CHAPTERl

INTERROGATING CASTE, GENDER AND PATRIARCHY: TRACING

HISTORIES OF THE ANTI-CASTE MOVEMENT IN MAHARASHTRA
This chapter underlines the revolutionary struggle of the anti-caste movements
in Maharashtra drawing out its phases and mapping the ways in which the
counter-cultural practices of these movements interrogated caste, gender and
patriarchy. This is an effort to outline the ways in which the counter cultures of
the political struggles of Jotiba Phule, Shahu Maharaj and Babasaheb Ambedkar
fashioned a path for anti-caste feminism-which in retrospect may be called
Phule, Ambedkarite feminism.
Section 1: Rise of an Oppositional Culture- Jotiba Phule
The 19th and 20th century Maharashtra witnessed a major social transformation
with several reformers raising the issues of women such as child marriage, age of
consent for marriage, sati, widowhood, education and so on. 1 There were two
groups in the Maharashtrian society-the progressive and the conservative. In
order to reform the Hindu society, the progressive group formed various
organisations like Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Prarathana Samaj etc., under the
rubric of Hinduism. However, the conservative group remained within the social
space of Hinduism. 2 The two groups emerged as a response to the Christian
missionaries. Hence, the Christian missionaries successfullv unveiled the
J

Geraldine Forbes (1996), The New History of lndia: Women in Modern India, Cambridge University
Press, p. 12; Also see a Marathi book by Gangadhar Khanolkar (ed.) (1975), Ekonisaya Shatakatil
Maharashtra, Aurangabad: Sahitya Sahakar Sangh Limitated Prakashan Aurangabad, p. 21; and
Y.D. Phadake (2005), Visavya Shatakatil Maharashtra, Vol. I, K'Sagar Publication, pp. 38-57.
2 Ibid.; Also see Rosalind O'Hanlon (1985), Caste, Conflict and ideology: Mahatama ]otirao Phule and
Lo<l' Ca~te Prote~t in nineteenth Century Western India, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.
88-102.
1

19

hierarchy that existed between man and women in general and the caste system
in particular. 3

For instance, the 15 November 1854 edition of Dnyanodaya4 newspaper described

the differences between Christianity and Hinduism as thus.

Christian Religion:
a) Faith in the sole and universal God is considered the
bedrock of Christianity.
b) God is cosmopolitan and has a kingdom. He has no limits
and boundaries. He is powerful enough to govern his
autonomous regime.
c) He is free and exists as a master of the flora and fauna of the
entire universe. He is above the domination of others.
d) God created the entire elements of the universe.
e) God exists as a cosmopolitan entity.
f) God protects everyone. The entire flora and fauna is

dependent on God.
g) God stands for virtues.
h) God is the living spirit.
i) God is the epitome of divinity.

j) He stands as a symbol of innocence. God exists beyond the

tactile sensations.

O'Hanlon (1985), Caste, Conflict and ideology: Mahatama ]otirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in
nineteenth Century Western India, pp. 50-87.
~ Dnyanodaya, 15 November 1854.
3

20

k) God is against sinners and he believes in the destruction of

sin. As a part of that mission, he sent his son to earth.

Hindu Religion:
a) God who gives you everything exist in thirty-three crore
forms.
b) God believes in the illusion and desire called women. The
ramification of it is part of the entire world. Inscriptions
(Shatras) show the powerlessness of Hindu Gods.

c) God is determined out of rituals. Those rituals are under the

control of Brahmin priests.
d) Hindus gives the form to their God.
e) God is confined within the boundaries of temples.
f) God is festooned with jewels but he is incapable of

protecting it.
g) Hindu cosmos (Brahma) abound with vices.
h) God is lifeless and carved out of stone.
i) God is silent like incarnation of Buddha.

j) Hindus clean their God everyday. It becomes Impure

through the touch of lower caste.
k) Gods are involved in the proliferation of sins.

However, scholars like James Mill take a theoretical position and draw attention
to the fact that in a barbaric society the status/location of women had always
been degraded. 5 He argues that a woman achieves the highest status in

James Mill (1848), HistonJ of India, Edited by Wilson H.H_, London, p. 445.

T1-l-tS""637
21

progressive and civilised societies. He cited a number of examples from the

Manusmriti and Hindu Dharmashatras in which some rules were imposed only on

women. For example, it prescribes that a woman should not eat food before
husband has eaten, should not acquire knowledge, should not have a share in the
property of father etc.6 Therefore, he says that the laws/rules of these

te~ts

constructs the dependency of women upon man and provides the legitimate
rights to man~ 7 These debates raised the role of religion that foregrounds linkages
on gender, caste hierarchy and patriarchy in public and private sphere. The
women who created spaces for themselves belonged to the high caste/class
Hindus; they were able to establish an autonomous organisation by emphasising
on education. Moreover, they not only challenged the religious ideas of the
dominant society but also overcame the barrier of religiously-sanctioned norms
of a patriarchal society. 8 However, the issue of untouchable women remains
unaddressed in every sphere.

On the other hand, lower caste women brought out the liberating and vibrant

ideas by directly attacking the patriarchy/masculinity in the public and private

domain. 9 For example,

Tarabai

Shinde

Stri-Purusha

Tulana

(1882)

problematised the comparison between men and women. While comparing

them, she pointed out that faults commonly ascribed to women, such as
superstition, suspicion, treachery and insolence were found to ever more

b Ibid, pp. 447-49.

'Ibid ,p.449-50
& Uma Chakravarti (1998), Rewriting History: The life and time of Pandita Ramabai, Kali for women,
p. 77; P.G. Jogdand (ed.) (1995), Dalit women in India, Gyan Publication.
0
Phule in his writing used the word Shudra for all caste communities' women and Ati-Shudra
for untouchables.

22

common in men. 10 She also brought out a polemic on the practice of remarriage
and the opposition of other castes towards it. The nature of colonial aesthetics
that redefine the dress code and social body of male and female is a subtext of
her work. Such premise of argument links it with the exploitation of native
artisans and the cultural onslaught of colonial aesthetics. A kind of paradigm
shift was achieved through the deconstruction of patriarchy that determines the
sexual division of labour and role reversals of the women. The symbolic violence
of dominant Hindu scriptures-regulated life worlds of those women are
undermined through this work.

However, the basic roots and cause of this discourse began with Jotirao Phule
who debated the Shudras 11 and Ati-shudras. 12 Jotirao Govindarao Phule was born
on 11 April 1827. He belonged to Mali caste. His family name was Gorhe. His
ancestors lived in the village named Katgaon. 13 According to Manusmriti, if a
Shudra acquires property, it must be handed over to a Brahman. Jotirao's
grandfather Shetiba had a confrontation with the Kulkarni of the village who
demanded property. He moved to Pune. He had three sons Ranoji, Krishna and
Govind. Govind, the father of Jotirao, was the youngest of the three sons. Since
the family was poor, the three children, for an amount of one paisa14, worked as
shepherds. 15 Since the Phule siblings were industrious, over a period of time,
they were recommended by their superiors to work under the regime of Peshwa.
Tarabai Shinde (1882), Stri-Purush Tulana, Poona, translated by Rosalind O'Hanlon, "A
Comparison between Women and Men: Tarabai Shinde and the Critique of Gender Relations in
Colonial India".
11 This word was used by Phule to mean the caste such as Mali, Kunbi, Tali etc., throughout his
writings. In the present context, aU these castes are considered as Bahujan.
12 This word was used by Phule for women and untouchables.
1
~ Pandhrinath Sitaram Patil (1927), Biography of ]otirao Phule, in Marathi, p. 1.
14 Paisa is a Marathi word, which is use in English, for money.
1' Patil (1927), Biography of ]otirao Phule, p. 1.
10

23

They worked as florists in the Durbar. That was how their old surname Gorhe
became Phule. 16

According to O'Hanlon, Phule attended his first school between 1834 and 1838_17
The Peshwa regime was against the education of the Shudras and Ati-Shudras
because the social mobility of them (Shudras and Ati-Shudras) would have led to
the challenging of the regime through power and knowledge, which was
historically denied to women and untouchables. 18 Hence, the Brahmin servant
who worked as a clerk in the shop of his father persuaded him to discontinue the
education of Phule. But, Guffar Beg Munshi and Mr Leggit encouraged his father
to send Phule to school. At the age of fourteen, in 1841 Jotiba Phule restarted his
schooling again. He was admitted in the first standard of an English school.1 9

One of the incidents that left him shaken and made him think about the inhuman
attitude of Brahmans towards Shudras took place during the marriage ceremony
of his Brahman friend. In the ceremony, some Brahmans, after corning to know
of his caste identity, began discriminating him. 20 This harsh experience provoked
him to read the Hindu scriptures. It dawned on him then that the scriptures were
mere ideological tools to govern the Shudras and Ati-Shudras. 21

16

The name is derived from the Marathi word 'Phul' which means flower
O'Hanlon (1985: 110).
1
s Pandharinath Sitaram Patil (1927), "Biography of Jotirao Phule", pp. 3-4 & 6, from the personal
collection of Gutum Shinde.
19
Gail Omvedt (1976), "Cultural Revolt in a Colonial Society: The Non-Brahman Movement in
Western India: 1873 to 1930", Bombay: Scientific Socialist Education Trust, p. 106.
10
Patil (1927), Biography of ]otirao Phule, p. 9; Also see Dhananjay Keer (1974), Mahatma ]otirao
Phoolcy, Popular Prakashan, p. 17.
11 Ibid., p. 11.
17

24

Therefore, he initiated a counter culture through the subversive potential of

knowledge; he established schools for the Shudras and Ati-shudras. In the 15
September 1853 edition of Dnyanodaya, Phule explained the reason for his
eagerness to start schools for girls. In it, he acknowledged the role of the mother
in imparting knowledge to the child. He, however, argued that to bring about
prosperity and to build a strong nation, it is imperative to improve the status and
condition of the women by emphasising education for women. 22

Jotirao founded the first school for girls in 1848 at Bheedewada. 23 In doing so,
Phule was confronted with the harsh fact of not having any Pantoji to teach the
children. This was because all the Brahmans in the city of Pune were against
education of women and untouchables. 24 Consequently, during the course of his
struggle against the hegemony of Brahmans, Phule decided to train his wife
Savitribai as a teacher. At Normal school under Madam Michal and Miss Farrar,
Savitribai completed her course as school instructor/teacher from Ahmadnagar
and Pune, and became the first women teacher in the history of Maharashtra.25
Hence, one can argue that Jotiba Phule was instrumental in imbuing political
consciousness in the personality of Savitribai and thus drawing the lines of
gender equality.

Savitribai and }otirao dedicated themselves for the amelioration of inequality of

women and untouchables. They started the first school for untouchable girls in

Dnyanodaya, 1853.
Bheedewada is located in Budhwarpeth at Pune, (ibid, p. 14). It was established on 1 January
1848. For details see M.G. Mali (2006), "Krantijoti Savitribai Phule" in Hari Narke (ed.) Mahatama
Phule Sahitya aani Chalval, Government of Maharashtra Publication, p. 421.
24 Pantoji is the word used for a school teacher coming from the Brahmin caste.
2 ' Phulvantabai Zogade (2006), "Satyasodhak Samajachya Netaya:Savitribai Phule", in Savitribai
Phule: Kal Aani Karthutlwa, Government of Maharashtra, p. 53; and Mali (2006: 424).

12

23

25

1848. Phule established two more schools for girls, one each in 1851 and 1852.
The school that opened at Nanapeth in 1851 was historical; Savitribai Phule had to
face the day-to-day discriminations from the retrogressive Brahmins. 26 They
threw stones and cow-dung on her and several times accused her of being an
immoral womanY Nevertheless, in the first school of 1848 the majority were
Brahmin girls from the progressive Brahmins; Phule never brought in castebiased insights while teaching these girls. One can argue that Phule theorised
education as the only source of knowledge that will liberate women and
untouchables from all sorts of exploitation.

For instance, Phule' s student Mukta Salve wrote an essay "Mang Maharanchya
Dukhavisatha (About the grief of the Mang and Mahar).28 Her essay reveals the

plight of Dalit women. Dalit women delivered their children in houses that did
not have a cover up. She raised a very sensible question for Dalits in general and
Dalit women in particular. Attacking Hindu religion she explains how Brahmins
snatched the lands of the poor Mang and Mahar people and built their own huge
houses on them. Incriminating Bajirao Peshwa's regime, she wrote that the
Mangs and Mahars were tortured as though they were worse than dogs and
cows.

If a Mang or Mahar crossed the Talimkhana (gymnasium), his body will be cut

into two pieces as punishment. Then severed body parts were used as bat and
The school was meant for the untouchable children as well.
lt is important to understand that how the Brahmins of Pune tortured Savitribai, but Ranba
Mahar, Lahujibuva Ustad Salve, a Mang and Duraji Appaji Chamar always accompanied her as a
bodyguard. Savitribai died in 1897 due to plague, which she caught while serving the lower caste
specially the untouchables. For details see Patil (1927), Biography of ]otirao Phule, p. 7-22.
28 This essay by Mukta was written in 1885, originally in Marathi. Mukta was Mang Dalit girl in
Phule' s school. She was 11 years old when she wrote this essay. For details, see Mahatma Phule
Gavrav Granth, Government of Maharashtra Publication, 1991, p. 747-48.
26

27

26

ball in a game. The head was the ball and sword the bat. But no one had the
courage to try and save them. If Mangs and Mahars managed to save their own
lives at all, Bajirao would ask, how dare untouchables save their lives? He further
sarcastically remarked as to whether the untouchables were expecting the
Brahmins to handover their jobs and duties. In this manner Mukta Salve
highlighted several prominent issues relating to class and caste.

She posed

philosophical questions such as: which Dharma (religion) is ours (for

untouchables)? She critically analysed how Brahmins manipulated religion and
poor people, just to be able control the knowledge and power relations in the
society.

Moreover, Phule started the night schools and adults' school to meet the needs of
those students. 29 During 1848-1852, Phule started around twenty schools in the
city of Pune. His critical views on education can be understood from his
'Memorial Addressed to the Education Commission'. 30 Phule reflected upon the
need of education to empower lower caste and women, and appreciated the
philanthropy of colonisers in the field of education. By communicating with the
colonisers, he was able to convince them to look into the education of the
vulnerable sections. Thus, he succeeded in exposing the way the dominance of
Brahmins operates in the terrain of education.

On the one hand, Phule deployed the colonial forces to challenge the
Brahmanical hegemony. On the other hand, he also faulted the mlers for merely
implementing an education system without engaging the downtrodden masses.
Ibid., p. 25.
'A statement for the information of the Education commission' mentioned in "Memorial
Addressed to the Education Commission", in Keer, Malase and Phadake (eds.) (2006), Mahatma
Phule Samagra Vangmaya,, Government of Maharashtra, Mumbai, 2006, pp. 243-54.

29
30

27

He advocated favourable policies and incentives like scholarships for students

from the impoverished sections; he took a strong position on this issue by
arguing that inclusion of children without supporting scholarships will create
further exclusion because of their poor life chances. However, he was also aware
of the discriminations within education institutions resulting in traumatic
experiences for the Mahars, Mangs and other lower classes. 31 The rampant nature
of this undesirable situation can be observed in the contemporary writings of
Dalit communities. In order to solve these problems, he had recommended
construction of special schools for lower caste students. Phule argued that the
dominant communities of Brahmin teachers are alienated from the social worlds
of the marginalised students. So, only teachers from the lower caste can
understand the existential problems of the students. Therefore, he recommended
curriculum that incorporated areas such as vocational education, ethics, agrarian
ethos and applied arts. He further argued that only trained teachers can produce
the best education. He, hence, conceptualised education as a tool to create overall
development of the marginalised sections, particularly women. However,
modem India's education system and institutions have failed to incorporate
Phule' s approaches.

The problem of the Brahman widows was more critical in the 19th century. For
instance, it was customary among the upper castes for widows to tonsure their
heads. In fact, it was one of the ways of controlling the body and sexuality of the
widows in the patriarchal society. Jotirao and Savitribai challenged this practice
by asking barbers not to shave the heads of widows and organised successful

31

Phule often uses the word "classes" to mean the downtrodden masses; probably he is
influenced by the European epistemologies of the category like caste.

28

protests against it.32 Many a time, such women were exploited with many ending
up becoming pregnant. Often, they would either try to kill the babies or commit
suicide themselves. Phule founded a foundling house to give space to these
women to deliver their babies. 33 Phule also supported the remarriage of widows
and established an organization called 'Widow Remarriage Organization'. 34 The
first such remarriage took place in the year 1864 among the Shenavi caste, made
possible by the courage of Phule. He also discussed the age of consent for
marriage and sent a petition to British Government asking them to take serious
notice of it. To understand Phule's position on this issue, we must consider his
views on the Malabari note. 35 Malabari, a social reformer, in 1884, wrote a special
note to the Viceroy Lord Ripen on the issues of child marriage and enforced
widowhood. He demanded that legal incentives have to be taken to control
child/infant marriages and enforced widowhood.36 While dealing with the
question of gender and patriarchy in the case of Malabari, Phule voiced his
opinion on infant marriage in India. Phule considered the case as a positive legal
move that challenged an unfair Indian tradition.

According to Phule, a girl had to undergo different facets of exclusion. A girl

becomes an outcaste because of the ingrained habituation and the reproduction
of patriarchy. The metaphor 'outcaste' signifies the impeachable norms of caste
and gender. The sexual and domestic division of labour enforces the
Vidhya Bal and Anil Parajale (2006), Savitribai Phule Kal aani Karthuthva, Government of
Maharashtra, pp. 4 & 63.
33 O'Hanlon (1985: 119).
34 Ani) Pranjale (2006), 'Shikshan Shastrakhynya: Savitribai', in Savitribai Phule: Kal aani Kartuthva,
Government of Maharashtra, pp. 63-64.
35 See two notes of Malabari in Keer, Malase and Phadake (eds.) (2006: 348-352).
6
' Lord Ripen sought the opinion of 68leading people from Bombay region on the issue. Fortyseven reformers responded in the negative saying the law should not be amended. However,
Phule took a radical position on the issue; his views are spelt out in the Malabari case.
32

29

subordination of women. Hence, Phule compared the labour of women to that of

the labour of the Afro-Americans. Phule used the minor literature of resistance
through the deployment of such metaphors.37 Those metaphors represent the
parallels of subjugation that exist across multiple social systems. Phule suggested
that the boys should be over the age of nineteen and girls over the age eleven
during the time of marriage. Therefore, one can argue that the suggestions
become a unified discourse in the life of Jotirao Phule_ the organic intellectual.
The atrocities taking place in institutions such as infant marriage are covered up
through the networks of the girl's in-laws with the legal systems. Phule tries to
articulate the multifaceted dimensions of oppressions that determine the
marginalized location of a girl. Infant marriage also recreates the carnal and
misogynistic aspects of the life of the woman. 38 Phule welcomed the attempts of
the literati from colonial Bengal against infant marriage. He, however, argued
that the articulation of Bhadralok literati is an expression of their cultural capital_
and the marginalised lower sections suffered because of their inability to
articulate their problems in the public sphere due to their subordinate status
determined by the caste system.

He linked the inequality with access to education and questioned the power that
Brahmans had over the legal systems and concerned authorities. He also
suggested that parents who support these traditional practices should be made to
pay a penalty. The money obtained through such punishments should then be
spent for the education of the lower classes. 39 He also pointed out the spread of
Brahrnanical ideology through the Brahmin teachers. Therefore, he demanded

37

Claire Colebrook (2002), Gilles Deleuze, Routledge Publication, p. 103.

>s See two notes of Malabari in Keer, Malase and Phadake (eds.) (2006: 348--352).
~9

Ibid.

30

English education for the subaltern sections. His engagement with education and
legal reforms were part of his endless search for modernity. In response to
another case of Malabari on enforced widowhood, Phule argued that the system
of enforced widowhood created vulnerability among the Brahmin women.

In his understanding, enforced widowhood had to be confronted like polygamy

which is sanctioned through the Aryan institutions for males. 40 The practice of
polygamy itself affects different women and it results in moral turpitude of the
system. Man becomes more nihilistic and tries to cleanse his sins through
religion. On the other hand, a Brahman widow is forced to face discriminations
in her day-to-day life because of the stigma associated with widowhood. 41 The
expression of desires outside the boundaries of monogamy was repressed as
deviance. Thus, sexuality of women was subjected to the surveillance of the
religious order and stereotyped as prostitutes by the community. He
conceptualised this case as legal step to enlighten the English government to
annihilate the dominant ideology that legitimised the practice of widowhood.
Phule established the Satyasodhak Samaj in 1873 and the Satyasodhak newspapers

Din Bandhu and Din Mitra in 1875 and 1881 respectively. These two streams of
actions was itself a subjugated knowledge that has a historicity of its own. 42 As
Gail Omvedt argues, Satyasodhak Samaj confronted the traditional Hinduism and
the constructed direct relationship of God and man. 43 It was informed by the

Bhakti cult and rationality of Buddhism. However, the most foundational practice
of Phule can be seen from his promotion of inter-caste marriages, which was
40

Jbid.

41

Ibid and also see Hari Narke(2006) "Dhyanajoti Savitribai Phule", in Mahatama Phule: Sahitya
aani Chalaval", Government of Maharshtra,p.448.
42 See Michel Foucault (1980), Po-wer/Knowledge, edited by Colin Gordon, Pantheon, p. 83.
43 Gail Omvedt (1976), Cultural Revolt in Colonial Society: The Non-Brahman Movement m
Maharashtra, 1873-1933, Sdentific Socialist Education Trust, p. 137.

31

performed under Satyasodhak Samaj marriages.44 The marriage of Radhabai

Nimbalkar and Sitaram Alhat in 1873 was the first registered marriage. Phule
strongly resented the presence of priests and recital of Dashavtar verses;
therefore, he composed the psalms of Satyasodhak marriages, which was based
upon truth and equality for all human being.45 One of the most important
interventions of Phule was to open the water tank for untouchables giving them
mobility during that time. The writings and practical approaches of Phule had a
remarkable impact on the lives of women and untouchables. Phule's writings
expose the forms of power, knowledge and exploitation that enslave the
untouchables and women systematically in order to construct caste and gender
inequality and further strengthen patriarchy. 46

Mahatma Jotirao Phule penned a play entitled 'The Third Eye' 47 in 1855, to
challenge the

s~.

rnbolic capital of the Brahrnins. 48 It was an attempt to explore a

different form of knowledge, which questioned the hegemony of the

Brahmanical

S} sterns

of knowledge. The play is based on the subjugation of an

illiterate and .:onservative peasant family by a shrewd Brahmin priest, and

explains their regaining of their consciousness through Christianity. Phule
portrays Hinduism as a cultural code imposed from the dominant realm of

The marriage .Jf Phule's son Yashwant was an inter-caste marriage. But in his marriage Govind
Ganpat Kale reited the Dashavtar. Phule did not like this idea of reciting Dashavtar. Later, he
composed the' erses from Satyasodhki style which denied any Hindu rituals. Thus, he broke the
monopoly of Bhataji and Salji, created its aura in the lower caste and made history too. For details
see Narke (200!.: 179).
45
Keer, Malasf and Phadake (eds.) (2006), Mahatma Phule Samagra Vangmaya, pp. 433-42).
46
It is not pos ible to discuss all of Phule's writings in detail. However, most of Phule's writings
attacked the c pportunistic attitude of the Brahmins to exploit the marginal castes, classes and
women throu :~h religion.
47
The play dr scribes the oppression of the lower castes and its genesis of this oppression. For
details see Kf ?r, Malase and Phadake (eds.) (2006: 3-33). Also see O'Hanlon (1985: 122-28).
48
Pierre BoUJ Jieu (2001), Practical Reason: On the Theory of Action, Polity Press, p. 47.
44

32

ritually high castes to survive through the priesthood. The main characters in the
play are: a Brahmin priest, a poor cultivator and his wife, and a Christian priest.
The joker represents the non-Brahrnanical conscience of the play. The Brahmin
priest visits the wife of the peasant. 49 He uses astrological jargons to establish a
rapport with her. He told her that the zodiac signs suggested that the life of her
unborn baby was in danger. The priest suggested a macabre ritual to avert the
impending tragedy. The husband and wife were told to conduct ceremonies and
offer a feast to the Brahmins. The husband and wife considered this tum in their
life as a result of Karma. They borrowed money from a moneylender and tried to
fulfil the priest's suggestion even in the midst of penury. 50 The couple then met a
Christian priest after serving the food for the Brahmin gourmets. In the ensuing
dialogue, the Christian priest asserted that god did not exist in the
pandemonium of organised religion. He argued that a true god is one who
created the earth but is detached from the society's hierarchical institutions.51
Through the Christian priest, the cultivator realised the nature of the exploitation
by the Brahmins in the name of spirituality. The astuteness of the Brahmins was
a means to extract everything from the poor and ignorant masses. The
supremacy of the Brahmins is constructed through the recognition of the
backwardness of the Shudras and Ati-shudras. The enlightened couple conveys
their gratitude to the Christen priest and decides to join Phule's schooJ.52 The
decision to join the school of Phule is a self-conscious style of narration to show
the anti-Brahmanical ideology among the Shudras and Ati-shudras.

Keer, Malase and Phadake (eds.) (2006) Mahatma Phule Samagra Vangmaya, pp. 5-33; Rosalind
O'Hanlon (1985), Caste, Conflict and Ideology: Mahatama ]otrirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in
nineteenth Century Western India, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 122-28.
50 Ibid.
1
" lbid.
52
Ibid.
49

33

The play's historical relevance is its elaboration of how lower castes are subjected
to the Brahmanical patriarchy and its related knowledge systems. The priest
approaches the woman to spread the Brahmanical ideology. Thus, through
exposing the strategies of the Brahmins, the play becomes a minor literature in
nature. 53 Phule brought about a textual revisionism of the meta-narratives of
Hinduism that romanticised the dominant role of the Brahmins.

The play also tries to evaluate the colonial modernity that emerged with the
advent of Christianity. He narrates how a Brahmin creates his social space by
exercising the newly acquired knowledge upon Shudras and Ati shudras. 54 Phule
was vigilant about the presence and dominance of Brahmins in the native as well
as colonial systems like schools of vernacular medium, English medium schools,
judiciary, revenue department etc. The Brahmins perpetuated their domination
through creating networks among their community and arranging for the
induction of members of their own community in the different bodies of
administration. To do away with the domination of the Brahmins in different
spheres of society, Phule represented the Brahmin character as the epitome of
organised hypocrisy. The Dakshina prize committee rejected the play Phule sent
for publication. Brahmins, along with Europeans, made up the selection
committee. Therefore, it was not surprising that the play was rejected by the
committee; the play's scathing attack on the Brahmins was there for all to see.

53
'>I

Colebrook, Gilles Deleuze, p. 103.

Tbid., p. 3.

34

Phule was a radical feminist by nature; this is readily evident from his Satsar I
and 11.55 On finding that women's existence or chastity was challenged and
questioned in many ways, Pandita Ramabai converted to Christianity; this was
criticised by the progressive Brahmins. Phule defended her, by taking the
position that every individual is free and this can be practiced as the right to
choice, even if he/she should remain under the hegemony of any religion. Phule
creates fictional alter egos such as Brahmin and Shudras to contemplate his
positions on the courageous act of Pandita Ramabai. The fictional space that is
constructed through the Brahmin represents the ambivalent positions of the
Brahmins. Through the Shudras character he challenges the knowledge that
emanates from the power of Brahmins which despised her choice. 56 Thus, he also
shows us, how the priestly class interpolated the religious texts to suit their
interest. In the second issue of Satsar, Phule examines the misogynistic attitude
evidenced by the criticism of Pandita Ramabai; this attitude is an inherent
representation of Brahmin culture. The print media, especially the newspaper,
stereotyped women thorough the masculine consensus within society. The
internalization of patriarchal ideology by the lower caste also made even lower
caste male members of the Satyasodhak Samaj to oppose the conversion. For
instance, Phule was wiJiing to publish Satsar in the Dinbandhu newspaper, which
was jointly created by Phule and Narayan Maghaji LokandeY However,
Lokande and Bhalerao rejected his idea and condemned the conversation of
Ramabai. They were not pleased with Phule's idea of attacking Hindu religion. 58
Therefore, Phule shows us how multiple patriarchies operated even within his
55

Satsar, according to Phule is 'The essence of truth'. See Keer, Malase and Phadake (eds.) (2006),
Mahatma Plm/e Samagra Vangmaya, pp. 356-96. For the English version see G.P. Deshpande (ed.)
(2002), Selected Writing of ]otirao P/wle, Leftworld, pp. 26-99.
56 Foucault (1980), Power/Knowledge, p. 83.
57
Maghaji Lokande is the first trade leader; he founded the trade union in 1891.
5s Keer, Malase and Phadake (eds.) (2006), Mahatma Phule Samagra Vangmaya.

35

own organization and society. Gulamgiri is his one of his most important
pioneering work; in it he tackled the issues of gender, caste and patriarchy.59

The text of 'Gulamgiri/Slavery' explored the signs linked with slavery. 60 It shows
us the endless displacements that are associated with the discourse of slavery;
these are analysed to bring out the post-foundational premises of slavery. Thus,
Phule dedicates this work to the good people of America who had abolished
slavery. The dedication itself leaves an open-ended analysis related to slavery. It
also demands the attention of the colonizers to abolish the dominance of
Brahmins. 61 This particular construction of the dedication tries to transcend
tradition and appropriate colonial modernity. A critical dialogue emerged
through the consensus and conflict between the colonizers and Phule. These
ideological and meaningful contraries are his defensive mechanism to challenge
his native elite/other/Brahman. 62 The suppression of the egalitarian Shudra king
Baliraja by the Brahman connotes the beginning of the Brahmanical power. The

dialogue between Phule and the fictitious character Dhondiba deals with the
absence of humanity among the Brahmins. He observes that the Brahmin
bureaucracy created social capital through their constructed and epistemic
priorities related to knowledge. Brahmans emphasise their authority through the

Original in Marathi, "Gulamgiri", in Keer, Malase and Phadake (eds.) (2006), Phule Samagra
Vangmaya, Government of Maharashtra, Mumbai, pp. 119-201 For the English version see Slavery,
Co1lected Works of Mahatama Jotirao Phule, Vol. ], pp. 1-87, translated by P.G. Patil,
Government of Maharashtra; Also see, G.P. Deshpande, (ed.) (2002), Selected Writing of ]otirao
Phule, pp. 2&-99.
60 Ferdinand de Saussure (1998), "Course in General Linguistics", in William McNeill and Karen
S. Feldman (eds.), Continental Philosophy: An Anthology, Blackwell Publication, p. 297.
61 Original in Marathi "Gulamgiri" in Keer, Malase and Phadake (eds.) (2006), Phule Samagra
Vangmaya, pp. 119-201. For the English version see Slavery, Collected Works of Mahatama Jotirao
Phule, Vol. I, pp. 1-87,translated by P.G. Patil, Government of Maharashtra. Also see G.P.
Deshpande, (ed.) (2002), Selected Writing of]otirao Pl11tle, pp. 2&-99.
62
Ibid.
59

36

dominant stereotypes like Parasurama. The patriarchy associated with their

scriptures is pregnant with these fictional manifestations. He tries to unveil the
authenticity of the Hindu texts like Bhagavat where he contrasts it with Aesop's
fables and argues that latter are more credible than the former. 63 This contrast is

symbolic of the irrational textuality that abounds in the corpus of Hindu religion.
Phule tried to associate the existence of the dominant ideology in different
aspects of the subjugation of the Shudras and Ati-shudras.64 Phule constructed
counter spaces of dissent through organisations, print and visual media to
articulate the subjugated voices of women, peasants etc. Brahmins are portrayed
as arrogant and inhuman in nature. 65 Thus, Phule tries to foreground caste,
gender and patriarchy through the knowledge and power associated with
Brahmins and their seminal text Manusmriti. Phule questioned the history of the
Aryans and projected the history of the native Shudras and Ati-shudras.

Phule' s writing and approaches restructured the history that was based upon the
critique of categories of 'self' and 'other'. During his lifetime, Phule developed
alternatives models and methodologies to eradicate caste, gender and patriarchy.
As Keer rightly pointed out, Phule was a social revolutionary.

For further exploration, see Slavery of Phule.

Ferdinand de Saussure (1998), "Course in General Linguistics", p. 297.
65 Original in Marathi Gulamgiri in Keer, Malase and Phadake (eds.) (2006), Phule Samagra
Vangnzaya, pp. 119-201. For English version see Slavery, Collected works of Mahatma Jotirao
Phule, Vol. I, pp. 1-87, translated by P.G. Patil, Government of Maharashtra.
63

t>t

37

Section II: An Era of Praxis - Shahu Maharaj

Shahu Maharaj was born in 1874 as Yeshwantrao Ghatge. He was the eldest son
of Appasaheb Ghatge. Anandibai, widow of Maharaja Shivaji IV of Kolhapur,
adopted him in 1884. Shahu as a king assumed the responsibility of the State in
1894.66 He ruled from 1894 to 1922. Shahu Maharaj introduced a number of
reforms for the welfare of his subjects in general and the untouchables in
particular. Throughout his life, his aim was to remove social inequalities and
bring about gender justice. For that, he introduced laws and orders and
implemented them. Therefore, one can assert that Chhatrapati Shahu carried
forward the legacy of Mahatma Phule's Satyasodhak movement with full
dynamism and rigour.
In
1894, after being invested with ruling powers, Shahu Maharaj saw that the
maximum numbers of office bearers in the State were Brahmins. Other backward
castes and lower castes did not have any representation in the state services. 67
This was because they had been systematically excluded from the education
system. To challenge this system, Shahu took the first radical step in 1896-97 by
founding five special separate schools for the one hundred and sixty eight low
caste students. 6s

Gail Omvedt (1976), Cultural Revolt in a Colonial Society: The Non-Brahman Movement in
Maharashtra, 1873-1930, Poona Scientific-Socialist Education Trust, p. 124. Also see Dhananjay
Keer (1976), Shahu Chhatrapati: A Royal Revolutionary, Popular Prakashan, p. 31.
67
Ibid., p. 125.
6s Reports on the General Administration of the Kolhapur State 1897-98, p. 105.
66

38

Apart from this, Shahu's policy of affirmative action was remarkable, with 50 per
cent of the posts in State services reserved for the Backward Class candidates. 69
This pioneering order of 26 July 1902, reads thus: "Since the date of this order 50
per cent of the vacancies shall be recruits from among the backward classes. In
all offices in which the proportion of officers of the backward classes at present is
less than 50 per cent, the next appointment shall be given to a member of those
classes. All Heads of Departments shall submit a quarterly return of all
appointments made after the issues of this order. For the purpose of these orders
the backward classes shall be understood to mean all castes other than Brahmins,
Prabhu, Shenavi, Parsees and other advanced classes." 70 However, education was
made mandatory for all children from the age group of seven to fourteen, cutting
across caste and religion. Moreover, during 1900--1905, Shahu had to confront the
Brahmins in the Vedokta controversy.71 The Vedokta controversy occurred because
Shahu's priest servant Rajapadhaya refused to recite the Vedic hymns. Thus, he
challenged the authority of Shahu as king and began to recite the Puranic hymns
for him.

These events reveal the rigidity of caste system, which has a direct relation with
power and knowledge. Nevertheless, the episode of Vedokta controversy
strengthened Shahu' s resolve to break the hegemony of the Brahmins and spread
education among the untouchables of Kolhapur. He founded an education
society in 1908.72 The society secured an annual subscription amount of Rs 300;
Shahu always provided help to it. The immediate purpose of the society was to

69

Karaveer Gazette of 26 July 1902.

Karaveer Gazette, 26 July 1902.

71 Uttam Kamble (2004), "Rajarashri Shahu Maharaj aani Vedokta Prakaran", Sugava, Pune, pp. 530.
72 R.A.K.S. 1907-08, pp. 59-60.

39

help the promising boys studying in Rajaram high school and college to
complete their secondary and higher education. It has a special coaching centre
for the untouchables to train certain boys in vernacular studies.73

Hence, the main motive of the society was to empower the lower caste students
and inculcate in them self-pride and a sense of dignity. The society further
promoted untouchable students by offering special prizes to them at Kolhapur.74
In the same year Shahu started a hostel by name of 'Miss Violet Clarke depressed

boys hostel'. 75 Six students resided in it; two of them were boarders. The
boarding got Rs 25 as scholarship and monthly grant; this amount was increased
annually by Rs 25 beginning in 1911-12.76 Shahu was extremely conscious of caste
hierarchy even among untouchables.

One particular incident reveals that Shahu understood this caste hierarchy. In
1915, one Tukaram Mang requested Shahu for an education scholarship. Shahu
responded positively saying that Mang!Matang child are more backward; for one
year rupees eight was to be given to Tukaram Mang. 77 In the middle of the school
term if anyone was to leave, the scholarship was to be transferred to Mang
children. In addition, to continue the scholarship next year, the moderation
systems had to evaluate the progress of the student. Thus, he had a special
scholarship declared for the Mang students. His vision for the untouchables was
Ibid.
Ibid.
75 Miss Clarke was the daughter of George Clarke, the Governor of Bombay. She had great
compassion for untouchables. She has done much for the emancipation of the depressed classes
in Bombay Presidency. Shahu and Miss Clarke were on the same mission. For details see the
record of Karavir office, Shri Shahu's letter to Miss Clarke, 12 September 1908.
7
~ RA.K.S. 1911-1 2, pp .. 50-60
'' Rnjnro.hri Shahu Chhatrapatincha Nivdaka Aadesh, Archival Department, Government of
Maharashtra, Vol. 11, 1988. p. 107.
73
74

40

profound; he encouraged the education of the children of untouchables using

various schemes.78 In a written resolution, he claimed that he understood the
plight and poverty of untouchables; Karavir Sansthan was thus to provide books,
slates, pencils and free expenditure at the cost of two hundred and five rupees
for untouchable students.79 He arranged night schools for Chamars and Mahars;
these schools were provisional in the early phases but over a period of time they
became permanent night schools.80

The social problems of untouchables were numerous. However, Shahu' s

compassionate handling of their problems motivated them immensely. For
example, Mahars from the Wadi Ratnangiri wrote a letter saying they had no
access to drinking water. 81 They demanded the Government to pay immediate
attention to the digging of wells. His response was encouraging. Arguing that
the concerned area had a major population of Mahars, he directed the Council to
make a provision in which the state executive engineer were to spend one
hundred and eighty three rupees from the shrine of Shri Kedar Linga for digging
the wel1. 82

To eradicate ghettoization of Dalits due to the stigma of untouchability, Shahu

provided dignified posts for them. For example, on 1 February 1917, Nanya
Kedari Mahar Malgaokar, Nanya Gangaram Mahar Wadingkar, Rama Appa
Mang Nagavkar and Keshav Mahabary Mang Kolapurkar were recruited in the

Ibid., p. 41.
Ibid.
8 Kolahapur Daphter, Education Department, Notification Number 460, 06 November 1906.
81 Rajarshri Shahu Chatrapatincha Nivdaka Aadesh, (1988), p. 2.
82 Shahu used a part of donations made to this temple for social action for the welfare of the
marginalised people. See Rajarshri Shahu Chatrapatincha NiPdaka Aadesh, (1988), p. 2.
78

19

41

army with a salary of five rupees. 83 Another example is the resolution for the
promotion of untouchable for the Talathi post.

Intelligent and brave untouchables were considered for promotion as Bhag

Karkun and Avallkarkun. According to Shahu, the appointment and promotion in

government services should be based on their courage and intelligence and caste
bias should not be allowed to operate. 84 In various other professions too, Shahu's
actions had an impact on the lives of Dalits. For instance, he established the

Satyashodhak hotel for Ganagaram Kamble and a tailoring shop for Ganpat
Pawar; he himself visited these places, ate there and had his cloths stitched. The
year 1919 was a landmark in Shahu's anti-untouchability movement. He ordered
the closure of all the schools meant exclusively for the low castes; through these
administrative interventions he tried to do away with inequality. Setting the that
year's Dasara as the dateline, Shahu commanded all separate schools for
untouchables in the Karveer State (excluding Johagiri) closed forever; henceforth
any boy from the untouchable community was to be admitted in Government
schools like other boys of the higher community. 85

Untouchabilitv was abated in schools and sh1dents admitted without caste and
J

religious bias. As official records show, Shahu had all 16 schools meant for the
depressed class students closed forever. 86 Having done that, he transformed all
general schools for the benefit of the education of untouchable students. This
action of his proved to be one of the most effective steps in removing the
crippling conditions imposed on the untouchable students. A similar effort was
Rajarshri Shahu Chhatrapatincha Nivdaka Aadesh (1988), p. 138.
Ibid.
85 K.R.O. Huzoor Resolution. 340,30 September 1919.
86 Ibid.

83
84

42

made in the case of medical institutions in the state; they were ordered to treat
patients from the depressed classes like any other patients. Any officer, dresser
or nurse who objected to this order was asked to resign from the post. B7 Thus,
this legal intervention democratized the Brahmanical spaces of the health
support systems.
All authorities in the state, revenue, judicial, railway or general department must
treat the untouchable government servants with equality. If anyone is found
guilty of it he will forfeit his pensions. 88 The Maharaja himself noted the
callousness of the bureaucrats. Officials lost his order of 15 January 1919. Also his
order of 1 January 1919 was not included in the gazette. He gave instructions that
such irresponsibility of the bureaucrats be penalised.

Shahu noticed that untouchables were isolated from educational institutions and
their entries to these institutions were considered as polluting by the concerned
authorities. The State quarters of the Educational Bodies did not allot property to
them to construct schools. 89 Shahu believed in the liberating aspects of schooling
for the impoverished untouchables to achieve social mobility. He recognised the
democratic dimensions that is ingrained in education and imagined that
education would bring about the social development of untouchables. He
questioned the paradoxical situation of taxing the untouchables and then
discriminated them on the basis of their lower caste identities.Shahu believed
that educational institutions, both private and state bodies, which receive grantin-aid or other infrastructural facilities like buildings, playgrounds etc., should

Ibid., 15 January 1919.

ss Ibid.
89 New Palace Record Bamishi 4, Shahu's Order,18 January, Kolhapur Stale Gazette, 1919.
S7

43

treat untouchables with respect and more generosity than touchables. 90 This was
because touchables had already had their share in the field of education;
untouchables, on the contrary, were underdeveloped and could enjoy the
benefits accruing from the realm of education.

Shahu tried to assimilate the ethos of American Mission Schools in Bangalore. He

also tried to design the institutions according to that style of functioning which
avoided the practice of untouchability.91 His ordered that State aided or funded
educational institution should allow untouchable students to study with self
dignity. Shahu's other revolutionary step was the abolition of forced/bonded
labour by law. He issued the order abolishing forced/bonded labour on 3 May
1920. He questioned the feudal interests which reproduced unfree labour. One of
his orders stated that, those Mahars who have converted their Inam lands into
Rayatawa should be exempted from the service of Veth Veral. 92 Anyone found

engaging these people to Veth Vera[ by force of any kind would be terminated
from government service without pension. If any Patil asked a Mahar to do the
service of Veth Veral or demanded a Mang to do the work of twisting a rope
without any wage, he was to be punished. 93

This intimation was to be forwarded to every village worker (Gaon Kamagar) for
further action. Shahu declared that the payment of Balute of all Watandars
including the Joshis was unnecessary, and that if any service was required from
them, the State would remunerate them in cash. 94 The Mahars, however, were

Ibid.
Ibid.
92 KR.O. Huzoor Resolution No. 1042, 3 May 1920.
93
Ibid.
9
~ KR.O. Huzoor Resolution No. 656, 23 February 1918.
90
91

44

excluded from this order of 22 February 1918, presumably, because he hoped to

protect them through such reforms.

On 3 March 1919 he declared that a fine of up toRs 100 or imprisonment for up

to four days will be a punishment to those who practice the Balutdari system.95

On 28 March 1919, another order was passed declaring that the Ryots need not
pay the Mahars any Balute as the latter were henceforth no longer liable to any
compulsory service. This was an extremely constructive act of abolishing the
Mahar Watan. 96 By an order of 25 June 1918 he declared that the Ryots had no
right to extract services from the Mahars and that the rent-free lands that Mahars
held may be treated as Rayatawa or assessed lands. This experiment was a sincere
attempt to free the lower castes from their traditional/inferior professions
abounding with stigmas. His involvement was a right step in the right direction
for the eradication of their traditionally-inherited profession. His commitment to,
and sympathy for, the low caste people can be gauged from his statements. He
stated that the Mahars, engaged in menial jobs of the rural and urban areas, were
sincere but they continued to live in wretched conditions. According to him, a
civilised society should be sensitive to their plight and try to educate them. Such
statements are illustrative of Shahu's wish to broaden the public sphere.

Moreover, Shahu abolished the system of Hajeri or daily roll call of all the
criminal classes on 31 August 1918.97 According to this notification the Mahar,
Mang, Ramoshi, and Baerad castes would reporting for the daily Hajeri. In fact,

Ibid. The Balutdari system is a traditional system built up by Hindus to exploit the
untouchables. This was banned by Shahu.
90 Speech of Shahu Maharaj at Mangaon Untouchable Parishad, 1920, published in Administrative
Report of Kolhapur, pp. 2-3.
97 K.R.O. Vol. 1,1918.
95

45

due to this daily roll call, the members of these castes had to face a lot of
problems. For instance, even those who were not criminals were forced to attend
the Hajeri. 98 This stigma, put on them simply because they belonged to a
particular caste, made them involve in more crimes. Therefore, by abolishing the
Hajari, Shahu allowed them to live life with dignity. He also declared that
prisoners who showed good conduct would be released after five years. 99

Shahu tried to do away with the concepts of the purity and pollution associated
with commensality. At the Mangaon Conference, he invited Ambedkar to have
dinner with himYJO He asked untouchables to sit near his dining table. Shahu also
shared food with untouchables to help,build confidence in their minds; he then
challenged the caste-oriented behaviour of Brahmins.101 Shahu created a base for
his reform through his day to day dialogue with the untouchables. The convivial
and positive interaction between Shahu and Ambedkar started a new era in the
political history of the Dalits. Shahu met Ambedkar in the year 1919.

Dr. Ambedkar expressed his desire to start a newspaper to air the grievances and
demands of the untouchables. But, he did not have the financial resources to do
it. Shahu offered him Rs 2500 thus helping him start the newspaper. This was
how the first newspaper of the untouchables came into being; it was named
Mooknayak which meant 'leader of the silenced' .102 Shahu had high reverence for

Ambedkar because his astounding scholarship chaiJenged the intellectual

superiority of the Brahmins. Shahu believed that only an intellectual from the

Ibid.
Ibid.
IOO Ibid.
101 Ibid.
102 Ibid.
96
99

46

marginalised section could understand the plight of the marginalised

communities. In his opinion, the untouchables should be led by leaders from
their own community. 103 The intellectual subordination of untouchables by a
non-untouchable leader will only increase their miseries. He delivered a number
of speeches to awaken the consciousness of Dalits and other marginalised
communities at Nasik, Mangaon, Nagpur and Delhi. It can then be argued that
the creation and implementation of laws had a tremendous impact on the lives of
the untouchables.

Gender and Patriarchy: Legal Lenses of Shahu

Shahu Maharaj was responsible for the creation and amendment of a good
number of laws. It will not be wrong to say that Shahu' s effort has redefined the
discourse of gender relation in Maharashtra. Shahu was sensitive to the need for
the education of lower caste girls; he, therefore, established an autonomous
school for Chamar and Dhor girls, who were alienated from education within the
caste. 104 He declared an amount of rupees ninety-six to be spent on women's
education. The budget for a couple of years and some consolidated amount were
kept aside for lower class girl students by order of Shahu. He gave fee
concessions to girl students in Rajaram institutions.

In 1820, Shahu Maharaj reconstituted the Hindu Code Bill that consist of
inheritance of property by women, conjugal rights of husband and wife,
adaptation Jaws, adaptation process, rules and definition of joint families, and

Ibid.
See Ra_iarshri Shahu Chhatrapatincha NiPdaka Aadesh, Archival Department, Government of
Maharashtra, Vol.ll, 1988, p. 45.

103
104

47

equal distribution of property. Also, for the upliftment of Murali and ]ogtin,
Shahu stopped their traditional customary practices with his new rules and
regulations. 105

He asserted that the illegitimate child borne by ]ogtin and Murali should not be
treated unequal. Among the upper castes such as Kshatriyas, Vaishi and
Shudras, children were given their share of the property. But in the case of the
untouchables neither property nor inheritance was given to them. Therefore, it
was a case of further discrimination among the untouchables. The law amended
by Shahu stated that every child should get a share of the inheritance or property
irrespective of the caste of the child. Meanwhile, the child while claiming
property should be at least eight years old. And the various department of
Karveer Sanstheen under the jurisdiction of the court investigated whether

children of ]ogtin and Murali were twelve years, as that was the prescribed age
for their eligibility to inheritance or property. Thus, from the formulations of
these laws, one can argue that Shahu sympathetic of the lot of the ]ogin and

Murali and their children.

Shahu was greatly influenced by the Arya Samaj movement. Thus, he ordered
that inter-caste marriages should be promoted among the Hindus and Jains

105

For details, see the Karaveer Gazette of 17 January 1920. ]ogtin and Murali is a custom
legitimized through Hindu religion. Jogtin and Murali are sacrificial offerings to the gods and
goddesses. In truth, this is a custom to satisfy the carnal pleasures of the richest Hindu and
Hindu priests of the village. This practice still exists in the rural areas of western Maharashtra in
places like Jaisuri and )at. Usua11y, the richest Hindu in the village as well as the Hindu priest of
the temple sexually exploits them in the name of the gods and goddesses. In the process, these
women become pregnant and the cycle continues. The children born are thus the children of the
richest Hindu male and the Hindu Priest. The mothers and children are dependent on them for
their livelihood. In Marathi, the richest Hindu male is called Janaka. Shahu successfully stopped
this custom.

48

communities/religion. He declared that inter-marriages between these two

religion/communities would be considerate legally valid. The main thrust of this
order was the abolition of caste system through the promotion of inter-caste
marriages. In his speech at Nagpur in 1920, he asserted that only exogamy can
break the hegemony of Brahmins. He arranged his sister's106 marriage with the
royal family of Indur kingdom which belonged to the Dhangar community/caste;
in doing so, he showed that he was all for abolition of caste system. 107 Shahu also
supported the 'Patel Bill' of 1917 proposed by Vittalbhai PateL The bill dealt with
issue of the legality of inter-caste marriages. Later, he introduced a resolution in
the central law Mandai for the amendment of the inter-caste marriage act. This
bill

was

denounced

by

conservative

Brahmins such

as

B.G.

Tilak,

Shankaracharya ofPuri and others. But, Shahu Maharaj supported him. 108

Another exciting law, which is applicable even in today, was introduced by

Shahu. It was the law for 'the suppression of cruelty to women.' 109 Shahu
Maharaj argues that families are the most oppressive system for the subjugation
of the women. The main reason is the lack of education in India, especially when
compared to western countries. Hence, the attitude of the society towards
women has been extremely narrow. Hindu religion has imposed limitations for
women in the domestic spheres. 110 Women were tortured within the family in
many ways. As long as illiteracy persists, the retrogressive perception of women
will remain as it is. Hence, brutal physical and mental harassments by husbands
She was a Kshatriya Maratha.
Indur kingdom belonged to the Dhangar community/caste. Dhangars are the shepherd
communities in Maharashtra. This marriage was thus between a Maratha and a Dhangar.
108
Dattatraya Bagade (1982), Chatrapati Shahu Maharaj aani Kayadekanoon, Prakhanya Prakashan, p.

JOb

107

46.
109

For details, see the Karaveer Gazette, 2 August 1919; Also see Rajarshri Shahu Chhatrapatincha
Nivdnka Aadesh, Archival Department, Government of Maharashtra, Volume Jl, 1988, pp. 47-49.
JJO Jbid.

49

or family members are common in the family. Thus, Shahu was a keen observer
of the family system and existence of class within it.

His fundamental argument was that even among high class communities the
brutal treatment of women was rife. But these were never debated in the public
sphere.111 Thus, the philosophy behind the promulgation of the law was that
women should get justice. If anyone was found guilty, he would be punished
with six months imprisonment and a fine of Rs 200. 112 Shahu was truly a liberator
and emancipator of women. The gazetteer of 1919 stated that a girl who had
completed the age of eighteen years could decide for herself whether she wanted
to get married. The right to choose her husband/partner was granted, and it was
announced as a legitimate process. Uttam Kamble (2003: 21) argues that this
particular act, which gives a woman the legitimate right to decide her marriage,
was an absolute individual freedom especially for women. Child marriage denies
women their freedom. Another progressive step for women was the Kolhapur
Divorce Act of 1919, popularly known as Kadi Modane in Marathi. 113 To control
and regulate the monopoly of ]at Panchyat, Shahu introduced these laws.
However, he made it clear that these laws would not apply to the Christians,
Parsis and Muslims; they could practice their own laws. Arguably, Shahu made
these laws to keep the procedures involved in divorce within the secular domain.

In 1917, Shahu introduced the re-marriage registration act. He pointed out that in
the Hindu community, a widow's life was miserable. 114 On the other hand a

111

Ibid.

m Ibid., p. 48.

Ibid., pp. 49-51.

Dattatraya Bagade (1982), Chatrapati Shahu Maharaj aani Kayadekanoon , Prakhanya Prakashan,
p. 51.
113

widower could go for a second or even third marriage. Therefore, he argued that
women should also get the right to live life with dignity and like any other
normal human being. Shahu also supported the empowerment of women
through legal provisions. Shahu was compassionate too. This fact can be gleaned
from his treatment of a women prisoner who died while in jail. According to the
jail resolution number 28, Fattu Kom115 Tukaram died on 14 June 1907. She,
however, left behind a two and half year old daughter. According to Shahu, since
the husband of the dead woman was also in prison, the responsibility of taking
care of the child fell on the jailer.116 In the ultimate analysis, it can one can argued
that Shahu had built up a legal system that gave justice to women in general and
the untouchables in particular. In doing so, the overarching goal was to get ride
of patriarchy.

Section III: Radical Inversion of Caste and Patriarchy - Babasaheb Ambedkar

Ambedkar was the leading force for the emancipation of the untouchables and
women. He was greatly influenced by Phule and Shahu; this can be seen in his
relentless struggle during his lifetime and also while drafting the constitution of
India. Ambedkar was born on 14 April in the year 1891. His father was a
Subhedar in the Military camp. 117 Over a period of time, Lord Kitchener closed the

military services of the Mahars. As a result, his father migrated to Mumbai. His
father came under the influence of Saint Kabir; he pledged himself as a devotee

Kom is word used after a woman's name in those days.

Rajarshri Shahu Chhatrapatincha Nivdaka Aadesh, Archival Department, Government of
Maharashtra, Volume Il, p. 42, 1988.
117 Changhdev Khairmodey (2002), Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, Volume 1, Sugava Publication, p.
46.
115

116

51

of the saint at Satara in the year 1896.118 The father's devotion was passed on to
Ambedkar, who too revered Kabir. According to his biographer Khairmodey
(2002), his original name was Ambavadekkar. But, one of his teachers changed it
into the name Ambedkar. 119 Moreover, Buddhist values and western education
provided him an insight into the liberal democratic values through which he
addressed the question of liberty, equality and fraternity. Using the same
framework, he developed his profound vision on caste, gender and patriarchy.

Ambedkar added a brilliant dimension to the movement of the untouchables. He

deployed his cultural capital to challenge the recalcitrant practices of the
Brahmanical order. He found democracy a potential terrain where he could
address the issues of the untouchables. Zelliot (2004) pointed out that Ambedkar
organised his first conference on caste at Saswad in the year 1903 with Janba
Kamble. He also participated in two conferences of untouchables in 1920. He was
the president in the first conference held at Mangaon in Kolhapur State. The
second conference of the depressed classes was held at Nagpur in 1920, in which
Shahu Maharaj was the president. 120 Ambedkar in his speech argued that some of
the reformers were willing to provide political nomination instead of
legitimizing the election process. He further argues that caste Hindu reformers
cannot understand the plight of the untouchables and therefore cannot represent
them. 121 In 1924, at Barshi of Sholapur, he organized the conference of the
provincial depressed classes in which a resolution was passed to found the
Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha at Bombay.

Ibid.
Ibid., p. 49.
120 See Eleanor ZeiJiot (2004), Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar and The Untouchable Movement, Blumoon, p.
71.
121 Ibid.
llS
l19

52

During the conference a resolution was passed with the goal of taking up the
cause of untouchables. From 1925 onwards a number of schools, hostels and
boarding were established.122 Ambedkar's first newspaper, Mooknayak, was
started in 1920, while the second newspaper Bahishkrit Bharat was started in 1927,
which, however, did not last long. He then created Janata in 1929, which lasted
until 1955 when Prabuddha Bharat came into being. In the 1920s Ambedkar
organised the Bombay textile labour union. The Girani Kamgar strike took place
in 1929, in which Ambedkar endeavoured to establish a large union to fight the
practice of untouchability in textile mills. According to Zelliot (2004), this labour
union was unique; nothing like it had been organised in the history of labour
union movement in India. 123

Ambedkar burned the Manusmriti during the Mahad conference in the year 1927.
The burning of Manusmriti is symbolic of the destruction of the power of Hindu
religion. 124 The Mahad Satyagraha was an attempt to gain the right to the public
water sources. As a symbol of rejection of the religious basis of untouchability,
the classic Hindu law book, Manusmriti was burned. By doing so, Ambedkar
debunked the concept of purity and pollution associated with the rights of
untouchables to drinking water. In his special speech for Dalit women at Mahad
Satyagraha, Ambedkar advised them to share their solidarity with the anti-caste
stmggle. He also pointed out the need to give priority to the women who were
denied access to the male-dominated domain of political spaces.125 Thus, he
encouraged them to engage in the struggle to eradicate untouchability along

Ibid., p. 73.
mJbid.
m Vasant Moon (ed.) (2006}, Baba:=;aheb Ambedkar Writing:=; and Speeches, Government of
Maharashtra Publication, VoL 17, Part 1, pp. 1-3.
1::" Ibid.
122

53

with Dalit men. He used the example of a family problem to make his point; he
pointed out that the solution to a family problem lay in the negotiations between
the male and the female members. Similarly, societal problems should be
resolved with the equal participation of males and females.

He compared the privileged Brahmin women with that of the oppression of the
Dalit women in the public sphere. This comparison was deliberately made to
create aspirations among the Dalit women. He urged them to reject the
stigmatized dress code, ornaments and occupations to eradicate the ideology of
caste that was part of their day-to-day life. At the same time, he focused on the
vital role of education to empower the Dalit women. Thus, Dalit women declared
their affinity to the perspectives of Ambedkar by passing their resolution in that
meeting. Ambedkar thus succeeded in evoking political consciousness among
Dalit women to broaden the direction of the movement against caste.

His temple entry into Amraoti and Kalaram was based on idea of human right of
untouchables. The two Satyagraha were launched in 1927 and 1930 respectively.
Ambedkar justified this Satyagraha by asserting that it was an examination of the
attitude of Hindus towards the modem notions like right towards equality.126
From 1930s onwards Ambedkar gave up his traditional approach of
sanskritization in favour of a more radical method of breaking the Brahrnanical
hegemony. In 1928, Arnbedkar had demanded the abolition of Mahar Watan
Act. 127 According to him, the Mahar Watan Act destroyed the self esteem of the

Ibid., p.181.
Mahar Watan Act was the hereditary act of Mahar. A Mahar would hold a certain post, and
work there day and night. And in the absence of the Mahar servant, his father, mother or any
other family member was bound to provide the service to the government. For this work they
were given a piece of bnd as watan, corn and money which was negligible.
126
127

54

Mahars and unjustly tied them to traditional jobs. The British government,
however, was not interested in increasing the land. Nor were they bothered
about the remuneration which failed to meet the day to day needs of the Mahars.

One of the issues concerning the political rights of untouchables, discussed by

Ambedkar, was the struggle for separate electorate. He appeared before the
franchise committee. He stipulated separate electorates as well as reserved seats
for the depressed classes according to their population. 128 Ambedkar emphasised
that representatives of the untouchables must be elected by the votes of the
untouchables. The committee opposed the untouchables' claim to separate
electorates. However, it allowed communal representation to Muslims and
nomination in the case of depressed classes. 129 Ambedkar was part of the Bombay
provincial committee which worked for the Simon commission on 3 August
1928. He was lampooned as a British stooge for his cooperation with the
colonizers. He defended himself by asserting that depressed classes do not have
any links with the Hindus and that they should be treated as a unique and
autonomous communitv.J3
.;

He was against the nomination of one or two members from depressed classes to
the legislatures. Instead, he demanded that seats should be reserved for the
untouchables in the legislatures. He further demanded that twenty-two out of
one hundred and forty should be allocated to the untouchables in the Bombay

For details, see Changhdev Khairmodey in Marathi (2002), Dr. Bhimrao Ramfi Ambedkar,
Volume IV pp. 17-72 and Volume V, pp. 1-70, Sugava Publication.
12
9 Ibid., Volume IV, pp. 73-174.
L'o Ibid., pp. 171-74.
125

55

legislative council.131 He also demanded adult suffrage along with reservation of

seats. He had differences of opinion with the committee and refused to sign the
report of the committee. He submitted a separate report on 17 May 1929. The
Congress party conducted All-Parties conferences in February as well as in late
May, 1928. A committee was appointed under Pandit Motilal Nehru to draft the
constitution for India. The report, however, did not have a reference to the
representation of depressed classes in the legislature. Ambedkar strongly
criticized the report as an attempt to strengthen the domination of caste Hindus
and Brahmanical reign in society.

Ambedkar and Rao Bahadur Srinivasan represented depressed classes at the

Round table conference in London in 1930.132 It was convened to frame the
constitution of India. ln his speech, he questioned the lackadaisical attitude of the
British government towards the question of untouchability. He also added that
depressed classes should be treated as a separate community for the purpose of
elections. He demanded common citizenship, free use of common rights and
adequate representation in the legislatures, government bodies and the cabinet.
During the second session of the Round table conference, which began on 7
September 1931, Ambedkar pointed out that irrespective of the proportions,
power should be shared by all the cornmunities. 133 He also presented a
supplementary memorandum to the minority committee on the demands of
depressed classes for special reservation. He emphasised separate electorates.
The renowned representatives of Muslims, depressed classes, a particular group
of Christians, Europeans and Anglo-Indians collectively submitted

the

m Ibid., pp. 128--149. For details of the debate, see BA WS, Volume IX, Titled "What Congress and
Gandhi have done to the untouchables", pp. 304-6.
m Ibid .. pp. 145-89.
m Ibid., pp. 190-221.

56

memorandum. This is popularly known as the minority pact.134 However,

Gandhiji was disturbed by the pact. He commented that he would not mind the
conversion of the untouchables to Christianity and Islam. 135 But, he asserted that
he would oppose their political rights by his life. Ambedkar did not reply to the
criticism by Gandhiji. He did not sign the requisition of the members of
minorities committee authorizing the British premier to settle the communal
problems.136 Ambedkar demanded provincial autonomy in the provincialconstitutional sub-committee. He opposed the Rajah-Moonje pact based on joint
electorates with reservation of seats. 137 It was also disclaimed by the All India
depressed classes congress held at Kamptee in May 1932. Ambedkar differed
with the education commissioner under the government of India and
Southbourough Franchise committee for broadening the term for aboriginals and
criminals. 138 But, the Lothian committee declared that the term should be used
only to untouchables. Ambedkar had to struggle for the proper use of this term
for the untouchables.

The communal award and related discourses was an epoch in the history of the
untouchables. The communal award was a provisional scheme of minority
representation announced by Ramsay Macdonald on 17 August 1932. It
determined the number of seats in the provisional legislatures at approximately
double the number in the existing councils. 139 The depressed classes were now
recognized as a minority community entitled to a separate electorate. It created a
number of specially-reserved constituencies for the depressed classes. It also
Ibid.
135 Ibid., pp.
136 Ibid.
m Ibid., pp.
138 Ibid .. pp.
139 Ibid., pp.
134

128-49.
221-31.
108-27.
162-262.

57

provided them an additional right to contest seats in the general constituencies

with the provision that separate electorate and reservation of seats would trail off
after twenty years. 14o

Untouchables achieved different rights because of the inexorable struggles of

Ambedkar. He argued that communal award provided a fixed quota of seats to
be elected by a separate electorate of untouchables. It also provided double
vote-one to- be used through separate electorate and the other to be used in
general electorates. 141 He also added that separate electorate is not to annoy the
Hindu society, but to grant the untouchables autonomy. Ambedkar opined that
separate electorate, adult franchise and fundamental rights in the constitution
would provide social mobility to the untouchables. 142

The debates that emerged as a response to the Poona pact are the major
assertions of the untouchables. Gandhi was against the Poona pact, considering it
as a move that leads to divisiveness. 143 However, Ambedkar dismissed the
fasting of Gandhiji against the Poona pact as a political manoeuvre. Gandhi
suggested the application of the penal system to all the seats. Ambedkar
accepted Gandhiji' s suggestions. He demanded one hundred and ninety-seven
seats for depressed classes in the Provincial assemblies but the leaders reduced
the number to one hundred and twenty-six. He also added that the system of
primary election should terminate at the end of another fifteen years. 144 The
question of the total number of seats was decided by granting one hundred and
Ibid.
141 Ibid.
142
Ibid.
143
Changhdev Khairmodey (2002), Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, Volume V, Sugava Publication
pp. 1-42.
144 Ibid.
140

58

forty-eight seats to the depressed classes in the provincial assemblies. It was also
decided that ten per cent of the seats of the Hindus from British India in the
central assembly should be given to the depressed classes.

The separate electorate granted under the communal award was debated and
leaders among the depressed classes agreed to have elections in two phases. Four
candidates would be elected from separate depressed class electorates and
subsequently the general electorate would select one of the four candidates. The
agreement was signed on 24 September 1932.145 These incidents were the
backdrop of the Poona pact. Ambedkar signed the Poona pact on behalf of
depressed classes. It resulted in the nullification of communal award of
Macdonald according to the interests of Gandhiji. Ambedkar argued that the
second vote given by the communal award was a great privilege. The Poona pact
increased the fixed quota of the seats. But, it resulted in the forfeiting of the right
to double vote. 146 The pact was given recognition by both parties and was
embodied in the government of India act, 1935. Ambedkar argued that the defeat
of the scheduled caste candidates in the general elections was due to the voting
system of the Poona pact.147 He started a resolution in the executive of the
scheduled caste federation demanding separate electorates for the depressed
classes. He argued that the Poona pact has resulted in the disenfranchising the 60
million untouchables. 148 Ambedkar also realized his failure in the general
elections in 1952 was due to joint electorates. He was critical of the Poona pact
and related incidents as a threat to the autonomous streams of the depressed
classes. He was also disappointed by the deliberations of the cabinet mission. The
Ibid., pp. 42-56.
Ibid.
147 Ibid., pp. 60-63.
HS Jbid.
m

146

59

basic idea behind Poona pact was to treat the untouchables as a minority. In one
of the constituent assembly speech, he opined that minorities are potential
agencies and can challenge the state. He criticised the minority for accepting the
role of the communalized majority. In other words, the minorities failed to
challenge the domination of such communalized majority. He also commented
that it is not a political majority. Ambedkar also argued that the majority should
realize their duty not to discriminate against the minorities. He emphasised that
if the majority looses the habit of discrimination against the minorities, then the
minorities will never remain as the minorities. The profound vision of Ambedkar
on the issue of majority and minority is a relevant episode in the history of the
untouchables.

Ambedkar draws a line of argument in his 'Castes in India', 149 that shows us the
co-relation between the three important stratifications of caste, gender and
patriarchy. Ambedkar agues that by not paying attention to the mechanism of
caste, the communitv of social scientist created a void in the field of social
J

sciences. He traces the absence of the recognition of caste as a consequence of the

cultural unity of India. However, this unity emerged out of the homogeneity of
India. Thus, caste is embodied within the diversity of culture and to delineate it
is a herculean task. The complexities that are inherent in the cultural fabric of
India are intricate because of its relation to the caste. 150 The idea of pollution is
adhered to in the discourse of the priestly class who exercise their superior castebased identities and regulate the caste system. This has links to the exclusiveness
that keeps caste alive. The exclusiveness has been aggravated by the prohibition

149

Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches, Government of Maharashtra Publication, 1979, VoL 1,

PP 5-22.
150

Ibid.

60

of the inter-marriage and closure of the membership. Indians are fragmented in

an unnatural manner through endogamy. 151 The persistence of endogamy from
time immemorial reveals the primitive mosaic of Indian society.

Exogamy prevents marriage within the same caste and further de-legitimises the
caste system. Thus, exogamy has been viewed as a taboo in the social systems of
India. 152 Hence, the dominant sections have kept up the surveillance to prevent
exogamy. Those who violate endogamy are oppressed through the repressive
sanctions. Therefore, caste was maintained by promoting endogamy and
preventing exogamy. 153 The numerical balance between the sexes, adequate for
marriage, is also pruned to protect the system of endogamy. This preservation of
endogamy will be torpedoed by the sudden demise of the husband and wife. The
existence of such males and females becomes a surplus agency that becomes a
cultural burden for the institution of endogamy.154 The community, which
survived on the values of endogamy, also found a mechanism to neutralise those
men and women who may challenge the endogamy by remarriage or incest.
Women who remarry are mistreated in number of ways by their caste. She is
either forced to commit suicide or asked to remain a widow. 155 However, the
male has been treated differently after the death of his wife due the patriarchal
ethos of the society. The man is not burnt like the women because he is
considered an essential member for the existence of his caste. He is induced to
undergo self-imposed celibacy after the demise of his wife.

Ibid.
Ibid.
153Jbid.
IS-I Ibid.
155 Ibid_
151

152

61

This is to keep him away from the activities of the group because he may disrupt
the order of group by rejoining it. 156 Thus, celibacy also becomes a numerical
balance that keeps the realm of power between the man and the woman. He is
allowed to marry a girl who is not of marriageable age to him by mainstream
standards, to pre-empt the above-mentioned crisis related to the numerical
balance. Ambedkar further argues the caste is an extended and closed form of
class, which is defended to justify the interests of the dominant sections.157 Caste
is also practiced through the imitation of endogamy among the dominant castes
by the lower castes. This is how caste influences the dynamics of gender and
patriarchy.

Another pioneering work by Ambedkar in the context of gender is "The rise and
fall of the Hindu women: who was responsible for it?" He argues that Brahmins
treats women and Shudras as inferiors and hence not eligible for the Sanyasa. The
egalitarian gender relations of pre-Manu era changed after the entry of Manu. 158
He codified the Brahmanical ideology to create an organised and hierarchical
social order. Hence, the Buddhist tradition that gives representation to the
women was deplored as a heretic move by Manu. 159 He thus condemned this act
of Manu by structuring the Hindu code bill for women in the post-independent
period.

The debates on the Hindu code bill signify the horrendous impact of the
dominant Hindu culture in the discourse of the post-colonial political elites. The

156

Ibid.
' Ibid.
m Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches, Government of Maharashtra Publication, Vol. 17,
Part 11, pp. 109-29, 2006.
159 ]bid.
15

62

bill was an attempt to codify the rules of the Hindu law, which remained as
scattered elements in the decisions related to the high court.

The Hindu code bill deals with the law related to the rights of men or women
who die without making their will. 160 It provides guidelines to the heirs to form
order related to the succession of intestates. It also addresses the law of
maintenance, divorce, marriage, adoption, minority and guardianship. The
inheritance of Hindu law is codified on the basis of the diverse laws such as
Mitakshara and Dayabhaga. As per the law Mitakshara, the property of Hindu is
not considered as his individual property. 161 The coparcenary, which consists of
father, son, grandson and great grandson, has the right to that property. When
any member of the coparcenary dies, that property is transferred to other
members within that group. But, it is not transferred to the heir of the diseased
member. This process is called as survivorship. The Hindu code that is inherent
in this bill considers Dayabhaga rule in which heir is endowed with complete
right over the personal property. He can either hand over it as a gift or by will
according to his choice. The bill universalises the scope of the Dayabhaga to
replace the rule of Mitakshara. The heir-ship in the Dayabhaga is related to the
blood relation of the diseased person. The bill prefers the perspectives of the law
Dayabhaga. 162

The bill also supports the equal distribution of inheritance to the widow,
daughter and widow of the pre-deceased son. The recognition of more females as
heirs is very much ingrained in this bill. The discrimination of the female heir is

Changdev Khairmodey (1987), Dr. Ambedkar aani Hindi Code Bill, Sugava,.pp. 4-62.
lo1Jbid.
162
Ibid

16

63

abolished through the positive statements of the law. The bill differs slightly
from the law Dayabhaga which gives preference to the father. 163 On the other
hand, the bill gives preference to the mother. The conversion of Streedhan is also
converted into one rule of succession rather than two categories through this bill.
This bill assures the equality of son and daughter in the case of property.
According to Hindu law, women are only allowed to enjoy the income of the
property called life estate. She is not allowed to deal with the property. It
prescribed the handover to the reversioners of her husband after her death. The
bill abolishes the right of the reversioners on the property of the widow. 164 The
bill also treats the dowry as a trust property, which can be claimed as a property
when she comes to the age of eighteen. The bill prescribes that dependents of the
deceased are entitled to claim maintenance from those who inherit the property
under the will. 165 The women who are divorced from the husband can claim
maintenance and through such radical reform, the bill gives autonomy to the
unrnediated other i.e., women. 166 She can claim maintenance from her husband
on the grounds of his ancestral relationships, cruel nature, abandoning her for
two years, his conversion to other religion etc.167 The recognition of the
sacramental marriage and civil marriage is also one of the positive aspects of the
bill.

Hence the Hindu code bill is a radical discourse in the intellectual and political
life of Ambedkar that deconstructed the patriarchal authority of the Hindu

163

Ibid.

164

Ibid.
Ibid.
]bid.
Jbid.

165
11>6

167

64

religion. The critique of the patriarchal Hindu legal systems converted the
women and untouchables as agencies with a different voice.

Ambedkar was extremely conscious of the status of Dalit women. For instance,
Ambedkar delivered his speech on 4 July 1936 at Mumbai, Kamatipura Vasti
which is densely populated by Murali, Jogtin and Deveadasis women.168 He
argues that the women who are involved in these professions are not able to live
life with dignity. Therefore, he urged them to give up these traditional
occupations and try to work hard to live life with dignity. 169 He said that those
who had self respect would live life with dignity and pride. He asserted that
"This meeting is hundred times important in my life than any other meeting
which I had addressed earlier". He also said, "You must stop selling your bodies
and work hard to come out from these professions". Thus, Ambekar advised
these women to convert to Buddhism to discard the sex work which is
sanctioned through the Hindu religion. He assured that that conversion would
help them give up stigmatized job and provides them self respect. 170 On the other
hand, in the second session of the All India Depressed Classes women's
conference conducted on 20 July 1942 at Nagpur, 25,000 Dalit women delegates
participated. There, Ambedkar argued that the progress and development of
Dalit community can be measured from the women of Dalit community. 171
Ambedkar expressed his solidarity towards the politicisation of Dalit women. He
pointed out the importance of moral order for the Dalit community and urged
them to abstain from all forms of vices. He advised the Dalit women to educate

s BA WS, Volume 18, Part 1, pp. 548-551.

Janta. 4 July1936; BAWS, Volume 18, Part I, pp. 548-551.
170
Ibid.
171
See the Report of Scheduled caste federation about the All-India Depressed Classes Women's
Conference, Second Session, held at Nagpur, on 20 July 1942, pp. 53--66.
16

169

65

their children and nurture aspirations among the Dalit children.172 He

emphasized the cultivation of self respect for the growth of the Dalits. He also
pointed out the burden of marital obligations and consequent duties on the Dalit
women. The control of population was also suggested to provide security for the
Dalit women. He emphasised equality of women in the institution of Dalit
familv. 173
.I

In the year 1956, Ambedkar, along with his followers, embraced Buddhism. The
conversation itself was a form of counter culture to challenge the exploitative
Hindu religion. 174

In conclusion it was Jotirao Phule who first formulated the vision of feminism
based upon equality and analyzed the roots of subordination of women. He
rightly argued that education is the only medium for the empowerment of
women and the untouchables and to bring those agencies out into the public
sphere. His views were forcefully carried on by Shahu Maharaj who emphasised
legal discourse for the eradication of caste, gender and patriarchy. And finally, it
is Ambedkar who brought forward the democratic approaches which stand for
the struggles of Phule and Shahu, and provided the platforms for the women in
general and Dalits in particular through constitutional measures.

172
173

Ibid.
Ibid.

174

Eleanor Zelliot (1996), From Untouchable to Dalit: Essays on the Ambedkar Movement, New Delhi:
Manohar, p.220

66