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by
HERBERT W. LEVI

Museum of Comporotive Zoology

Horvord University

and
LORNA R. LEVI

Under the editorship of

HERBERT S. ZIM

Illustrated by
NICHOLAS STREKALOVSKY.

.,

GOLDEN PRESS

NEW YORK

Western Publishing Company, Inc.

Racine, W isconsin

FORE WORD
This small guide to spiders and their near relatives intro
duces the various groups and shows their great diversity.
Accurate species identification is often a problem even for
specialists, and while the groups treated in this guide are
widespread, some of the species illustrated have a limited
distribution. If they are not found where you live, perhaps
you will find spiders that are similar. The scope of the book
is broad enough to make it useful in Europe and on other
continents
The book wou ld have been i m poss i b le without the h e l p of numerous
friends and colleagues. Among those who read early drafts of the text were
Harriet Exl i n e Frizzell, W . J. Gertsc h , 0. Kraus, Nell B . Causey, and R .
Crabil l . Mr. N . Strekalovsky made the i l l ustrations, often hand i capped by
l i m itations of live source materia l . Superb color s l i des of European spiders
were made ava i l a b l e by J. Potzsch; slides of many uncommon species were
loaned by H. K. Wal lace. We sincerely thank all these and also the many
who provided living ani mals , color photographs, determ i nations of unfa
m i l i a r a n i m a l s , or help with the text: J. W . Abalos, G . Anastos, J. Beatty,
A . R. Brady, P. Bonnet, Stephanie Cannon, Nell B. Causey, B. Conde, J .
A . L . Cooke, f. A . Coyle, J . Davi s, C . D . Donda l e , L . C . Drew, W .
Eberhard , T. E i sner, G . S . F i c hter, B . T. Gardner, G. P. Ginsburg, L . G latz ,
B. Heydema n n , R . L. H offman , H . Homann, B. J . Kaston, H . K ling e l , G. M .
Kohls, R . Konig, D . H . Lamore, Z . Maretic, J . Martens, M . Melchers,
Rodger Mitche l l , W . B . Muchmore, M . H. Muma, F. Papi , B . Patterson, J .
Rafa lski , J. Redd e l l , Jonathan Reiskind, V. D . Roth, J . H . P. Sankey, P. San
Marti n , P. Stough , V. Silhavy, W . D. Sill, H . Stahnke, T. W. S u m a n , D. W.
Sissom, W. A . Shear, Paolo Tongiorgi, M . W . Tyler, J. D . U n z i cker, M.
Vachon, A . A . Weaver, G . C. W heeler, P. W ill, T . A . Woolley.
H . L.
L. L.

1990 Edition
Copyright 1987, 1968 b y Western Publishing Company, Inc. All rights reserved,
including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any means, including the
making of copies by any photo process, or by any electronic or mechanical device,
printed or written or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction or for use in any
knowledge retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is obtained from the
copyright proprietor. Produced in the U.S.A. Published by Golden Press, New York, N.Y.
Library of CongressCatalogCard Number: 68-23522. ISBN 0-307-24021-5

C ONTE NTS

SPIDERS AND THEIR KIN, classification, a natomy, cou rtship,

growth, e n e m ies, silk, poisonous spiders

COLLECTING, p reservi ng, rea ring .................

4-17
18-19

4 p a i rs of legs, s p i n n e rets; cepholothorax a n d ab

d o m e n joi ned by na rrow waist; no a ntennae ..
20-115
Myga/omorph Spiders, Orthognotha: chel icerae (jaws) at
tached in front of head, o p e n fo rwa rd .
20-25
True Spiders, Labidognatha: chel icerae atta c h ed below
head, open to sides
26-115
Cribe//ate Spiders: cribe l l u m , a plate with spigots, in front
of s p i n n e rets .
106-115

SPIDERS:

SPIDER RELATIVES: no a nte n nae, no spi n ne rets on posterior

of a bd o m e n ; 4 pairs of legs .................................. ... .... . 116-140

116-117
118-119
Pseudoscorpions: l a rge p i n ce r-like pal ps, lacks sti nge r .
120-121
Scorpions: l a rge pincer-like pal ps, slender tail, with stinger 122-127
Whipscorpions: strong p a lps, long w h i p l ike forst legs .

Windscorpions: h uge jaws, leglike pa l p s .

Harvestmen: compact body, segmented abdom e n , eyes usu-

a l ly on a tubercle .
Mites: s m a l l , body com pact, abdomen usua l l y u n segm e nted
Microwhipscorpions: small, leglike pal ps, long ta il .
Ricinuleids: hood covers jaws . .

MYRIAPODS: 1 p a i r of a ntennae, legs on a series of s i m i l a r

ri ngs
Pauropods a n d Symphyla: 9- 1 2 pa irs of l egs .
Centipedes: 15 or more pai rs of legs, o n e on each segment
Millipedes: two p a i rs of legs o n most body ri ngs

LAND CRUSTACEANS: two pairs of a ntennae .

Wood Lice: flattened, lack ca ra pace ..
Land Crabs: not flatte ned, cepha lothorax with ca rapace .

MORE INFORMATION
INDEX ...

128-133
134-139
140
140

141-151
141
142-145
146-151
152-154
152-153
154
155
156-160
3

SPID ERS

AND

THEIR KIN

About 37, 000 species of spiders have been named so far,

representing what is bel i eved to be a bout one-fourth the
tota l . Some 3 , 000 kinds a re known from E u rope; fewer
from less-studied N . A . The 700 species of spiders found in
N ew York and N ew Eng land about equals the species of
birds breeding in N . A . north of Mexico .
Spiders a re members of the phylum Arthropod a , the
l a rge group of ani mals with jointed legs and a hard outer
skeleton . They belong , more specifica l ly, to the class
Arachnid a , which inc ludes animals with four pairs of legs,
no antennae or wings, and only two body reg ions-a
ceph a lothorax and an abdomen. Arachnids and two
sma l ler ma rine arthropod g roups (pp . 6-7) form the sub
phy l u m Chelicerata . These arthropods ali possess chelicer
ate jaws {pp. 8, 20, 26) which sometimes a re mod ified into
pincers as in windscorpions (p. 1 1 8- 1 1 9) or into piercing
stylets, as in some mites { p . 1 34).
A l l other arthropods have antennae, and mand i b l es that
work against each other. They a re p laced in six c lasses.
These inc l ude the insects {class Insecta) , which have three
body reg ions, three pa i rs of legs, one pair of antennae ,
and often wings; t h e crustaceans (class C rustacea ) , ma inly
water-dwel lers-the crabs, lobsters , shri m p , ba rnac les,
and water fleas; and the myriapods: centi pedes . (class
C h i lopoda) and m i l l i pedes (class Diplopoda); and c l asses
Symphyla and Pauropoda found in habitats l ike those of
spiders .
In spiders, the a bdomen is attached to the cepha lo
thorax by a na rrow sta l k ; in scorpions, harvestmen, and
mites, the attachment i s broa d . Spiders usua l l y have e i g ht
simple eyes, variously a rranged , and some have a cute
vision. Scorpions have both median eyes and (usua l l y)
4

lateral eyes; harvestmen, only median eyes; pseudo

scorpions, lateral eyes or none. Long setae (hairs), sensi
tive to vibration, air movements and sound, occur on the
legs of some spiders and on the pedipalps of scorpions
and pseudoscorpions.
In spiders the abdomen shows little or no segmentation,
but segments are distinct in scorpions. The segmented
spiders, suborder Mesothelae, family Liphistiidae (p.

7),

are an exception. These spiders live in burrows in the

soil and are only found in East Asia. In the other sub

20) and Labidogna

26), vestiges of the segmentation thought to char

orders of spiders, Orthognatha (p.

tha (p.

acterize ancestral forms is reflected externally by the

pattern on the back of the abdomen and sometimes by
the presence of several hard plates (sclerites); internally
by the muscle arrangement and structure of the. heart.
This book treats the land arthropods other than insects.
Of these, the spiders and mites, both of the class Arach
nida, are the most abundant. Mites are mostly microscopic
and difficult to study, hence are given little attention here.
The graphs below show the number of species in
major groups of arthropods and arachnids.
ARTHROPODS

ARACHNIDS

ARTHROPODS

evolved from m a r i n e seg m ented worms. Foss i l s do

not reveal whether they evolved from d ifferent stocks or a l l from
one group. Onychophorans, represen ted by the ma n y-legged, soft
bodied Peripatus m a i n ly of the Southern Hem i sphere, are perhaps
s i m i l a r to so me a ncestor. The g r o u ps of a rthropods a n d t h e i r prob
a b l e relationships are shown a b ove.
The most wor m l ike arth ropod s are certa i n centipedes (p. 142)

ARTHROPODS

6.

Ricinuleids

that consist of series of s i m i l a r segme nts. In other arthropods, groups

of segments have become special ized . In i n sects, one gro u p of seg
m e n ts forms the head; a nother, the thorax; a t h i rd, the abdomen.
Two m a r i n e gro u p s related to the arac h n ids are i n c l u d ed i n t h e
subphyl u m C h e l icerata: horseshoe crabs, which l i v e only on th e east
coasts of Asia a n d N.A.; a n d sea spiders, w h i c h are s low m a r i n e
creatures that f e e d on hydroids, a n e mones a n d o t h e r sea a n i m a ls.

T H E S P I D E R'S BODY consists of a cephalothorax, cov

ered by a carapace (shield), and an abdomen. Four pairs
of legs are attached to the cephalothorax. The legs end
in either two or three claws, varying with the family.
Nearly all spiders have eight simple eyes. Their arrange
ment, important in identifying families, is shown in black
and-white diagrams with family descriptions. The shape
of the carapace is commonly distinctive, too.
The cephalothorax (combined head and thorax) con

1 6), and stomach. In

1 3) are the heart, digestive tract, repro

tains the brain, poison glands (p.

the abdomen (p.

ductive organs, lungs and respiratory tracheae, and silk

glands. The two parts are connected by a thin stalk, the
pedicel, through which pass the aorta, intestine, nerve
cord, and some muscles. Spinnerets (usually six) issue
strands of silk through tiny spigots. Between the front
pair in some spiders is the colulus, its function unknown.
In cribellate spiders (p.

1 06), the cribellum is here.

THE JAWS, or chelicerae, a re in

the front of the head in Orthog

n atha (p. 20) and i n the Meso
thelae (p. 7), below the head in
other spiders. Spider jaws are
tipped by fa ngs, with a d uct from
a poison gland ope n ing at the
end of each. In front of the
l a bium (lower l ip) is the mouth,

its opening covered by the l a

brum ( u pper l ip).
Spiders feed o n l iving prey,
which may be para lyzed or killed
w ith poison . J u ices from the d i
gestive glands l iquefy the prey
before it is sucked into the mouth
by the stomach's pum ping action.
S p iders with few teeth an their
jaws may suck out the insides of
prey and d iscard the empty shell .

betwee n the jaws

and the first legs, are smal l and
leglike in females a n d in you n g
spiders. I n males, t h e tip i s en
l a rged. Before searc h ing for a
female, the m ol e d eposits a d rop
o f sperm on a specia l web, then
sucks it into the palp.
I n matin g , the sperm is trans
ferred by inserting the pa l p into
an open ing on the undersid e of
the female's abdomen. In most
spiders, this ope n ing is on a hard
plate, the epigynum, just in front
of a slit (gonopore) through
which the eggs pass. Some,
called ha plogyne s p iders (pp.
26-30), lack a n e p ig y n u m ; the
palpus is inserted d irectl y into
the go nopore.

PEDIPALPS,

chelicera

end ite

cymbium

a nal tubercle

trochanter

FEATURES
shown
above are used in the text to
describe fam il ies and species.
Measurements g iven in this
book are of the a d u lt spid er's
approximate bod y length, exEXTERNAL

eluding legs a n d jaws. They a re

not measurements of leg span.
All spiders show ind ivid u a l and
reg ional d ifferences in size. The
sig n !;? is used for female, iS
for male.

COURTSHIP by the adult male begins after his palp is

filled with sperm (p.

8) and he has found a female.

Some hunting spiders locate mates by finding and

following the draglines (p.

1 5) laid down by mature

females of the same species. Experiments have demon

strated that male web spiders can often tell by touching
the web whether it contains a mature female. Male orb
weavers and other web spiders with poor vision announce
their approach by plucking the strands of the female's
web. Others stroke and tap the female cautiously. Spiders
with good vision, such as wolf spiders (below) and the
brightly colored jumping spiders, dance and wave their
legs before their mates. A nursery web spider (p.

78)

presents his mate with a fly, before mating.

A female does not ordinarily feast on her mate, as
many people believe, but males usually die soon after
mating. Some male and female sheet web spiders (p.

46)

live together in the same web.

After a week or more, the mated female deposits her
eggs in a silken sac (p.

1 4) . Some species make several

egg sacs, each containing several hundred eggs. Species

that take care of their eggs or young usually produce
fewer eggs. Weeks later, or sometimes not until the fol
lowing spring, the young spiderlings emerge.

Courts h i p of wolf spid e rs

Pardosa nigriceps

A spider shed d i ng
its skin

GROWTH of a spider requires shedding its exoskeleton,

usually

4 to 1 2 times before maturity. Female mygalo

20) continue to molt once or twice a

morph spiders (p.

year through their long adult lives.

Before a spider sheds, the inside layers of its skeleton
are digested. The remaining skeleton then tears more
easily.

As molting begins, increased blood pressure

causes the skeleton to tear at the front edge, continuing

around the carapace, which then lifts off; the skin of the

abdomen splits. A pumping motion lowers and raises leg

spines, making the old skin slip over the flexible new legs.
In the process of molting, a previously lost leg may be
replaced by a new, smaller leg.

Most spiders live one or two seasons. Orthognath

spiders do not mature for several years; the males live
less than a year thereafter, but the females may live up
to

20 years. Some primitive spiders (such as Sicarius,

5 to 1 0 years.

Loxosceles, and Filistata) may live

11

E N EMIES of spiders include other spiders (pp. 50, 5 1 )

a n d some kinds of insects and birds. These enemies help
to control spider populations, which are affected also
by pa rasites a n d avai labi lity of food . The spiders in turn
control to some d egree the abundance of the prey they
feed on, usua l l y insects.
of some species prey
only on spiders belonging to
pa rticular families or genera.
Below, a female wasp, Anop /es
fuscus, is stinging a wolf spider,
Trochosa fe rrico /a ( 1 ). ( Rarely the
spider is the victor ir. these bat

WASPS

ties.) The wasp then carries the

spider to her previously exca
voted burrow (2) and lays an
egg on it (3). The wasp larva
feeds on the paralyzed spider
(4), eventually to p u pate a nd
metamorphose into an adult.

J2

Potzsch

p roduced by spiders is used in many ways (pp. 1415). Pseudoscorpions (p. 120), spider mites (p. 135), most
centipedes (p. 142), and some millipedes (p. 148) a lso
produce si l k but only for mating or for egg and larva l
cham bers. The caterpil lars of many moths spin si l k for
their cocoons.
SILK

CH EMICALLY silk is a fibrous pro

tein (fibroi n), insoluble in water.

It comes from spigots of the spin
nerets in liquid form and hardens
immediately, polymerizing as it
is pulled out. Silk may stretch as
much as one.fourth its length
before breaking, and the silk of
Nephi/a (p. 65) is the strongest
natural fiber known. Spider silk is
not used commercially as the
predatory habit of spiders makes
it d i fficult to rear them in large
numbers. Web spiders prod uce
d ifferent types of sil k from fou r
t o seven a bdominal g l a n d s : vis
cid or sticky silk from some, web
frame threads from others, egg
sac sil k from stil l others.

CLAWS on the tips of the legs

are used by the spider to handle

silk. The claws pivot back and
forth, hold ing the silk between
middle claw and two flexible
setae (accessory claws). What
prevents silk from sticking is not
known . Spiders that build webs
and walk on silk threads have
three claws on each leg. However,
many hu nting spiders have only
two claws, for in place of the
middle claw is a tuft of flattened
hairs. Some also have a brush
of hairs (scapula) u nd e r each
leg's last seg ment. The claw tuft
adheres to the water fi l m cover
ing most su rfaces, permitting a
spider to walk an smooth areas.

Spider Anatomy

heart
claw tuft

book l u ng cover
median claw

13

Zora spinimana, European Cten idae,

(0.211 ), guarding egg sac

MANY USES OF SILK have evolved. Most spiders make

silken egg cases, often spherical but sometimes flattened
discs or stalked. Some species use silk to make a nursery

78). Many hide in silk tunnels or use

22). Prey
may be caught in webs, or snares, then wrapped (p. 53).

for spiderlings (p.

silk to line their burrows, or for trapdoors (p.

of Argiope bruennichi
is shown below. The eggs are first
stuck to a sil k platform, then cov
ered with threads. After they are

EGG SAC

wra pped in loose silk, a final

cover of dense, colored sil k is
a dded. Argiop e suspends the
egg sac from vegetation.

Potzsch

bal looning spid e r

spiderlings climb
onto fence posts or branches and
release sil k. As the l ine lengthens,
the wind l ifts the l ittle spider off
its perch and floats it off to a new
area. The masses of ballooning
threads seen on fa l l d ays are
coiled gossamer.
BALLOONING

of web spiders are a

u n ique use of sil k for tra pping
insects. Each kind has its special
method of catching potentia l vic
tims. Among them a re cobwebs,
sheet, f u n nel, and orb webs.
Spiral sil k in orbs is sticky in
some, woolly in oth ers (p. 1 06) .
SNARES

DRAGLINES of sil k are laid down

by most spid e rs. Faste ned at in
tervals, they may serve as sa fely
l ines or to retrace a path.

web of
Ostearius
on drag l in e

Meta segmentata

Potzsch

poison g lands

chelicera

fang

coxa

Cephalothorax of Widow

(legs removed)

POISONOUS SP IDERS,

specifica l l y those dangerous to

man, are few in n u mber. In the U nited States a nd Can
ada, fata lities from wasp and bee stings far outnumber
those from spider bites and scorpion sti ngs. Few spiders
wi l l bite even when coaxed, and the bites of most of
those larg e enough to penetrate the skin p roduce no
harm at a l l .
Knowledge a bout spider venoms i s very limited. Often
a spider that bites is i m m ediately destroyed or escapes.
Even if the bite causes i l l ness, the spider may not be
positively identified.
I n th e U.S., the da n gerous spiders i nclu d e the Widows
a n d the Brown Spi ders. Bites of Cheiracanthium (p. 89),
small wh itish spi ders fou n d in most parts of the world,
may produce a slight fever a n d destroy tissues around
the bite. The venom of a Brazi lian Wo lf Spider, Lycosa
ra ptoria, a lso destroys tissues i n the vicinity of the bite,
while a nother Brazi lian spid er, Plroneutria (p. 91 ) , has a
very painful nerve poison. The Funnelweb Myga lomorph
(Atrax, p. 24) and a n u m ber of other Austra lian my
ga lomorphs a re dangerously poisonous.
16

Latrodectus mactans

1 1 mm (0.5 " )

WIDOWS are web spiders. The

sedentary females may bite if

molested. Males move about but
do not bite. The Black Widow
(Latrodectus macfans) is found in
most warm parts of the world (p.
42) . Related species occu r north
to southern Canada and also in
southern S. A.
The bite may g o unnoticed a nd
may not h u rt. But the su bseq uent
severe a bdom inal pain from a
Black Widow's bite resembles ap
pend icitis. There is pain also i n
muscles a n d i n t h e soles o f the
feet, but usually no swelling at
the site of the bite. Alternately,
the sal iva flows freely, then the
mouth is d ry. The bite victim
sweats profusely. The eyel ids are
swollen. The patient usually re
covers after several days of
agony. Physicians can rel ieve the
severe pain by i njection of calci
um g l uconate. A ntive n i n is avail
able i n a l l countries where bites
occur freq uently. No fi rst aid
treatment is available for any
spider bite.

SPIDERS
(Loxosceles
laefa) of Chi le, Peru, and Ar
gentina have been known since
the 1 930's to ca use severe i l l n ess.
It was not until the 1 950's, as a
result of bites in Texas, Kan sas,
Missouri and Oklahoma, that the
sma ller Brown Recluse Spider (L.
reclusa) was recogn ized to be
similarly toxic. This spider com
manly l ives in h. o uses on the floor
or behind furniture. Bites occ u r
when a spider rests in clothing o r
i n a towel. There m a y be no harm
at all. In very severe cases, a red
zone appears a round the bite,
then a crust forms and falls off.
The wound grows deeper and
does not heal for several months.
Other species of Loxosceles are
found in southwestern U. S. and
i n Mediterra nea n cou ntries (p.
29). Probably because these
spiders do not have contact with
man, accidents d o not occur. I n
any bite from a spider known ta
be poisonous it is wise to consult
a physician as soon a s signs of
ill ness appear.
BROWN

17

COLLECTING SP IDERS can be done nearly everywhere

in houses, gardens, fields and woods, under bark, stones,
or logs. Turn stones and logs back so the habitat is not
destroyed. Spiders that run along the ground can be
chased into a glass vial or picked up and dropped into a
vial of alcohol. Each collecting vial may be half-filled
with specimens. Be sure to insert a penciled field label,
citing locality, date, and collector.
SWEEPING

shrubs and herbs with

an insect net is a tech n i que by
which many spiders can be col
lected . Small spid ers can be sifted
from leaf litter by using a shaker
with cloth sides and a 1 em (V.. 11 )
screen bottom . Bu rrowing spiders
m ust be dug out.

buried flush with the

g round su rface wil l trap r u n n i n g
spiders. P u t in t h e can a small
amount of ethylene g lycol (anti
freeze), wh ich does not evapo
rate. A ra ised l id su pported by
stones preve nts di l ution by ra i n .
Empty once a week.

COLLECTING
with a
m i ner's hea d l a m p yields a ha rvest
of wolf spid ers, whose eyes reflect
l ight, and of nocturnal orb weav
ers that show u p agai nst the dark
backg round. Small spiders that
h ide i n crevices by day sit i n thei r
webs at nig ht.

FUNNELS have a 1
(V..") wire screen across the
bottom. Leaf litter is placed on
the scree n . Fu mes from a single
mothba ll suspended below the lid
will d rive spiders a nd other small
a n imals down into a container of
water or alcohol below.

NIGHT

18

tin can trap

A TIN CAN

TULLGREN
em

T u l l g ren funnel

jar containing via ls

Jun!n: Terma

3l00rn, under bark

9 feb,l965 H,Levi

collecting label
of spiders and
their kin m ust be i n l iquid, either
80% g ra in alcohol or 70-80%
isopropyl (rubbi n g ) a lcohol, as
these a n imals a re soft-bodied a n d
cannot be p i n ned a n d dried. I n
sorting , keep specimens sub
merged. Each l a beled species
should be kept in a sepa rate
vial and stored with others in
a l a rger jar of alcohol.

PRESERVATION

LABELING is most im porta nt.

Place a l a bel inside every via l .
I nclude on t h e l a bel t h e date and
l ocal ity (state, nea rest town ), col
lector's name, and habitat. Pen
ciled l abe l s are good i n the fiel d.
Later replace with l a bels in I n dia
i n k or typed. Use high qual ity

paper. Never collect more than

you ca n labe l . A specimen with
out a loca l ity l a bel is worthl ess.
Gro und spiders can be
kept in terra ria with soil . Or cut
a n air hole i nto a plastic box with
a hot knife, a n d g l ue screen ove r
it. Web spiders can be kept in
wooden frames with glass o r
cellophane sides. T o prevent can
n i balism, each spider m ust be
kept i n a sepa rate enclosure.
Spiders need water, but do not
a l low containers to gel moldy.
Many spiders d o not need food
for days. Sp i ders a n d ce ntipedes
will eat fl ies, mealworms, cock
roaches; mil l i pedes a n d wood
l ice, decaying vegetation.
REARING

M Y G A L O M OR P H S
Suborder Orthognatha

Mygalomorphs include the largest spi

ders. There are a bout 80 species north
of Mexico, m a n y more south; few in
Europe. Their jaws (chelicerae), at
tached on front of the head, move up
and down, opening para l lel to long
axis of body. All have 4 lungs (p. 25).
HAIRY MYGALOMORP HS

rs>

Cl?
jaws closed

(Theraphosidae) a re com
monly ca l led tarantu las in the U.S. Unfortunately, this
name is shared with other spiders. Hairy Myga lomorphs
are known a lso as Bird Spiders, a n d they may occasion
ally catch nestling birds, liza rds, or sma l l sna kes. I n S.
Africa, they a re ca l led Monkey Spiders. Most are not
poisonous to man. About 30 species occur in the U.S.,
mostly in the Southwest, none in Europe. The largest, from
the Amazon Basin of S. A., may be 6-9 em (3.5") long,
with a 25 em (1 0") leg spa n
Most Hairy Myga lomorphs live on the ground, but some
dwe l l i n trees, others burrow. The eyes a re closely
g rouped; these spiders are sensitive to vi brations and
h unt at night by touch. Cornered, the spider may purr
or rear u p on the back legs. The "hai rs" on the a bdomen,
easi l y shed or ru bbed off by the legs, are very i rritating
to human ski n . The underside of each leg tip has a pad
of iridescent hairs. Young males look like fema les, but
after the final molt, emerge slender and iridescent, palps
developed. Captive fema les have lived 20 years and
molt after maturity; males , shorter lived , d o not m olt.
Mem bers of a related fa m i l y, Barychelidae (not i l l us
trated), have a digging ra ke (p. 23) and make a trap
door to burrow entra nce.
20

Aphonopelma eutylenum

southern California

These spiders show the d iversity

among the Hairy Myg a lomorphs
and also their com mon feature
of hairiness.

Cyrtopholis sp.
50 mm (2 11 )

Puerto Rico

A. chalcodes
70 mm (2.711 )

Arizona

21

TRAPDOOR SPID E R S (Ctenizidae) are mainly tropical,

but numerous species are found in the southern U.S. and
a few in southern Europe. All are about

1 -3 em (0.3- 1 .2")

long. Using the spiny rake on the margins- of their jaws,

trapdoor spiders dig tubelike burrows. The tube, includ
ing the opening, is lined completely with silk. To make
the trapdoor, the spider cuts around the rim of the open
ing, leaving one side attached for the hinge. The top
of the lid is camouflaged with debris, and additional silk
is added under the lid to make it fit tightly. The lid may
be held shut by the spider. When the spider feels the
vibration of passing prey, it rushes out, captures the prey,
and takes it down the tube. Except to capture prey, the
female seldom leaves her tube; males wander in search
of mates. Spiders in the small family Migidae (not illus
trated), mainly Australian and South African, are similar
but lack digging rakes.
CYCLOCOSMIA are found in
southeastern U.S. and southeast
ern Ch ina. The spid er ma kes a
fa lse bottom for its tube with the
h ardened, squa red -off end of its
abdomen and closes the top with
a silken lid.

22

MYGALOMORPHS

MYRMEKIAPHILA of seve ral spe

cies are fo und in southeastern
U.S. The bu rrow, ofte n located i n
a n ant nest, h a s a s i d e bra nch
cl osed by a second door. The out
side daor to the bu rrow is cov
ered by a sil ke n l i d .

BOTH RIOCYRTUM fo u n d in C a l i
fo rnia, is the most co m m o n l y col
lected trapd oor spider. Ummidia
(not i l l u strated) has its third tibia
sad d l e-shaped . Several Ummidia
are fo u n d in the southeastern
states, where they d i g a l most
horizonta l tubes i n to banks. The
sim i l a r Nemesia is found i n south
ern Europe.

Antrodiaetus burrow

FOLDING-DOOR SPIDERS, Antro

occ u r from the G u lf

coast to Alaska. Tube dwel lers,
they close their tubes by drawing
i n the rim. Beca use the anal tu
bercle is some distance from the
spi n n erets a n d there a re hard
ened pl ates (sclerites) on the back
of the abdomen, Antrodiaetus is
i n its own family-An trodiaetidae.

dioetus,

MYGALOMO R P H S

23

F U N N E LWEB MYGALOMORP HS

(Di p l u ridae) a re easi ly

recog nized by their long spi nnerets, which may be more
than h a lf the length of the a bdomen. The spiders are up
to 50 m m (2") i n size and most have only fou r spinnerets.
Funnelweb Mygalomorphs catch i n sects by enta n g ling
them i n a sheet of silk. The spider hides in a tube i n one
corner of the sheet. The tube may be a mong the roots
at the base of a tree or in crevices in rocks or wood .
Funnelweb Myga lomorphs a re mainly tropica l, but a bout
ten species are found in the U. S. and a few in Spain.
Atrax is the poisonous Funne lweb Spider of Austra lia.
The N . A. Microhexura is only 3 mm (0. 1 ") long. Beca use
it has six spinnerets, Hexura is sometimes placed in a dif
ferent fa mi ly, the Mecicobothriidae.

- n
.
'n
...

.
.
.

'

E uagrus
spinnerets

.. :

'

..

Hexura f ulva

12

mm

(0.5 11 )

U.S. Pacific coast

P U RSEWEB SPIDE RS (Atypidoe) ore about

1 0 to 30 mm
(0.4- 1 . 1 ") long. The coxa of each polp is widened to form
on endite, and these, as in all true spiders, serve as
mouthparts. Sphodros, found from Kansas and Texas as
for north as Wisconsin and New England, digs a hole at
the bose of a tree and constructs a silken tube camouflaged
with debris. The spider stays hidden inside the tube, which
may extend

1 5 em (6") up the side of the tree. If on insect

lands on the tube, the spider bites through it with its huge
fangs and pulls in the insect. The remains ore thrown out
through the hole before it is patched up. In the northern
states, moles ore found after June rains when they won
der in search of females. The European Atypus constructs
a small tube that resembles a half-buried root.

u n derside of Sphodros

a Europea n
Atypus catching a fly

J..
:

,...-:
i

TRUE
S uborder

S PIDERS

labidognatha

closed

Most common spiders belong to this suborder, found

even in the Arctic. Their jaws (chelicerae) are attached

below the head and open sideways, sometimes obliquely.
With few exceptions, all have two lungs.
carapace

e
'

OONOPIDS (Oonopidae) are all

less than

3 mm (0. 1 ") long. Most

are short-legged and have six tiny

eyes, closely grouped. Many have

orange

plates

on

the

abdomen.

Oonopids live under stones or in

litter and can run fast. Most are

20 species occur in
U.S.; several reach north

tropical. About
southern

ern Europe, some in houses.

CAPO N I IDS
mm

(Caponiidae) to 1 3
(0.5'') long, have only two eyes,

rarely eight in one group. The oval

abdomen lacks lungs but has four
respiratory slits. Found in litter and
under stones, in tropics and south
western

cara pace
Nops sp.
'i' 6 mm (0.211)
lesser Antilles

26

U.S.;

they

run

rapidly.

DYSDERIDS

(Dysderidae) have six

eyes closely grouped, a long labi
um, a n d four conspicuous respira
tory slits, rather than two, on the
underside of the a bdomen. All are
noctu rna l . Segestria and Ariadna,
but not Dysdera, direct three pairs
of legs forwa rd, one pair back.
Dysdera lives under stones or bark;
it has long jaws, a n ada ptation for
h u nti ng wood lice (p. 1 52). Others
tra p insects in si lk strands radiating
from the opening of a tubular re
treat. About 1 0 species are found
north of Mexico, more i n Europe.

DYSD E R I DS

27

S PITTING

side view of
cephalothorax

SPIDERS (Scytodidae)
can be recog nized by the shape of
th e carapace. Underneath its dome
is a pair of large g lands. With their
secretion the spider squirts sticky
threads at prospective p rey and
holds it in place. The spider's
aim is accurate up to 2 em (0.7").
Most species a re tropica l . The fe
male carries her egg sa c in her jaws.
Scytodes thoracica
8 mm (0.311)

cosmopol ita n ; buildings

SIX-EYED C RAB S P I D E R S (Sica riidae) extend their legs

sidewa ys. They live on sa nd and ca n dig themselves into
it to disappear completely. They a re found only in dry
regions of S.A. a nd South Africa.

28

BROWN S P IDERS

(Loxoscelidae) a lso
have six eyes. The thorax is not domed,
however, and the spiders do not spit.
They weave a sheet of sticky si l k i n
which t h e y enta n g l e insects. Loxo
sceles reclusa (p. 1 7), in the U.S., and
the larger L. laeta, i n S.A., may live in
houses i n association with man. Their
bite is poisonous . Eggs are i n a loose
sac in the web.

Loxosceles laeta
25 mm ( 1 11 )

South America
Loxosceles of several similar species
occu r in southwestern and southcentral
U.S. L. rufescens, of Med iterranean
a rea, l ives under stones away from
houses.
poisonous 1. reclusa

. other

Loxosceles species

cara pace

DIG UETID S (Diguetidae) are related

to Spitting Spiders (p.

28) and also

have six eyes in three groups. The

cephalothorax is long, the abdomen
hairy. The few species known are from
southwestern U.S., Mexico, and Argen
tina. All members of this family make
a vertical silk tube above a maze of
threads in desert shrubs.

PLECTREURIDS

(Piectreuridae)

have

eight eyes, thick legs, three claws. Like

other haplogyne spiders (pp.

8, 26-30),

males have simple palps, females no

epigynum.

Under stones in webs in

southwestern U.S., eastern Mexico.

30

ZODA R I I DS (Zodariidae) are a diverse group of eight

eyed hunting spiders. Altogether there are about

300

species. Unlike haplogyne spiders, male Zodariids have

a complicated palpus, and the females have an epigy
num.

Unlike the Palpimanids, their legs are usually

equally thick, and they may have more than two spin
nerets. Commonly the first spinnerets are large, those to
the rear, small. Zodariids hide under stones or burrow in
sand; no species is common in N.A.

s p i n n e rets

PALPIMAN IDS (Palpimanidae) are eight-eyed spiders

that resemble Zodariids but usually have only two spin
nerets. The heavy first pair of legs is carried up when
walking. The sternum surrounds first segments (coxae)
of legs. They make irregular webs under stones and de
bris. The family includes about

80 species; none in N.A.

scle rite
spi n n e ret

a n a l tube rcle

..:::::::3\

.-w1 0J)
-
31

Cara pace s

Pholcus

Spermophora

Physocyclus

u
Leplonela

0
Ochyrocera

32

DAD DY-LO N G-LEGS S P I D E R S ( Pholci

dae, not to be confused with Pha l a n g i
i d a e , p . 132) have unusua l l y thin, long ,
slender legs with flexible end s . Most
species are whitish or g ray. A few have
six eyes i n two groups of three. Others
have eight eyes, the front center pair
s m a l l . The eyes a r e a l w a y s c l o s e
together. Many o f these spiders hang
upside down i n a loose web in dark
corners of houses or cellars. Others live
under stones i n the dry a reas of temper
ate and subtropica l regions . Males and
females are commonly found together.
Ma les have large, simple pal ps ; the
fema les lack a n epigynum but have a
swollen a rea on the underside of the
abdomen . The female carries the round
egg sac in her jaws . Of more than
300 species of Pholcids, a bout 40
species a re found in North America
north of Mexico; a few occur i n north
ern Europe and many in the Medi terra
nean reg i o n .
There are several other fa m i l ies of
rare, sma l l (l-3 mm) (0. 05-0 . l ) , long
legged spiders . These are mostly cave
spiders-the Leptonetidae of the Med i
t e r r a n e a n r e g i o n , Ja p a n , a n d v e r y
rarely America ; a nd t h e Ochyrocerati
dae, which i n c l udes a bout 20 tropica l
and subtropical species found i n Amer
ica , Africa, and Asia . Carapaces of
representative genera..Ore at l eft .

DAD DY-LONG-LEGS S P I DERS

"

LONG-BODIED

CELLAR

SPIDER

hanging in its web shakes sa

rapidly when ala rmed that both
spider and web b l u r and seem
to d isa ppear. I t is cosmopolita n,
one of the commonest spiders
found in cellars.

Pholcus face
Pholcus phalangioides
8 mm (0.3 11)

cosmopolitan; cellars
carryi ng eggs

.... Psilochorus sp.

4 mm (0.2 11 )

southern U.S.

SHORT-BODIED CELLAR SP IDER

S pe rmophora meridionalis
2 mm (0. 1 11 )

,, eastern U.S.; dark places

'

DADDY:LONG-LEGS S P I D E RS

33

UROCTEIDS (Urocteidae) of about a dozen species are

found only in the Old World. They live under stones and
in rock crevices, where they make a dense, flat silk tube
up to 5 em (2'') wide or a series of sheets above and
below the spider. Insects crossing the threads become
entangled and are spun into the web as the spider, its
spinnerets pointing in, runs around the insect. The prey
is then cut loose and carried back to the center of the
retreat. The egg sac is also placed between the layers
of silk in the retreat. large urocteids resemble oecobiids
(p. 1 15) in shape of head and spinnerets but lack the
transverse plate, or cribellum, in front of the spinnerets,
with which oecobiids spin their distinctive webs.

carapace

w
face

spinnerets

34

UROCTEIDS

H E R S I L I I D S (Hersi l i idae) form a fam i l y

of 7 5 tropical and subtropical species.
They are 1 0- 1 8 mm (0 . 4-0. 7") long ,
with d isti nctively long spinnerets . Hersi
liids position themselves head-down on
bark or stone wa l l s . When a n i nsect
approaches , the spider j u m ps over it,
spreading s i l k and then rapidly c i rcles,
spinnerets towa rd the prey, fastening it
down . After the prey i s completely
wrapped , i t is bitten and eate n . Mem
bers of only one genus, Tama, are found
i n southern Texas .

carapace

........- oorr--.

w
face

COBW E B WEAVERS,

or Combfooted Spiders (Theridi

idae), with more than 2,000 species, make up one of the
large families of common spiders. More than 230 species
occur in N.A. north of Mexico, fewer in Europe; many
species are tropical and cosmopolita n . The American
House Spider (p. 40) and the Widows (p. 42) are members
of this family.
C o bw e b Wea ve r s a r e u s u a l l y s e d e n t a ry, h a n g i n g
upside-d own in the center o f a n irregular cobweb or hiding
in a crevice at the edge of the web . Some make a small
web beneath leaves, stones, or loose bark. The sticky
outside threads entangle an insect that hits them and may
pull it into the web as they contract. Using a tiny comb of
brist ies (setae) at the end of the fourth leg, the spider
throws silk over the captive, then bites and sucks it dry.
.Cobweb Weavers have few or no teeth and do not chew
prey, as do spiders of related groups.
Most spiders in this family lack strong setae (hairs) on
legs. Many have a spherica l abdomen, a lmost all have
eight eyes, and a l l have three c laws on each leg (p . 1 3).
As i n other web spinners, the male has poor vision and
courts the female by plucking threads of her web .

Wt
face

Theridion
carapace

THERIDION, with several hundred

species, is the second largest
spider genus and includes many
of the commonest small spiders
from the Arctic to the tropics. All
hang u pside d own in an irreg ular
web. As in most spiders, identifi
cation of species d e pends on fea
tures of the palpi or epigynum, a
matter for the special ist.

. sisyphium

-.,,:=I"!"" (j? 4 mm (0.2 " )

Eu rope; low p
COBWEB WEAVERS

37

_.....

Theridu/a emertoni

.111)
- <;1 2 mm (0
eastern U .S.
under leaves

Spintharus llavidus

eastern U.S. Ia Bolivia;

vegetation

38

COBWEB WEAVERS

Dipoena nigra

_'/ 3 mm (0. 1 11)

N .A.; ant feeder,
on g round

4..

....

Co/eosoma Roridanum
2 mm (0. 1 11 )

cosmotropical; l itter

Thwaitesia affinis
5 m m (0.2 11 )
N ew World tropics;

vegetation

ARGYRODES a re tiny, often sil

ve r-colored spiders that l ive i n

t h e webs o f othe r spiders. They
feed o n their host's sma l l p rey or
join them in a la rge mea l . Some
have an elongated worm-shaped
a bdomen and ca n wiggle its tip.
Ma les have b umps (tu rrets) on
their heads. About 15 species a re
found north of Mexico, seve ral i n
th e Med iterra nea n region, many
i n the tropics.
COBWEB WEAVERS

39

AMERICAN HOUSE SPIDER

ACHAEARANEA is a very large,

world-wide genus recog nized by
the patches and streaks often
present on the sides of the ab
domen. Some females have a
h u m p on the abdomen. Males are
smaller than females.

female l ives in a
curled leaf hanging i n the web,
and the tiny males hang nearby.
The male a m putates one of his
enormous palpi before his last
molt. Two common species occur
from southern U.S. to S.A.
TIDARREN

40

COBWEB WEAVERS

E NOPLOGNATHA are a l l dark

colored (except E. ovalo) a n d
have a leaflike pattern on the
abdomen. Some l ive in curledup
leaves, some u nder logs, others in
leaf litter. Several species occur
in N.A. and Europe.

usually a re
brown with a white line arou nd
the front of the abdomen. S .
borealis sits in a crevice near
the web. S . hesp era, of western
N .A., and S. bip unc:tata, of
Europe, are similar.

STEATODA

$. borealis

.6.
c;? 8 mm (0.3") A
eastern N.A.; tree trunks,
buildings

S. erigoniformis

Ci? 3 mm (0. 1 " )

cosmotropical; under stones

41

WIDOWS

(Latrodectus) are the best known a n d la rgest

of the Cobwe b Weavers. Severa l species a re found in
the U .S., one i n southern Europe, and others i n the Nea r
East and S.A. A l l a r e poisonous ( p p . 1 6- 1 7). Fema les a re
a bout 1 2- 1 6 mm (0.5-0.6") long; males much sma l ler and
with longer legs. Adu lt ma les wa nder i n search of fema les
but do not feed or bite; fema les rarely leave their web.
Stra nds of si lk are very strong.

BLACK W I DOW (L. mocto n s) is

fou n d in wo rm sou thea stern U.S.
and West I n dies a s for North as
New York. I t is co mmon in tra s h ,
outhouses, a n d du mps. The spi
der h o n gs in the we b, wh ich is
u n der objects. I n North America
many spider bites ore fro m Block
Widows. S i m ilar species ore fou n d
i n the western slates, Mexico, a n d
oth er po rts o f the world. T h e

western North Am erica n species

is L. hesperus. Both L. moctons
a n d L. hesperus hove on hour
glo ss mark on the u n derside. The
a bdo men of t h e Molm ignatte (L.
tredecimguttotus), the northern
Mediterra nean species, is marked
with a series o f red spots. T h e
you ng of a l l species ore br i ghtly
colored with stripes a n d spots.
The egg soc is brown and po pery.

l.

tredecimguttatus

BROWN WIDOW (L. geometricusJ

is cosmotropica l, i ntroduced in
F l orida . Usua l ly they are brown
to gray, some black; they a re
found on ar near b u i lding
Thou g h poisonous it is less l ikely
to bite or injects less venom
than other Widows. The egg sac
is tufted, fluffy.
RED WIDOW (L. bishopi) is fo u n d__
only in p a l m ettos in the sandy
scrub-pine of centra l a n d south
ern F lorida. The
wh ite, smooth.
NORTHERN WIDOW (L. varia/us)

occurs from northern F l orida to

southern C a n a d a ; com m o n in Brit
ish C o l u m b i a . Genera l l y it is
found in u n disturbed woods, in
stum ps, or in sto ne walls. The
egg sac is brown, pa per-like.
The "ho u r g l a ss" is disti nct but
usually broken.

L. moctans
and ather species

DWA R F S P I D E R S A N D S H E ET-WEB W E AV E R S ( L i nyphi

idae) form one of the largest fam i l ies of spiders, with more
than 3 , 500 species. They are among the least known of a l l
spiders, however. Like other web spinners, they have three
claws on each foot, and most species build a dome-shaped
or flat web . All have legs with strong setae, a row of teeth, .
on each side of the fang g roove of the jaws, a nd a col u l us
( p . 9) .
DWA R F S P I D E R S (subfamily Micryphanti nae) of proba b ly
severa l hundred species occur in N . A . north of Mexico.
They a re common in E urope , the Arctic, a nd on high
mounta ins; the tropics a re bel ieved to have fewer species.
Most Dwarf Spiders are less than 2 m m (0. 1") long , some
less than 1 mm (0 . 05") long . Most make sma l l sheet webs .
. The ma les of many Dwarf Spiders have unusual turrets,
bulges, or depressions in the head reg ion . The a bdomen is
usua l l y spherica l and, in some, i t i s covered with a hard ,
shiny p late .
Some species a re abundant i n leaf l itter and can be
collecfed in large numbers with a Tul lg ren funnel ( p . 1 8 ) .
Many can b e found under stones; others can b e col lected
by sweeping vegetation with a net . As many as 11, 000
spiders per acre (0 . 4 hectare) have been found in eastern
U . S . , over 2 1/4 m i l l ion per acre (6 m i l l ion per hectare) i n a
g rassy area in E ngland . These figures include a l l the differ
ent species of spiders, but the Dwa rf Spiders make up two
thirds of the tota l .
T he g reat number of insects consumed d a i l y by such
large populations of little predators i s difficult to esti mate .
H ow wi l l this natura l food cha i n be affected by the spraying
of i nsecticides over the countryside? It wi l l favor the i nsects,
because the spiders lay fewer eggs and each generation
takes longer to mature .
44

DWARF SPIDERS

11
()
?)
(/
(/

side views of (9 Dwarf Spider cara paces

face

Erigane web
50 m m (2 11 ) d i a m . in depression

S H EETWEB

WEAVERS (subfamily linyphiinae) are

mostly larger than Dwarf Spiders (p. 44) and usua l l y
have a pattern on t h e a bdomen. I n contrast t o Cobweb
Weavers, the a bdomen is usua l l y longer tha n wide, the
legs may have strong setae, the jaws many teeth . The
male and female often hang upside down under the
same web and run rapid l y when disturbed. The webs,
which have a few sticky th reads, a re found between
branches of trees or bushes and i n high g rass, often in
great abunda nce. If a n insect gets entang led, the spider
bites from below, pulls the insect through the sheet and
wraps it up. The web a lso protects the spider from pred
ators from a bove, and someti mes a second web forms
protection from below. O n l y a few of the m a n y species
a re widespread and a bundant.

web 1 0 em (4 11 )
PLATFORM SPIDER

web 15 em (6 11 )

Frontine/lo pyromitelo

eastern and centra l

Ca nada a nd U.S.

47

,----- -H6Nnda coccinea

!j! 4 mm (0.2")
so(i'fh,ea!if_ern U .S.; g rass

Drapetisca socialis

Europe; others in N. A.

48

SHEETWEB WEAVERS

Stemonyphantes blauveltae

a 4.5 mm (0.2")
N . America, debris

Balthyphantes pallidus

<;> 3 m m (O. l ")

N . America;
in webs in
ground litter

SHEETWEB WEAVERS

49

PIRATE SPIDERS (Mi metidae) invade webs of other

spiders. The slow-moving Pirate Spider bites the web
owner, which is quickly para l yzed and sucked d ry through
the legs, one after another. Some sit with outstretched
legs under leaves waiting for passi ng spiders. One spe
cies has been observed to pluck the prey's web like a
courting male to gain entrance.
Pirate Spiders are recognized by the row of strong
curved setae on the front margins of the lower segments
of the fi rst pair of legs. The eggs are left in a sta lked
sac suspended from a twig or rock. This sma l l fam i l y in
cludes a bout a dozen species north of Mexico.

Mimetus notius

6 mm (0.2 11 )
southeastern U .S.

50

N E ST I C I DS ( Nesticidae), often cal led Cave Spiders, a re

pale denizens of moist caves and cel lars. They make a n
irreg u l a r cobweb. The fourth leg h a s a c o m b on i t s last
seg ment ( p . 36). Between the front pair of spinnerets is a
colulus ( p . 9) . This structure, its function not known , i s
found a l so i n s o m e Cobweb Weavers, b u t a l l o f these a r e
dark spiders . T h e Female Nesticid spider carries her egg
sac attached to her spinnerets .
Thirty-one species of Nesticids occur north of Mexico .
Relatives i n c l ude the m i nute Symphytognathidae (not i l lus
trated) , the m i nute Archaeidae (Archaea, below) of Africa,
and Mecysmauchenidae of South America .

Nesticus cellulanus

'i! 5 mm (0.2 11 )
N. Hem isphere

Archaea has

distinctive carapace
and chel icerae. The
chelicerae a re used to
spear spiders.

Mecysmauchenius
segmentatus

'i! 6 mm (0.211)
Chile

NESTICIDS

51

O R B-WEAV E R S (Araneidae, often ca l led Argiopidae)

form a fam i l y of some 3 , 500 species found i n all parts
of the world . About 180 species occu r north of Mex
ico. Al most a l l of these spiders spin a n orb-web, a n
engi neering feat practiced also b y the U loborids ( p . 1 14)
and by the related Ray Spiders and Tetrag nathids (pp.
70-7 1).
Orb-weavers have poor visi o n . They locate prey by
feeling the vibration and tension of the threads i n their
web, then quickly turn the captive with thei r legs whi l e the i r
fourth l e g s p u l l o u t silk and wrap t h e vict i m . T h e prey
is bitten before being carried to the center of the web
or to the spider's retreat in a corner, where it is eate n .
Anything i nedible is cut o u t of t h e web and d ropped t o
t h e g round .
In the fa l l , female Orb-weavers of many species produce
egg sacs conta i n ing several hundred eggs (p. 14), then
d i e . In some species the eggs hatch soon; in others not unti l
the fol l owing spri ng . The large number of eggs produced
suggests that these spiderlings face greater hazards than
do the young of scorpions, pseudoscorpions, and spiders
cared for by the i r mothers. Orb-weaver spider l i ngs make
a perfect orb-web, but as the spiderl ings mature, their
webs become more spec i a l i zed and characteristic of the
species.
Orb-webs a re a favorite object of research i n i nsti nc
tive behavior. Stra nds are pu l led back wh i l e the spider is
working to learn how the spider compensates for the
change. Or, as the spider builds a web in a frame,
the frame is turned to determine the i nfluence of g rav
ity on the position of the web . Changes in the web
building pattern as the spider matures are studied ,
too . Sma l l doses of some drugs given to the spider
on a f l y w i l l a l s o c a u s e t h e s p i d e r to c h a n g e t h e
pattern o f its web .
52

ORB-WEAVERS

carapace

face

face

carapace

SILVER ARGIOPE
Argiope argenfafa

g rasshopper ca u g ht in web
is rapidly turned with first
legs while fourth legs wrap
it i n silk sheet d rawn
from spin nerets
l,l!ft:.,:h,

Prey-handling
By Typical
Orb-Weavers

carries wrapped prey; will

hang it u p or feed on it.

ORB-WEAVERS

53

ORB-WEBS a re built by many spe

cies at nig ht. First a bridge is

made. The spider may walk from
one bridgehead ta another,
carryi ng along a line, but usually
the spider sits with its abdomen
in the air and l ets the wind p u l l
aut a silk thread ( 1 ) . If the
thread touches, a bridge is es
tablished (2); if nat, it may be
p u l led back and eaten.
When a bridge is establ ished,
the spider may reinforce it by
wal king back and forth, l aying
d own more silk. Then the spide r
d rops on a th read ( 3 ) it has
fastened at the center of a stra nd
in the bridge. It secures the verti
ca l thread and returns to the
fork, the hub of the final web (4).
A rad ius thread, attached at
the hub, is ca rried up to the
bridge and across a short d is
lance (5) before it is tightened
and fastened (6). More rad ii are
formed by the same proced u re
54

ORB-WEAVERS

(7-9), and the h u b may be

strengthened
with
add itiona l
threads before t h e spider starts
a temporary spira l ( 1 0). Once
around, a leg touches the previ
ous turn, thus measuring the
d ista nce between rounds. When
the tem porary spiral is com
pleted, the spider reverses direc
lion, rolls up the old and puts
down new more n u merous a n d
closer spaced spirals o f sticky s i l k
( 1 1 ) . T h e complete spiral path
back to the h u b is retraced ( 1 2) .
Most rebuild t h e radii a n d spi
rals each day a r nig ht; some re
move the web d u r i n g the day. A
central decoration characteristic
of the species may be added, or
a silken retreat i n roll ed u p
leaves may b e m a d e at o n e side
of the web, with a d irect l i ne to
the hub that transmits vibrations
of insects ca u g ht i n the web.
There are many variations from
this simpl ified d escri ption .

OR B-WEAVERS

55

ARANEU S is the largest genus of

spiders, with over 1 ,500 species
found in mast porta af the world.
Many species make a retreat In
a rolled-up leaf near the web.
Web vibrations are transmitted to
the retreat from a signal l ine at
tached to the hub.

A. nordmanni
2 15 mm (0.6")
N . Hemisphere

56

ORB-WEAVERS

SHAMROCK SPIDEl
A. trffollv

wldetpread In N. A.; maGciWJ.

may be white

ORB-WEAVERS

57

Araneus cavaticus

eastern U .S. and Canada

FURROW SPIDER
Nucten ea cornufa

widespread in
N. Hem isphere; on build ings

Nuctenea patagiata
'? 1 1 mm (0.511)

N. Hemisphere

LAniCE SPIDER

A raneus th addeus
'? 8 mm (0.3")
eastern U.S .

58

ORB-WEAVERS

Araneus pegnia
east, U.S., Mexico

'

<i1 6 mm
(0. 2 11 )

ORB-WEAVERS

59

 8 mm (0.3 " )

'

merianae
Eu rope

M.

60

OR B-WEAVERS

'

Zygiella x-notata
8 mm (0.311}
Europe,

U .S. Pacific

Atlantic coasts

Zygiella africa
8 mm (0.3"}
Europe, Brit. Col umbia
and eastern Ca nada to New England

ORB-WEAVERS

61

Mangora gibberosa

eastern U .S., Canada; grass

62

OR B-WEAVERS

CYCLOSA hang in the hub, hid

den by d ebris i n a vertical line.
Egg sac is i n center of web. The
spider's a bdomen extends be
yond spinnerets.

C. conica

5 mm (0.2")
N. A., Eu rope;
wood lands

C. turbinata

J!..

mm

N.A.

(0. 1 11)

ORB-WEAVERS

63

Cyrtophora citricola

<;? 15 mm (0.6")
Med iterra nean;
hos web l i ke Mecynogea

Aculepeira sp.

<;? 20 mm (0.8 " )

western U .S., mountain
meadows; A . ceropegia
widespread in Eurasia

64

ORB-WEAVERS

<IIIII

NEPHILA, found in southern U .S.

and i n the tropics, ma kes o huge
web, 1 m (39 11 ) or more i n d iom
eter. The strong webs, matted
and twisted, are used by South
Sea Islanders for va rious kinds of
bags and fish nets. Young Neph
ita make a com plete web; adu lts
build only the bottom portion,
leavin g the top irreg ular. Neph
i/a has conspicuous tufts of hair
on the legs. Females vary in size.
65

GASTERACANTHA, tropical spid

ers with a hard a bdomen a rmed

with spi nes, hang i n middle of
web, adorned by w hite tufts
and often h i g h in a tree.

BOLAS SPI DER

Mastophora bisaccata

southeastern U .S.
Bolas spiders make
n o web, but attract male moths
by imitating the p heromone
(perfume) of female moths.

--"""'!!!::!!! !;?

M ICRATHENA incl udes spid ers

with a spiny, hard, g l ossy abdo
men. Several N .A. species are
found i n woods and g a rdens;
many occu r in American tropics.

WHITE MICRATHENA
M . mitrata

9 5 m m (0.2 11 )
eastern U .S.; woods

STAR-BELL I E D SPIDER
Acanthepeira sle//ala

9 1 2 mm (0.5 11 )
eastern U .S.; low shrubs

BLACK AND YELLOW

ARGIOPE
A . aurantia
25 mm ( 1 " )

U .S., Canada; gardens

ARGIOPES are la rge, conspicuous

spiders that hang head down in

center of web. The web usually
has crossed zigzag bands, and
the young spiders may construct
more zigzags than the adults.
Some species are easily recog
n ized by their color and pattern.
Species of A rg iope are fou n d in
tropics and temperate regions-

A. trifasciata
2 5 mm ( 1 " )

cosmopolitan; fields

A . bruennichi
25 mm ( 1 " )
68

E u rope

A. a rgenrara

New World tropics

'
und erside

ORB-WEAVERS

69

RAY SPI DER

Theridiosoma
gemmosum

3 m m (0. 1 11)
Eurasia, N .A.
shaded woods

RAY S P I D E R S (Theridiosomatidae) form a sma l l fam i l y of

tiny spiders related to the other Orb-weavers { p . 52) . The
sma l l web, only 1 0 em (4") in d i ameter, lacks a hub but has
severa l rad i i tied together near the center. The spider holds
up the web i n the center by a tight thread so that it forms
a n umbre l l a . If a fly gets caught, the thread i s released ,
causing the web to spring back and entangle the catch . The
spider has a g lobular a bdomen ; the sternum i s short and
square beh i n d . The egg sac is suspended on a sta l k . One
species is widesprea d ; a bout 1 20 a re known from the
tropics.

)
face

Tetragnatha sp.

70

ORB-WEAVERS

T E T R A G N AT H I D S

(Tetrag nathidae)
make a n orb-web, usua l l y at a n a n g l e
between vertica l and horizonta l . The
orb usua l l y has 1 2 to 20 rad i i and
w i d e l y s p a c e d s p i ra l s . T h e s p i d e r
hangs i n the center o r c l i ngs to a sta l k
somewhere near the web . U n l i ke other
O r b -weave r s , h oweve r, the fema l e
Tetragnathids, except L e ucauge, lack
a n epigynum {p. 9) . Fewer than two
dozen species of Tetrag nathids occur
north of Mexico.

THICKJAWED SPIDER
Pachygnatha sp.

6 mm (0.2 11)
eastern U .S.

SPIDERS (Leucauge)
are common i n wooded o reas of
eastern U .S. The spiders hang in
center of horizontal orb. About
1 70 species are tropical.
ORCHARD

LONG-JAWED

SP I DERS (Pachy.
gnafha) are fou n d under debris
or i n dense vegetation near wa
ter. Young make small orb-web
on g rou nd; a d u lts make no web.
THICK-JAWED

ORB-WEAVERS,

Tefragnafha, at rest may cling

l engthwise along a twig or g rass
blade, hold i n g on with the short
third pair of legs. The long pairs
of legs are extended. More than
a dozen species a re common in
meadows near water throughout
N.A. and E u rope. There are
more than 250 species i n all
pa rts of the world.

Tetragnatha pal/escens

eastern U .S. to Ce ntral America

ORB-WEAVERS

71

ID

spinnerets

spin nerets

face

Agelenopsis

Tegenaria

F U N N E L WEAV E R S (Agelenidae) are seen most easily in

late summer when morning dew makes their webs in lawns
conspicuous. The spider hides at the narrow end of a funnel
that spreads out across the grass . On feeling the vibration
of an insect crossing the web, the spider dashes out, bites
the insect, nd carries it back to the funnel . As the spider
grows, it uses its long posterior spinnerets to add new
layers to the flat web.
Like other web spiders, Funnel Weavers have three leg
claws and poor vision. In fall, the female deposits a disc
shaped egg sac in a crevice, then dies - often while still

600 species in the family,

300 are found in N . A . and 95 in Europe. Despite

clinging to the egg sac . Of some

about

lack of a cribellum, the Agelenidae are related to the

Amaurobiidae (p. 1 1 1 ) .
Agelenopsis web in grass

GRASS SPIDERS (Age/e n opsis and

Agele na ) make funnel webs in
g rass or low bushes. There are
several similar species of Age/en
apsis in N .A., each living in a
slig htly d ifferent habitat. Age/a na
labyrinthica is common in Europe.

GRASS SPIDER
Agelenopsis

N .A.

.....

1 5 mm (0.611)

sp.

C. terresrris

9 20 mm (0.811)

9 1 3 mm (0.511)
Europe; leaf l itter

'
COELOTES comm u n icates with her
young by making special move
ments when feed ing, summoning
them to share the food. As a
warning signal, she stamps her
fourth leg, and the young scurry
into hiding. The mother can dis
tin g u ish between her young and
potential prey by the d ifferences
i n vibrations in the web and by
touch. The young eat the mother
when she d ies in autu m n . Most
observations have bee n made on
the European C. ferrestris.

FUNNEL WEAVERS

73

T. rlomestica

<;! 1 2 mm (0.511)
cosmopolitan

. ..

T. saeva

E u rope; buildi ngs, gardens

'
1 6 mm (0 . 6 11)

C. merlicinalis

1 2 mm (0.511)
N .A.

( Te g en a ria ) build funnel webs in

dark, moist rooms or cellars.
Some species live i n q uarries or
woods. Most of the 90 species
described are Eu ropean; fewer
are native to N.A.
CORAS webs were once used for
d ressing wou nds. Webs of both
Coros and Tegenaria have a
cu rved open end; in Great Britain
the web is cal led a cobweb.
Found i n cel_!p rs or fou ndations
of buildings and u n d e r loose
bark, stones, and logs.

C I CU RINA a re smal l funnel weav

ers that l ive in leaf litter and
u nder stones. N umerous species
in N .A., some in Europe.
CRYPHOECA are found in similar

habitats. Species occur in north

ern U.S., Canada, Europe.

iS 6 mm (0.211)

Cryphoeca sp.
northern N .A.,
_..._-----. Eu rope;
leaf l itter, debris

H A H N I IDS (Ha h n iidae), shown below, have spinnerets

arra n ged in a si n g l e transverse row. They a re often con
sidered a subfamily of the F u n nel Weavers, but they
never m a ke a fu n ne l . Fewer than 1 00 species are known,
1 9 north of Mexico. Al l a re s m a l l , less t h a n 4 m m (0.2"),
and their del icate webs, com mon ly made in m oss or in
footprints of a n i m a l s i n moist soi l or snow, can b e seen
only when laden with moisture. The spider l ives beneath
g ra i n s of soi l at the edge of the web.

EUROPEA N WATER SPIDER is

found in ponds, shal low la kes
and q u iet streams of Eu rope and
Asia. It b u ilds a bel l-shaped web
among pla nts u nder water a n d
fills the bell w i t h air bubbles car
ried a n its body. Occasionally the
spider replen ishes the air. To do
this, the spider comes to the s u r
face, touches it with its first legs,
then turns around and projects its
abdomen thro ugh the surface
film. A q u ick motion with the hind
legs replenishes the air carried

16

F U N N E L WEAVERS

around the abdomen a n d under

the cepholothorax. The spider
swims upside down. It remains
d ry because of the air clinging to
its body.
Aquatic sow bugs and i nsects
are captured and eaten under
the bell, and the young a re
raised there. U n like m ost spiders,
the males are larger than the
females. The bite of these spiders
is painful to m a n . Sometimes
water spiders a re p laced in a
sepa rate family, Argyronetidae.

LYN X S PI D E R S (Oxyopidae) a re hunting spiders that chase

t rr prey over vegetation or lie in wa it and leap out. All
are active during daytime and have good visio n . Thei r six
large eyes form a hexago n , and there are two smaller eyes
below. Lynx Spiders use their s i l k as a drag l i ne for j u m p i ng
and for anchoring the egg sac to vegetation, not for
catching prey. The female g uards the egg sac . Lynx Spiders
have three claws on the leg tips. The legs have many long ,
strong seta e . The abdomen is poi nted behind . Most of the
400 species a re tropica l ; fewer than 20 species a re found
north of Mexico and sti l l fewer i n E u rope .

GREEN LYNX
Peucetia viridans

16 mm (0.6 11 )
southern U .S.

face

carapace
Do/omedes

face
Pisaura

N U RS E RY W E B S PI D E RS (Pisauridae) attract attention

because of their large size. They may sit quietly for hours,
legs spread out on vegetation or boat docks, or they may
hunt actively i n vegetation. Their vision is good .
Nursery Web Spiders resemble the related Wolf Spiders
(p. 82) but differ i n habits . Their eight eyes are about equa l
in size, and they have three tarsal claws . The female carries
her huge egg sac in her jaws. When hatching time is near,
she ties leaves together with silk and suspends her egg sac
among them . She then sits on guard nearby. The young
spiders leave the nursery after about a week .
Many Nursery Web Spiders can run over the surface of
water. If chased , they dive and stay submerged for some
time. Of about 500 species throughout the world, about 1 5
occur north of Mexico; fewer occur i n Europe.

Pisaura mirabilis
1 5 m m (0.6")

ca rrying egg sac

P ISAU R I NA in N.A. and Pisa ura

af Europe are common spiders.
They have no permanent homes
but h u nt in g rass, mead ows, and
moist, open woods. When cou rt
ing, the male Pisa ura presents the
femal e with a fly. If she accepts,
he will mate while she feeds.
Pisaura mirabilis
1 5 mm (0.6")

Europe

Pisaurina m ira

n u rsery in m i l kweed

N U RSERY WEB S P I D E RS

79

N U RSERY WEB S P I DERS

81

WOLF S P I D E R S

(Lycosidae) are among the most common

spiders . They run on the ground or over stones, and some
may venture up plants. At rest they stay under stones . Some
dig short tunnels, others deep burrows . Many hunt during the
day or, i n warm climates, at night. They have good vision
and a highly developed sense of touch . Ma les wave their
large, often hairy pedipa l ps in a rhythmic pattern as they
approach potentia l mates .
The female attaches her large egg sac to her spinnerets. If
the egg sac is removed , the spider searches, and upon finding
the sac attaches it to her spinnerets again. She may substitute
bits of cork, paper, or sna il shells for the egg sac if lost. As
the young spiderlings emerge, they climb onto their mother,
who carries them on her back, brushi ng them away from her
eyes. If any fa l l off, they climb up the mother's legs aga i n .
Wolf Spiders make nice pets . In captivity they must be
provided with water.
About 2 , 000 to 3, 000 species of Wolf Spiders are known .
Perhaps more than 200 occur north of Mexico . Some species
are widespread over the Northern Hemisphere; others are
very loca l . They make up a large proportion of the spider
population i n the Actic and on high mountains. Wolf Spiders
have four sma l l eyes i n a row below four la rger eyes, and
three tarsa l claws .

Lycosa

w
face

82

Pardosa

carapace

WOLF SPIDERS

coropace

face

LYCOSAS are la rge, common

Wolf Spiders. There a re n u mer
ous species. Most are nocturnal
and can be collected with a light
at n ig ht. Some hide under ob
jects; others dig burrows, from
which they ca n be l ured by in
serting a straw or a piece of
grass. Largest in the U n ited States
is the Carolina Wolf Spider (L.
ca,ro/inensis), which may be 25-35
mm ( 1 - 1 .511) long. I ncl uded i n the
genus is the Eu ropean Tara ntu la
(L. tarentu/a) of Med iterra nean
countries. Its b ite was alleged to
be poisonous, its victims cu red
only by d a ncing the tarantella.
The bites may .have been con
fused with those of Widows (p.
42) , as the Eu ropea n Tarantula
is not now considered poisonous.

carrying young
southeastern U.S.

L. tarentula

25 m m ( 1 11 ) ,
!;? (not il l us.) browner and larger
southern Eu rope

'

WOL F SPIDERS

83

Pirata piraticus
N. Hemisphere
7 mm (0.311),
with egg sac;

P IRATE WOLF S P I DER (Pirata) in

elude a few species of small

spiders found i n ma rshes, ot
edges of ponds or running on
water surface. All have a V
shaped dark mark on the cara
pace.
PARDOSAS of more than 1 00
species are found in N.A. and
E u rope. Many occur i n the Arctic
and in the mou ntains. All a re
small, active su n-loving spiders
that build no permanent retreat.
They confine the i r hunting to a
particular a rea, however. They
use their silk only to make an
egg sac, which the female carries
attached to her spinnerets. As in
other Wolf Spider g enera, the
species are d ifficult to d istinguish.

Pardosa pauxilla
Florida

Pardosa groenlandica ,...

Greenland to Alaska, high
N.A. mts.
84

WOLF SPIDERS

ARCTOSAS are not as common

as other wolf spiders, but the
species are widespread through
out the Northern Hem isphere.
Their color may match the back
ground on which they run.
BURROWING

WOLF

SPIDERS

(Geolycosa) dig in sand, as deep

as 1 m (39") straight down. They
d ig with their chel icerae, and the
sa nd grains are stuck together
with silk and thrown out of the
hole. The d ifferent colors of sa nd
from the various levels may form
concentric rings of varied colors
around the hole. The spider
spends most of its time i n the
burrow; at night it is close to the
surface. In fair weather the egg
sac is brought up and sunned.

Arctosa sanctarosae

1 2 mm (0.511)
U.S. Gulf Coast; sand

Burrowing Wolf Spider

G e oly c o sa missouriensis

A
eastern U .S.; sand


0a a0 '-._

w
face

spinnerets

GNAPHOSIDS

(Gna phosidae) are usua l l y u n iform ly

black, a few brown , some with markings . The long abdo
men is s l ig htly flattened , and the front spinnerets a re cylin
drical and sepa rated . The legs have only two claws (p.
13) . A l l a re nocturnal hunters and i n daytime a re found
under stones or loose bark, often i n a s i l ken sac . The egg
sac may be a shiny p i n k or white papery d i sc attached
tightly to the underside of a stone; in some species it is a
white sac gua rded by the female . Most Gnaphosidae have
posterior med i a n eyes ova l at an angle (see a bove) and the
endites ( p . 9) concave and s l i g htly constricted in their
midd l e . Many of the 2 , 000 species of Gnaphosids a re
found i n temperate reg i ons, proba bly 250 species i n N . A .
and fewer i n Europe .
Gnaphasa muscorum
N. H emisphere

Zelotes subterraneus
N . Hemisphere

'i? 9 mm
(0.4" )

86

Drassocles lapiclosus

'i> 14 mm (0.611)
Europe

GNAPHOSIDS

87

C/ubionoo
0 '

I
I

spinnerets

SAC S P I D E R S (Ciubionidae) resemble Gna phosids but

with less flattened a bdomen, l onger legs, and with c l osely
spaced , conica l , front spinnerets . Many a re l i g htly col
ored . They m a ke a resting tube i n a ro l l ed leaf or u nder
bark or stones . More than 200 of a bout 1 , 500 species
occu r i n N . A . Anyphaenidae are s i m i l a r, but with s l its of
respi ratory tubes opening midway on the u nderside of the
abdome n . Ma i n l y neotropica l , this fa m i l y has 36 species
north of Mexico.
photo Potzsch

Clubiona abbotii

5 m m (0.2 11 )
N.A.

ANT MIMICS are abundant i n

t h e genera Micorio and Coslion
eiro. They often l ive with the
a nts they m i m ic, but the adva n
tage of m i micry to the spider is
not understood. The a bdomen
may be constricted or covered
with sca les; the gait is a ntli ke,
and the fo rst legs are held like
antennae. Micaria, mainly a
north tem perate gen us, prefers
dry a reas. Costianeira, mainly of
New World tropics, hos a
g rooved thorax and usually is
l a rger and more brig htly colored
than Micorio. Mica rio is now
often considered a Gnaphosid .

Chelracanlhlum mlldel
juv. 1 0 mm (0.4")
Medi terra n ea n ; N.A. in
b u i l d i n gs. First leg longer
than l a st; many species poisonous
Phrurotimpus borealis

northeastern N.A.
litter

SAC SPIDERS

89

SENOCU LIDS

Senocu/id
cara pace

Prodidomid
carapace

....

face

(Senoculidae) in
clude o n ly a bout two dozen species
i n the American tropics. They have
three claws and a re related to
N ursery Web Spiders (p. 78) but dif
fer in a rra ngement of eyes. Senoc
u lids h unt on plants. The female
guards her egg sac.
PRODIDOMIDS (Prodidomidae) in
clude 60 species with two claws.
Related to Gnaphosids (p. 86) but
differ in eye a rra ngement a n d i n
having long, spread chelicerae.
They a re found u n der stones in dry
a reas in southern N. A. and in
southern Europe.
HOMALONYCHIDS

Homalonychid
cara pace
------0 0

0 ()

oo oo

face
90

(Homa lonychi
dae) a re found o n ly in Mexico and
i n southwestern U.S. The legs of
these spiders have two claws, may
be h e ld straight.

WA N D E R I N G S P I D E R S (Cten idae) include a bout 550 spe

cies of 5 -40 mm (0. 3- 1. 5") subtropical and tropica l spiders
with two or three l eg c l aws . Eye a rrangement is d i a g nosti c .
These spiders sometimes travel as stowaways i n bananas .
lora ( p . 14) h u nts during the day on ground l i ke a wolf
spider; others l ive on foliage.

91

G I A N T C RA B S P I D E R S

{Spa rassidae) are mostly tropica l

spiders that hold the i r two-clawed legs cra b l i k e . larger
than Crab Spiders (p. 94), they have teeth o n the i r jaws .
About 850 species.
H UNTSMAN S P I DER (Heteropoda
venatoria), found around the
world in tropica l regions, is wel
comed in houses because it eats
cockroaches. The spiders hide in
crevices d u ring day and came
out in evening. The fema les carry
their egg sacs with the jaws. They

H u ntsman Spider,
or Banana Spider
Heteropoda
venatoria

are found i n the southern U .S.

and are commonly im ported with
bananas. A similar h u ntsman,
Olios, occurs i n the southwestern
states and i n southern Europe.
The front middle eyes of Olios
are as large or larger than the
lateral eyes.

w
W
face

92

PLATO R I D C RA B S P I D E R S ( P iatoridae) of a bout a dozen

species occur i n Asia and i n tropica l America . They are
characterized by flatness, long middle spinnerets, widely
spaced front spi nnerets, and two leg c laws .

w
LJ
face

cara pace

- - - -.,
. . ,
'

' '\'

, ,
' I

'

'

\ \'1 \\\\

,,, J ,

:t'! f

spinnerets

S E LE N O P I D C RAB S P I D E R S

(Selenopidae) i n c l ude 200

species of l a rge tropica l spiders eas i l y recogn i zed by their
flatness and by their eye a rrangement-six i n a single row.
Like other crab spiders, they have two leg c laws . Common
i n houses a n d u nder bark or rocks; if d i sturbed , they dash
sideways i nto crevices .

carapace
face
-

ill

u
- u
.
m

. .

M1sumena

carapace

car0 pace

C RAB S P I D E R S

Philoclramus

{Thomisidae, Phi lodromidae) hold their

legs cra b l i ke, out at the sides, and can wa l k forwa rd ,
backwa rd , or sideways . The l a rgest a re tropica l species
1 2-20 m m (0. 5-0. 8") i n body length . Ma ny have horns or
ornaments on the head or abdomen, and some m i m i c bird
dropp i n g s . Ma les are smaller than females and have much
longer leg s . Crab Spiders wa it i n ambush for passing
i nsects; some hold their front legs outstretched i n rea d i
ness. T h e i r v i s i o n f o r movements i s good . T h e i r j aws a re
sma l l , and after prey is bitten, it is held a bove the spider
and sucked dry. Those that sit on flowers a pparently have
a toxin potent to bees, flies, and other i nsects much l a rger
than themselves . They do not use silk to capture prey, but
i n courtsh i p , the male may wra p his prospective mate
loosely i n s i l k . Fema les of most species guard the egg sac
but die before the eggs hatc h . Of a bout 2 , 000 species,
more than 200 occur i n N . A . , fewer i n E u rope .
FLOWER
SPI DERS (Misumena,
Misumenops) sit on flowers, and

can change color slowly.

Misumena vatia

10 mm (0.4 " )
N. Hemisphere
biting bee

Stephanopis sp.
6 m m (0.2")
Chile

M . asperatus

5 mm (0.2 11)
N .A.; vegetation

CRAB SPIDERS

95

X. cristatus
<;? 7 mm (0.3 11 )
E u rope

X. emertoni
5 mm (0.2 11 )
N.A.

XYSTICUS of more thon 230 spe

cies occur i n all parts of the
world, mainly i n the Northern
Hemisphere. Most are found
under bark ar on the ground.
D u l l brownish, they resemble
their backg round. Males may look
q u ite different from females.
CORIARACH N E has several spe
cies occurring i n N.A. Extreme
flatness adapts them to hiding in
narrow crevices i n bark.

Tmarus angulatus

<;? 7 mm (0.3 11 )
N.A.

96

C RAB S P I DERS

Tibe/lus oblongus

9 m m (0.4 " )
N. Hemisphere

PHI LODROM I D CRAB SPID ERS

TIBELLUS, like long-jawed spiders
( p. 7 1 ), stretch along twigs and

g rasses. They usually are co l

lected in g rass by sweeping with
a net. Males and females are
similar in a ppearance#
vegetation
and bork i n N.A. and E u rope.
A ca ptive T. formicin us had a
food preference for moths.

THANATUS l ive on

P H I LODROMUS are attive

Spiders that climb on

pla nts, or sometimes on
in houses. Egg sacs are
to leaves or bark. Many
more than 1 70 species
N.A. and in E u rope.

CRAB SPIDERS

97

face

ca rapace
Sa!ticus

J UMPING S P I D E RS

(Salti cidae) a re among our most

attractive spiders . Most have bright colors, often with
i ridescent sca les. A large fa mily of more tha n 5 , 000 spe
cies, J um p i ng Spiders a re most abundant in the tropics,
but a bout 300 species occur north of Mexico and many in
E urope . All a re sma l l , most less than 1 5 m m (0. 7") long .
Jumping Spiders are active during the day and l i ke
sunshine. They wa lk with an i rreg u l a r g a i t and leap on
thei r prey, sometimes j umping many times their own
length . Most of the jumping power is suppl ied by the fourth
pa i r of legs, though they are only slightly mod ified for
j u m p i ng . Before j u m p i n g , the spider secures a silk thread
on which it can c l i m b back in case it m i sses its mark . At
night or when it is coo l , the spiders stay in l ittle cocoons or
i n crevices .
Jumping S piders' eyes are among the best i n i nverte
b rate a n i ma l s . Two of the eight eyes a re large. Many
species can recog n i ze prey or other spiders at a distance
of 1 0-20 em (4-8"). They can a l so change the color of their
eyes .
When a male J umping Spider fi nds a fema l e , he stops,
waves his brightly colored first legs, wags h i s a bdomen ,
and hops . If the fema le is of the same species, she s i g n a l s
w i t h h e r leg s . T h e first legs ( a n d sometimes third) may be
colorfu l and enlarged . After mati ng, the fema l e constructs
a s i l k cocoon for her eggs and g uards i t .
98

J UMPING SPIDERS

ZEBRA SPI DER

Salticus scenicus

N. Hemisphere;
buildings

Pe/lenes viridipes

5 mm (0.2 11 )
eastern U .S.

6 m m (0.2 11 )

J UMPI N G SPIDERS

99

;? 1 2 mm (0.5" )

1 00

J UMPING SPIDERS

is common in N.A.;
none in E u rope. Large, heavy
bodied and conspicuous, th.ese
spiders are found on vegetation,
stones, and sometimes i nside
houses. In captivity, they are
active and have good appetites.
One ca ptive Phidippus ate more
than 40 fruit flies in succession.
P H I D IPPUS

P. clarus

N .A.; common
on pla nts

1 02

J UMPING SP IDERS

P. johnsoni

d isplaying at
Rocky Mts. and westwa rd;
stones

P. regius

!i? 1 8 m m (0.7'1 )
southeastern U.S.

P. apacheanus

9 m m (0. .411)
Rocky Mts.

13 m m (0.511)
J U MP I N G S P I D ERS

1 03

Synemosyna formica

<;? 5 mm (0.2")
eastern U .S.

Synemosyna americana
<;? 6 mm (0.2")
Centra l America
J umping Spiders That Mimic Ants

carapace
Panama
because they
eyes in fou r rows, a re _ _ __ _ ,J_ ___ _,
primitive jumping spiders.

Lyssomanes,

1 05

C R I B E LLATE S P I D E RS have a cribe l l u m , a flattened

sieve l i ke p late i n front of the spi nnerets. Through it the
cala mistrum, a row of curved setae on the next to last
segment of the fourth leg, pulls silk. The hackled threads
produced are covered with fine wool that enta ng les the
prey. Every struggling movement of the p rey only in
creases the entanglement.
It was thought that fa mil ies of cribellate spiders are a
separate, disti nct g rou p. Now the opinion is that the pres
ence of the cribel l u m is an a n cestra l condition and the
structu re has been lost severa l times. For instance, the
Oecobiidae (p. 1 1 5) are similar to the U rocteida e (p. 34)
though sma l ler and owners of a cribe l l u m . The cribe l l u m
is stil l a good cha racter f o r identification.

Hypochifus

calamistrum

cribel l u m

'

Uloborus

electron microscope picture of cribellate silk

V. Friedrich

HYPOC HILIDS

(Hypochil idae) are found in isolated re

gions of Am erica, China, and Tasmania. Fewer than ten
species are i ncluded in the fami ly. Some species resem b l e
t h e Myga lomorphs (p. 20) i n jaw attachment and in hav
ing two pairs of lungs with lung covers. U nder a ledge,
Hypochilus builds its lampshade-shape web, covered with
hackled threads; the spider hangs inside against the ledge.
F lies may be caught on the outside of the web and p u lled
throug h or they may be trapped under the web canopy.
CRIBELLATES

1 07

cribellum

cara pace

F I LI STAT I D S ( F i l i statidae) of fewer than 50 species a re

common i n southern E u rope and other warm parts of the
worl d , a dozen in the U . S . The cribe l l u m may be difficult
to see , but the shape of the carapace is d iagnostic . By day
they hide i n a tubu lar retreat i n a crevice of a wa l l . As i n
A riadna { p . 2 7 ) , s i l k strands rad iate from t h e mouth of the
tube . Ma les have much longer legs than females. Fema les
lack a n epigynum .

sp.
(j? 1 8 m m (0.711)
Arizona

Filistala

1 08

CRIBELLATES

ERES IDS ( Eresidae) of a bout 1 00 species a re found i n

Eurasia a n d Africa, n o n e in t h e Americas. large a n d
hairy, t h e y resemble Myga lomorphs (p. 20). Eresids live
under a stone at the end of a si lken tube from which a
web extends beyond the stone between p !r.mt stems. T h e
web resem bles t h a t o f a Funnel Weaver (p. 7 2 ) b u t is n ot
as clean a n d new looki ng. Some have a cover over tube.
Ma les may be brightly colored. Some species are colonia l .

Eresus

carapace

..
Eresus niger .....
E u rasia, northern Africa

CRIBELLATES

1 09

Dictyna

D I CTYN I DS ( Dictyn idae) of a bout

500 sma l l ( l ess than 5 mm, 0 . 2") spe
cies, worldwide i n d istribution , form
the largest fa m i l y of cribel late spi
ders ( p . 1 06). Common i n the U . S .
a n d E u r o p e , t h e y s u p e r fi c i a l l y
resemble Cobweb Weavers ( p . 36).
The i rreg u l a r webs are at tips of
p l a nts, under leaves, or i n crevices .
Related Psechridae (not shown) of
southeastern Asia and N ew Zea land
have a tuft under the t h i rd c law.

AMA U R O B I I DS

(Amaurobi idae) a re
much l a rger than the Dictynids and
a re s i m i l a r to the Funnel Weavers (p.
72) . They are found under logs or
stones, where they make a loose web
with coarse hack l i n g . There are 300350 species; the fam i l y is worldwide
i n d i stributi o n . Many N . A . a nd E u ro
pea n species a re very com mon, but
only the easily seen cribe l l u m dis
tingui shes them from the Funnel
Weavers.

Amaurobius

Titanoeca americana

6 mm (0.2 )

eastern U .S.
Can ada

C R IBELLATES

111

0 0

OJ

face

ACA N T H O C T E N I D S

(Aca n t h o c te n i d a e ) rese m b l e t h e
Wa ndering S piders ( p . 9 1 ) b u t have a cribe l l u m . They have
two leg c l aws. Their hackled webs are fou nd near their
h i d i n g p laces under l oose bar k . About 25 species are
known from the American tropics.
Z O R O PS I D S

(Zoropsidae) have two or three l eg c l aws;

most cribel lates have three . They differ from Gnaphosids
( p . 86) by the cri bel l u m and by scapulae under the last two
leg seg ments . Two dozen species occur around the Medi
terranea n , i n Mexico, a n d i n Centra l America .

OGRE-FA C ED SP IDERS (Dinopidae) usually have two

enormous posterior median eyes; the remaining six eyes
are small. During daytime they hide in shrubs, and at
night, with a few parallel hackled threads, the spider
makes a rectangular web supported by silk lines, which
it holds with its front legs. When an insect approaches,
the web is spread and thrown. Cosmotropical in distribu
tion, about 50 species occur in the American tropics,
one in southeastern United States. Menneus, of Australia,
has small p osterior median eyes.

OGRE-FACE D SPIDER
Dinopis spinosa

<;? 20 mm (O.B")
southeastern U .S.

U LO B O R I D S ( U ioboridae) have a cribe l l u m but make orb

webs, though the spiders are not similar i n a ppea rance to
Orb-weavers ( p . 52). U l oborids lack poison g l ands. About
200 species occur in a l l parts of the world . F ifteen species
a re found i n N . A . , fewer i n E u rope, but they a re most
abundant i n the tropics .

ULOBORUS orb is often horizon

tal . I n stead of sticky thread, as
in the web of Orbweavers, the
spiral is made of hackled threads.
Species of U/oborus are fou n d in
the U .S. a nd i n E u rope; some
species are social. Related genera
are found in the tropics.

U.

g/omosus

'i? 7 mm (0.3")
N.A.

1 14

CRIBELLATES

HYPTIOTES web is triangular. The

spider attaches itself to a twig
by silk from its spinnerets and
holds the web with its fi rst legs.
The spider itself bridges a gap in
the threads. When a n insect gets
caug ht, the spider pulls the web
taut, then lets it go slack a g a i n .
T h i s f u rther enta n g l es t h e prey.

The web is m a d e by constructin g

a bridge, a vertical l i ne, and two
more radii. Scaffo l d i ng threads
run out from the center, a n d
hackled threads a re put down
separately i n each sector. H.
cavatus is found in eastern U.S.,
southern Canada. H. paradoxus
is commonest E u ropean species.

TRIANGLE SPIDER
H. cavatus
4 mm (0.211)

N.A.

(Oecobiidae) have a
cribellum a n d are tiny; otherwise
t h e y rese m b l e t h e Old World
U rocteids ( p . 34). Oecobiids m a k e
sma l l flat w e b s over crevices in walls
a n d on various leaves. They feed
on ants, and som e are socia l . They
have a large, hairy anal tubercle.
Most species a re tropical and sub
tropical; a few inhabit houses in the
North.
O EC O B I I DS

C R I BELLATES

115

SPIDER

RE LATIVES

A n u m ber of g roups (orders) are bel i eved to share a com

mon a ncestry with spiders (pp. 6-7) . Al l have jaws (chel i
cerae), ped i pa l ps (sometimes pi ncer l i ke), and fou r pa i rs of
wa lking legs. They differ in adaptations of the appen
dages . I n some, the a bdomen is seg mented and joi ned
broa d l y to cepha lothorax.
WH I PS C O R P I O N S (order U ropyg i ; a bout 85 species)
occur i n some parts of southern U . S . , but are most abun
dant i n Centra l and South America , Asi a , a nd the East
I nd ies . They have no sting but can pinch. All a re nocturna l ;
they have poor vision, but a re sensitive t o vibrations.
or Vinego roons
(Thelyphonidae), aim a vinegar
scented mist from a glond at the
base of the tail when d istu rbed .
The spray contains acetic acid
and a solvent that attacks the
exoskeleton of i nsects. Other
tropical species smell of formic

V I NEGARONES,

V I N EGARONE

acid or of chlori ne. Vinegarones

bu rrow in sand or under logs and
carry their prey i nto the b urrow.
Female carries 20-35 eggs in a
membranous sac u nder her abdo
men. The young ride on the
mother u ntil their fi rst molt, then
become independent.
larg est whipscorpion
known; males and
females a re similar
i n a ppearance
8 em (3 " )

1 16

Trithyreus pentapeltis

6 mm (0.2 11 )
...
southern California

S C H I Z OM I DS (order Schizom ida , sometimes cal led Schi

zopeltidia) o re sma l l , none more than 6 mm (0. 2") long .
They lack eyes, a nd the short ta i l has only three segments .
About 80 species live i n the tropics and subtropics under
stones and i n leaf litter.
TA I L L E S S W H I P S C O R P I O N S ,

or Whi pspiders (order

Amblypyg i ) , have a wide head and thorax, t o w h i c h the
abdomen i s attached by a sta l k . The first pa i r of legs is
long and w h i p l i k e . Amblypygids hide under bark or stones,
and if the stone i s turned , scurry sideways to the other
side . In the U . S . , they o re found i n the wa rm South , where
they may come i nto houses . Others a re found i n tropica l
America, Africa, and Asia . Female carries eggs a nd young
for fou r to six days . About 70 species o re known i n two
fa m i lies, C h a rontidae and Tara ntu lidae.

W I N DSCORPI O N S

(order Sol ifugae) are sometimes

ca l led Sun Scorpions because most l ive i n deserts or d r y
areas. From 1 t o 5 em (0 . 3-2") l o n g , most a re yel l owish or
brown . They have enormous jaws, and their l eg l ike ped i
pa l ps a re u sed w i t h t h e first pa i r o f l e g s as feelers. They
wa l k on only six legs, as do Wh i pscorpions ( p . 1 1 6) and
Ta i l less Whi pscorpions ( p . 1 1 7), and run swiftly-" l i ke the
wind . " Sensing prey, they may stop sudden l y, then sta rt
aga i n . Some can c l i m b trees .
Windscorpions a re voracious feeders . With their large
pi ncer l i ke jaws they can k i l l even sma l l vertebrates and
may sometimes feed on sma l l l i zards. They can bite but do
not have poison g lands. It i s believed that some use their
eyes for hunti n g , but most use touch on ly. The mal let
sha ped organs on the last pai r of legs are proba bly sen
sory. At rest, Solifuges may burrow or sit under stones .
Most a re nocturna l , but some a re active d u r i ng the day.
Ma les are genera l l y sma ller and have longer l egs than the
fema les. Fema les bury their eggs and may guard them .
Adu l ts l ive less than a year.
Windscorpions of the Old World belong to several fa m
ilies. They are abundant i n Africa and the Near East;
a bsent from Austra lia . Six species are found i n southern
E u rope. A l most 1 20 species occur i n N . A . north of Mexico,
900 worldwide. They are found as fa r north as southwest
ern Canada but are most abundant in Arizona and the
Great Basin area . One species occurs in Florida, the only
one known from eastern U . S . Windscorpions of N . A .
belong t o two easily recogn i zed fa m i lies, but t h e species
a re d ifficult to identify. I n the fa m i l y Ammotrechidae, the
first pair of legs have no claws, and the front edge of the
head is rounded or poi nted . In the fa m i l y Eremobatidae,
the fi rst pair of legs have one or two claws, a n d the front
edge of the head is stra ight.
1 18

W I N DSC O R P I O N S

Ammotrechella stimpsoni

mal let
shaped
organ

2 0 mm (0.8 11 )
Florida, West I n d ies

underside of
wi ndscorpion
Solpugidae, easte rn Africa

E. durangonus
2 8 mm ( 1 . 1 11 )
Texas to Cal ifornia,
northern Mexico

E. pal/ipes
26 m m ( 1 11 )
N. Da kota to Arizona

D SCORPIO NS

1 19

PSE UDOSCORPIONS

(order Pseudoscorpiones) are com

mon everywhere but are rarely seen because of their
secretive habits. They are sma l l, most of them less than
5 mm (0.2") long. Almost 200 species are known from
N.A. Most species l ive i n leaf litter, moss, manure, under
loose bark, or under stones. Many can be col lected from
l itter with a Tul lgren funnel (p. 1 8) .
Pseudoscorpions c a n walk backwards as w e l l a s for
ward. They do not have a long tai l and stinger as do
scorpions, but most have poison g lands i n their pincers.
The poison is used solely to capture sma l l insects, their
prey. Pseudoscorpions are not large enough to bite. They
have si l k glands opening on their jaws, and use silk to
make chambers for overwintering, molting, or brooding.
Many species lack eyes and, judg ing from the long hairs
on the pincers, their main sense is touch. Pseudoscorpions
sometimes atta ch themselves to flies or to beetles; they
a re carried as hitchhikers, not as parasites.
In courting behavior, the ma le waves his pincers, vi
brates h is a bdomen, or taps his legs. The fem a l e responds
and the two an ima ls, their pincers locked, pul l eac h other
back and forth. Eventua lly the male deposits on the
g round a sta lked capsu le containing spermatozoa. As
the female is pul led over the capsule, she picks it up with
the lips of an opening on the underside of her abdomen.
The eggs, i n a little sac, stay attached to the fema le's ab
d omen, and when the young hatch, they remain in the
sac a n d feed on a mi lklike secretion from the mother's
ovaries. Usua lly there are fewer than two dozen young,
but there may be more than one brood a year.
After leaving the egg sac, the young ride on the
m other for a short time. It may be one to severa l years
before they become adults; during this period, the young
m o lt three times.
1 20

PSEU DOSCORP I O N S

Lamprochernes minor

3 mm (0. 1 ")
a n d 'i1 in courtship

sp.
2 m m (0. 1 11 )
N .A.;
suborder
H eterosphyronida,
tarsi of last 2 legs
d ivided
Apochthonius

Chitrella s p.
3 mm (0. 1 ")
N.A.;
suborder Di plosphyronida,
all ta rsi d ivided

one
of the largest, is found i n houses
all over the world. Probably they
feed mainly on clothes moths and
carpet beetle la rvae, book-lice,
and other sma l l insects a n d mites;
they are reported to l i ke bed
bugs. In search of moisture they
often become stranded in si n ks or
bath tubs, u nable to climb out
over the smooth surface.
HOUSE PSEUDOSCORPION,

cancroides

4 mm (0.2") cosmopolitan;
suborder Monosphyronida,
none of the tarsi d ivided
PSEUDOSCORPIONS

1 21

SCORPIO N S

(order Scorpiones) have pincers a n d a

long tai l with a stinger at its tip . The pecti nes, a pair of
comblike structures underneath the last legs, are sense
organs of touch. Scorpions have two eyes i n the center
of the head and usua l ly two to five a long the margin on
each side. They do not see well, and depend o n touch,
using the long setae on their pincers. When running,
they hold their pincers outstretched. Ma les have broader
pincers and longer tails than do fem a l es.
Most scorpions live in warm, dry c l imates. But one
species is found as far north as Alberta; in Europe, Eu
scorpius germanus is fou nd to a ltitudes of 1 ,800 m (6,000
ft.) in the southern Alps; others are found near snow i n
the southern Andes. Species are restricted t o sma l l a reas,
and o n ly one is found world-wide in tropics. Scorpions
feed at night on insects and spiders that are caught with
the pincers and someti mes stung. Scorpions that remain
under stones or bark during the day carry their tails to
one side; burrowers hold their tails up.
I n courtship the male holds the female by the pin cers
or jaws a n d leads her back and forth. Eventua l l y he de
posits a sta lked package of spermatozoa (a spermato
phore) a n d p u l ls the fema le over it. She picks up part
of the capsule wi h an org n on her a bdomen. The young

:'

--{ q'
' "" - :
-:- --:-_--
'\" -

sp
_...,..,...,._ s rnum

,
-

.,.:._

D IPLOCENTRI DAE contains tropical scorpions from the West I nd ies a n d southweste r n N.A. The
large Nebo is found in eastern
Med iterra nean countries. The
sides of the sternum a re parallel,
a nd only one spur is present on
the outside between the last leg
segments. All have a tubercle
underneath the tip af the sti nger.

Diplocentrus hasethi

5 em (2 11 )
Lesser Antil les
1 22

SCORPIONS

'

ride on the mother's back until they shed thei r skins for the
first time, then become independent and l ive a solitary l i fe
that may l ast severa l years .
Scorpions sting i n self-defense . Most s tings a re not seri
o u s , b u t da ngerous scorpions occur i n N o r t h Africa, S . A . ,
and Mexico. I n the U . S . , Centruro ides sculp turatus of A r i
z o n a has poison t h a t affects t h e nerves, causi ng severe
pa i n . Species of Centruro ides in Mexico have caused
deaths . Scorpion antiveni n s a re ava i l a b l e .
O f over 1 , 200 species known , 20 t o 30 o c c u r i n t h e U . S .
Scorpions a re best collected a t night when they are active,
with a black l i g ht, which makes them fl uorescent i n the
da rkness .
SCOR P I O N I DAE co ntains Old
World a n d Australian scorpions.
Some are gia nts. Only one, Opis
thocanth us, occurs in the West
I n d ies a n d Central America. The
last two leg seg ments have only
one spur on the outside, as in
Diplocentridae, but there is n o
tubercle u nd e r t h e stinger.

sp.
to 17 em (7 " )
Africa; rocky areas
Pandinus

SCOR PIONS

1 23

Sothriurus banarie nsis

5.5 em (2.2 11 )
southern S.A.
CHACTIDAE, represented here by
Euscorpius, is a family world-wide

in d istribution. The sternum is

al most square or wider than long.
There may be either two spurs
between the last two leg seg
ments o r one-and if one, it is
on the inside. They moy have two
eyes on each side of the head or
none. Superstitiona, a three
striped scorpion about 4 em
( 1 .611) long, is found in south
western U.S.

Euscorpius carpathicus

S cm (2 11 )
southern Europe, very common

BOTH R I U R I DAE contains mostly

South American scorpions, a few

from Austra lia. The ste r n u m con
sists of two tra nsverse plates,
much wider than long, sometimes
barely visible.
VAEJOV I DAE sco rpions have a

b road sternum, like C hactids, but

have th ree to five eyes on each
side of the hea d . Some species
occur in the Old World, a nd
.....
many a re America n .

Northern Voejovis

Paruroctonus boreus

5 em (2")
western U . S . t o Alberta

VAEJOVID SCORPIONS

SWOLLEN-STINGER A NUROCTONUS
II
.4JIII....
Anuroctonus p#taeodactylus

6 em (2.411)
Uta h to California

MORDANT U ROCTONUS
Uroctonus mordax

6 em (2.4 11)
Oregon, Cal ifornia

STRI PED-TAI LED VAEJOVIS

V. spinigerus
5 to 8 em (2-3")
southwestern U.S.

YELLOW VAEJOVIS
V. flavus

4 em (1 .5")
southwestern U.S.

GIANT HAIRY HADRURUS

SCORPIONS

1 25

BUTH I DAE,

underside of Buthus

EUROPEAN BUTHUS

with

600

species, has

some representatives o n oil conti

nents except Antarctica; i t i s the
l a rgest fam i l y of scor p i o n s . The
sternum i s triangu lar, poi nted in
front and often longer than it is
wide. Many species have a tuberc le
that i s located under the sti nger.
The p in cers have a gracefu l , slen
der hand . Some spec ies are poi
sonous to man - Ti t y us in Braz i l ,
Androctonus i n North Africa , and

Centruroides i n Mex i c o .

B . occitanus

5 cm (2 11 )
southern Europe;
s t ing painful

SPOTTED I SOMETRUS

1 26

lsometrus macu/atus

5-7

em

(2-2.7 11 )

cosm o tr o p ica l

l - .:..::-

HASETH'S CENTRU ROIDES

C. hasethi

5 em (2 11 )
with young
Lesser Antilles

H ENTZ'S CENTRUROIDES

C. h e n tzi

Florida; under bark

SCULPTURED CENTRUROI DES

Ce n truroide s seu/pturatus

6-7 em (2.4-2.8 11 )
Arizona; poisonous

SCORPIONS

1 27

HARVESTM E N

(order Opiliones) a re commo n l y ca l l ed

Daddy-long-legs, but many have short l eg s . They hold
thei r short, round bodies near the g round . If caught by a
leg , the leg may break off. The head, thorax, a n d a bdo
men a re joined broad ly, and i n the middle of the head are
two eyes, usua lly one on each side of a high turret . In many
species, spines, tubercles, or bristles arm the hea d ; scent
g lands open a long the edge of the carapace. Ma les a re
sma ller than fema les and have longer legs. U n l i ke other
a rachnids, Ha rvestmen do not court before mati ng . With
a long , stout ovi positor, the fema l e deposits her eggs i n
the g round i n the fa l l ; the you ng hatch i n the fol l owing
spring . Most species l ive less than a year or two . Harvest
men feed mainly on l iving i nsects, sometimes on dead
a n i m a l s or plant j uices. There a re 200 species in N . A . ,
4 , 500 to 5 , 000 worldwide.
M I T E H A R V E STM E N

(suborder Cyphophtha l m i ) are all

less than 3 m m (0. 1 ") long . Eyes, if present, are far apart
and indisti nct, and the scent g l a nds are on cones . U n l ike
most m ites, they have a segmented abdome n . Mite Har
vestmen inhabit hum id l e a f l itter. P robably not rare, but
seldom collected . There are five families. F ive or six species
a re recorded for the U . S . Captives l ive four to six yea rs .

Siro duricorius

Austria, northern
Yugoslavia;
forest litter

LANIATORES (suborder) include about 2,000 species,

mostly tropica l, but with a few representatives in south
ern and western U.S. and in Europe. laniatores have
the basa l seg ments (coxae) of the fi rst three pairs of legs
touching at the midline. The sma l l fam i l y Oncopodidae
(not i l l u strated), found only i n southeastern Asia, has
the body (except for the last segm ent) covered by a hard
plate. The Assami idae (not illustrated) carry their slender
pedipa l pi crossed over. Included are 300 species from
southeastern Asia, Australia, and Africa .
Stygnomma spinilera

4 mm (0.2 11 )
Florida

hove
two
claws, visible with hig h-powered
hand lens or m iscroscope, on the
fourth leg. There are 20 to 30
species in N.A.

PHALANGODIDAE

TRIAENONYCHIDAE have a sin

g l e claw (with th ree teeth) on
the fourth leg. Members of this
family are found i n Madagascar,
Austra lia and the Americas, sev
eral north of Mexico.
HARVESTMEN

1 29

COSM E T I DA E a r e a l l A m e r i c a n
species a n d most a r e tropica l . A l l
have a sma l l median t h i r d c l a w a t
the t i p a/ the fourth l e g . T h e s m a l l
pa lpi have segments fl attened and
keeled .

GONYLEPTIDAE is a family of
a bout 600 species in the Ameri
can tropics. It incl udes the har
vestmen with the l a rg est f>ody.
All have a sma l l median third
claw at the tip of the fourth leg.
The large palpi are not flattened.
Sadocus po/yacanthus

1 1 mm (0.5 11 )
Chile

1 30

HARVESTMEN

PAL PATORE S (suborder) conta ins most tem perate zone

Eurasian and N.A. harvestmen. Of a tota l of a bout 900
species, 1 50 occur north of Mexico. Basa l leg segments
(coxae) sepa rated by the breastplate (sternum).
Tragulus tricarinatus
1 0 m m ( 0. 4 11 )
E u rope; u nd e r sto nes

TROG U LI DA E are s l ow and noctur

na l , with the eye tubercle projecting
i n front and overhanging the jaws.
The European Trogulus, commonly
encrusted with s o i l particles, i s a
predator on sna i l s . T. tricarinafus
has been esta b l i shed in upstate N . Y.

u n d e rsi d e

NEMASTOMATIDAE

have very
short jaws and n o cl aws o n their
ped i p a l p i . The fo rst a n d fourth
basal leg seg m ents (coxae) have
marginal rows of spines. The eyes
are o n a tuberc l e . About five spe
cies occ u r north of Mexico, 50 i n
the world .

C ros

c u s d a sycnemus

1 . 5 m m (0. 06")
eastern Canada, U . S .

CERATOLASMATIDAE have
microscopic sculpturing on

u n d erside

Nemastoma sp.
4 mm (0. 2")
E u rope, eastern Canada
H A RVESTM E N

131

.......

palp

ISCHYROPSALIDI DAE usually have

huge jaws, lack c l aws on the pedi
palps, a n d have shari legs. About
30 species in fam i ly, 8 north of Mex
ico.

P H A L A N G I I DA E ( Da d d y - l ong
legs) are widespread i n E urope and
temperate N . A . Each ped i p a l p has
a sma l l claw at its t i p , and in all
species, the legs are long and stilt
l i k e . Of about 800 species, 1 00 to
1 50 occur north of Mexico. Caddi
dae are a related f a m i l y with large

1 32

HARVESTMEN ,

underside

northeastern U.S., Canada

HARVESTMEN

1 33

MITES

(order Aca ri ) a re fou nd throughout the world and

i n a l l types of habitats . They surpass a l l other spider l i ke
a n i m a l s i n numbers . Many a re parasites on p l a nts or a n i
m a l s , a n d some transmit d i sease . Others are freeliving
predators . Some a re aquatic-mostly i n fresh water, a few
in the ocea n . Among the pa rasites are some extraord inari
ly speci a l i zed species, adapted to live only i n b i rd feathers
or nostr i l s , under bat wings, i n monkey lungs, bee tra
cheae, a nd s i m i larly restricted habitats .
Most mites a re very sma l l , but they can be collected i n
abundance from soil or litter b y u s i n g a Tu l l g ren funnel ( p .
1 8) . A mite's body is fused into o n e piece, with no sepa ra
tion between head and abdomen . In parasites, the mouth
pa rts may be spec i a l i zed as sharp, piercing stylets . Ad u l t
m ites have fou r pa irs o f l e g s , b u t l a rva l mites have only
three . Some worm l i ke, microscopic g a l l mites have fewer
legs. More than 30, 000 species are na med , proba b l y a
fraction of the tota l . Many have become pests s i nce the
widespread use of pesticides .
M E S O S T I GMAT I D M I T E S

(suborder Mesostig mata) have

either a s i m p l e claw on the ped i pa l ps, or none . Many have
plates on the back and underside. Some are free-living
p redators and can be co l l ected with a Tu l l g ren fu nnel .
Others are parasites and l ive i n the fur of m a m m a l s , on
b i rds, or on insects .
Spinturnix sp.

mm

(0.04")

Jt.

laela pt i d Mite
Laelaps vacua
1 34

M ITES

1 .5 m m (0.06 " )
on insects

TROMBIDI ID MITES

(suborder Trombidiformes) i n c l ude

many plant and animal parasites and some p redators.
Water Mites (p. 1 36) a re usua l ly placed in this group.

C H IGGER

Trombicula sp.

a d u lt, 3 m m (0. 1 11 )
C H I GGERS,
or
Ha rvestmites
(Trom bicul idae), form a family of
about 700 species. Ad ults a re
predators on insects or insect eggs;
larva l stages are parasites. Fewer
than 50 species attac k huma ns,
biti ng where clothing is tight a n d
c a u s i n g severe itching. After
feed ing, they fall off. Some peo
ple a re i m m u n e . In the Orient,
chigger m ites carry scrub typh us.
I n the U.S. they are most a b u n
dant in t h e South.

or Red Spiders
(Tetra nychidae), 0.3-0.8 mm (.0 1 03 11 ),
are serious pests o n vari
ous crops. They often invade
buildings i n fall . All have silk
glands opening near mouth a n d
m a k e a loose w e b among leaves.
S P I DER M ITES,

(Trombid iidae) a re
of l ittle economic im porta nce
There are several thousand spe
cies. Larvae a re parasites on in
sects; l a rge a d u lts (to -4 mm,
0.2 11 ), usually velvety red, eat
insect eggs.
V ELVET MITES

WATER M ITES (Hydrachnel lae), a

group of several families, are
related to trombidiid m ites (p.
1 35). Many are colorful-red,
g reen or yellow. Some crawl on
stones, others swim. The lang
hairs on their legs help them to
paddle, but their bodies are
streamlined and nearly smooth.

Most Water Mites a re predators,

but some are parasitic on clams
or insects. Those that pa rasitize
d ragonflies attach themselves to
nymphs ready to leave the water,
then to become airborne on the
newly molted ad ult. They d rop
off into the water, possibly
when the insect lays its eggs.

SARCOPTID M I TES (suborder Sarcoptiformes) includes

the Sca bies or Ma nge Mites, the Cheese Mites found in
many stored prod ucts and causing the a l lergy "grocer's
itch," and the Ori batid Mites.

M ITES, also called

Beetle Mites or Moss Mites, in
elude several fam i l ies of free
living Sarcoptid Mites. With their
hard, shiny shells they may re
semble tiny dark brown or black
beetles. Some can tuck their legs
under h i nged "wings,'' forming a
l ittle ball. Most are len than 1
mm long. I n some, the shed skins
collect on the back, making a
high ornament. Most Oribatid
Mites live i n soil or litter, but
those found on decaying wood
are seen most often . They are of
economic im porta nce in break
down of l itter and formation of
humus. Some feed on
eggs and transmit
ORIBATID

Phthiracarus sp.

1 m m (0.04 11 )

walking

MITES

1 37

well fed
WOOD TICK,
Dermacentor, sp.
2 em (0.8 11 )

T I C KS (suborder lxodides) are the la rgest of the mites,

as much as 3 em ( 1 .2") long after feeding. A l l are ex
ternal pa rasites of repti les, birds, or mamma ls. Most d rop
off their h ost after feeding. They molt and then wait on
the tips of leaves, forelegs outstretched, ready to attach
to any a n i m a l brush ing post. Young ticks, which hove
o n ly th ree pairs of legs, mov attock sma l ler host animals
than the adu lts. The bite of some ticks may ca use m i ld
para lysis to m a n ; others tra nsmit disease. Ticks attach
themselves to the host only with their mouthparts, and
feed o n b lood . I n removing a tick, toke core not to leave
mouthpa rts beh i n d .
About 300 species o f ticks occur a round th e world.
Soft ticks (Argasidae) hove a leathery integ ume nt; they
hove no head plate, and the head is on the underside.
Hard ticks ( Ixodidae) hove a hard p late a bove the head
and the head is directed forward .
4 mm (0.2 11 )

SOFT TICKS
BLUE BUG

A rgas p e rsicus
pa rasite af birds
and bats; often pests
af pau ltry in warm, d ry
parts of world
Ornithodoros sp.

parasites of mamma ls,

incl uding mon; may
tra nsmit relapsing
fever i n western U .S.
1 38

MITES

5 mm (0.2 11 )

LO N E STAR TICK

Amblyomma americanum

4 mm (0.2 11 )
southcentral U.S.;
o n large mammals, man

Dermacentor andersoni

western N .A., Rocky Mts.;

aHacks large mammals, man;
may tra nsmit
d iseases. D. variabilis
in eastern N .A.
BROW N DOG TICK

Rhipicephalus sanguineus

4 mm (0.2 11 )
found in houses,
rarely bites man;
cosmopolitan

B oophilus sp.

4 m m (0.2 11 )
stays on host
throug hout life

HARD T I C KS
M ITES

1 39

Eulcoenenia

2 m m (0. 1 11)
without tail
Texas

sp.

M I C R OW H I PS C O R P I O N S

(order P a l p i g ra d i ) a re a g i l e
arachnids l ess t h e n 2 mm (0. 1 ") long . They l ive under
stones, going deeper i nto the soi l if it gets too d ry. Of the
50 to 60 species known , 3 occur in the U . S . , in Texas a nd
Ca liforn i a ; other species are found i n the Med iterra nean
reg i o n .

R I C I N U LE I DS (order Ricinulei) resemble ticks. They move

about slowly in l i tter and leaf mold of h u m i d , wa rm
areas, and may feed on termites . They a re 1 0- 1 5 mm
(0.4-0. 6") l o n g , with a heavy cutic l e . I n front of the head
is a unique h i nged hood covering the jaws . Young Ricin
u leids have only six leg s . As recently as 1 929 fewer than
40 speci mens of Ricinu
Cryptocellus sp.
leids were known to
4 m m (0.211)
have been fou n d , a l l
Central ond S.A.
from Africa a n d S . A .
Now they are known to
occu r widely in the
American tropics and i n
Mexican caves . O n l y
o n e species, found i n
Texas , i s known from
the U . S . The fema l e car
ries the sing l e egg be
tween the bent ped i
pa l ps and the hood .
About 35 species a re
known .
1 40

MYRIAPODS

Myriapods a re the classes of arthropods i n which the body

i s made u p of n umerous s i m i l a r segments .
PA U R OPODA, a class c l osely related to m i l l i pedes, a re
soft-bod ied , less than 2 m m (0 . l ") long , with 1 2 segments
and usua l l y nine pai rs of legs . The more than 500 descri bed
species are found i n the tropics and tem pera te reg ions,
where they l ive i n decaying logs, forest l itter, h u m u s , and
under stones. They probably feed on fungi and decaying
a n i ma l s . Most a re sensitive to light and to drying .
SYM P HYLA,

a sma l l class of 1 60 known species closely

related to centipedes and m i l l i pedes, a re found i n the
tropics and temperate regions. Symphyla are 2-8 m m (0. 1 0 . 3") long , with 1 5-22 back plates, 1 2 pairs of wa l k i n g
legs, and a pair o f spinnerets . They live i n m o i s t , rotting
wood or i n soil and l itter. U n l i ke centi pedes and m i l l i pedes,
they m ove a l l legs on one side together. They feed on
decaying vegetation but may attack living p l a nts and
become garden pests .
GARDEN CENTIPEDE

Scutigerel/a immaculata
8 mm (0.3 " )

E u rope, N.A., Hawaii;

pest i n gardens
and g reenhouses

141

C E N T I P E D E S (class C h i l opoda) have one pa ir of legs on

each seg ment . The fastest a re the ones with fewest legs,
the Scutigeromorphs and Lithobi omorphs . Si nce the plates
on their back hook together, they can hold the body
stra ight in running . The Scolopendromorphs and ma ny
legged Geoph i lomorphs a re slow and may move with
snake l i ke motions; all their dorsa l trunk plates a re a l i ke
a nd move freely. About 2 , 500 species of centi pedes a re
known . The orders of centi pedes are descri bed and i l l us
trated on pp . 1 43- 1 45 .
Like insects a n d m i l l i pedes but u n l i ke spiders, centi pedes
have a pair of antennae. Most are nocturna l . In daytime
they h ide i n litter, under l oose bark, stones, leaves, and
debri s . Some dig i nto the soi l . They avoid extremely wet
or dry n iches . Centi pedes a re predators, feed ing mostly
on other arthropod s . All have poison g l a nds open ing
through their jaws , and the bite of even a sma l l centi pede,
if it succeeds i n breaking the ski n , can produce pa i n .
Scolopendra, the la rgest, can g ive a very pa i nfu l bite,
but usua l l y is not da ngerous. Some centi pedes lack eyes
and a re b l i n d ; others do not see wel l . In experi ments i n
which g l a ss beads were d i pped i n "fly j uice, " some centi
pedes tried to bite the beads . They wou ld not touch g lass
beads d i pped i n water, however, and so i t is assumed
that centi pedes find thei r prey by smell and perhaps
by touc h .
Some centi pedes c a n produce si l k , w h i c h is used o n l y
during mating and when captu r i ng prey. W h e n a male fi nds
a female, they touch antennae, and he fo l l ows her.
The male makes a sma l l web i n wh i c h h e deposits a
package of sperm . The sperm is then picked u p by the
fem a l e . The male's b u i l d i ng of a web has been observed
o n l y among the Geophi l omorphs, Lithobiomorphs, and
Sco l o pendromorphs .
1 42

C E N T I PEDES

com pound eye

antenna
maxilla 2

face

Scutigera co/eoptrata

3 em ( 1 .2 11 )
southern Europe a n d southern U .S.;
o utdoors. Farther north
in buildings

S C U T I G E ROMORPHA

is a n order of mostly tropica l

centipedes. About 1 30 species have been descri bed ; a l l
belong t o the fa mily Scutigeridae. U n l i ke other cen
tipedes, they h ave a round head and l a rg e compound
eyes. They have 1 5 pairs of long legs. A fem a l e of Scu
tigera prod uced 35 eggs over a period of days. The
eggs are not guarded. Young centipedes a re born with
only seven pairs of legs, but the n u m ber i ncreases with
every molt. In ca ptivity, the common Scutigera found
throughout the U.S. may live more than a year. It is the
o n ly centipede common i n houses, where it runs rapidly
a long wa lls and floors as it h unts for fl ies and other
insects. It is surprisi n g ly agi le. I n summer they live outside,
or i n warm climates they live outside the year around.
C E N T I PE D E S

1 43

u nderside of

LITHOBIOMORPHA, or Stone Centipedes, are a l l less

than 4.5 em ( 1 .7") long. Adu lts have 1 8 body seg ments,
1 5 pairs of legs a n d 20 to 50 or more segments in the
a ntennae. As in Scutigeromorphs, the young have fewer
legs. When disturbed, they move the last pairs of legs
rapid ly, th rowing droplets of sticky material at the poten
tia l predator a n d slowi ng it i n the tangling mass. About
1 , 1 00 species have been described i n this order.
G EOP H I LOMORP HA,

or Soi l Centipedes, a re slender,

eyeless centipedes that have 31 to 1 77 pairs of legs and
a nten nae with 1 4 segments. The longest a re 1 6- 1 7 em
(6"), but most a re less than 5 em (2"). The n u m ber of
pairs of legs is a lways odd, usua lly varia ble withi n the
species, and each leg can be moved independently. Soi l
Centipedes penetrate as deep as 40 to 70 em ( 1 6-28")
into soi l, feeding on i nsect larvae a n d worms. If dis
turbed, they coi l up and eject from pores on their u nder
side a secretion that seems to repel potential p redators.
A n u m ber of species can give off phosphorescent mate
ria l. Fema les guard their eggs. About 1 ,000 species.

SCOLOPENDROMORPHA have 2 1 or 23 pairs of legs

a n d 1 7 to 30 seg ments in their a nten nae. World-wide
and mainly tropica l, the order i n cludes the la rgest cen
tipedes. Many a re a n attractive blue-green, o live-green,
or yellow. To pick one u p, it is best to use two hands a n d
forceps a s they ca n inflict a painfu l bite a n d can a l so
pinch with their last pair of legs. They have been o b
served feeding on toads and lizards. These large cen
tipedes dig burrows and a lso make cham bers i n which
they rest. The female often coi ls around her eggs or
young a n d may periodica l ly lick the eggs, presumably
to clea n them. About 550 species described i n two fa m
i l ies: Scolopendridae and the blind C ryptopidae.

Sco/opendra
1 4 em (5.5 " )

sp.

g uarding young

'

S. heros
(611)
1 5 cm

Arizona

C E N T I PE D E S

1 45

M I LLI P E D E S (class D i p l opoda) are "thousa nd leggers , "

differi ng from the "hundred leggers" or centi pedes ( p .
1 42) i n having two p a i r s o f l e g s on most body rings (wh ich
a re two fused seg ments) . They have one pair of a ntennae.
Some m i l l i pedes a re cylindrica l , ada pted for burrowing;
others a re fla t . Some resemble wood l ice ( p . 1 52 ) . Some
are soft-bod ied, very sma l l , and covered with saw-toothed
hairs (p. 1 47) .
Mi l l i pedes a re found under stones, i n moist soil and leaf
litter. They avoid l i g ht and feed on va rious p l a nt materia l s,
espec i a l l y soft decomposing plant tissues . Most m i l l i pedes
have pores, usua l l y a long the sides of their body rings,
from which they d i scharge strong-smel l i ng secretions that
may be repel lent and poisonous to other a n i m a l s . Some
large tropica l m i l l i pedes squ i rt their secretion s . N everthe
less, m i l l i pedes are prey of birds, toads , and other
a n i ma l s .
I n most m i l l i pede groups, the legs on t h e seventh r i n g of
the m a l e a re modified as copulatory organs (gonopods).
The shape of these organs i s i m portant in identifying spe
cies. The female l ays her eggs i n the soi l ; some species
construct egg capsules and gua rd them . J ust-hatched m i l
l ipedes have few r i n g s and three pai rs o f legs, t h e n u m ber
increasing with each molt. Some species l ive only one year,
others to seven . More tha n 1 0 , 000 species are known ,
about 600 north of Mex ico .
egg c h a m ber of
Atopetholus

broken open, with young

1 46

i n tact

Polyxenus lagurus

mm

(0. 1 11)

Europe, sim i l a r
species i n N . A.

P S E LA P H O G N A T H A

is a subclass of soft m i l l ipedes, a l l

less than 4 m m (0.2") long, with 1 1 to 1 3 ri ngs. They
have many rows and bund les of barbed hairs. Ma les do
not have legs modified for copu lation . Found i n most
pa rts of the world, there are a bout 60 species of two
fa m i lies; Po lyxenidae has 5 species in N.A. They feed
on a lgae and live under loose bark and in litter.
C H I LOG N AT HA,

the subc lass i n c l udi n g a l l other m i l l i

pedes, have hardened body r i n g s and ma les h a v e legs
modified for copu lation. There are a n u m ber of orders.

G LOME R I D A , Pi l l Mi l l i pedes, are short and wide, re

sem bling wood lice (p. 1 52), but have m ore tha n seven
pairs of legs. The ma le's last pair of legs a re modified
to hold the female when mati n g. G lomerids ca n coil into
a ba l l when d isturbed, some tropica l species approaching
the size of golf b"l ls. Species fou nd i n southern states
and in Ca lifornia are never more than 8 mm (0.3") long.
Common i n Eu rope, where some species reach a length
of 2 em (0.8").

PLATYDESMIDA

are flat with a tiny head

and from 30 to 1 92 body rings. I n males,
the 9th and 1 Oth pairs of legs are m odified
as copulatory organs (gonopods) . The
usua l color is pink. The rough dorsal sur
face has a na rrow l ongitudinal g roove.
About a dozen species occur in North
America north of Mexico.
POLYZONIIDA are very similar to Platy
desmida but are smooth and lack the
dorsa l groove. The usua l color is cream.
About 15 species occur north of Mexico.
The orders Platydesmida and Polyzoniida,
with sma l l heads, belong i n the super
order Colobognatha.

CALLIPO DIDA,

with u p to 89 rings, have a pa i r of tiny

spinnerets o n the last body r i ng . Most a re cyl i n d r i ca l ,
with latera l r idges a n d k n o b s . I n m a l e s , t h e second pa i r
o f legs o n the 7th r i ng a r e modified a s g o n o p od s . Most
produce strong-sme l l i ng white secret i o n s from sti n k
g la n d s . About 2 0 species are k n own n o r t h of Mex i c o ,
o n e widespread i n weste r n E u rope and many i n easte r n
Med i terranea n . S o m e a r e fast- r u n n i n g scavengers a n d
predators.

1 48

M I L L I PEDES

POLY D E S M I DA

is an o rder i n which most

spec ies have 20 rings that usua l l y bear
prominent kee l s w h i c h g ive them a flat
l o o k i n g bac k . A l l l a c k eyes; the fi rst pa i r
of l e g s o n t h e 7 t h r i n g a re g o n o p od s .
Many a re brightly colored ; a l most a l l have
sti n k g l a n d s . Of 2700 species, about 250
occur n o r t h of Mex i c o , fewer i n E urope .

GREENHOUSE
M I LL I P E D E

Oxidus gracilis
2.5 em ( 1 " )

cosmopolita n in
g reenhouses and
su btropics

Pseudopolydesmus
serratus
3 em ( 1 .2 " )

eastern N .A.

Pachydesmus crassicutis

7 em (2 . 8")
southeastern U.S.

Motyxia sp . .....
4 cm ( 1 .5 " )
southern California;
biol u m inescent

Sigmoria aberrans
4 cm ( 1 . 5")
N. C a r o l i n a , V i r g i n i a

MILLIPEDES

1 49

J U LIDA

is one of four orders of cylindrica l millipedes

that have both pairs of legs on the 7th ring of the male
modified as copu latory organs (gonopods) . More than
1 00 species are found north of Mexico. The n umerous
mem bers of the family Pa raiu lidae, or wi reworms, meas
ure 1 5-90 mm (.7-3.5") long . Most a re smooth, with up to
74 body rings and the gonopods a re outside the body.
I n ma les, the fi rst pair of legs a re g reatly enlarged . In
the fa m i ly J u lidae, the gonopods a re i n a pouch, and
the male's first pair of legs a re hook-sha ped. They are
native to Europe a nd western Asia; introd uced to parks
a nd gardens i n N .A.
S P I ROSTREPTIDA

is a n order of large (to 28 em, or 1 1 ")

cylindrica l millipedes fou nd mainly in the tropics. There
is only one pair of gonopods, the anterior. In southwest
ern U.S. a n d adjacent Mexico, mil lipedes of the genus
O rtho p orus often cong regate in large n u m bers. Three
species occur in states adjacent to Mexico.
Orthoporus pontis

1 2 em (4.5")
western Texas

1 50

M I L L I PE D E S

ma uth pa rts

lamellae l in g ualis
p ramentum
stipes
mentum
c llum

Texas; caves

ead

CAMBA L I DA have no legs on the 4th ri ng; other m i l li

pedes have one pair. Cambala (family C a m ba lidae) a re
easi ly recog nized by the large cover (co l l u m ) of the fi rst
body seg ment and by the prominent longitud i n a l ridges
on the body of most species. Camba lida a re rare i n the
Great Plains and sem i-d eserts. The l a rgest, to 60 m m
(2.5"), occur in the Appalachian Mountains.
S P I RO B O L I D A

have on ly one pair of legs on the 5th

ri ng; other m i l li pedes have two pairs. The m a le's cop u la
tory organs (gonopods) a re hidden i n a pouch. The four
cylindrica l groups ca n a l so be sepa rated by the structure
of the mouthparts on the underside of the head. About 35
species occur north of Mexico. Narceus p l aces each single
egg, 1 m m long, in a capsu le of chewed leaf litter. The
ca psule is passed posteriorly by the legs and i nto the rec
tum where it is molded and then deposited in a pi le with
many others.

mouthparts

um

Narceus americanus
(411)
to 1 0 em
southeastern U.S., n orth to
Ohio a n d west to Texas;
i n forest logs

head

M I L L I PEDES

1 51

LAND C R USTACEANS

Crustacea have two pairs of a ntennae. Though m ost a re

aquatic (Crayfish, lobsters, Barnacles, Shrimps, Water
Fleas), some have been successful on land. Beach F leas
(Scuds) are found on moist ocea n beaches and in h umid
tropics. Terrestria l Copepods a n d Ostracods are found
in the Southern Hemisphere.
WOODLICE

(order lsopoda) feed on h u m us a nd fungi.

North of Mexico there are nearly 1 00 species. Eggs
and young a re carried i n a brood pouch by the fema le.
R O C K SLAYERS (ligiidae) a re am

phibiaus an ocea n beaches. They

feed on seaweed, m a i n l y at low
tide. The small end of the long
ante n n a e (secon d pair) has more
than ten segme nts.
P I LL BUGS (Armad i l l i d i id a e) have

an a rched bady and can rol l i nto

a b a l l when d istu rbed. The two
ta ils ( u ropods) are shorter than
the last abdominal segment.

....

P I LL BUG

Armadi/lidium vulgare
1 .4 em (0.611)
cosmopol ita n

(Trichoniscidae)
a re found in wet spats. They are
mall, narrow-bod ied, and have
only four to five seg m e n ts in
sma l l end of the long a nte n n a e
(second pair). Both the a nten nae
a n d tails (uropods) a re tipped
by a brush.

TRICHONISCIDS

1 52

LAN D CRUSTAC EAN S

SOW BUG is a nome used for

species in two fam ilies. Those in
the fa mily On iscidae, represented
here by Oniscus, have three seg
ments i n the small, segmented
end of the long ante n nae (sec
ond pair); most can not rol l i nto
a bal l . Members of the family
Porcellionidoe have two seg
ments i n the small, segmented
end of the long antennae (sec
o n d pair).

Porcel/io scober
1 .4 em (0.611)

widespread,
i n northern U.S.;
tu bercles all over

Metoponorth us
pruinosus

cosmopol ita n ;
abdomen n arrow; end segment
of long ante n n a e half
length of previous one

.A.

Trachelipus rathkei
1 .2 em (0 . 511)

cosmopolitan, build ings;

tubercles on head;
in , 3 rd seg ment
from end of 7th leg
has keel

Cylisticus convexus
1 2 mm (0.511 )

Eu rope, eastern U.S.;

shiny,
con rol l up
LAN D CRUSTAC EANS

1 53

LAN D C RABS (Gecarcinidae), found only in the subtrop

ics and tropics, a re la nd-dwelling crustaceans, but the
females return to the ocean to reproduce. They dig tun
nels 30-40 e m deep ( 1 2- 1 6"), 1 8 e m (7") i n diameter,
and come out at night to feed . little ones climb wa l l s
and trees.
Land Hermit C rabs (Coenobitidae) can give a good
pinch with their colorfu l claw if hand led carelessly. Most
are scavengers. In the Southwest Pacifi c, the Coconut
Crab (B irg us), growing to 45 e m ( 1 8") in length, feeds
on fa llen coconuts, and can be destructive to crops. It is
considered a delicacy itself.

LAND HERMIT CRAB

Coenobita clypeatus
claw to 6 em (2.3 " ) d i a meter
eastern Caribbean, southern Florida

LAN D C R A B

Gecarcinus latera/is
to 9 em (3 .511) wide
Florida Keys, Bermuda,
West I ndies

1 54

MORE I N FO RMAT I O N

Baker, E . W. et a l . , A M a n u a l of Pa rasi t i c M i t e s , Nat'l Pest Control

Assoc . , 1 956. A lot of information on m ites of economic i m portance .
Barnes, R . D . , Inverte brate Z o o l o g y, Saunders, P h i ladel p h i a , 1 98 7 . A
good textbook giving background on C rustacea , Myr i a pods and Arach
nids.
Bonnet, P. , B i b l i o g rap h i c Ara n e o r u m , Tou louse, 7 Vo l . , 1 945- 1 9 6 2 . An
indispensable reference work listing all spider l iterature u p to 1 93 8 . I n
larger l i braries only.
C l oudsley-Thompson, J . l . , S p i d e rs, Scorpions, C e n t i pedes a n d M i tes,
Pergamon Press, london, 1 96 8 . A very usefu l , accurate boo k .
Foe l i x , R . F. , B i o l o g y o f S p i d e rs . Harvard U niversity Press, Cambridge,
1 98 2 . Spider b i o l ogy with emphasis on physiology and behavior.
Gertsc h , W. J . , American S p i d e rs, 2nd ed. Van N ostra n d - R e i n h o l d , New
Yor k , 1 978 . Natural h i story of American spiders.
Grasse, P. , edit . , Tra i t e d e Zoo l o g i e , val . 6 , Masson & C i e , P a r i s , 1 94 9 .
O n e o f t h e best s u m m a r i e s of b i ology, anatomy a n d systematics of spiders
and a l l ied groups; i n Frenc h .
J o n e s , D . T h e La rousse G u i d e to S p i d e rs , Larousse, N . Y. , 1 98 3 . P i ct u res
of E uropean spiders.
Kaestner, A . , adapt. lev i , H . W. and l . R . lev i , Inve rtebrate Z oology
va l . 2 : A rt h ropod R e l a t i v e s , C h e l i cerata, a n d Myr i a p o d a . R. E .
Krieger P u b l . Co . , Melbourne, F l , 1 980. A summary o f our knowledge
of arachn i d s and myriapods; i n E n g l i sh .
Kasto n , B . J . , How t o Know the S p i d ers, 3rd ed . W. C . Brown C o . ,
Dubuque, Iowa , 1 97 8 . Keys t o common spider genera .
Kaston, B. J . , S p i d e rs of C o n n e c t i c u t , rev. e d . B u l l . Conn . Geo l . N a t .
H i s ! . Surv. 7 0 , 1 98 1 . T h e most usefu l reference b o o k on spiders of
eastern U . S .
Krantz, G . W. , A M a n u a l o f Acaro l o g y. Oregon State U n iv. Bookstore,
Corva l l i s , rev. e d . 1 97 8 .
locket, G . H . and A . F. M i l l idge, B r i t i s h S p i d e rs , R a y Soc . , london,
1 95 1 - 1 95 3 . Speci a l i zed, separating spider spec ies of Great B r i ta i n .
Roth , V. D . , S p i d e r G e n e ra o f North Ameri c a . P u b l i shed b y a uthor,
Porta l , AZ, 1 98 6 . Key to fa m i l ies and genera fou n d in North America .
Shuttlesworth , D. E . and S . N . Swa i n , The Story of S p i d ers, Garden C ity,
New York, 1 959. An excellent c h i l d ren's boo k .
Yag i n u m a , T. , S p i d ers of J a p a n i n C o l o r, Osaka, J a p a n , n e w ed . 1 98 6 .
I n J a panese; well i l l u strated , the n a m e s o f spiders i n lat i n .
1 55

I NDEX
Fema le,
Abacion, 1 48

Argyronetidoe, 76

abdomen, spider, 8, 9 ,

Ariadna, 27, 1 08

Buthus, 1 26 , 1 27

Armad i l l i d i idae, 1 5 2

Caddidae, 1 3 2

Acaces ia, 6 1

Armad i l l i d i u m , 1 5 2

Caddo, 1 3 2

Acanthepe ira, 67

Arrenurus, 1 36

calamistrum, 1 06

Acanthoctenidae, 1 1 2

Arrowshaped

13

Acanthoctenus, 1 1 2

Micratheno, 67

C a l l i lepis, 87
C a l l i podidae, 1 48

Aca r i , 1 34 - 1 39

Arthropoda, 4 , 6

accessory claws, 1 3

Assomi idae, 1 29

Cambo l a , 1 5 1

Achoearaneo, 40, 50

Atopetholus, 1 46

Cambo l i d a , 1 5 1

Acrograph inotus, 1 30

Atrax, 1 6 , 24

Caponiidae, 26

Aculepeira, 64

Atypidae, 25

carapace, 8 , 9 , 1 6

Aelurillus, 1 00

Atypus, 25

Carolina Wolf Spider, 8 3

Age lena, 73

Aysha, 88

Castianeira, 89

Age lenidae, 72-76

Cal lobius, 1 1 1

Castor Bean Tick, 1 39

Agelenops is, 72, 73

ba llooning, 1 5

Cattle Tick, 1 39

Amaurob i i dae, 1 1 1

Banana Spider, 92

Cave Orb-weaver, 60

Amaurobius, 1 06 , 1 1 1

Banded Argiape, 68

Cave Spiders, 3 2 , 5 1

Amblyomma , 1 39

Barn Spider, 58

Centipedes. 1 42 - 1 45

Amblypyg i , 1 1 7

Barychelidae, 2 1

Centruroides, 1 2 3 , 1 26 - 1 27

American House

Basilica Spider, 64

cephalothorax, 8, 9, 1 6

Spider, 36

Bathyphantes, 49

Ceratice l u s , 45

Ammotrechella, 1 1 9

Beach Fleas, 1 52

Ceratolasmatidae, 1 3 1

Ammotrech idoe, 1 1 8

Beetle Mites, 1 37

Chactidae, 1 24

Amphipod a , 1 52

B i rd Spiders, 20, 2 1

Chorontidae, 1 1 7

anal tubercle, 9, 1 3 , 3 1

Birgus, 1 54

Androctonus, 1 26
Anelosimus, 38

"

Ma le

Black & Yel low

Argiope, 68

Cheese m ites, 1 3 7
Cheiracanthium, 1 6 , 89
cheli cera , 8 , 9 , 1 6

Anoples, 1 2

Black Widow, 1 7 , 36, 42

Chel icerata, 4 , 6

ant mimics, 89
Antrodiaetida, 23

Cheliler, 1 2 1
Chiggers, 1 35

Antrod iaetus, 23

Blue Bug, 1 38
Bolas Spider, 66
book lung, 9, 1 2 - 1 3

Anuroctonus, 1 25

Booph ilus, 1 39

C h i lopoda, 1 42- 1 45

Anyphaenidae, 88

Bothriocyrtum, 23

Chitrella, 1 2 1

Aphonopelma, 2 1

Bothriuridoe, 1 24

Chryssa, 38

Apochthonius, 1 2 1

Bothriurus, 5, 1 24

Arachnida, 4
Araneidae, 52-69

Bowl & Doily

Spider, 47

C h i lognatha, 1 47

Cicurina, 75
claws, 1 3 , 1 29 , 1 30
C l ubiona , 88-89

Araneus, 5 3 , 56-59

Brachycybe, 1 48

C l ubinonidae, 88-89

Aroniello, 59
Archaea, 5 1

Brown Centruroides,
1 27

Archaeidoe, 5 1

Brown Dog Tick, 1 39

Arctoso, 85
Arenoph ilus, 1 44

Brown Recluse
Spider, 1 7

Cobweb Weavers,
36-43 , 5 1 74. 1 1 0
'
Coelotes, 7 3
Coenobita , 1 54

Argas, 1 38

Brown Spiders, 1 6 , 29

Argasidae, 1 38

Brown Widow, 43

collecting spiders, 1 8

Argiope, 1 4 , 5 3 , 68-69

bulb, 9

collum, 1 5 1

Argiopidae, 52-69

Burrowing Wolf

Argyrades, 39
Argyroneto, 76

1 56

Spiders, 85
Buthidae, 1 26- 1 2 7

Coenobitidae, 1 54
Coleosomo , 39

Colobagnatha, 1 48
colulus, 8, 9, 1 3 , 5 1
comb, 3 6 , 1 26

Combfooted Spiders,
36-43

Drapet i sca, 48
Drassodes, 87

Copepoda, 1 52

Dwarf Spiders, 44-45

Caras, 74

Dysdera, 27

Coriarachne, 96

Dysderidae, 27

Corytho lia, 1 04
Cosmetidae, 1 30

egg sac, 1 0 , 1 4

courtsh i p , spider, 1 0

embolus, 9

coxa, 8, 9, 1 6, 1 29,

endite, 8 , 9, 1 6 , 25

1 30, 1 3 1
Crab Spiders, 9 2 , 93
94-97
Cribellate Spiders,
1 06- 1 1 5
cribe l l u m , 3 , 8 , 1 06
Crosbycus, 1 3 1

Enoplognatha, 4 1 , 5 1
epigynum, 8, 9, 1 3 , 70
Episinus, 38
Eremobates, 1 1 9
Eremobatidae, 1 1 8
Eresidae, 1 09
Eresus, 1 09

Geca rcinidae, 1 54
Gecarc i n u s , 1 54
genital plate, 1 26
Geolycosa, 85
Geo p h i l o m o r p h o , 1 44
Giant Crab Spiders, 92
Giant H a i r y
Hadrurus, 1 2 5
Glomerida, 1 47
Glomeris, 1 4 7
Gnaphosa, 86
Gnaphosidae, 86-87,
8 8 , 89, 90, 1 1 2
gnatho c h i l a r i u m , 1 5 1
Golden lynx Spider, 77
Golden S i l k Spider, 65

Cross Spider, 56

Erigo'le, 45

Crustaceans, 4, 5 ,

Eris, 1 0 1

gonopore, 8

1 52 - 5 4

Ero, 5 0

Gonyleptidoe, 1 30

Cryphoeca, 75

Euagrus, 24

gossamer, 1 5

Cryptopidae, 1 45

Eukoenenia, 1 40

Grass Spider, 73

Cryptocellus, 1 40

European

Greenhouse

Cryptothel e , 3 1

Buthus, 1 26

Ctenidae, 1 4 , 9 "t

House Spider, 74

Ctenizidae, 22
Cupiennus, 9 1

Tarant do, 83
Water Spider, 76

Cyclocosmi a , 2 2

E u r yopis, 3 9

Cyclase, 63

E uscorpius, 1 22 , 1 24

Cylisticus, 1 53

gonopods, 1 4 6

M i l l i pede, 1 49
Green lynx Spider, 77
Grocer 's Itch Mites,
1 37
growt h , spider, 1 1

Eusta l a , 62

Habrocest u m , 1 00

cymb i u m , 9

Evarcha, 99

hackledthread s , 1 06

Cyphophtha l m i , 1 28

eyes, 8, 1 6

Hadrob u n u s , 1 3 3
Had r u r u s , 1 2 5

Cyrtopho l i s , 2 1
Cyrtophora, 64
Daddy- long-legs,
1 28 , 1 32 - 1 3 3

fa ng, 1 6 , 1 43 , 1 44

Haemaphysa l i s , 1 3 9

Featherlegged Spider, 1 1 4

H a h n i a , 75

femur, 9

Hahniidae, 75

F i l istata , 1 1 , 1 08

Hairy Myga lomorphs,

Daddy- long-legs

F i l istatidae, 1 08

Spiders, 3 2
Dermacentor, 1 38 , 1 39

Fishing Spiders, 80-8 1

Hamata liwa, 77

F loricomus, 45

Hammock Spider, 46

Dictyna, 1 1 0

Florinda, 48

Haplodrassus, 87

Dictynidae, 1 1 0

F l ower Spiders, 94

Haplogyne Spiders,

digging rake, 2 3

Folding Door

8 , 26- 30
Hard Ticks, 1 3 8 , 1 3 9

Oiguetia, 30

Spider, 23

20-2 1

Diguetidae, 30

Frontinello, 47

Harvestmen, 1 2 8 - 1 3 3

Oinopidae, 1 1 3

Funnel Weavers,
72-76, 1 09 , 1 1 1

Ha rvest Mites, 1 35
Hasa r i u s , 1 04
Hoseth 's

Dinopsis, 1 1 3
Diplocentridoe, 1 22
Di plocentrus, 1 22

Funnelweb
Mygalomorphs,

Centruroides, 1 2 7

Furrow Spider, 58

Helophora, 48
Hentz 's

Dipoena, 39

Garden Centipede, 1 4 1

Herpy l l u s , 87

Doliomalus, 93

Garden Spider, 56

Hersilia; 35

Dolomedes, 78, 80- 8 1

Gasteracantha, 66

Hersili idae, 35

draglines, 1 0, 1 5

Gea , 69

Heteropoda , 92

D iplopoda , 1 46 - 1 5 1
Di plosphyronida, 1 2 1
Dipluridae, 24

1 6, 24

Centruroides, 1 2 7

157
j

Heterosphyron i da , 1 2 1

l i g i i dae, 1 5 2

Micrommata, 92

Hexuro, 24

l i m nochares, 1 36

M icrowh i pscorpions,

Homolonychidae, 90

l i m u l us, 6

Homolonychus , 90

l i n y p h i a , 47

Micryphantinae, 44

House Pseudoscorpion ,

linyphiidae, 44-49

Migidoe, 22

linyphiinae, 46-49

M i l l i pedes, 1 46 - 1 5 1

l i p h i stiidoe, 5, 7

Mimetidae, 50

Huntsman Spider, 92

lithobiomorpho, 1 44

Mimetus, 50

Hydrachnellae , 1 36

lithobius, 1 44

Misumena, 94

Hypoc h i l idae, 1 07

lobed Argiape, 69

M i s u menops, 94, 95

Hypoc h i l u s , 1 06 , 1 07

lone Star T i c k , 1 3 9

Mite H a r vestm e n , 1 2 8

Hypse l i stes, 45

long-bodied C e l l a r

Mites, 1 34 - 1 39

Hyptiotes, 1 1 5

Spi der, 33

121
House Spider, 36, 74

long- jawed
lcius, 1 0

Orb-weavers, 72
Loxosceles, 1 1 , 1 7 , 29

Monosphyron i d o , 1 2 1

loxoscelidae, 29
lung covers, 25

Mordant U rocto n u s , 1 25
Moss M i tes, 1 3 7

l sopoda , 1 5 2 - 1 5 3

lung s l i t s , 2 7 , 1 06

Motyx i a , 1 46, 1 49

lsoxyo, 67

lycoso, 1 6 , 8 2 , 8 3

Mygalomorph a , 20

Itch Mite, 1 3 7

lycosidae, 82-85

Myga lomorphs,

Ixodes, 1 39

lynx Spiders, 77

lxodides, 1 38- 1 3 9

lysso manes , 1 05

jaws, spi der, 8, 1 0 , 26

J u lida, 1 50

Myrmonyssus, 1 34

1 1 8- 1 1 9
Ma l m ignotte, 42

Norceus, 1 5 1

J u l i dae, 1 50

Monge Mites, 1 3 7

Nebo, 1 2 2

J u mping Spiders,

Mangoro, 62
Marbled Spider, 5 7

Nemastoma, 1 3 1
Nemostomatidoe, 1 3 1

Morpissa, 1 0 1

Nemes i o , 2 3

98- 1 05

labe l i n g , 1 9

Mosti goproctus , 1 1 6

:;(

labidognatha, 5, 26

Mastophora , 66

Neosc o n a , 59

labium, a. 9, 2 7

max i l l a , 1 43

Nephi I a , 65

labrum, 8
laelaps, 1 34

m a x i l l i ped, 1 43

Nesticidae, 5 1
Nest i c u s , 5 1

lamellae l i ng u a l is, 1 50 ,

Mec i c obot h r i i d a e , 24

Nops, 26

Mecynogea , 64

Northern Vejovis, 1 2 4

"'

(!)
z
Ci2
::>
V>

....
"

151
lamprochernes, 1 2 1

measurements used , 9

Neoonti steo , 75

Mecysmauche n i u s , 5 1

Northern Widow, 43

land Crabs, 1 54

Menemerus, 1 04

Nuctenea, 58

land Hermit Crabs, 1 54

Menneus, 1 1 3

Nursery Web

lan iatores, 1 29
larinia, 63

mentum, 1 50, 1 5 1
Mesostigmata Mites,

lathys, 1 1 0

20, 1 07, 1 09
Myriapoda , 5, 1 4 1
Myrmek i a p h i l a , 22

m a l let-sha ped organs,

.., 3!:

molting, 1 1
Monkey Spiders, 20- 2 1

lsometrus, 1 26

Ixodidae, 1 3 8- 1 3 9

Mitopus, 1 3 2

lschyropso l i s , 1 3 2

lschyropsalididae, 1 3 2

V>
"'
,... w
.....
w

1 40

1 34

Latrodectus, 1 7 , 42-43

Mesothel a e , 5

lattice Spider, 5 8

Meta , 1 5 , 60

Spiders, 7 8 - 8 1 , 90
Ochyrocera, 3 2
Ochyrocerotidae, 3 2
Odie l l u s , 1 32

leber t i a , 1 36

Meta cyrba, 1 00

Oeco b i i d a e , 34, 1 1 5

legs, spider, 9

Meta p h i d i ppus, 1 0 1

Oecob i u s , 1 1 5
Ogre-faced Spiders,

leiobu n u m , 1 33

metatarsus, 9, 1 06

lepthyphantes, 49

Metepeira, 64

leptoneta, 3 2

Metoponorthus, 1 5 3

Olios, 92

leptonetidae, 3 2

Micoria, 8 9

Oncopodidae, 1 2 9

leucouge, 70, 7 1

Micratheno, 67

Oniscidoe, 1 53

l i fe spa n , spider, 1 1

Microhexura , 24
Microli nyph i o , 47

Oniscus, 1 53
Onychophoro, 7

l i g i a , 1 52

1 58

113

Oonopidoe, 26

Pirate, 84

Salticus, 98, 99

Ophy i u l u s , 1 50

P i rate Spiders, 50

Sarcoptes, 1 3 7

Opil iones, 1 28 - 1 3 3

Pi rate Wolf

Opi sthacanthus , 1 23

Spiders, 84

Sarcoptiformes, 1 37
Scabies Mite, 1 3 7
scope, 9

orb webs, 54-55

P i s a u r a , 78-79
Pisauridae, 78 - 8 1

Orchard Spider, 7 1

P i s a u r i n a , 79

Schizomida, 1 1 7

Orchestina, 26

P i tyohyphantes, 46

Schizomus, 1 1 7

Oribatid Mites, 1 37

Platoridae, 93

Schizopeltid i a , 1 1 7

Oribatu l a , 1 3 7

P l atorid C r a b

sclerites, 5

Orb-weavers, 5 2 - 7 1 , 1 1 4

Ornithodoros, 1 38

Spiders, 93

Scaph i e l l a , 2 6

Sclerobunus, 1 29
Scolopendra,

Orodrassus, 87

P l atydes m i d a , 1 48

Orthognatha, 5 , 20

Plectreuridae, 30

Orthoporus, 1 50

P l ectreurys, 30

Scolopendridae, 1 45

Plexippus, 1 04

Scolopendromorph a ,

Ostea r i u s , 1 5 , 45

1 42 , 1 45

1 44

Ostracoda, 1 5 2

Poeci lochroa, 87

Oxidus, 1 49

poison glands, 8, 1 6

scapu l a , 1 3

Oxyopes, 77

poisonous spiders, 1 6- 1 7

Scorpiones, 1 2 2 - 1 2 7

Oxyopidae, 77

Polydesmida, 1 46 , 1 49

Scorpion idae, 1 2 3

Polyxen u s , 1 47

Scorpions, 1 2 2 - 1 2 7

Polyxenidae, 1 47

Scuds, 1 5 2

Polyzo n i i d o , 1 48

S c u l ptured

Pachydesmus, 1 49
Pachyg natha, 7 1
Palm Crab, 1 54
pa lp, 5 , 8, 9, 1 3 2
P a l potores, 1 30
Palpigrad i , 1 40
Palpimonidae, 3 1
Palpimonus, 3 1
Pandinus, 1 23
paracymbi u m , 9
Para i u lidoe, 1 50
Pordoso, 1 0, 8 2 , 8 4
pate l l a , 9
Pouropod o , 1 4 1
Peckho m i o , 1 05
pectines, 1 2 2
pedicel, 8 , 9 , 1 3
pedipolp, 5 , 8 , 9 , 1 3 2
Pellenes, 99
Peripatus , 6
Peucet io, 7 7
Pho longiidoe, 1 3 2 - 1 3 3
Phalong i u m , 1 3 3
Pholongod idae, 1 29
Phid ippus, 1 02 - 1 03
Phi lodrom idae, 94, 97
P h i l odrom u s , 94, 97
Pholcidae, 32
Pholcus, 3 2 , 3 3
Phoneutria, 1 6 , 9 1
Phthiracarus, 1 3 7

Polyzon i u m , 1 48

Centruroides, 1 2 7

Porce l l i o , 1 5 3

Scutigera, 1 43

Porce l l i onidae, 1 53

Scutigere l l o , 1 4 1

preserving spiders, 1 9

Scutigeridoe, 1 43

Prodidomidae, 90

Scutigeromorpha, 1 4 3

Proli nyph i a , 47

Scytodes, 2 8

promentum, 1 50- 1 5 1

Scytod idae, 2 8

Psechridoe, 1 1 0
Pselaphognotho, 1 47
Pseudopolydesmus, 1 49
Pseudoscorpiones,
1 20- 1 2 1
Pseudoscorpions, 1 20121
P s i l ochor u s , 3 3
P u r seweb Spiders, 25
Robbit T i c k , 1 39
Raft Spiders, 80
rake, 23
Roy Spiders, 5 2 , 70
rea ring spiders, 1 9
Red Spiders, 1 35

Sea Spiders, 6
Segestr i a , 2 7
Selenopidae, 93
Selenopid Crab
Spiders, 93
Selenops, 93
Senoc u l i d a e , 9 0
Senoc u l u s , 90
setae, 36, 1 06
Shamrock Spider, 5 7
Sheetweb Weavers,
44-49
Short-bodied C e l l a r
Spiders, 33
S i c a r i idae, 28

Red Widow, 4 3

S i c o r i u s , 1 1 , 28

R h i p i ceph a l u s , 1 39
R i c i n u l e i , 1 40

sifting, 1 8
S i g m o r i a , 1 49

R i c i n u l e i d s , 1 40

silk, 1 3 , 1 4, 1 5 , 22,

Rock Sloters, 1 5 2

5 3 , 78
silk glands, 1 3

Phruroti mpus, 89
Physocyc l u s , 3 2 , 33

Sobocon , 1 3 2

Pill Bugs, 1 5 2

Sac Spiders, 88-89

Pill M i l l ipedes, 1 4 7
P i moo, 49

Sodocus, 1 30
Solticidoe, 98- 1 05

S i lver Argiope, 53,

69
Siro, 1 28
Sitticus, 99

1 59

r
S i x- eyed Crab
Spiders, 28
Six - spotted F i s h i n g

"'

Spider, 8 0

92, 1 1 6 - 1 1 7
Tara n t u l idae, 1 1 7

S o l i fugae, 1 1 8- 1 1 9

tars us, 9

Solpugidae, 1 1 9

Tegenaria, 72, 74

Sosippus, 85
Sow B u g , 1 5 3

Tetra g n a t h a , 70- 7 1
Tetra g n a th idae, 52, 70-71

Sporassidae, 92

Tetranych idoe, 1 3 5

spermatophore, 1 2 2
Spermophora, 3 2 , 33
Sphodros, 25

Spi ned Micrathena, 67

s p i n nef'ets, 8 , 9, 1 3 , 1 4 8
Spintharus, 38

Spi rostrepti da, 1 50

Spitting Spiders, 28
Spotted l sometrus, 1 2 6
Star- be l l i ed Spider, 67

T h o m i s idae, 94-97
T h o m i s u s, 95
T h w o i tesia, 39
tibia, 9

Stemonyphontes, 49

T i cks, 1 3 8 - 1 39

z Stepho n o p ; s , 95

stern u m , 9, 1 2 2 , 1 24 ,

<

stipes, 1 50, 1 5 1

1 26, 1 3 1

Cl Stone Centipedes, 1 44

N z Storeno, 3 1
ii Strig o m i o , 1 44
:::J
V) Stri ped Centruroides,
<(
1 27
w

Stripetoi led Vejovis,

1 25

Styg nomma, 1 2 9
S u n Scorpions, 1 1 8
S u persti t i o n a , 1 24
Swo l lenstinger
A n u roctonus, 1 2 5
Symphy l a , 1 4 1
Sym phytognathidae,
51
Synema, 95
Synemosyno, 1 05
Ta i l less Whipscorpions,

1 60

Therid u l a, 3 8
T h i ck-j awed Spiders, 7 1

T i be l l u s , 97

1 18

Theridion, 36, 37
Theridiosoma, 70

T h iod i n a , 1 0 1

V) Steatod a , 4 1 , 5 1 , 7 1
:I: Stegodyp h u s , 1 09
....

Therid i idae, 36-43

T h erid iosomatidoe, 70

Spinturn i x , 1 34
Spi robo l i d a , 1 4 6, 1 5 1

U l o b o ridae,

5 2 , 1 06 , 1 1 4- \ 1 5
U l oborus, 1 06, 1 1 4
U m m id i a , 23
U rocteo, 34
U rocteidae, 34, 1 1 5
U roctonus, 1 24
u ropods , 1 5 2
U ropyg i , 1 1 6

Thanotus, 97
Theraphosidae, 20- :l l

spider relatives, 1 1 6

Tetronych us, 1 35
Thelyphon idae, 1 1 6

Spider Mites, 1 3 5

Tyrop hag us, 1 3 7

Tarantu l a , 20- 2 1 , 8 3 ,

Soil Centi pedes, 1 44

T u l l g re n f u n n e l , 1 8

Tapinopa, 49
Toracus, 1 3 2

Soft Ticks, 1 3 8

....

l a m a , 35

Tidarre n , 40
T i tanoeco, 1 1 1
Tityus, 1 26
Tmorus, 96
Trache l i p u s , 1 5 3
Trapdoor Spiders, 22
traps, 1 8
Trioenonych idae, 1 29
Tr;a n g l e Spider, 1 1 5
Trichon iscidae, 1 5 2
Trichoniscus, 1 5 2
Trithyreus, 1 1 7

Velvet Mites, 1 35
Vaejovidae, 1 24- 1 25
Vaejovis, 1 24, 1 25
Verrucose, 66
Vinegarones, 1 1 6
Vonones, 1 30
Wandering Spiders,

92, 1 1 2
Water M i tes, 1 35 , 1 36
Water S p iders, 76

webs, 1 3 , 1 5 , 52, 54
Web Wolf Spider, 85
Wh ipscorpions,

1 1 6, 1 1 8
W h ipspiders, 1 I 7
W h i te M i c ratheno, 67
W i dows, 1 6 , 1 7, 42-43,

51
W i n dscorpions, 1 1 8 - 1 1 9
W i reworms, 1 50
W o l f S p i ders, 78; 8 2 - 85
Wood l ice, 1 5 2 - 1 53
Wood T i c ks, 1 3 8 , 1 39
Xysti c u s , 96
Ye l l ow Veiovis, 1 25

tro c h a n ter, 9
Trochosa, 1 3
Trog u l idae, 1 3 1
Trog u l us, 1 3 1
Tro m b i c u l a , 1 3 5
Tro m b i c u l idae, 1 35
T ro m b idiformes, 1 3 5 - 1 36
Tro m b id i idae, 1 35
Tro m bid i u m , 1 3 5
True Spiders, 2 6

Zebra S p ider, 99
Zelotes, 86
Zi l l a , 6 1
Zodariidae, 3 1
Zara, 1 4, 91
Zorops idae, 1 1 2
Zoro psis, 1 1 2
Zygiella, 6 1
Zygoribatula, 1 37

B C D E F

SPIDERS
and their kin
A GOLDEN GUIDE
HERBERT W. LEVI, Ph . D. , is Alexander Agassiz profes

sor of zoology and curator of arachnology at the Museum

of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University. He was
born in Germany and received his education at the Uni
versity of Connecticut and the University o f Wisconsi n .

D r . Levi has authored about 1 50 technical publications o n

spiders a n d o n conservation .
LORNA R. LEVI majored in biology at the University of

Wisconsin and has collaborated with her husband on

several publications.
NICHOLAS STREKALOVSKY studied art in England .

After working for the British Museum, he went to Egypt

where he did illustrations of natural history and medical
subj ects for the government. His first work in the United
States was for the Agassiz Museum at Harvard Univer
sity. In the Golden Guide Series he has illu strated Insect
Pes ts and Spiders .
HERBERT S. ZIM, Ph . D . , Sc . D . , an originator and former

editor of the Golden Guide Series, was also an author for

many years . Author of some ninety books and editor of
about as many, he is now Adjunct Professor at the Uni
versity of Miami and Educational Consultant to the Amer
ican Friends Service Commit.tee and other organizations.
He works on educational, population, and e nvironmental
problems .
GOLDEN PRESS

NEW YORK

....- ....--

..

/,

l'

A GO DEN -GUIDE