furnace and to improve data correlation with
other test methods and motor conditions. The primary areas of concern are mechanics
of testing (calorimeter types and sizes, test cell size and construction, sample atmospheres, etc.) and interpretation of results (definition of ignition, effect of opacity, effect
of purely radiant energy, etc.). Some recent developments in statistical design and analysis of experimentation involving arc-image data are provided in references 30 and 31.
The evaluation of ignition characteristics by convective heating is much more complex
than evaluation by radiative heating because of the difficulties in accurately determining
heat-transmission values and the increased number of test variables that cannot be independently controlled. Nevertheless, a knowledge of the relative effects of different
modes of heating is necessary. Significant contributions in this area are described in
references 19 and 32 through 34.
15
2.1.0.2
Through-Bulkhead Devices
2.1.0.3
Mechanical Devices
Mechanical initiation of igniters is not used extensively. However, occasionally precussion primers, the most common type, have been used to advantage, and a brief discussion
of their characteristics is warranted. A percussion primer generally consists of a metal
cup into which an impact-sensitive initiating charge, or primer mix, is loaded. The charge
is retained in place with a thin disc, and an anvil is inserted so that the impact of a firing
pin against the anvil will ignite the entrapped primer mix. The cup can be designed to
remain intact, providing a pressure seal against gas flow. To facilitate ignition of the
main igniter charge, a boost charge normally is used to supplement the primer output.
Charge formulations and specific design details on the priming cup, anvil, and sealing
disc are given in references 35 and 36.
Laser
Sufficient testing has been done to demonstrate that light energy, through the laser system, can be used to initiate solid rocket igniters. One of the primary problems, that of
light direction, has been solved by the use of fiber optics (refs. 37 and 38), but problems
of size and weight remain.
2.1.0.4.2
Hypergolic
Certain oxidizers, e.g., chlorine trifluoride, react hypergolically on contact with solid
rocket propellants. These oxidizers have been used to initiate pyrogens and sustain combustion of pyrogens containing fuel only, and have found some use as primary motor
igniters. The oxidizers usually are injected under pressure into the combustion chamber
in liquid or gaseous form.
2.1.0.4.3
Mild detonator trains consist of a mixture of detonating (for rapid propagation) and
deflagrating (for heat output) charges encased in metal sheaths. Although a separate
means of initiation is usually necessary, these trains can be used effectively to transmit
initiating energy to otherwise inaccessible areas. The high velocity (12,000 to 25,000 fps)
of the detonation wave provides rapid propagation of the ignition energy from the initiating source to the energy release system.
2.1.0.4.4
Thermoelectric Materials
It has been demonstrated (refs. 39 and 40) that it is feasible to replace the conventional
bridge-wire-type initiators with those using semiconductors. The prime charge is ignited
by the heat induced when a direct current is passed through a junction of dissimilar
materials such as p-type and n-type semiconductors, since both Peltier and Joule heating
will occur a t the junction. However, when an alternating current is applied only Joule
heating will occur, and this alone does not produce enough heat to ignite the charge. This
system thus provides a considerable degree of safety against accidental ignition by electromagnetic radiation.
17
2.1.1.1
The resistive element in a low-voltage EED may be attached between the terminals or
from a terminal to a conductive ground (e.g., the initiator case). The elements most
frequently used are small wires (0.0005 to 0.005 in. in diameter); but thin films, plated
bridges, and conductive compositions have been used successfully. By use of smalldiameter, high-resistance wires with primer compositions having low ignition temperatures, ignition can be accomplished with the application of as little as 0.100 amp.
Conversely, lower resistance larger diameter wires can be used in conjunction with
less-heat-sensitive primer charges so that as much as 5 amps are required. Thus, one
of the primary problems in low-voltage electroexplosive devices is the establishment
of the bridgewire-prime charge design. The solution requires a determination of the
extent to which the thermal energy produced from a given input of electrical energy
through a bridgewire goes to heating the wire and contacting prime charge or is lost
to the leads and other surrounding components. Since a completely rigorous analysis
in terms of the power input, nonlinear resistive heating, and three-dimensional heat
transfer through materials of varying thermal conductivity is quite complicated, a
variety of approaches of varying complexity has evolved.
2.1.1.1.1
Electrothermal Relationships
The following simple empirical equation for determining the threshold ignition energy
of a normal lead styphnate charge heated by an imbedded bridgewire of length Q and
diameter d has proven valid for a rather large range of bridgewire dimensions (ref. 41):
where
Et
The equation assumes the firing energy requirement to be proportional to the bridgewire volume; it does not include provisions for variations in heat loss and is valid only
for cases where very rapid heating of Ihe bridgewire is attainea. Equation ( i S j aiso
assumes a constant ignition temperature and includes no consideration for variations
in bridgewire materials and their thermal properties. These limitations normally are
recognized and evaluated before the equation is used as a basis for design.
A more sophisticated approach for representing the time dependence of the bridgewire
temperature as a function of applied power is provided in reference 42. This approach
considers the wire bridge as a lumped system and replaces the temperature gradients
along the wire and the nonuniform heat losses with mean or nominal values. The
thermal behavior of the wire bridge then is described by
de
ye =P(t)
CP dt
where
C, includes the product of the mass and specific heat of the wire plus coupled effects
caused by heating of the explosive mixture; y includes heat losses to the explosive mixture and other initiator components and, through conduction, to the terminals. From
this basic relationship, equations are developed or specific conditions, as follows:
(1) Thermal time constant
7=-
CP
, sec
Y
7,
e = e,
exp ( - t / ~ )
19
(4) For steady power input after equilibrium conditions are reached (dO/dt
= 0),
where
R = bridgewire resistance, ohms
a = temperature coefficient of resistivity, (ohm/ohm-"C)
The development of further equations that describe the temperature rise as a function
of time for constant current, capacitor discharge, and constant voltage firing is also
included in reference 42. Additional methods of measurement of electrothermal parameters are described in references 43 through 45.
where
W
A
= power, watts
= surface area of bridgewire, in.2
20
= current,
= length,
amp
R = resistivity, ohm-in.
D = bridgewire diameter, in.
E = emf, volts
in.
The fire point for a particular composition often is established by several experimental
shots in which the bridgewire diameter is varied. The igniter designer readily determines whether the selected bridge will comply with the requirements at the specified
current or voltage input levels. An example of this type of curve for lead styphnate
is shown in figure 4.
0.8
o.6
Oe4
Lt
i
II
\''\
'.'..
'
\
0.1
1UO
1 1 1 1 1 1
101
102
Figure 4.-Watt
The analysis is a finite-element solution of the general heat-transfer differential equation. Using the nomenclature of reference 47 (modified for consistency herein), the
equation for the wire is
- a_e'
at
- a' 0 2 8 '
PJ(1
+ a'#)
21
P' h
p' A'C'
(0'
- es)
(24)
k
Figure 5.-Model
Pin
ae
-- at
awe
where
a
A
C
h
I
J
P
(Y
= current, amp
= 0.239 cal/joule
= perimeter, cm
= thermal diffusivity, cmz/sec
8 1 temperature, "C
p 1 density, gm/cm"
u = electrical conductivity, mhos/cm
8 s = e at r = I s , x = x, "C
r = radial coordinate, cm
rs = radius of bridgewire, cm
x = axiaI coordinate, cm
V2
I
= Laplace operator =
(a*/ax2)
+ (a2/ayz) + ( P / 2 z 2 )
Primed symbols refer to the bridgewire; umprimed to the prime c.,arge. Vi th the use
of an analog computer, these equations are set up and solved for several finite elements
of the prime charge and wire. The relationship appears to be even more amenable
to solution by use of a digital computer.
The validity and accuracy of this analysis depend on the values for the material properties and the judgment used in setting up the finite geometry. A significant variable
that affects the time to ignition is the contact resistance between the wire and prime
charge. With the exception of the value given in references 47 and 48, this variable
is a most elusive parameter that must be determined experimentally.
2.1.1.2
Prime-Charge Characteristics
To accomplish reliable ignition of the prime charge by the transfer of heat from the
bridgewire, the charge is prepared and loaded so that intimate contact between these
components is achieved. Since bridgewires have small diameters (0.0005 to 0.005 in.),
the prime charge is finely ground and thoroughly blended so that the quantity and
composition of the material contacting the bridgewire are uniform. If charge materials
are pressed in over a flush mounted bridgewire, they are loaded dry. However, if the
bridgewire is attached to extended pins, pressing is not practical because of the potential damage to the bridge. Here, a small amount of binder, e.g., nitrocellulose, and
a solvent are added to the blend, forming a paste that may be either applied as a bead
to the wire or buttered into a cavity. These compositions are thoroughly dried before
the initiator is sealed to ensure that all solvent is completely removed.
Basic considerations in selecting a prime-charge material are its compatibility with the
bridgewire and all other components and its capability to perform the required function
in the stipulated time. This latter attribute depends on both chemical and physical
characteristics. Materials commonly used as prime charges include lead styphnate, lead
azide, diazodinitrophenol, and zirconium-ammonium perchlorate. A more comprehensive listing of charge formulations, including percentages of ingredients, is provided
in reference 36.
The method of initiation described in section 2.1.1 uses an electrically heated wire as
the heat source. To provide greater insensitivity to electrical energy inputs, the use
23
2.1.2.2
Voltage-Blocking Devices
The above features in an EBW add greatly to safety from accidental electromagnetic
radiation ignition, but still leave the EBW susceptible to dudding by the bridgewire
melting without firing. Voltage-blocking devices are used to prevent this dudding.
Below certain specified voltages, these devices have sufficiently high resistance to block
the flow of current. The voltage-blocking devices may be incorporated and sealed
directly in the header or included as a separate circuit component. Methods used
successfully include spark gaps in the header terminals (ref. 59) and junctions separated with a controlled thickness of nonconductors such as a film of aluminum oxide
(ref. 60). Diodes (ref. 61) are also used in thermal initiators when it is desired to
limit the firing voltage to very high levels (e.g., 500 volts).
of the components involved. However, some success has been reported in relating the
detonation-to-deflagration transition to the detonating velocity and resulting shock
------yiesaure.
A simplified illustration of a TBI is provided in figure 6.
518 - 18 UNF-2A
---__
<-
-E:__t
Transfer 7 line-CDF
Figure 6.-Through-bulkhead
initiator.
The transfer line shown in figure 6 (a confined detonating fuse (CDF)) is a typical
method of initiation. A small core of detonating composition (2 to 12 grain/foot) is
enclosed in metal and sometimes covered with a plastic tube. The composition is
usually initiated remoteIy by conventional detonators, but direct initiation by electrical
or mechanical detonators can also be used. This detonation force initiates the donor
charge, which in turn transmits a shock wave through an integral diaphragm in the
housing and detonates the acceptor charge on the internal side of the igniter. The
critical problem is the transmission of the shock wave through the diaphragm without
adversely affecting its structural integrity or that of the surrounding structure.
A transition from detonation of the acceptor charge to deflagration of the ignition
charge must then be accomplished. A comprehensive discussion of the design principles
and practices involved in making this transition is provided in reference 62.
Initiators often have a separate output charge whose function is to respond to the
stimulus of the initiator prime and provide the output energy in the form of heat
required to ignite the main igniter charge; consequently, available energy per unit
weight is of primary concern. The most effective materials for the application are metaloxidant pyrotechnic formulations; many combinations have been used successfully.
Some typical examples of formulations used for initiator output charges are shown in
table 11. References 46 and 63 contain more comprehensive listings of formulations
and reaction products. The properties of materials used in pyrotechnic compositions
are given in reference 64.
25
Table 11.-Typical
Fuel
Application/Designation
Mk 247, Mk 265 (igniters)
XM-6 & XM-8 (EBW)
MB-1 (500-V initiator)
FA-818
(ign. elements Mk 10,
Mk 11, Mk 13, Mk 17)
M2 squib
NOTs Model 39
~~
Binders
Oxidants
Boron, 23.7%
KN03, 70.7%
Laminac, 5.6%
Zirconium, 66.3%
Zirconium, 40%
NH4C104,32.7%
Nitrocellulose, 1.0%
BaN03, 20%
Pb02, 20%
PETN, 20%
Pb(SCW2, 32%
Charcoal, 18%
Magnesium, 60%
KC103, 40%
Polytetrafluoroethylene, 40%
The pressure produced by a given charge weight in the volume involved is also a
critical design consideration because ( 1 ) the housing components must contain the
combustion products without rupturing and (2) the ignition energy requirements Of
the main igniter charge vary with pressure. Normally, charge materials are more
readily ignited if the pressure is increased significantly above ambient. Thus, the
selection of the initiator main charge formulation may depend on the desired balance
between energy and pressure outputs. A method for determining the maximum pressure expected when a given weight of ignition material is fired in a chamber of a
given free volume is described below.
The equation of state for the gases produced by the pyrotechnic, based on the ideal
gas laws, can be expressed as
P=
A X G 3- P A
S - A
where
P
S
A
C
V
X
R
T
M
G
P,1
= RT/M-"effective
force" (energy), in.-lb[/lb,
= universal gas content, in.-lbf/"R-mol
26
Assuming that maximum pressure occurs when all the initiator charge material is
consumed, G becomes 1, and the equation may be expressed as
The effective force X can be calculated if the data are available on the percentage
of gas in the combustion products of the composition. However, it is frequently easier
and more accurate to determine the value experimentally by burning a given amount
of material in a closed test chamber and measuring the maximum pressure. The
approximate effective force values for some common pyrotechnics and propellants
are given below:
Materid
ft-lb,/lb,
Pistol powder
400,000
Boron/potassium nitrate
Double-base smokeless (M2)
120,000
360,000
420,000
Other characteristics considered in the selection of the initiator output charge are
duration of the burning, flame distribution of the output, quantity and distribution
of hot particles, and the brisance (shock force) induced. The requirements in these
areas depend on ignitability of the igniter charge, the location of the initiator with
respect to other components in the ignition train, and the limitations on ignition
shock imposed on the rocket motor.
27
2.1.5.1
Safe/Arm Systems
As safety measures, many systems require that the initiators use safe/arm (S/A)
systems, exploding bridgewires requiring specific energy modes, or voltage-blocking
devices. Because the latter two are designed so that they are not fired by application of voltages available from sources other than the igniter firing unit, they do
not require out-of-line safe/arm features. However, for low-voltage initiators, safety
requirements frequently dictate some provision for ensuring against premature igniter
firing if an activating energy is inadvertently applied to the firing circuit.
As applied to rocket motor igniters, the term safe/arm is commonly used to indicate
a mechanism that in the SAFE condition physically prevents the initiating charge
from propagating to the energy release system. When the mechanism is placed in
the ARM condition, ignition can be reliably and reproducibly propagated to the energy release system. Often S/A mechanisms incorporate provisions for interrupting
the electrical circuit concurrently with the mechanical operation.
The SAFE condition normally is obtained either by providing a barrier that can be
inserted between successive elements of the ignition train or by displacing elements
of the train so that they are misaligned sufficiently to prevent propagation. The
movement in either case may be rotary or linear, the choice usually depending on
the actuating source and the space limitations. Most mechanisms are operated directly by manual force or remotely by electrical motor or solenoid. However, mechanisms that receive their arming impetus from launch loads or from environmental
conditions such as acceleration and altitude have been used successfully.
2.1.5.2
to 500 volts ac). The energy source used to evaluate the initiator must be consistent
with the source intended for use in actual application.
2.1.5.4
If electrostatic potentials become high enough to cause arcing from the bridgewire
terminal through the initiator charge to the case Oi another bri0gev.6rey the heatsensitive primer charges may be ignited by this spark, or the bridgewire may be
heated by a current flow and the primer mix initiated. These electrostatic hazards
are minimized or eliminated through the combined use of selective insulation techniques, electrically conductive bypass features, external bleed mechanisms, and nonconductive ignition materials. Care is taken, however, to see that features incorporated to reduce this hazard do not result in increased susceptibility to accidental ignition as a consequence of induced currents or spurious signal pickup. If grounded
or common circuits are used with other electrical system components, the stray or
transient currents resulting from the operation of these components may create enough
current flow through the initiators to cause ignition.
2.2.2 Pyrogens
The pyrogen is basically a small rocket motor used to ignite a larger rocket motor.
A typical example is shown in figure 7. The boost charge, usually a readily ignited
Figure 7.-Pyrogen
igniter.
pelleted pyrotechnic, propagates the ignition train from the initiator to the pyrogen
propellant grain. In some small pyrogens, this charge is eliminated and ignition is accomplished directly from the initiator. Reaction products from the pyrogen grain are
expelled through the pyrogen nozzle and impinge on the surface of the motor propellant.
The pyrogen chamber and nozzle must be structurally adequate to contain the combustion products during igniter operation, after which they may be either retained or
consumed. In larger motors, igniters of this type are sometimes mounted externally
and fired ir! through the nozz!e.
A major objective in the design of the pyrogen igniter is to obtain the necessary
energy output while keeping the igniter as small and as light in weight as possible.
Occasionally, the designer is restricted to using a pyrogen propellant that is the same
as the motor propellant. When the choice is not so restricted, the designer considers
carefully the ballistic characteristics of the many available propellants in relation to
particular needs.
31
Rotor
Tertiary charge
Main charge-cored
Pyrotechnic grains
Primary charge
Figure 8.-Pyrodyne
Igniter body
igniter.
Booster charge
Main charae
a-
\
Ignition element
Connector cable
Figure 9.-Pelleted
pyrotechnic.
In the pelleted pyrotechnic, the pellets are retained for the bulk of their burning time
by either a wire mesh or perforated metal basket, where burning takes place with only
the form, composition, quantity, and density of the pellets controlling the energy output
rate. When discrete pellets of controlled dimensions are used, a specific ratio of burning
surface to chamber vent area is maintained to provide greater control on the ballistic
performance of the igniter.
32
2.2.4 Hypergolic
The hypergolic ignition technique consists of applying to a propellant surface a liquid
that reacts exothermically when the propellant is contacted. Although not currently
used in operational systems, hypergolics have sufficient potential for multiple restart
ignition to warrant a brief review of current design practices. The results of extensive
investigations of hypergolic ignition are reported in reference 66; the material included
herein is derived largely from this source.
Chlorine trifluoride in liquid form is the hypergolic reagent used for most propellants.
The most effective ignition is achieved when the liquid is injected into the motor port
through a nozzle designed to provide maximum dispersion and drop size reduction, but
with the forcing pressure as low as can be used and still achieve the desired diffusion.
When these objectives are met and impingement is directed to the forward half of the
motor port, ignition delay time 710% is a direct function of the hypergolic oxidizer mass
flow rate mo.
The most useful scaling parameters are the igniter flow and the igniter area. The igniter
flow parameter mo/Aignis the mass flow rate of the oxidizer m, per unit area of propellant port surface initially wetted by the hypergolic Algn. Optimum values are generally in the range 0.0014 to 0.0030 lb/sec-in.*. The igniter area parameter is the ratio
of A,, to the total surface area of the motor propellant port; minimum values of 0.3
are commonly required to give satisfactory ignition.
As the environmental pressure within a rocket motor is reduced below normal atmospheric pressure, the time required to obtain ignition with liquid hypergolic oxidizers
is increased. At pressures below 2 to 3 psia, ignition cannot be achieved with chlorine
trifluoride. Therefore, where feasible the motor is sealed to contain a pressure of at
least one atmosphere. For applications where this is not feasible, e.g., on pulse or
restart motors, a hypergolic oxidizer mixture containing one oxidizer with a high vapor
presswe *.at vie!! !ocal!y pressu~ke the rnotnr abnve the minim~m-ignition presswe
is used. A mixture of perchlorylfluoride and chlorine trifluoride has been used successfully. The mixture ratios that will produce the minimum ignition time must be
optimized for the particular system involved. Because the effect of pressure on ignition
time increases as the temperature is decreased, this optimization is conducted over the
entire anticipated operational temperature range.
Additional details on developmental design practices are available in references 24, 27,
38, 66, 67, and 68. Related techniques for obtaining multiple ignition restarts are augmented hypergolic systems (ref. 69) and hypersolid systems (refs. 70 and 71).
33
Conductive film igniters are thin conductive-pyrotechnic films applied directly to the
propellant surface. Details on the development of this igniter are contained in references
72 through 74. Pyromesh igniters, which have coatings applied over consumable mesh
support structures, are described in references 75 through 77.
Both of the above igniters are under patent secrecy order, but details of the methods
are available to those qualifying under Permit A, Title 35, United States Code (1952)
sections 181-188.
2.2.5.2
Jelly Roll
The jelly roll igniter consists of a metal-oxidant composition evenly coated on one side
of a rectangular base sheet rolled to form a cylinder-like igniter. The squib is assembled
inside the cylinder and the entire unit is loaded into the motor grain cavity. The burning
characteristics of the igniter are primarily related to the ratio of fuel to oxidizer, the
amount of binder used, and the degree of confinement (ref. 63).
2.2.5.3
Ignition Cord
or aft locations. This usually increases the complexities of the energy release system
design because ( 1 ) the possible locations for mounting the igniter are limited in number
and often diificuit to reach and (2) when propellant ignition is achieved, the hardware
and mounting for the igniter must be promptly and safely disposed of or consumed, or
must remain intact without affecting ballistic performance.
In some instances igniters are mounted external to the motor within the nozzle exit
cone. This location introduces additional factors that influence the pressure transient:
(1) igniter exhaust penetration into the motor port, and (2) the effective nozzle throat
area. The penetration affects the rate of pressure buildup with design values of penetration ranging from 30 to 70 percent of the motor port volume. The effective nozzle
throat area A,, the annular area between the igniter and the motor nozzle exit cone, is
normally expressed as a ratio to the motor nozzle throat area, E = A J A , . Values of E
in the range 1.2 to 1.8 have proven to give effective penetration depths without causing
motor overpressurization. An analytical model for aft end ignition is provided in references 83 and 84.
When large motors using aft-end ignition are test fired vertically with the nozzle up, the
design of an igniter retention-release device is required. Systems used successfully for
these motors are described in references 85 and 86.
2.2.7.1
Programmed Restarts
2.2.7.2
Demand Restarts
The use of pyrogen igniters that are individually ignited on demand for ignition of subsequent motor pulses is described in reference 90. Multiple pyrogens cartridge-loaded
35
into a common chamber and exhausting into the motor chamber through a common
nozzle have also been used successfully (ref. 91).
Hypergolics have the best potential application for multiple demand restarts if the lowpressure ignition problem can be counteracted. A hypergolic innovation that shows
promise is the use of liquid hypergolic with a pyrogen containing a solid grain of fuel
only (ref. 69). Thus, the pyrogen provides hot, pressurizing ignition gases while the
hypergolic oxidizing liquid is being injected, but stops burning when the flow is
discontinued.
2.3 Hardware
The hardware associated with solid rocket igniters includes the structural and inert
components that retain the initiation system and the energy release system in a coherent
assembly, contain the combustion products as required to produce consistent performance, and provide the means for mounting the igniter in or to the motor. As each of the
previously described advances in initiation and energy release systems has been developed, there has been a concurrent need for improvements in hardware components.
36
system assembly points. This second type also provides better support for a controlled
directed output of combustion products. Since this type of initiator forms a closure
for the motor, the terminals or leads for the electrical circuit must be sealed in the
initiator housing by an electrically insulating material, usually glass or ceramic, that
is capable of withstanding internal motor temperatures and pressures for the required
time. Glass insulation, sealed to metal components, e.g., B1113 steel or iron-nickelcobalt alloys, by an oxidized bond or compression bond achieved during the fusion
process, has good strength up to temperatures of 700" to 900" F. For higher temperatures (2500" to 3500" F), ceramic insulators are brazed to the metal components.
The direction of output is controlled by weakening a section of the initiator. The weakened section is usually opposite the sealed end, but specialized designs can be vented
radially. Weakening is accomplished by coining a closure, forming a concave closure,
or nozzling with a perforated retainer. Steel closures can be coined so that when
welded to the body they petal outward and are retained, thus providing minimal amounts
of ejecta. Lead closures can be consumed or melted and ejected in the output as minute
molten particles, thus effectively eliminating large metal fragments.
The method of closure is dependent on requirements resulting from application of the
device. The crimped closure with an adhesive bead applied under the crimp and a
sealant overcoat is probably the least expensive and has the lowest rejection rate. The
closure is watertight but is not hermetic and is not used where sealing under hard
vacuum conditions is required. After extensive investigations (ref. 92), a medium castoroil-modified alkyd resin base has been recommended as an EED sealant. Either projection, heliarc, or stitch welding is used for hermetically sealing closures if the materials
are weldable. Soldering may be required where the closure is fabricated from materials
such as tin and lead (ref. 93).
2.3.2.1 Adapters
An adapter is the component that mates the igniter with the motor case and provides
the structure that connects and positions the igniter chamber and initiator, Since the
adapter must contain the motor combustion products, usually at high pressure and temperature, the use of high quality steels (e.g., type 4130 or 17-4PH) or titanium may be
37
necessary. However, cost and weight savings occasionally are realized by using a lightweight insulating material on the internal side of the adapter, thus reducing the adapter
temperature and, consequently, the thickness required to contain motor pressure. Suitable insulating materials are phenolic plastics filled with asbestos or glass fibers.
The adapter is the key component for interfacing with the rocket motor case. The adapter
must mate with the igniter boss provided, must be attached and sealed in a manner that
will withstand motor operating pressures and temperatures, and must provide for any
required orientation with respect to other motor (internal or external) or system components. If radial orientation is not required, threaded closures are most commonly
used for medium to small igniters. Otherwise, the adapter is attached with keyed systems, e.g., snap rings, bolts, or indexed threads. To prevent gas leakage, the mating
joint is sealed, usually with an O-ring or a metallic gasket. For threaded closures,
lockwires or thread sealants are used to prevent loosening caused by vibration during
transportation, storage, or operation.
2.3.2.2
Chambers
The chamber consists of the components that contain and provide structural support for
the intermediate and main igniter charges. The earlier powder-can igniter chambers
suffered from very short durations, lack of sustained input to localized propellant surface areas, and inefficient ignition of the main charge.
After the advent of pelleted forms of pyrotechnic charges, chambers were made of wire
mesh or perforated metal, which retained the pellets within the chamber during a major
portion of their burning. The openings, covered with plastic or rubber dip coatings,
or with thin tape that ruptured or burned through a t low pressures, assured complete
ignition of the pellets and gave a more sustained heat input to the propellant surface
being ignited.
To obtain the improved control of igniter ballistic performance necessary to meet more
exacting motor ignition requirements, it is desirable to maintain a controlled operating
pressure within the igniter chamber. This controlled operating pressure requires that a
consistent ratio of output charge burning surface to chamber vent area be maintained.
With pyrotechnic charges, this ratio is maintained by the use of a specific number of
pellets of controlled dimensions in conjunction with chambers having a specific quantity
and size of vent holes. The chambers generally are made of steel or fiber-reinforced
plastic and lined with a plastic film to prevent pellet breakage and attrition. For pyrogen
igniters, the chambers are designed to contain the igniter operating pressure for the
duration of operation, as in a rocket motor design. Because pyrogen igniter ballistics are
more reproducible than pyrotechnics, pyrogen chamber materials, properties, and dimensions can be designed with greater precision. Again, the primary materials are steel or
fiber-reinforced plastics.
38
Any necessary openings in the pyrogen chamber (e.g., nozzle ports) are sealed SO that
the propellant grain will not be affected by moisture and other contaminants. The type
~f seal us&-Q-~,tg, gsskct, -A-&&
r!fixure, etc.--&=~n& 2 the natiirp nf the opening
and the requirements for the seal.
The pelleted igniters are normally less than 0.1 second duration and are vented through
the steel chamber with drilled holes or perforations serving as the nozzles. However,
pyrogen igniters are of longer duration and may require close control of ballistic performance; this necessitates the use of nozzIe inserts capable of withstanding the flow from
the igniters without eroding to the extent that would alter nozzle performance significantly.
For pyrogens mounted in the forward head, nozzles canted toward the propellant surface
provide significantly higher heat flux to the propellant, and consequently more positive
ignition. The cant angle is selected as a compromise between maximum heat input and
minimum propellant erosion. However, for igniters mounted aft and firing into the motor
through the nozzle, it is more important that the igniter efflux be injected deeply into the
motor port. A single center nozzle contoured to provide maximum penetration is preferred.
2.4.1.1
Firing Sensitivity
No-fire limits and all-fire limits, as requirements, for firing sensitivity, were discussed
in section 2.1.5.2. Determination of firing energy sensitivity limits tends to be an expensive test item, because it is a destructive test evaluated by attributes. However, some
statistical techniques provide improved test efficiency. The most frequently used .is the
Bruceton Staircase Method (ref. 94), the test variable being closely controlled constant
energy levels applied at discrete intervals. This method provides a relatively accurate
estimate of the mean 50 percent firing energy; it is simple to perform, and the statistical
calculations are straightforward. However, the Bruceton Staircase Method provides a
rather poor, usually low, estimate of the standard deviation unless large samples (>200)
are used (ref. 95). The Probit Analysis (ref. 94) provides a more accurate estimate of
the extremes, but a poorer estimate of the mean. The statistical technique described in
39
reference 30, although developed for application to arc-image ignitability data, may also
prove to be valuable for determining electrical sensitivity when presented and used in a
more simplified form.
In addition to the safety limits defined above, the effect of variations in input stimulus
on functioning delay time must be known or determined. The time required to achieve
ignition is an inverse function of the energy level applied. If the current flowing through
the bridgewire is only slightly above the minimum all-fire current as described above, the
time required for initiation may be significantly greater than the required functioning
time. Conversely, extremely high rates of energy input may cause the bridgewire to
break in so short a time that the total heat input is insufficient to achieve ignition. Consequently, it is important that EED be characterized by defining a minimum input stimulus (e.g., a minimum recommended firing current) necessary to achieve rapid, positive
ignition of the prime charge.
2.4.1.2
Bridge Resistance
To ensure that electrical elements of EED are intact, measurement of the bridge resistance is desirable. Wire bridge devices are usually tested with a constant current impulse
in which the current is limited to a very low value that is safely below the minimum firing energy level, usually less than 0.010 ampere. For evaluating initiators incorporating
spark gaps or voltage-blocking devices, test equipment producing a high-voltage discharge is used with the current limited to very low values through the use of currentlimiting resistors.
2.4.1.3
in the system by a given radar field is computed. The computed current is then COmpared with the current required to fire the EED, based on EED predetermined sensitivity
io current flow.
2.4.1.4
The sensitivity of an initiator to accidental ignition by an electrostatic discharge is evaluated by determining the capability of mutually insulated electrical conductors to withstand a minimum applied voltage at a given capacitance.
2.4.1.5
Calorific Output
The calorific output of an initiator includes the total heat energy an initiator produces.
This output is accurately estimated when the heat of explosion per unit weight of the
pyrotechnic charge is known. However, calorific output can be determined experimentally through the use of the bomb calorimeter. An evaluation of test methods is presented
in reference 97.
2.4.1.6
Pressure Output
2.4.1.7
The measurement of heat flux output is the truest indication of the effectiveness of an
initiator. However, until recently the lack of instrumentation capable of accurately
measuring heat flux has restricted use in normal practice. The development of sensing
devices (as described in references 98 and 99) has removed t h i s restriction, and testing
this parameter as a criterion of performance is now feasible.
41
Pyrogens
The propellants used in pyrogens must conform to requirements similar to those for
propellants used in rocket motors. Consequently, the testing of these propellants is
similar to that used for rocket motors. However, frequently the tolerances on burning rate and the physical properties of propellants used in pyrogen igniters are not
as critical as when the propellants are used in rocket motors. The required energy
flux outputs can be achieved over a relatively wide burning-rate tolerance. The
smaller propellant webs, thicknesses, and lengths in pyrogens result in less strain from
temperature changes.
2.4.2.2
Pyrotechnics
Heat of explosion is the term used to describe the measurement of available energy
produced when a given weight of pyrotechnic is burned in an inert atmosphere SO
that the total energy output produced by the reaction can be measured. This quantity
is readily measured by laboratory apparatus and is a good, though not completely
infallible, indicator of pyrotechnic performance. This measurement, however, does
not reflect the rate of the energy output, which is dependent on the burning rate.
Because pyrotechnics are normally used in pressed form with a large variety of sizes,
press conditions, densities, etc., no generally accepted burning-rate test has been developed. Consequently, the rate of pressurization produced by a pelleted pyrotechnics
sample is used as an indication of the burning rate. The most common measurement
of pyrotechnic pellet integrity is its crush strength, though special measurements of
friability are sometimes made by vibration, shock, or impact testing. Special testing
to evaluate new or changed formulations includes differential thermal analysis (DTA),
determination of ignitability (using, for example, the arc-image furnace), and measurement of the radiant energy spectrum during the pyrotechnic combustion.
2.4.3 Hardware
When the design of the igniter imposes a requirement that the hardware serve as a
pressure vessel during the operation of the energy release system, the pressure-retention
capability of the assembled hardware components must be proven. Failures may
occur either as leakage or rupture. Leaks are measured at both low and high pressure differentials, because some types of O-rings and gaskets depend on high pressures to effect a seal. For extremely low leak requirements, e.g.,
cc/sec, the
hardware is pressurized with helium and the rate of leak determined by use of a
mass spectrometer. For less critical applications, pressure gages or leak-detecting
compounds are used to evaluate a seal.
The most positive way to evaluate the structural adequacy of igniter hardware is
to pressurize until a failure occurs, or until a predetermined margin of safety is
42
demonstrated. When these tests are made, hydraulic oil is used as the pressurizing
medium as a safety measure. However, in some instances, it has been feasible to design
the components so that the margins of safety could be adequately proven by stress
analysis. In these cases, the theoretical margin of safety is kept well above the limit
and is based on the worst combination of conditions relative to each variable involved.
The hardware designed and proven as above is protected against corrosion to ensure
that no weakening occurs. The most adverse corrosive environment normally encountered is the salt spray. A standard procedure for evaluating this corrosion has
been developed and is defined in MIL-STD-331, Method 107 (ref. 4). Similarly, provisions are made to ensure that there will be no degradation of seals such that leaks
in hardware components develop subsequent to the final leak test. Many of the environmental conditions to which the igniter may be subjected can contribute to
these failures. Thus, the usual procedure is to determine what the conditions are,
and then evaluate the potential effects of these conditions on the hardware components and assemblies. Frequently specified environments and proof test requirements are discussed in section 2.0.1.3 and table I.
2.4.4.1
Pyrogen igniters are evaluated adequately for reproducibility and quality control by
measuring the pressure-time profile during test firing. In this respect, the pyrogen
acts as a small self-contained rocket motor. The igniter is fired in the open with internal operating pressures taken by use of conventional pressure-sensing transducers
and high-speed (e.g., 40 in./sec) recording equipment.
2.4.4.2
43
2.4.4.3
As in the case of initiators, the testing of heat flux output is relatively new. However, it is the most valid representation of the effectiveness of an igniter. Previously,
the lack of calorimeters that could withstand the igniter exhaust temperatures without burning or coating over, yet would have sufficiently fast response times, prevented specifying heat flux as a proof test. The use of calorimeters as described in
references 97 to 99 has circumvented this problem. The test can be applied to all
types of igniters currently in common use.
x
44
( 2 ) Specified Reliability
( 3 ) Lowest Possible Cost
The first step in design is to select an igniter type that will provide the required
performance characteristics. In view of past experience and current widespread usage
in industry, the selection of either a pelleted pyrotechnic or a pyrogen igniter is
recommended unless specific conditions dictate the use of one of the alternate types.
Better control of burning rate and surface area can be achieved with pyrogens, and
this type is recommended for use where high levels of reproducibility are required.
The igniter is a component of rocket motor that is itself a component of a larger
system. Because reliability of the major system usually must be very high, an even
higher requirement is imposed on each component to attain the objective for the end
item. However, sufficient testing to demonstrate these high reliability levels, evaluated for a variety of performance requirements, is often prohibitively expensive. Thus,
it may be necessary to estimate reliability on the basis of the design evaluation, similarity of components, and extrapolated test data.
Design requirements should be specific as to what the reliability requirement is and
on what basis it is determined. These requirements may evolve directly from a vendor
specification, or may have to be assessed on the basis of the reliability required to
ensure compliance of the complete motor with its specified level of performance.
The initial igniter design concept should be evaluated to determine whether compliance with reliability requirements is feasible. Trade studies and evaluation of alternate configurations will aid in selection of the unit having the greatest probability of
reliable performance. Allocation of reliability requirements to the subcomponents of
the igniter is recommended. Periodic design reviews should be held during the design
and development phase to facilitate early detection of potential failure modes. MILSTD-756, Reliability Prediction (ref. loo), provides procedures for predicting the
quantitative reliability of a product during the development phase to reveal design
weaknesses and to form a basis for apportionment of reliability requirements to its
various components. A more comprehensive discussion of the fundamentals of reliability prediction and its underlying theory is presented in reference 101.
45
The relative costs of pelleted pyrotechnic and pyrogen igniters depend on the igniter
size, material, and quantity required. Pelleted pyrotechnic igniters are recommended
for use in small motors because lower labor and hardware costs make them less
expensive to produce in this size range. However, for large igniters the material
costs of propellants for pyrogens are so much lower than the cost of pyrotechnics
that they counteract the higher labor and hardware costs of pyrogens. Therefore, for
large motors pyrogen igniters are recommended. In intermediate ranges, the choice
must be based on an analysis of the specific igniter design and manufacturing conditions.
3.0.1.1
3.0.1.1.1
Ballistic Performance
Ignition Effects
The igniter shall produce propellant ignition and sustained combustion without
shock or other adverse effects on the motor.
Energy available for the ignition and the control of pressure and temperature during release of that energy are specific functions of the energy release system. The
design practices recommended for this particular system are given in section 3.2.
3.0.1.1.2
Ignition Timing
The igniter shall perform with ignition delay, ignition time interval, and transient
characteristics controlled in accordance with end use requirements.
This criterion applies with equal force to all igniters, but the manner in which each
requirement is satisfied depends on individual circumstances and involves different parts
of the igniter. Specific procedures for meeting the criterion are discussed separately.
Control of ignition delay is a function of initiator design, and recommended practices
are provided in section 3.1.5.5. Control of ignition time and ignition transients is a
function of energy release system design; recommended practices are presented in
section 3.2.
3.0.1.2
3.0.1.2.1
System Interface
Envelope Limits
The igniter shall not exceed envelope dimensional limits imposed on the motor.
46
Before initiating the design, the designer should examine all applicable drawings, specifications, or other imposed requirements and then prepare a control drawing defining
the limits imposed. This drawing must include envelope dimensions, location, and
necessary mating connections with sources of actuation.
3.0.1.3
Use Environment
The igniter shall withstand without adverse effect on its performance the acceleration forces and shock and vibration levels specified or anticipated during handling and transportation.
All threaded closures or joints must have positive locking provisions to prevent loosening. Approved methods are self-locking nuts per MIL-N-25027 (ref. 102), lock wiring per MS 33540 (ref. 103), and the use of sealing compounds per MIL-S-22473
(ref. 104).
47
Stress analysis of all structural components, as well as analysis of the thermal effects
on hardware components during mc tor operation, is recommended. Results of the
thermal analysis should be used to determine whether external insulation of the igniter hardware is required. For pelleted pyrotechnics, packing within the igniter
chamber should be sufficient to limit attrition to less than 4 percent. Packing material
used in proximity of the pyrotechnics must be chemically compatible and should be
located so that it does not interfere with the ignition process. For pyrogens, adequacy
of propellant bonds and web thicknesses should be determined by stress analyses before
design release. All openings, closures, and joints should be sealed with bonded plastic
films or sealants to prevent loss of powdered material or contamination of external
surfaces. Caution must be exercised to ensure that plastic films and sealants used are
conductive or are adequately grounded to prevent electrostatic buildup.
3.0.1.3.2 Storage
The igniter shall withstand without adverse effect on its performance the anticipated
motor storage conditions and any specified temperature extremes, humidity ranges,
and corrosive atmospheres.
Unless inherently corrosion resistant, metal parts must be treated with protective coatings to resist corrosion caused by atmospheric conditions likely to be encountered in
storage. Care must be exercised in design to avoid dissimilar metal combinations that
will be galvanically active as defined in MS 33586 (ref. 105). When these combinations are unavoidable, insulation and protection should be provided. Pyrotechnic and
propellant charges should be sealed to prevent exposure to high humidity conditions.
When large temperature extremes are anticipated, a grain stress analysis of pyrogen
propellants should be conducted to determine whether the grain will withstand the
temperatures without cracking. (Consult the Design Criteria Monograph on Solid Propellant Grain Structural Integrity Analysis for further information on corrective actions.)
3.0.1.3.3 Operation
The igniter shall perform its required function under the specified operational conditions of temperature, altitude, launch loads, acceleration force, and vibration levels.
Initiators intended for use at high altitudes should be hermetically sealed but should not
depend on the seal for satisfactory functioning. The prime charge should be readily
ignitable at low pressures. The subsequent ignition train should be designed so that
each igniter chamber is pressurized by the initiator or by an intermediate charge, thus
effectively eliminating the environmental pressure effect until ignition of the main charge
is accomplished. When an intermediate charge is required, the use of small pellets or
granules of B-KNO:( as described in section 3.2.3.2 is recommended. The mass flow
rate from the igniter should be sufficient to ensure that the flow through the motor
nozzle is choked, thus providing a continuous system of successive pressurizations to
counteract low ambient pressures.
.'lrU*"U
**a-
Temperature extremes affect ignition as shown in equation (14) (sec. 2.0.2.3). Consequently, the igniter should be designed t o ensure that the heat input to the propellant
surface is at the rate and for the duration required to raise the propellant surface from
its initial temperature to its ignition temperature over the specified temperature range,
when the conditions for ignition are evaluated according to the relationship expressed
in the equation.
Prime-charge loading shall be such that heat transfer from the bridgewire to the
prime charge shall be sufficient to ensure reliable initiation of the prime charge
within the specified time.
The prime charge should be applied to the bridgewire so that intimate contact is ensured
a3d maintsi,-,ed threilgh 2!! ecvirecmentz! ccncriticr?s. w h e r e the hridgeF.7ire is mnl.nted
49
flush with the terminal-pin insulation and a suitable cavity is available, the recommended
procedure is to press in the prime charge under loads of 5,000 to 20,000 psi. This
method is conducive to close control of charge weight and loading density. Where bridges
are elevated, the charge should be buttered in (where there is a cavity) or a bead
applied around the bridge. When either of these two methods is used, a binder and a
suitable solvent must be used to obtain the proper charge consistency and to hold the
prime charge in the desired location.
50
transmit thermal and mechanical energy to the initiator charge. The bridgewire
shall satisfy criterion 3.1.1.2.2.
Adequate theoretical approaches to the design of EBW initiators have not been developed
to date. However, references 50 through 57 and reference 107 include extensive developmental data on the effects of the many variables involved.
Studies on the effects of bridgewire diameters, lengths, and materials and the resulting
recommendations are included in references 53 through 56. For the most common firing
unit, which has an energy source of 2000 volts discharged from a 1.0 pF capacitor, a gold
bridgewire 0.002 in. diameter and 0.050 to 0.075 in. long is recommended.
3.1.2.1.2
Prirne-Charge Characteristics
The prime charge of an EBW shall be ignitable only by explosion of the wire. A
pyrotechnic mixture, when used as the prime charge, shall satisfy criterion 3.1.1.2.3.
The prime charge must be a high explosive that is not ignited by simple thermal heating,
or the prime charge must be protected from bridgewire heating by a physical barrier.
When anticipated storage temperatures will not exceed 141" C, PETN is recommended
as the prime charge. For temperatures greater than 141" C, but less than 204" C, RDX
is recommended as a high-explosive prime charge. A loading density of approximately
1.0 gm/cc is recommended for both types. Both PETN and RDX sublime under vacuum;
therefore they must be sealed against long-term vacuum exposure.
Where storage temperatures in excess of 204" C are anticipated, ignition by simple heating should be prevented by using pyrotechnic charges that are physically separated from
the bridgewire. Lead foil that is not physically in contact with the bridgewire but is
ruptured by its explosion is recommended as the barrier material. Supplementary coatings of detonating or deflagrating materials should be applied to the bridgewire or to
CL LIK
siiiface of the tai-riei tci ensiiie ignition Gf the prize charge. Mixtures composed
of zirconium and potassium perchlorate with a plastic binder are recommended (ref. 59).
3.1.2.1.3
Transition Charges
When a detonating prime charge is used in an EBW, the EBW shall contain the
charges necessary to ensure transition from detonation of the prime charge to deflagration of the output charge.
For small output charges of less than 1 gram, where controlled output rates are not
required, charge material capable of direct ignition by the detonating prime charge is
recommended. Compositions having the required properties are mixtures of cupric oxide,
magnesium, and Teflon and mixtures of aluminum powder, cupric oxide, potassium
perchlorate, and a rubber binder. For large charges requiring controlled output, these
51
formulations should be used as intermediate charges, and the main charge should consist
of a pelleted or granulated material of one of the formulations described in section 3.2.3.2.
3.1.2.2
Voltage-Blocking Devices
When required by reliability provisions, an EED shall remain operative after having
been subjected to the conditions of criterion 3.1.5.2.
To prevent inadvertent dudding of E B W initiators by application of low voltages directly
to the firing circuit, spark gaps should be incorporated in the circuit as voltage-blocking
devices. The gap distance in spark gaps should be controlled by use of a nonconducting
film, e.g., aluminum oxide (ref. 60). Air gaps are most difficult to control and consequently provide less consistent performance. Where ground support equipment is
used to supply sustained high-voltage levels (500 volts dc), inadrertent firing or dudding
at low voltage levels should be prevented by the use of cold-cathode trigger diodes in
the initiator circuit (ref. 61).
3.1.2.3
Overload Protection
The TBZ shall include an integral bulkhead with donor and acceptor charges located
externally and internally, respectively, so that propagation through the bulkhead
without adverse effect on the bulkhead integrity is ensured.
The recommended design parameters for through-bulkhead initiators are included in
reference 62 and references 109 through 111. The recommendations are summarized as
follows:
(1) Suggested housing-barrier material is steel.
(2) Barrier thickness should be 0.100 to 0.150 in. for flat-bottom cavities or 0.050
to 0.100 in. for cavities with rounded bottoms, but must be accurately established
52
bamer.
( 6 ) The acceptor charge should be pressed in at high pressure (approximately
15,000 psi).
The properties of detonating and deflagrating charges used as TBI components are provided in reference 112.
3.1.3.4 Safeguards
The donor charge shall be initiated by the output from the initiating explosive train,
but shall be safe against accidental ignition to the maximum extent feasible.
The donor charge should be located immediately adjacent to the initiating explosive
charge when the initiator is ready to be fired. Premature functioning should be prevented by displacing the initiating charge from the donor charge until the latest feasible
time prior to firing, preferably by using internal safe/arm systems. An alternate method
is to delay connecting the initiating train with the TBI until the unit is ready to fire.
53
Characteristics
Initiator output charges shall be readily ignitable by the prime charge and shall
provide the heat energy necessary to ignite the energy release system or the next
component in the ignition train within the required time interval.
For small, relatively straightforward ignition trains, charge formulations and sizes should
be established on the basis of experience, test results, and fundamental design information (ref. 4 6 ) . For more complex systems, the ignitability characteristics and ignition
energy requirements for the various charges should be evaluated using the methods recommended for characterizing solid propellants (refs. 23 and 25). The available heat
energy content per unit weight of the output charge should either be known from existing
data or be determined by analysis; the recommended method of analysis is provided in
NAVORD OD 9375 (ref. 113). The value for specific heat energy should then be used
to calculate the weight of the formulation required to produce the total heat output desired from the initiator. The initiators effectiveness in producing the required output
should be evaluated by actual heat flux measurements. The procedures provided in reference 98 are recommended for determining heat flux output in closed bombs or in open
tubes, as applicable.
3.1.4.2
Pressure Output
When the ignition energy requirements of the next component in the ignition train
are pressure-dependent, the initiator output charge shall produce the pressure necessary to obtain reliable ignition under all environmental conditions.
When pressurization by the igniter is required, selection of a formulation having a high
impetus value as described in section 2.1.4 is recommended. The charge weight necessary
to achieve the desired pressurization should be computed by the method provided.
3.1.4.3
Chemical Properties
The output charge shall be chemically stable and compatible with other charges and
components over the required operating and storage temperature range.
The use of a formulation that has been tested and proven chemically stable over the
required temperature range is recommended. When a formulation of this type cannot be
used, the information on formulations, reaction products, and material properties available in references 46, 63, and 64 should be used to determine the expected performance;
then the selected composition should be evaluated by differential thermal analysis.
TEST -
The igniter safety mechanism (ISM) should be capable of being returned to the SAFE
condition from either the ARM or TEST condition, and a positive lock to prevent accidental movement from one position to another should be provided.
It is further recommended that the end item application be evaluated to ensure that the
following features have been considered:
Manual or electrical arming.
Source and magnitude of actuation force.
(3) External indication of condition.
(4) Physical limitations on position of arming actuators.
(5) Provision for fail-safe condition.
(6) Requirement for automatic return features.
(7) If fired in the SAFE or TEST position, the ISM cannot subsequently be placed
in the ARM position.
(1)
(2)
Because safe/arm mechanisms are normally designed specifically for a given system, no
description of the detailed features are provided herein. However, a review of design and
development history of related proven systems and some of the more novel concepts that
may be potentially applicable is recommended (refs. 114 through 117).
Recommended safeguards for a TBI are given in section 3.1.3.4.
55
3.1.5.2
3.1.5.2.1
Electrical sensitivity of an EED shall be as low as feasible consistent with its application.
The use of prime-charge formulations that have high ignition temperatures is recommended for reducing the sensitivity of EED to current. For low-voltage EED, the bridgewire resistance should be 1.0 ohm unless the available power is not adequate to provide
ignition a t this resistance; this resistance generally provides the optimum insensitivity
balance between current and power. To further decrease the sensitivity, place the bridgewire in contact with the ceramic or glass used to seal the terminal pins, thus enabling
the seal to absorb part of the heat induced in the bridgewire.
3.1.5.2.2
A high-voltage EED shall not fire when subjected to any of the following conditions:
Initiator types that have been used successfully to comply with these no-fire sensitivity
requirements are spark-gap initiators, exploding-bridgewire initiators, and thermallyinitiated EED with voltage-blocking devices (sec. 3.1.2.2) in the bridgewire circuit. Of
these, the EBW initiator is recommended for most applications. The recommended design
practices for EBW are provided in section 3.1.2.
3.1.5.3
The circuitry o f an EED shall be such that hazards from electromagnetic radiation
are reduced to a minimum.
The design methods recommended to reduce the sensitivity of EED to induced current
are provided in Specification MIL-P-24014 (ref. 118) and in the HERO Design Guide,
NAVWEPS OD 30393 (ref. 65). These documents have been prepared as a result of
comprehensive evaluations conducted through the HERO (Hazards of Electromagnetic
Radiation to Ordnance) Program (refs. 96 and 119).
56
To prevent accidental ignition by electrostatic discharge, the cavity in the housing containing the pyrotechnic charge should be electrically insulated from the terminal pins
and the bridgewire by a nonconductive coating applied to the internal parts of the housing and closure or by an insert or charge holder fabricated from a nonconductive material.
An alternate approach is to use a high-resistance element or spark gap between the circuit pin and the housing, thus preventing buildup of electrical potential between these
components. To use this method, the resistance of the element must be less than that
of the pyrotechnic charge but high enough to ensure that, when the firing current is
applied, the primary flow of current is through the bridgewire.
3.1.5.5
Delay Systems
An initiator shall provide any delayed functioning necessary for operational or safety
purposes.
Methods for providing required time delays between application of the firing current and
motor ignition include both electrical and chemical systems. Where electrical means are
used, conventional electronic delay components are incorporated in the firing circuit; these
electronic means will not be discussed here.
The use of pyrotechnic delay columns as the chemical delay system for solid rocket
igniters is recommended for most applications. A conventional primer or initiator should
be used to ignite a pressed column of pyrotechnic having a closely controlled burning
rate that gives the desired delay. An output charge a t the end of the column initiates
the motor igniter. For specific formulations and characteristics, reference 36 is recommended as a source of detailed information on current practices.
Recent developments in delay systems involving controlled chemical reaction rates are
exothermic alloying wires (refs. 120 and 121) and small-column insulated delays (SCID)
(refs. 122 and 123). The current developmental and operational status of these newer
developments should be evaluated before a delay system is selected.
57
FW-1
54 ss
Skybolt1
1s t stage
Skybolt
2nd stage
DM-14
59
This correlation obviously makes the assumption that all pertinent motor variables vary
in accordance with the free volume, and thus is a broad-brush approach to igniter
design.
where
Q
A
El00
Q
=AH
(30)
3.2.1.1.4
The mass discharge coefficient C,, often is used in the design of pyrogen igniters. e,,
is simply the ratio of the igniter mass discharge rate rn, to the motor nozzle throat area
A,, or
mi
CMD -, Ib/sec-in.z
At
This discharge coefficient is assigned a desired value based on experience and the configuration of the igniter and motor. The nominal value is 0.20 lb/sec-in.2; but may be as
low as 0.10 for ideal forward end ignition conditions or greater than 0.30 when the
propellant surface is relatively inaccessible to the igniter efflux. The use of proper C
,
,
ensures that a certain pressure level in the motor is produced by the igniter; this aids
the ignition of most propellants.
This method is used also for pyrotechnic igniters; it is not as simple to apply, however,
because the h, is usually highly regressive and equilibrium conditions are not maintained.
3.2.1.1.5
Bryan-Lawrence
Equation
An empirical relationship between certain rocket motor parameters and the energy required to obtain satisfactory ignition (developed by the U. s. Naval Ordnance Laboratory
(ref. 129)) is
where
L, = length of grain, cm
= port area, cm2
qe = ignitability of propellant, cal/cm2
A,
To simplify computations the variables may be grouped, and the equation reduces to th
following (calories are converted to British thermal units, and centimeters to inches) :
Q
61
(33
420
,-
2400
350
280
- $ 1600
,-
0,
210
140
105
52.5
- .-fcn
-$
800
-4
-
0
0
800
1600
2400
3200
~ 0 . 4 3 50 .~6 2 5 ~ 0 . 3 1 3
d
Figure lI.-Chart
"
The most accurate method for designing igniters is based on flux produced a t the propellant surface by the igniter. This practice relates the design to the basic objective Of
raising the propellant surface temperature to that required to establish equilibrium combustion. However, a completely comprehensive relationship requires knowledge of several
parameters that are difficult to define: the desired propellant surface temperature; the
film coefficient for convective heating; the igniter efflux temperature a t the film; and the
contribution of radiative heating. Theoretical treatments of these areas have been discussed individually in sections 2.0.2.1,2.0.2.2,and 2.0.2.3.The complexity of the relationships
prevents the formation of a comprehensive analytical expression including all potential
variables. However, by making simplifying assumptions and approximations, tractable
relationships can be derived that generally are more precise than the empirical correlations. Two of these approaches are discussed in 3.2.1.1.6.1and 3.2.1.1.6.2.
62
As explained in section 2.0.2.3,the time requlred tor a propeiiant surface Lo I-each iuiiition temperature when exposed to a constant flux may be approximated as follows
(cf. eq. (14)):
=
.'(),
T,C
(34)
where
Thus ti, a thermal induction time for the solid, is a function of heat flux. The equation
for flux, assumed to be a combination of convective and radiative heating, is of the following form:
where
C l ( m i ) m = convective heat flux term, Btu/ftz-sec
m
Nu
Nu,
D,
(35a)
Therefore, when the ignition delay is specified, the required flux q is calculated; then
the mass discharge from the igniter hi required to give this flux is determined. The
solution to this equation requires that the ignition temperature of the propellant be
known. Satisfactory results have been obtained by this method, using arc-image data on
a 1 : l basis, if first decomposition is used as the criterion of ignition and if the radiation
effects are not significant (ref. 130). In establishing ignition temperatures and ignition
requirements, the propellant surface conditions in the test samples must be representative
of actual motor conditions. The effects of release agents, fuel-rich surfaces, and aging
on ignitability can be highly significant (ref. 17).
63
In this approach (refs. 18 and 90) convective heating is assumed to be strongly dominant and the induced flux follows the relationship
The film heat-transfer coefficient h is reduced to terns of the mass flow rate of the
igniter and the port area of the motor as follows:
h = 0.0296
0.8
) ( cLg ) (
where x is the distance downstream from the igniter impingement point. Equations (36)
and (36a) may be simplified to
.=
.
(37)
0.0296Qign
Thus the induced heat flux 6 is calculated as a function of the igniter mass flow rate A,,
the motor port area A,, and the available energy of the igniter charge Q,,,.Pressure induced in the motor port by the igniter is calculated from conventional mass balance
equations used in motor ballistics, assuming an inert free volume with no motor propellant burning.
To determine the flux required to obtain propellant ignition, knowledge of the pressureheat flux-ignition time relationship for the propellant involved is required. Again, arcimage data providing curves of ignition time versus pressure a t various flux levels have
been used satisfactorily. When these curves are plotted with igniter-induced motor pressurization curves on a common graph, the intercept provides the ignition time, as illustrated in figure 12.
3.2.1.2
Within its limits as a controlling factor, the energy release system shall provide the
rate of pressure or thrust onset required in the motor.
64
v
Time to ignition
Figure 12.-Motor
The design of an energy release system that provides a specified rate of pressure or
thrust onset in a motor requires that the designer be able to predict analytically the en-
tire ignition transient. The analytical expressions and methods of solution discussed in
this section are recommended for prediction of these ignition transients.
To facilitate analysis of the ignition transient, the overall transient process should be
divided into its three phases, as shown in figure 13.
Phase 111
Figure 13.-Typical
65
Phase I, ignition lag time, is the time period from initiation of the igniter until first
motor propellant ignition. Phase 11, flame spreading interval, covers the time required
from first propellant ignition until the complete grain surface is ignited. Phase 111,
chamber filling interval, is the time required to reach equilibrium burning pressure
after the grain is completely ignited. By separating the major phases of ignition in
this fashion, an analogy between the actual physical problem (illustrated in figure
14) and the mathematical model is established:
M. +M, = M " + M C
M.
19
14
1 b,/sec
Igniter
Propellant grain
Figure 14.-Mass
balance system.
Replacing the terms in the model with internal ballistic and thermodynamic relations results in
Mi,
+ a P n p A b ( t ) = PAtCD
where
P
Ab =
a=
n=
y =
Y + l
dP
RT
dt
(39)
This analytical expression is recommended as the basis for computing the rate of
pressure onset in a motor.
Because of specific limitations on how well the variables can be defined, several methods of varying accuracy and complexity have been developed for solution of this
equation. The major differences in these methods are the treatment of the igniter
mass discharge rate, the prediction of ignition lag time and flame spread rate A , ( t ) ,
and the methods of solution. When the propellant burning surface is a known function of time, as determined experimentally from a scaleup of the motors or by similarity to existing motors, the method of solution provided in reference 34 is recommended.
Ignition lag time is computed on the basis of heat-transfer characteristics and the
assumption of a fixed ignition temperature; however, it should be noted that igniter
flow is assumed to be negligible. In large motors this solution has been relatively
accurate in predicting the overall ignition transient where the important terms ?re
Akn and A?,,. For small motors, however, or for motors with small free volume, Mi.
may become significant or even dominant and must be included in the ignition transient. The analog computer programs discussed below incorporate this term. When
the variation of burning surface with time is not known and cannot be estimated with
sufficient accuracy, the method described in references 12, 131, and 132 is recommended. These references provide methods for computing the rate of flame propagation based on heat transfer to succeeding segments of the propellant grain. Relationships involved are solved numerically, using finite difference techniques, by the
alternating direction method of Peaceman and Rachford (ref. 133) in conjunction
with a digital computer.
The use of an analog computer for solution of the pressure transient equations as
described in references 130, 134, and 135 is recommended for parametric studies of
the effects of specific variables (e.g., free volume, igniter mass flow rate, nozzle throat
area, etc.) on the ignition transient of a given rocket motor. In these methods, igniter
mass discharge rate is introduced at the known rate (constant or exponential) by
use of a diode function generator. The burning surface is also generated a t a preA.-,+.-,-:.-.nA
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67
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3.2.1.3
The energy release rate of the igniter shall not produce excessive pressure peaks
in the motor or strains in the propellant.
Excessive pressure peaks should be avoided by the careful matching of the gas content of the igniter combustion products with the free volume in the motor, the time
to propellant ignition, and the relative extent of pressurization produced by the igniter
as compared to the normal operating pressure of the motor. Methods for analytically
predicting this pressurization are presented in section 3.2.1.2. If motor free volume
is small and ignition rapid, excess pressurization should be prevented by reducing
the igniter mass discharge rate and using an igniter charge having a low gas content,
e.g., the Mg/Teflon formulation described in section 3.2.3.2.
Conversely, the igniter designer should be aware that a high gas output from the
igniter may be essential where free volumes are large and the chamber filling process
would be excessively long otherwise. Pressurization of successive elements in an ignition
train may also be desirable to ensure rapid propagation. As previously explained, the
ignitability of most pyrotechnics and propellants is highly pressure-dependent in the
low pressure (less than atmospheric) range. For these applications, formulations having high impetus values (sec. 2.1.4) are recommended.
3.2.1.4
Ignition Shock
The rate of energy output shall be such that no ignition shock in excess of specified limits is produced.
To eliminate excessive ignition shock, the rate of pressurization of each successive
element in the ignition train must be controlled. The use of powder or granulated
materials having high burning velocities that approach detonation speeds should be
held to a minimum. For designs using large quantities of high-burning-velocity materials in intermediate charges (greater than l gram, for example), the charge should
be in pelleted rather than powdered form. The use of compositions that detonate
rather than deflagrate should be held to the minimum while still obtaining reliable
performance.
3.2.2 Pyrogens
3.2.2.1
Energy Output
The pyrogen energy release system shall satisfy criteria 3.2.1.1 through 3.2.1.4.
For pyrogens, the heat flux and pressure necessary to obtain ignition and sustained
combustion within the required time are usually expressed in terms of the mass flow
rate. The simplest and most frequently used method is the mass discharge coefficient
a s described in section 3.2.1.1.4. This method is best used for design scaleup from
subscale tests, or in very conventional designs where the consequences of failure are
not catastrophic.
As described in section 3.2.1.1.6, it is more accurate to predict heat flux directly
and relate this heat flux to the ignition energy requirement of the propellant at the
pressure level induced by the igniter (sec. 3.2.1.1.3). However, the computations are
more complex and require a knowledge of variables that are occasionally difficult to
define. The most accurate and most expensive approach is to obtain actual heat flux
and pressure measurements in a chamber simulating the internal configuration of
the motor. Calorimeters used successfully to make these heat flux measurements
are described in reference 99.
3.2.2.2
Propellant Characteristics
3.2.2.3
Energy Propagation
The ignition train of the pyrogen shall ensure rapid positive propagation of the
energy from the initiator to the energy release system.
An intermediate charge should be provided when required to ensure propagation of the
ignition train from the initiator to the pyrogen propellant grain. Pyrotechnic pellets
of boron/potassium nitrate (see. 3.2.3.2) are recommended because they ignite readily
a t very low pressures, burn rapidly, and have a high energy content. To ensure the
most reproducible ignition of the pyrogen propellant, the pellets should be retained
h.7
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Energy Output
The energy release system for pelleted pyrotechnics shall satisfy criteria 3.2.1.1
through 3.2.1.4.
As in the case of pyrogens and other igniter types, the pelleted pyrotechnic igniter
must be designed to provide the heat flux and pressure necessary to achieve ignition
of the motor propellant. However, because steady-state burning conditions are seldom present and because ballistic performance is less reproducible than that of a
pyrogen, a proposed design for a pyrotechnic igniter is less amenable to analysis
than a proposed design for a pyrogen. Consequently, to establish the igniter parameters, designers have relied on the empirical correlations and relationships discussed
in sections 3.2.1.1.1 through 3.2.1.1.5. The Bryan-Lawrence equation, which includes
consideration of more of the pertinent variables, is recommended for general application. However, as discussed in section 3.2.1.1.6, heat flux values, when estimated
with sufficient accuracy or measured directly, provide the most precise determination
of the required igniter energy release.
3 2.3.2
Pyrotechnic Characteristics
The pyrotechnic formulation selected for use in an igniter shall have the characteristics listed below;
(1) The pyrotechnic composition shall be readily ignitable over the environmental range required by the application.
( 2 ) The exhaust products of the composition shall produce the pressurization required to meet the rocket motor ignition objectives.
( 3 ) The pyrotechnic composition shall be nonhygroscopic or adequately protected against moisture absorption.
( 4 ) The pyrotechnic composition shall have the burning-rate properties required to achieve the necessary energy output rate without overpressuring the igniter hardware.
(5) The pyrotechnic composition shall have sufficient available energy to produce the energy output rate required for motor ignition.
( 6 ) The energy output of the composition shall be such that efficient transmittal of its energy to the propellant surface is achieved.
70
After establishing the igniter energy release requirements for a pelleted pyrotechnic
igniter, the designer must select a formulation and configuration. The following formu:ations are recair,il;erided for c ~ ein pe!!et,eb i g y j t e r ~ , \~.<thlimitatinnr. as discussed:
( 1 ) B-KN0,-Boron,
Teflon
Magnesium
Type
Other
Material
%Max
Application
MIL-P-14067
(ref. 139)
60.0
40.0
Graphite
Polaris
JAN-M-382
(ref. 140)
32.5
67.5
Additives
PHOENIX
54.0
MIL-M-14077
(ref. 142)
(ref. 140)
JAN-M-382
SIDEWINDER
(extruded grain)
A comprehensive treatment on the theory and application of pyrotechnics is provided in reference 143. Other formulations, as well as more extensive information
on those above, are discussed in the references included in the dossier.*
*Dossier for Design Criteria Monograph on Solid Rocket Motor Igniters. Unpublished,
1968. Collected source material available for inspection at the NASA Lewis Research Center,
CIeveland, Ohio.
71
3.3 Hardware
3.3.1 Initiation System
3.3.1.1 Pressure Seals and Insulation
When an electrical initiator is inserted directly in the motor case, both pressure
seal and insulation for the electrically conductive pins or leads shall be adequate
for the application.
When an electrical initiator or igniter becomes a structural member of the pressure
vessel, glass, ceramic, or other dielectric materials must be used to provide the required pressure seal and insulation. Key considerations in designing such a header are
(1) The dielectric must either wet and adhere to the metal pins and housing
during fusion, or must be brazed to these components.
72
(2) The dielectric and the metal components must have matched coefficients
Of
thermal expansion.
fczicg PZXZSS.
(3) The g:as fir C5iariic irsed rxst mt "bof:" Z.;l;;lr,g
(4) The dielectric properties must be sufficient to withstand the required voltage.
( 5 ) Density and mechanical properties must be adequate for the pressure, temperature, and shock conditions imposed.
Specific details of the materials and processes involved in seal fabrication frequently
are not available to the designer; thus selection must be based on experience and consultation with the supplier. References 46 and 144 contain data on glass and ceramic
materials for high-temperature applications, and reference 60 contains design guidelines for high-voltage applications.
3.3.1.2
Housing Material
Znitiator housing materials shall have the basic properties required by any structural material that must be machined to close tolerances.
A free-machining steel, e.g., B1113 or an iron-nickel-cobalt alloy, is recommended for
use with fusion glass seals. The oxides of these metals adhere to glass at fusion temperatures; have a satisfactory hardness, toughness, ductility, and machinability for
most applications; are readily available a t low cost; and have good electroplating and
organic finishing characteristics.
In some applications, however, the strength of the above materials is not adequate.
The use of stainless steels is recommended when this condition exiqts. These steels
provide higher strengths and are inherently resistant to corrosion. It is, however, difficult to bond these steels to dielectric seal material; a metallized ceramic brazed
to the stainless steel body should be used.
Recommendations applying specifically to T B I housings are provided in section 3.1.3.1.
3.3.1.3
Housing Capability
The charge housing shall contain the combustion products without rupturing.
The magnitude and duration of applied pressure that an initiator body must withstand without rupturing should be determined as described in section 3.1.4. The
material thickness required to contain this pressure with the specified margin of
safety should then be determined by stress analysis. The root dimensions on external
threads, thread reliefs, undercuts for seals, and the concentricity of these features
with the internal charge cavity of the housing are points of particular concern because they establish the minimum wall thickness.
73
Adapters (or bodies) mounted in the motor case shall withstand internal operating pressures and temperatures during igniter and motor operation.
A high-strength steel, e.g., type 4130, has proven to be the most desirable material
for the adapter. More exotic lightweight materials, e.g., aluminum or reinforced plastics, can be used to advantage where weight is of premium importance. Further weight
advantages, a t added expense, can be obtained by insulating the internal side of the
adapter, thus reducing the required metal thickness.
3.3.2.1.2 Sealing
The seal between the igniter adapter and the mating boss in the motor case shall
be positive under all conditions of use.
I
I
For most applications the recommended type of seal betwen the adapter and the
igniter boss is an O-ring. Close adherence to design specifications for O-ring size
and material and for size, tolerance, and finish of O-ring seating surfaces, is imperative for proper seal performance. Where pressures and diametral clearance are high
enough to present an extrusion problem (as determined by reference to pertinent
design specifications) backup rings must be used. Adequate protection from propellant gas temperatures is aIso necessary, since most O-rings cannot withstand the
heat. Where this protection is not feasible, metallic seals or copper asbestos gaskets
should be used. When seals of this type are used in conjunction with threaded joints,
torque requirements should be specified.
75
3.3.2.2 Chambers
3.3.2.2.1 Pelleted Igniter
3.3.2.2.1.1 Small-Pellet Chambers
For charges comprising small pellets, the pellet chamber shall possess structural
strength and perforation size adequate to retain the pellets for the major portion
of their burning time (unrestricted venting).
When the main charge comprises small pellets (usually <%-in. diam.), the quantity
of material is controlled by weight. Thus, only indirect controls are imposed on the
pressures, which are usually less than 250 psi. The vent area of the igniter container
should be at least 40 percent of the total basket area. n e size of the openings must
be small enough to retain the pellets until 75 percent of the pellet weight is consumed. Perforated steel plate is the case material recommended for most applications.
However, where particle ejecta are not critical and ignition requirements are not too
restrictive, wire mesh should be used as a less expensive container. Molded filamentreinforced perforated plastic is recommended when consumption of the container during firing is desired.
3.3.2.2.2 Pyrogen
3.3.2.2.2.1 Chamber
The pyrogen chamber shall contain the pyrogen products at its operating pressure
and temperature for the duration of ignition.
The pyrogen case must contain the igniter pressure for the duration of ignition even
when subjected to the motor internal flame temperatures or exhaust stream. Steel
and resin-bonded glass filament windings are the primary materials recommended for
pyrogen cases. Steel, preferred where weight is not critical and the igniter hardware
can be retained for the duration of motor operation, is less expensive and can withstand higher temperatures. The propellant grain can normally be cast directly into the
steel case.
When lighter weights are necessary, glass-filament-wound cases should be used. This
type of case must either be consumed without the expulsion of objectionable ejecta
or be insulated externally so that it can be retained during the firing. The preferred
practice with these cases is to cast the propellant in a cartridge of compatible material and then wind an integral case around the grain assembly, the forward and
aft c!oSi.Ires; and the nozzle mmponents.
77
The pyrogen chamber seal shall protect the propellant grain from moisture and
other contaminants.
Two primary seal areas must be protected from moisture or other contaminants:
points of attachment to the adapter, and nozzle ports.
When the chamber is bolted, threaded, or pinned to the adapter, a conventional 0ring or gasket seal of appropriate material should be used. When the attachment
must be relatively permanent (e.g., welded or brazed), the seal must be hermetic
as verified by X-ray or by leak test.
Nozzle ports should be sealed with heat-sealable plastic or welded thin metal cl0sures; either type should burst a t less than igniter operating pressure. To prevent
inadvertent mechanical damage, the very thin closures should be protected by foam
plugs or covers foamed in place or pre-formed and bonded.
3.3.2.2.2.3 Nozzle Erosion Resistance
Nozzle inserts of graphite or erosion-resistant plastic composites normally are required but may be eliminated when igniters have very short burning times ( < l o 0
msec). However, erosion of the nozzle throat is not as critical as in conventional
motors, since pyrogens are usually designed to be regressive burning.
3.3.2.2.2.4 Nozzle Number and Angle
The number of nozzles and the angle of vent shall provide the most efficient transfer of energy to the propellant surface.
In conventional grain designs, more effective ignition with forward end mounted igniters is achieved when canted nozzles are used rather than axial nozzles. The cant
angle should be selected to provide the most effective energy transfer to the propellant surface without inducing excessive erosion of the motor propellant surface.
Multiports for canted nozzles provide better distribution of energy to the propellant,
while the desired number of nozzles to be used is dictated by the internal port configuration of the motor. For igniters mounted in the noTzle exit-cone area (aft-end
ignition) more effective ignition is achieved by single, axially exhausting nozzle throats.
Firing Sensitivity
3.4.1.2
Bridge Resistance
3.4.1.3
79
Where facilities are available, testing simulated initiators under conditions Of actual
application is recommended, using methods of measurement equivalent to those described in reference 96. When this testing cannot be accomplished, the design, the
component, and the anticipated environment of the initiator should be analyzed by
the methods described in NAVWEPS OD 30393 (ref. 65).
3.4.1.4
To determine whether an initiator is excessively sensitive to an electrostatic discharge, a 500 pF capacitor charged to 25,000 volts and a 5000-ohm resistor should
be connected in series between shorted pairs of pins or leads in all combinations
and between the shorted pins or leads and the case. The initiator should remain
connected to the specified terminals for a minimum of 60 seconds. When conducting
this test, precautions must be taken to ensure that the test is not adversely affected
by corona, stray capacitance and inductance losses, switch bounce and arcing, and
surface losses at connector interfaces. Each of the above combinations should also
be tested by the application of 500 volts dc, as described in MIL-STD-202, Method
301 (ref. 145), to determine if the initiator meets the dielectric-withstanding voltage
requirements.
3.4.1.5
Calorific Output
3.4.1.6
Pressure Output
80
3.4.1.7
The initiation system shall be tested to determine compliance with requirements for
heat flux output.
Procedure 3a of reference 98 should be used to verify that the initiation system will
produce the required heat flux output.
3.4.2.2 Pyrotechnics
Energy release systems using metal-oxidant pyrotechnic mixtures shall have these
mixes tested to determine compliance with requirements for heat o f explosion, burning rate, and physical properties.
The heat of explosion of pyrotechnic mixes should be determined by the method defined
in Bureau of Ordnance Standard OD 9375 (ref. 113). Crush strength of pressed pyrotechnic grains should be determined on equipment having a controlled rate of force
application, the required force capacity, and sufficient accuracy to provide sensitive data.
One of the following three (or other fully equivalent) test machines should be used for
testing:
( 1)
(2)
(3)
No well-defined, generally acceptable procedure for determining burning rate of pyrotechnic propellants is available. Thus the development of a suitable ballistic test for burning
pellets in a controlled-pressure closed chamber, applicable to the specific pellets involved, is recommended.
81
3.4.3 Hardware
3.4.3.1 Structural Adequacy
The igniter hardware shall be tested to determine its structural adequacy.
The capability of the igniter to contain the pressures generated within the igniter chamber or within the rocket motor, whichever is more severe, should be evaluated by pressure testing with gaseous nitrogen. All potential leak paths and seals should be monitored
for evidence of leakage. Compliance with specified margins of safety should be demonstrated by testing to failure one or more complete hardware assemblies, less all explosives, propellants, or pyrotechnics, using hydraulic oil as the pressurizing medium.
3.4.3.2
Corrosion Resistance
3.4.3.3
Moisture Resistance
The igniter hardware shall be tested to determine whether moisture-sensitive components are adequately protected.
The complete igniter should be subjected to the temperature and humidity tests as defined in MIL-STD-331, Method 105 (ref. 4).
3.4.3.4
Environmental Capability
The igniter hardware shall be tested to determine its capability of satisfactorily withstanding the environments to which it will be subjected.
Evaluation of the igniter hardware under each of the environments imposed is recommended. A list of typical environments is provided in table I and may be used as a
reference list. However, as discussed in section 2.0.1.3, the designer is cautioned against
arbitrarily specifying the listed environments without first determining whether they are
applicable to, and will meet the needs of, his particular application.
Compliance of pyrogen igniters with ballistic performance requirements should be determined by measuring the pressure within the pyrogen chamber as a function of time when
the igniter is ?ire5 in the open 0: in a simdatcG iiiotoi.
83
1. Anon.: Initiator, Electrical Design and Evaluation of. Military Specification MIL-1-23659,
Rev. B, Amend. no. 1, May 17, 1967.
2. Anon.: Basic Evaluation Test for Use in Development of Electrically Initiated Explosive
Components for Use in Fuzes. Military Standard MIL-STD-322, Oct. 15, 1962.
3. Anon.: Environmental Testing-Aeronautical and Associated Equipment, General Specification for. Military Specification MIL-E-5272, Rev. c , Amend. no. 1, Jan. 20, 1960.
4. Anon.: Fuze and Fuze Components, Environmental and Performance Test for.
Standard MIL-STD-331. Change 3, Jan. 10, 1966.
Military
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.
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85
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Of
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*Dossier for Design Criteria Monograph on Solid Rocket Motor Igniters. Unpublished, 1968. Collected
source material available for inspection a t NASA Lewis Research Center.
86
32. Niessen, W. R.; and Baskress, E. K.: Solid Propellant Ignition Studies. Final Report AFRPLTR-66-32, A. D. Little, Inc., Feb. 1966.
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39. Forney, H. B.; Clark, W. J.; and Line, L. E., Jr.: The Use of Thermoelectric Materials in
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45. Ayres, J. N.; Rosenthal, L. A.; and Maio, R. A.: A Low-Frequency Thermal Follow Bridge
for Measuring the Electro-Thermal Parameters of Bridgewires. NOLTR 66-1 13, Naval
Ordnance Lab., Mar. 1967.
46. Anon.: Solid Propellant Igniter Design Handbook.
Naval Weapons, Apr. 12, 1961 (Confidential).
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87
48. Montgomery, R. L.: An Investigation of the Steady State Equations of the Hot Wire
Initiator. Report NWL-T-10-64, Naval Weapons Lab., June 1964.
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52. Leopold, H. S.: Initiation of Explosives by Exploding Wires. 11: Effect of Circuit Resistance
on the Initiation of PETN by Exploding Wires. NOLTR 63-244, Naval Ordnance Lab., May
15, 1963.
53. Leopold, H. S.: Initiation of Explosives by Exploding Wires. 111: Effect of Wire Diameter
on the Initiation of PETN by Exploding Wires. NOLTR 64-2, Naval Ordnance Lab., Mar.
1964.
54. Leopold, H. S.: Initiation of Explosives by Exploding Wires. IV: Effect of Wire Length on
the Initiation of PETN by Exploding Wires. NOLTR 64-61, Naval Ordnance Lab., May
1964.
55. Leopold, H. S.: Initiation of Explosives by Exploding Wires. V: Effect of Wire Material on
the Initiation of PETN by Exploding Wires. NOLTR 64-146, Naval Ordnance Lab., Oct.
1964.
56. Leopold, H. S.: Initiation of Explosives by Exploding Wires. VI: Further Effects of Wire
Material on the Initiation of PETN by Exploding Wires. NOLTR 65-1, Naval Ordnance
Lab., Mar. 1965.
57. Zeman, Samuel: Final Report, Exploding Bridgewire Initiator Development. Report 5-62,
Thiokol Chemical Corp., Feb. 9, 1952.
58. Leopold, H. S.: Initiation of Explosives by Exploding Wires. X Capacitance-Voltage Relationships for the Initiation of PETN by Exploding Wires. NOLTR 66-188, Naval Ordnance Lab., Apr. 1967.
59. Graves, A. E.: Final Report, Exploding Bridgewire Initiator Design Improvement. Report
56-57, Thiokol Chemical Corp., Aug. 29, 1967.
60. Bryla, T. N.: Feasibility S'tudy of a Stand-Off Gap Switch in Exploding Bridgewire Initiator. Report 0539-0106FP, Aerojet-General Corp., December 1962.
*61. Aldrich, D. E.: Development of the F-1 Engine High-Voltage Igniter (Part No. 651990).
Rep. R-7077, Rocketdyne Div., North American Rockwell Corp., June 23, 1967.
*62. Anon.: Improvement of Ignition System for Simultaneous Ignition of Retro and Ullage
Motors on Saturn V. Report L/S U-819, General Precision, Inc., July 30, 1965.
63. Anon.: JANAF Second Symposium on Solid Propellant Ignition. Vol. I and 11, CPIA, held
at Midwest Research Institute, Oct. 2-4, 1956 (Confidential).
*Dossier for Design Criteria Monograph on Solid Rocket Motor Igniters.
Source material available for inspection a t NASA Lewis Research Center.
88
89
79. Anon.: Status of Research and Engineering Projects. Report ABL/QPR-25, Allegany Ballistics Lab., Hercules Powder Co., Jan. 1, 1961 (Confidential).
80. Levine, A.: A New Method of Ignition Developed for the Davy Crockett XM28 and XM29
Weapon Systems. Report R-1543-A, Frankford Arsenal, Jan. 1961.
*81. Anon.: DuPont Tyrocore Igniter for Propellants.
Company, Inc., 1957.
82. Larimer, M. H.; and Zeman, S.: Development of Lightweight Inert Foam Mandrels for
Ejection During Ignition of Solid Propellant Rocket Motors. Vol. I, Bulletin of ICRPG/
AIAA Solid Propulsion Conference, July 1966 (Confidential).
83. Anon.: 260 Inch Diameter Motor Feasibility Demonstration Program. NASA-CR-54454,
1962.
84. Plumley, A. G.: Development of an Analytical Model to Determine Aft-End Igniter Design
Parameters. Report 136-SRP, Aerojet-General Corp., Mar. 1964.
85. Anon.: 260 Inch Motor Demonstration and 156 Inch Motor Nozzle Test Program. Report
SBR-19.464, Thiokol Chemical Corp., Mar. 31, 1964 (Confidential).
86. Anon.: 260 Inch Diameter Motor Program. Report AFRPL-TDR 65-24, Aerojet-General
Corp., Jan. 1965.
87. Anon.: Development Program for a Dual-Thrust Pulse Moltor. Final Report 750-F, Lockheed Propulsion Co., Apr. 1967 (Confidential).
88. Elzufon, E. E.: Final Report on Applied Research Program to Demonstrate the Feasibility
of a Solid Propellant Pulse Motor. Final Report (Contract AF 04(611)-8531), Atlantic
Research Corp., Sept. 16, 1963 (Confidential).
89. Anon.: Demonstration of a Dual-Thrust Motor for a Forward Area Air Defense System
(FAADS). TR-PL-9228-01-0, Atlantic Research Corp., Oct. 1966 (Confidential).
90. Anon.: Feasibility Demonstration of a Single Chamber Controllable Solid Rocket Motor.
AFRPL-TR-65-204, Aerojet-General Corp., July-Sept. 1965 (Confidential).
91. Overall, R. E.; and Sawyer, T. T.: Design, Development and Demonstration of On-Off-On
Device for Solid Propellant Rocket Motors. Report 40-64, Thiokol Chemical Corp., Dec.
1964.
92. White, R. H.: Initiator Sealing and Sealants (Primers and Detonators). Report ME 600-1,
Picatinny Arsenal, Oct. 1957.
93. Montesi, L. J.: An Investigation of Sealing Techniques for Electro-Explosive Devices.
NOLTR 65-41, Naval Ordnance Lab., May 1965.
94. Culling, H. P.: Statistical Methods Appropriate for Evaluation of Fuze Explosive-Train
Safety and Reliability. NAVORD Report 2101, Naval Ordnance Lab., Oct. 13, 1953.
*Dossier for Design Criteria Monograph on Solid Rocket Motor Igniters. Unpublished,
source material available for inspection a t NASA Lewis Research Center.
90
1968. Collected
95. Hampton, L. D.; Ayres, J. N.; and Kabik, I.: Estimation of High and Low Probability
EED Functioning Levels. EIS-A2357, paper 10 presented at Electric Initiator Symposium,
Fizr-n Ir,s:it"cute (PZ!sCelphia), 8rt. 1-2, 1963.
* 110. Allen,
111. Miller, E. L.: Shock Initiation Through a Barrier, Paper 26 (EISA2357) presented a t
Electric Initiator Symposium Franklin Institute (Philadelphia), Oct. 1-2, 1963.
*Dossier for Design Criteria Monograph on Solid Rocket Motor Igniters. Unpublished, 1968. Collected
source materia1 available for inspection a t NASA Lewis Research Center.
91
92
Unpublished,
1968. Collected
127. Guth, E. B.; and Dubrow, B.: An Approach to the Calculation and Evaluation of Ignition
Transients for Large Rocket Motors. Report 6121-6432-TC-000. %ace Technolow Laboratories, Inc., Mar. 13, 1963.
128. Scheier, W.: Pressure Transients for Boron-Potassium Nitrate Igniters in Inert, Vented
Chambers. Report TR-32-33, Jet Propulsion Lab., California Institute of Technology,
Sept. 1960.
b-
129. Bryant, G. J.; and Lawrence, Evan K.: A Method for Predicting Ignition Energy Requirements of Practical Propellant Systems. Part 111, NAVORD Report 6134, Naval Ordnance
Lab., Feb. 2, 1959 (Confidential).
130. Isom, K. B.: Prediction of Ignition Transients Using the Analog Computer. CPIA Publication No. 138, vol. 1, Third Combustion Conference held at JFK Space Center, Feb. 1967.
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Propellants. Research Report 63-4, Rocketdyne, July 19, 1963.
132. Dilauro, G. F.; Linden, L. H.; Most, W. J.; and Summerfield, M.: Theoretically Predicted
Ignition Transients in Solid Propellant Rocket Motors. Report 802, Princeton Univ.,
July 1967.
133. Peaceman, D. W.; and Rachfold, H. H., Jr.: The Numerical Solution of Parabolic and
Elliptic Differential Equations. J. SOC. Ind. and Appl. Math., vol. 3, no. 1, Mar. 1955,
pp. 28-41.
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Ignition Transients. DDM 65-61, Rocketdyne, Sept. 20, 1965 (Confidential).
* 135.
Jones, R, A.: Analog Computer Operating Procedures for Ignition Transient Problem
Solution. DDTM 67-08, Rocketdyne, Mar. 22, 1967.
136. Anon.: Boron Plus Potassium Nitrate. Naval Ordnance Specification 03-9765, Rev. B,
Apr. 19, 1962.
137. Anon.: Aluminum Potassium Perchlorate Igniter Pellets. Naval Ordnance Specification
OS-9833, Rev. A, Amend. no. 1, June 30, 1960.
138. Anon.: Aluminum Potassium Perchlorate Powder. Naval Ordnance Specification OS-9878,
June 15, 1959.
139. Anon.: Powder, Metal (for Use in Ammunition). MIL-P-4067, Rev. B, Amend. no. 1,
July 22, 1967.
140. Anon.: Magnesium Powder. Military Specification JAN-M-382, Rev. A, Amend. no. 2,
June 23, 1949.
141. Anon.: Plastic Molding Material-Polytetrafluoroethylene
Specification L-P-403, Rev. B, July 22, 1968.
(Tfe-fluorocarbon), Federal
142. Anon.: Molding Plastic, Polytetrafluoroethylene (Tfe-fluorocarbon Resin). Military Specification MIL-M-14077, Rev. A, July 9, 1965.
I
93
143. Anon.: Engineering Design Handbook, Military Pyrotechnic Series. Part One: Theory and
Application. AMCP-706-185, U. S . Army Material Command, Apr. 1967.
144. Anon.: Summary of Solid Propellant Ignition Studies. BPC Report 229, Bermite Powder
Co., Apr. 1961 (Confidential).
145. Anon.: Test Methods for Electronic and Electrical Component Parts.
MIL-STD-202, Rev. D, Apr. 14, 1969.
Military Standard
146. Anon.: Preparation and Burning of Liquid Castable Propellant Strands. Ordnance Data
OD 28715, July 15, 1964.
147. Anon.: ICRPG Solid Propellant Mechanical Behavior.
pulsion Information Agency, Sept. 1963.
94
GLOSSARY
Definition
Symbol
Appears in
eq. (12)
eqs. (21), (22), (24), (25)
eq. (23)
eq. (24)
eqs. (29), (32)
eq. (13b)
eq. (31)
eq. (23)
95
Definition
Symbol
Appears in
DP
El00
eq. (29)
Et
eq. (15)
gc
eq. (26)
AH
eq. (30)
current, amperes
eq. (24)
eq. ( l ) , et al.
eq. (23)
II
eq. (15)
=9
length of grain, cm
eq. (32)
mi
sec. 3.2.4.2
eq. (26b)
96
Definition
Appears in
eq. (38j
eq. (38)
eq. (38)
eq. (38)
Nu
Nusselt number
w. (3%)
Nusselt number for established turbulent flow in a
pipe (dimensionless)
P
eq. (35b)
PA
PF
sec. 3.1.5.2.2
Pr
Prandtl number
eq. (12)
4c
(1)
eqs.
(2). (5)
eqs. (29). (30). (32)
Qign
eq. (37)
eq. (2)
eq. (24)
(1)
97
eq. (24)
(14)
Definition
Symbol
Appears in
eqs. (1)-(5)
eq. (26b)
eqs.
(22)
Re
Reynolds number
eq. (12)
time, sec
eq. ( l ) , et al.
ti
eq. (34)
(1) temperature, OK
eq. (13a)
eq. (14)
eq. (34b)
Wi
eq. (28)
eq. (2)
98
Appears in
Definition
Symbol
I
eq. (10)
(1) T,/To
(2) temperature rise above ambient, "C
(3) temperature, "C
(1) 0.037
(e
mi
P
-)A8.8
)Oa2(
eq. (13b)
eq. (13b)
eqs. (35b), (36a)
PF
sec. 3.1.2.1.1
density, gm/cm3
eq. ( I ) , et al.
eq. (10)
eq. (24)
V2
+ ay2
ax2
a2
Laplace operator
+-)
a2
, sec
a2
= - -+ az2
Subscripts
C
condensed phase
fuel
gas phase
oxidizer
products of combustion
99
SP-8005
SP-8010
SP-8011
SP-8013
SP-8017
Magnetic Fields-Earth
SP-8020
SP-8021
SP-8023
SP-8037
STRUCTURES
SP-8001
SP-8002
SP-8003
SP-8004
SP-8006
SP-8007
SP-8008
101
SP-8009
SP-8012
SP-8014
SP-8019
SP-8029
SP-8031
SP-8032
SP-8035
SP-8040
SP-8046
SP-8016
SP-8018
SP-8024
SP-8026
SP-8027
SP-8028
SP-8033
SP-8034
102
SP-8036
SP-8047
CHEMICAL PROPULSION
SP-8025
SP-8041
SP-8048
NASA-Langley, 1971
- 28
103