Factory Mutual Data Sheet 1-54 Roof Loading

FM Global
Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
1-54
September 2006
Page 1 of 67
ROOF LOADS FOR NEW CONSTRUCTION
Table of Contents
Page
1.0 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Changes ............................................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... 3
2.1 Roof Loads and Drainage ............................................................................................................... 3
2.1.1 Construction and Location .................................................................................................... 3
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................. 39
3.1 Loss History ................................................................................................................................... 39
3.1.1 Roof Collapse-Snow, Rain and Other Roof Loads ............................................................. 39
4.0 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 39
4.1 FM Global ...................................................................................................................................... 39
4.2 Others ............................................................................................................................................ 39
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ..................................................................................................... 40
A.1 Roof Loads and Drainage ............................................................................................................. 40
A.1.1 Controlled Roof Drains ........................................................................................................ 40
A.1.2 Design Roof Line ................................................................................................................ 40
A.1.3 Ponding and Ponding Cycle ............................................................................................... 40
A.1.4 Dead Load .......................................................................................................................... 40
A.1.5 Live Load ............................................................................................................................ 41
A.1.6 Total Load ........................................................................................................................... 41
A.1.7 Tributary Loaded Area (TA) ................................................................................................ 41
A.1.8 Roof Strength ...................................................................................................................... 41
A.1.9 Safety Factor ....................................................................................................................... 42
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ..................................................................................... 42
APPENDIX E ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES AND JOB AIDS ................................................................... 43
E.1 Snow Loading Illustrative Examples ............................................................................................. 43
E.2 Roof Drainage and Rain Loading Illustrative Examples: .............................................................. 46
E.3 Job AidsSnow and Rain Loads and Drainage .......................................................................... 52
List of Figures
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
1. Snow loads for hip and gable roofs. ................................................................................................... 9

2. Snow loads for curved roofs. ............................................................................................................ 10
3. Snow loads for valley roofs. .............................................................................................................. 11
4. (To be used with Table 4.) Snow loads for lower roofs. ................................................................... 11
5. Snow loads for lower roof of adjacent structures. ............................................................................ 14
6. Sliding snow load for lower roofs. .................................................................................................... 14
7. Snow load at roof projections. .......................................................................................................... 15
8a. Typical primary and overflow drainage systems for pitched roofs. ................................................ 16
8b. Typical primary and overflow drainage systems for flat roofs. ....................................................... 17
9. Flat and sloped roofs with interior roof drains. ................................................................................. 24
10. Sloped roof with roof edge drainage. ............................................................................................. 25
11a. Ground snow load (Pg ) in psf for western United States.To obtain kN/m2, multiply by 0.048.) . 28
11b. Ground snow load (Pg ) in psf for central United States.To obtain kN/m2, multiply by 0.048.) ... 29
11c. Ground snow load (Pg ) in psf for eastern United States.To obtain kN/m2, multiply by 0.048.) .. 30
12. Ground snow load (Pg) in kg/m2, for 50-yr MRI, for Western Europe. (To convert kg/m2
to kN/m2, multiple by 0.0098. To convert kg/m2 to psf, divide by 4.88.) (June 1984.) For further
information on Germany, Switzerland and Austria, see notes for Fig. 12. .................................. 31
2006 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in whole or in part, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission of Factory Mutual Insurance Company.
1-54
Page 2
Roof Loads for New Construction

FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
Fig. 13. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for the western United States.(To convert to
millimeters per hour multiply by 25.4.) ........................................................................................... 33
Fig. 14. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for the central and eastern United States.
(To convert to millimeters per hour multiply by 25.4.) .................................................................... 34
Fig. 15. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for Puerto Rico. (To convert to millimeters per hour
multiply by 25.4.) ............................................................................................................................. 35
Fig. 16. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for Hawaiian Islands.(To convert to millimeters per hour
multiply by 25.4.) ............................................................................................................................. 36
Fig. 17. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for Alaska.(To convert to millimeters per hour multiply
by 25.4.) .......................................................................................................................................... 37
Fig. 18. Rainfall intensity (i) in millimeters per hour for Western Europe, 50-yr 60-minute rainfall.
Multiply values on map by 1.07 to convert to 100-yr 60-minute rainfall intensities.
(To convert to in./hr, divide by 25.) (November 1982.) ................................................................... 38
Fig. 19. Typical tributary loaded areas for primary and secondary members. ............................................ 42
Fig. 20. Design snow loads for Example 1. ................................................................................................. 43
Fig. 24a. Flat roof plan for Example 5. ........................................................................................................ 47
Fig. 24b. Sloped roof plan for Example 5. ................................................................................................... 48
Fig. 25. Roof plan for Example 6. ................................................................................................................ 49
Fig. 26. Roof plan for Example 7. ................................................................................................................ 50
List of Tables
Table 1. Ground Snow Load (Pg) for Alaskan Locations in psf (kN/sq m) ................................................... 7
Table 2. Ground Snow Load (Pg) versus Balanced Flat-Roof Snow Load (Pf), Denisty (D),and
Height of Balanced Snow Load (hb) for Flat and Low-sloped Roofs ............................................. 7
Table 3. Roof Slope Factor Cs ...................................................................................................................... 8
Table 4. (To be used with Figure 4) Ground Snow Load (Pg) versus Balanced Snow Load (Pf),
Density (D), Balance Snow Load Height (hb), Drift Height (hd), Max Drift Load (Pd) and
Max Load (Pd+Pf) ......................................................................................................................... 12
Table 4, Continued. (To be used with Figure 4) Ground Snow Load (Pg) versus Balanced Snow
Load (Pf), Density (D), Balance Snow Load Height (hb), Drift Height (hd), Max Drift Load (Pd)
and Max Load (Pd+Pf) .................................................................................................................. 13
Table 5. Flow Capacity for Roof Drains and Piping1 .................................................................................. 20
Table 6. Hydraulic Head Versus Flow Capacity for Roof Scuppers ............................................................ 21
Table 7. Conversion of Rainfall Intensity to Flow Rate and Rain Load per Unit Area ............................... 22
Table 8. Hydraulic Head versus Roof Drain Flow ........................................................................................ 22
2006 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

1-54
Page 3
1.0 SCOPE
This loss prevention data sheet presents guidelines principally for snow and rain loadings and drainage for
the design of new roofs of buildings and other structures. The emphasis is placed upon the design of new
construction because structural and mechanical changes in existing buildings can be very expensive.
In general, it is the function of this data sheet to present background details and guidelines for building
designers to use in carrying out the requirements or intent of typical building and plumbing codes regarding
design roof loads and roof drainage.
It should be noted that the various guidelines presented are not based upon the worst conditions possible,
or even the worst conditions recorded. A probabilistic approach is used to establish design values that reduce
the risk of a snow-load-induced or rain-load-induced roof collapse to an acceptable low level.
1.1 Changes
September 2006. Minor editorial changes were done for this revision.
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS
2.1 Roof Loads and Drainage
2.1.1 Construction and Location
2.1.1.1 General
2.1.1.1.1 Roofs should be designed to withstand their dead load plus the more restrictive of the following
live loads:
a) The balanced (uniform) or unbalanced snow loads in accordance with Section 2.1.1.2.
b) The rain loads in accordance with Section 2.1.1.3 and precluding (i.e., ruling out in advance) instability
from ponding.
c) Other superimposed live loads, as specified, to account for the use and maintenance of the roof and
the occupancy of the building/structure.
d) A minimum design live load of 20 psf (1.0 kN/m2) for flat roofs, sloped roofs less than 4 in./ft (18.4%)
and curved roofs with rise less than 18 of span, except when a reduction in the minimum design live load
is appropriate, see Recommendation 2.1.1.1.2.
2.1.1.1.2 Reductions in the minimum roof design live load of 20 psf (1.0 kN/m2) when permitted by applicable
building code should be restricted for lightweight roof constructions. These constructions include all metal,
insulated steel deck, boards-on-joists, plywood diaphragm, etc. Reductions in the minimum roof design live
load should only be taken whenever the roof slopes at least 14 in./ft (2%) and both of the following are met:
a) The resultant minimum roof design live load is greater than the snow or rain loads described in the
data sheet and instability due to ponding is precluded (see Section 2.1.1.1.8).
b) The roof snow load is zero or the supported combined design dead load plus live load is at least 28 psf
(1.4 kN/m2).
2.1.1.1.3 During initial design, the building (structure) designer should submit the following information to
Factory Mutual Engineering Association for confirmation that the design live loads and drainage of each roof
are in accordance with this data sheet (if the design does not follow the guidelines of this data sheet,
proposed exceptions should be identified and compared):
a) Roof framing and drainage system plans, sections and details.
b) The applicable building and plumbing codes.
c) Identification, where a minimum design live load of 20 psf (1.0 kN/m2) governs, of reductions taken
in the minimum design live load for any primary or secondary members and their respective design dead
and live loads.
d) The ground snow load and the source if different from the guidelines of this data sheet.
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e) The balanced, unbalanced, drift and sliding surcharge snow loads and drift length, as appropriate for
the roof configurations, showing loading diagrams and denoting any differences from the guidelines of
this data sheet.
f) The rainfall intensity for a 1-hour duration, the Mean Recurrence Interval (MRI) and the source if different
from the guidelines of this data sheet.
g) Primary drains and/or scuppers: type, size, maximum drainage area and flow rate, roof surface slope
to drainage point or dead-flat, and whether drains are located at mid-bay.
h) Overflow drainage provisions: whether over the roof edge, or overflow scuppers or drains; type, size,
maximum drainage area and flow rate for scuppers and drains; height to roof edge, invert (scuppers)
or inlet (drains) from the (adjacent to) design roof line; and roof surface slope to overflow point or dead-flat.
i) Maximum hydraulic head and total head for primary and overflow drains and scuppers.
j) Maximum design rain load for dead-flat roofs and at the low points of sloped roofs.
k) Analysis method for dead-flat roofs and source used to substantiate that the roof is stable based on
the design rain load of this guideline and ponding.
l) Roof slope for roofs with drainage over the edge or sloped to drains or scuppers. If the slope is less
than 14 in./ft (2%), substantiate with calculations that the design slope is sufficient based on Section
2.1.1.3.7.2
2.1.1.1.4 Roof drainage should be designed in accordance with one of the methods described in Section
2.1.1.3, or to applicable building and plumbing codes, whichever results in better drainage.
2.1.1.1.5 Overflow relief protection should be provided in accordance with Section 2.1.1.3.5.3.
2.1.1.1.6 Roofs should be designed for a rain load or total head consisting of the maximum possible depth
of rainwater that could accumulate, as determined by the relative levels of the roof surface and overflow
provisions, except for water retained (ponding) due solely to the deflected roof, as described in Section
2.1.1.3.2 and shown in Figures 8a and 8b. The roof framing designer, however, should preclude instability
due to ponding based on the estimated water buildup (total head), consistent with this guideline.
2.1.1.1.7 Roofs should be designed with positive drainage: however, dead-flat roofs consistent with this
guideline are acceptable. Sloping the roof surface 14 in./ft (2%) toward roof drains or scuppers or points of
free drainage (roof edge) should be sufficient for positive drainage. If a slope of less than 14 in./ft (2%) is
desired for positive drainage, analysis methods presented in Section 2.1.1.3.7 should be used.
2.1.1.1.8 Roof framing systems should be analyzed by the designer according to the following guidelines
(as applicable), to preclude instability from ponding based on the total (dead plus live) load supported by the
roof framing before consideration of ponding or by substantiating that a roof slope is sufficient.
a) Dead-flat roofs: the total load supported should be the design rain load, according to Section 2.1.1.3.6,
plus the dead load of the roof. An acceptable analysis method for ponding of two-way framing systems
is presented in the ASD and LRFD Specifications for Structured Steel Buildings, Commentary, Chapters
K2, American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC).
b) Sloped roofs to drains or scuppers: the total load supported should be the design rain loads, according
to Section 2.1.1.3.6, distributed locally to the low areas, plus the dead load of the roof. An acceptable
analysis method, conservative for sloped roofs, is the AISC method given in Part a, using an appropriate
equivalent uniform load based on the design rain load distribution plus dead load for the total load
supported. Also, if the design roof slope is less than 14 in./ft (2%), it should be substantiated that it is
sufficient according to Section 2.1.1.3.7.2.
c) Sloped roofs to free drainage over the roof edge: if the design roof slope is less than 14 in./ft (2%), it
should be substantiated that it is sufficient according to Section 2.1.1.3.7.2.
2.1.1.1.9 Unless roofs are sufficiently sloped for drainage over the roof edges (see Section 2.1.1.3.7.2),
drains or scuppers should be provided in quantity, placement and size as described in Section 2.1.1.3.5.
2.1.1.1.10 Roofs with controlled flow drains should have an overflow drainage system at a higher elevation
as described in Section 2.1.1.3.2.4. Such roofs should otherwise be designed in accordance with this data
sheet.

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2.1.1.1.11 Roof drains and vertical leaders in sizes of 4 to 6 in. (100 to 150 mm) diameter inclusive should
be used, except for areas less than 2500 ft2 (230 m2), such as canopies, where 3 in. (75 mm) diameter drains
may be used. It is usually impractical to use 8 in. (200 mm) diameter drains because of drainage area
limitations and drain flow restrictions imposed by drainage piping and/or water buildup loads.
2.1.1.1.12 Three-sided channel type roof scuppers should be used whenever possible. For walls and
parapets, the four-sided perimeter, closed type scuppers should be used (see sketch with Table 6). Scuppers
and leaders or conductors should have minimum dimensions of 6 in. (150 mm) wide by 4 in. (100 mm) high
and 5 in. (125 mm) diameter or equivalent, respectively. The height of the closed type scupper should be
at least 1 in. (25 mm) higher than the estimated water buildup height (hydraulic head) developed behind the
scupper (see Table 6).
2.1.1.1.13 To assure adequate drainage, two roof drains or scuppers, as applicable, should be installed for
roof areas of approximately 10,000 ft2 (930 m2) or less. For larger areas, the number of drains or scuppers
should be in accordance with Section 2.1.1.3.5.1.
2.1.1.1.14 The sizing of vertical leaders or conductors, and piping for horizontal drainage systems, should
be in accordance with Section 2.1.1.3.5.4 and tabulated in Table 5.
2.1.1.1.15 Where overflow roof drains or scuppers are provided, they should be at least equivalent to the
primary roof drains or scuppers, and placed and sized in accordance with Section 2.1.1.3.5 as applicable.
2.1.1.1.16 Roof overflow drain or scupper drainage systems should have vertical leaders, conductors or
piping to points of discharge independent of the primary roof drainage system. If these points of discharge
can experience backup, then points of free drainage, such as over-the-roof edges or through relief openings
atop conductors, should be used.
2.1.1.1.17 Roofs and their drainage inlets should be inspected at least every three months and following
storms. They should be cleared of obstructions or accumulations of the foreign matter (described in Section
2.1.1.4.1) as frequently as individual judgment deems necessary.
2.1.1.1.18 Existing roofs (especially lightweight roof constructions) which have severely inadequate primary
drainage and no overflow relief protection should be provided with additional drainage provisions. The need
for overflow drainage should be an individual judgment in conjunction with an evaluation of existing
conditions.
2.1.1.1.19 Existing roofs which are severely exposed to collapse from snow loading should be reinforced
in the exposed area. But, where reinforcing is impractical, the Emergency Organization should include snow
removal teams. Snow removal must be safe, practical and reliable in order to be effective. A safe maximum
snow depth should be determined and snow cleared from the roofs when one-half of this depth is reached.
2.1.1.1.20 Existing roofs having roof-mounted or roof- suspended equipment and structures added or
modified, as described in Section 2.1.1.4.1, should have the supporting roof framing and columns structurally
analyzed for the resulting dead load plus live load and reinforced as determined by a qualified engineer.
2.1.1.1.21 Rack storage structures or vertical stays should not be secured to roof framing, and bulk materials
should not be placed against roof supporting walls (as described in Section 2.1.1.4.2) unless the roof and
wall systems, respectively, are so designed.
2.1.1.1.22 Columns in the traffic areas of manually operated trucks or other mobile equipment should be
protected and anchored as described in Section 2.1.1.4.2.
2.1.1.1.23 Suspended or otherwise supported ceilings which allow access for maintenance workers should
be designed for appropriate concentrated and uniform live loads based on the anticipated maintenance work.
2.1.1.2 Snow Loads
2.1.1.2.1 General
Design snow loads should be determined in accordance with the guidelines of this section. However, the
design superimposed roof load should not be less than the minimum live or snow loads designated by the
applicable building code or less than the rain loads covered in Section 2.1.1.3. For roofs of unusual shape or
configuration, wind-tunnel or analytical modeling techniques should be used to help establish design snow
loads.
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2.1.1.2.2 Snow Load Notation

(For reference purposes, most of the nomenclature appears in Figure 4 of Section 2.1.1.2.9.1.)
Cs = slope factor
D = snow density in pcf (kN/m3) of drifted snow (i.e., density of wind blown snow)
hb = height of balanced (uniform) snow load in ft (m) (i.e., balanced snow load Pf or Ps divided by D)
hc = clear height from top of balanced snow load in ft (m) to the closest point(s) on adjacent upper roof;
to the top of parapet; or to the top of a roof projection
hd = maximum height of snow drift surcharge above balanced snow load in ft (m)
hr = difference in height between the upper roof (including parapets) and lower roof or height of roof
projection in ft (m)
Pd = maximum intensity of drift surcharge load in psf (kN/m2 or kPa)
Pf = flat-roof snow load in psf (kN/m2 or kPa)
Pg = ground snow load in psf (kN/m2 or kPa)
Ps = sloped-roof snow load in psf (kN/m2 or kPa)
S = separation distance between buildings in ft (m)
Wb = horizontal distance of roof upwind of drift in ft (m), but not less than 25 ft (7.6 m). Wb shall equal the
entire upwind distance of roofs with multiple elevation differences provided the predicted drift height at each
elevation difference exceeds hc
Wd = width of snow drift surcharge in ft (m)
2.1.1.2.3 Ground Snow Loads
Ground snow loads (Pg) used in determining design snow loads for roofs are given in the three-part map
for the Contiguous United States in Figures 11a, 11b and 11c at the end of Section 2.0. The maps were
prepared at the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL) for the ANSI/ASCE 7-88
Standard (formerly ANSI A58.1). The maps present snow-load zones with estimated ground snow loads based
upon a 50-year Mean Recurrence Interval (MRI). In some areas the amount of local variation in snow loads
is so extreme, it precludes meaningful mapping. Such areas are not zoned but instead are shown in black.
In other areas the snow load zones are meaningful, but the mapped values within these zones should not be
used for certain geographic settings such as high elevations or areas close to warmer large bodies of water
(e.g., oceans and the Great Lakes). Such areas are shaded as a warning that the zoned value for those
areas applies to normal settings therein. The local office of the National Weather Service, local codes or the
building officials having jurisdiction should be contacted for areas not zoned or for areas of high elevation
or where a more precise estimate is needed. When possible, use data based upon a 50-year MRI.
Reasonable, but not exact, multiplication factors for converting from 25-year and 30-year MRI to 50-year MRI
are 1.2 and 1.15, respectively.
Snow loads are zero for Hawaii and Puerto Rico.
Ground snow loads (Pg) for Alaska are presented in Table 1 for specific locations only and generally do not
represent appropriate design values for other nearby locations. In Alaska, extreme local variations preclude
statewide mapping of ground snow loads.
Ground snow loads (Pg) for Canada should be taken as 1.15 times the snow component of the ground snow
load in kPa units from the tabulation of 690 locations in the 1990 Supplement to the National Building Code
of Canada as recalculated and mapped by the Atmospheric Environment Service (Ontario, Canada). For
snow load values not included in the Supplement or where a more precise estimate is needed and including
altitude effects, maps are available from the Canadian Climate Centre in Ontario. The rain component of
the ground snow load, from the above sources, should be added as a uniform load to the roof snow loads
of Sections 2.1.1.2.5 through 2.1.1.2.9. To convert kPa to psf, multiply kPa 20.9. Units of kPa and kN/m2 are
equivalent. The 1.15 multiplier is a reasonable conversion from the 30-yr MRI basis of the Canadian Code
to the 50-yr MRI for this guideline.
Ground snow loads (Pg) for Western Europe are given in the map, Figure 12.
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2.1.1.2.4 Snow Density

As used in this data sheet (to evaluate the heights of roof snow loads), the snow (weight) density (D) should
be determined as a function of the ground snow load (Pg) according to Table 2 or the following formulas:
English Units:
D (pcf) = 0.13 Pg + 14 35 where Pg in psf
Metric Units:
D (kN/m3) = 0.43 Pg + 2.2 5.5 where Pg in kN/m2
2.1.1.2.5 Flat-Roof Snow Loads
The balanced (uniform) snow load (Pf) on an unobstructed flat roof of well insulated roofs or unheated
buildings, including any roof with a slope less than 5 (1 in./ft or 8%), should be determined using Table 2
or the following formulas:
Pf = Pg where Pg 20 psf (1.0 kN/m2)
Pf = 0.9 Pg 20 psf (1.0 kN/m2) where 20 < Pg 40 psf (1.0 < Pg 1.9 kN/m2)
Pf = 0.8 Pg 36 psf (1.7 kN/m2) where Pg > 40 psf (1.9 kN/m2)
2.1.1.2.6 Minimum Snow Loads for Low-Sloped Roofs
The minimum allowable snow loads should be the balanced snow loads (Pf) of Section 2.1.1.2.5 or Table 2
and should apply to shed, hip and gable roofs with slopes less than 15, and curved roofs where the vertical
angle (see Fig. 2) from the eave to the crown is less than 10. The formulas in Section 2.1.1.2.5 satisfy the
following minimum snow load guidelines: for locations where the ground snow load (Pg) is 20 psf (1.0 kN/m2)
or less, the flat roof snow load (Pf) for such roofs should not be less than the ground snow load (Pg); in
locations where the ground snow load (Pg) exceeds 20 psf (1.0 kN/m2), the flat-roof snow load (Pf) for such
roofs should not be less than 20 psf (1.0 kN/m2).
In building codes, minimum roof live loads and live load reductions do not apply to snow loads. Snow or
rain loads greater than such live loads govern the determination of design live loads.
Table 1. Ground Snow Load (Pg) for Alaskan Locations in psf (kN/sq m)
Adak
Anchorage
Angoon
Barrow
Barter Island
Bethel
Big Delta
Cold Bay
Cordova
Fairbanks
Fort Yukon
20 (0.96)
45 (2.2)
75 (3.6)
30 (1.4)
60 (2.9)
35 (1.7)
60 (2.9)
20 (0.96)
100 (4.8)
55 (2.6)
70 (3.3)
Galena
Gulkana
Homer
Juneau
Kenai
Kodiak
Kotzebue
McGrath
Nenana
Nome
Palmer
65 (3.1)
60 (2.9)
45 (2.2)
70 (3.3)
55 (2.6)
30 (1.4)
70 (3.3)
70 (3.3)
55 (2.6)
80 (3.8)
50 (2.4)
Petersburg
St. Paul Islands
Seward
Shemya
Sitka
Talkeetna
Unalakleet
Valdez
Whittier
Wrangell
Yakutat
130 (6.2)
45 (2.2)
55 (2.6)
20 (0.96)
45 (2.2)
175 (8.4)
55 (2.6)
170 (8.2)
400 (19.0)
70 (3.3)
175 (8.4)
Table 2. Ground Snow Load (Pg) versus Balanced Flat-Roof Snow Load (Pf), Denisty (D),and Height of Balanced
Snow Load (hb) for Flat and Low-sloped Roofs
English Units:
Ground Snow Load, Pg (psf) Balanced Flat-Roof Snow Load, Pf (psf)
5
5
10
10
15
15
14.7
0.3
15.3
0.7
16.0
0.9
20
25
30
35
40
50
60
70
20
23
27
32
36
40
48
56
Density D, (pcf) Balanced Flat-Roof Snow Load Height, hb, (ft)
16.6
1.2
17.3
1.3
17.9
1.5
18.6
1.7
19.2
1.9
20.5
2.0
21.8
2.2
23.1
2.4
80
64
90
72
100
80
24.4
2.7
25.7
2.8
27.0
3.0
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Page 8
Metric Units:
Ground Snow Load, Pg (kN/m2) Balanced Flat-Roof Snow Load, Pf (kN/m2)
0.25
0.25
2.3
0.1
0.5
0.6
0.9
1.0
1.4
1.9
2.0
3.0
0.5
0.6
0.9
1.0
1.3
1.7
1.7
2.4
Density D, (kN/m3) Balanced Flat-Roof Snow Load Height hb (m)
2.4
0.2
2.5
0.2
2.6
0.3
2.6
0.4
2.8
0.4
3.0
0.6
3.1
0.6
3.5
0.7
4.0
3.2
5.0
4.0
3.9
0.8
4.4
0.9
Note: Interpolation is appropriate.
2.1.1.2.7 Sloped-Roof Snow Loads

The balanced (uniform) snow load (Ps) on sloped roofs, such as shed, hip, gable and curved roofs, should
bedetermined by multiplying the flat-roof load (Pf) by the roof slope factor (Cs):
Ps = Cs x Pf
Values of Cs are given in Table 3. Cold roof values should be used. The exception is warm roof values which
apply for uninsulated glass or metal panel, plastic (e.g., acrylic or reinforced plastic panels) and fabric roofs
with R-value less than 1.0 ft2-hr.-F/Btu (0.2 m2-K/W) of buildings continuously heated above 60F (16C).
Slippery surface values should be used where the sliding surface is of aluminum, copper, galvanized or
enameled steel panels (such as on all-metal buildings) and unobstructed with sufficient space below the
eaves to accept all sliding snow. Balanced load diagrams for hip and gable roofs are shown in Figure 1 and
for curved roofs in Figure 2. Roof slope for curved roofs is the vertical angle (see Fig. 2) measured from
the eave to the crown.
Table 3. Roof Slope Factor Cs
Cs Values1,2
Roof Slope
5
14 (3 on 12)
18.4 (4 on 12)
26.6 (6 on 12)
30
33.7 (8 on 12)
45 (12 on 12)
60
70
Unobstructed Slippery Surfaces

Cold Roof
Warm Roof
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.94
0.74
0.79
0.62
0.73
0.57
0.66
0.52
0.46
0.36
0.19
0.14
0
0
All Other Surfaces

Cold Roof
Warm Roof
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.91
1.0
0.63
0.4
0.25
0
0
1. Use cold roof values unless conditions discussed in Section 2.1.1.2.7 apply.
2. Interpolation is appropriate within any column.
2.1.1.2.8 Unbalanced Roof Snow Loads

Balanced and unbalanced snow loads should be considered separately. Winds from all directions should
be considered when establishing unbalanced snow loads. Wind directions at 90 to each other should be
considered simultaneously; however, winds from opposite directions, 180, should be considered separately.
The figures of this section show the snow loads for roofs with balanced and unbalanced load diagrams.
2.1.1.2.8.1 Hip and Gable Roofs. Unbalanced snow loads should be considered, on the (downwind) leeward
roof side, for roof slopes between 5 and 70 (1 on 12 and 33 on 12) inclusive. Unbalanced snow loading
diagrams, cases I and II, for hip and gable roofs with roof slopes from 5 to 15 and 15 to 70, respectively,
appear in Figure 1. For Case I, no reduction in snow load should be applied for roof slopes from 5 to 15
(i.e., Cs = 1.0 and Ps = Pf) and the snow surface above the eave should not be at a higher elevation than the
snow above the ridge. Snow depths should be determined by dividing the snow loads by the appropriate
snow density (D) from Table 2.

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Fig. 1. Snow loads for hip and gable roofs.
2.1.1.2.8.2 Curved Roofs (e.g., bow-string truss roofs). Unbalanced snow loads should be considered for
slopes where the vertical angle from the eave to the crown is between 10 and 60. Portions of curved roofs
having a roof slope exceeding 70 should be considered free of snow. The point at which the roof slope
exceeds 70 should be considered the eave for such roofs. Unbalanced loading diagrams, Cases I, II and
III, for curved roofs with roof slopes at the eave of 30, 3070, and greater than 70, appear in Figure 2.
If another roof or the ground surface abuts a case II or III curved roof at or within 3 ft (0.9 m) of the eave, the
snow load should not be decreased between the 30 roof slope point and the eave, but should remain
constant at 2.0 Ps as shown by the dashed line.
2.1.1.2.8.3 Valley-Roofs. Valleys are formed by multiples of folded plate, gable, sawtooth and barrel vault
roofs. No reduction in snow load should be applied for roof slope (i.e., Cs = 1.0 and Ps = Pf; see Section
2.1.1.2.5). For valleys formed by the minimum slopes stated in Section 2.1.1.2.8.1 and 2.1.1.2.8.2, the
unbalanced snow load should increase from one-half the balanced load (0.5 Pf) at the ridge (or crown) to
three times the balanced load at the valley (3.0 Pf) (see Fig. 3). The snow surface above the valley, however,
should not be at a higher elevation than the snow above the ridge (or crown). Snow depths should be
determined by dividing the snow loads by the appropriate snow density (D) in Table 2. The above snow load
methodology is also applicable to multiple gable and barrel vault roofs.
2.1.1.2.9 Drifts on Lower RoofsSnow Loads
In areas where the ground snow load (Pg) is less than 5 psf (0.25 kN/m2) or the ratio hc/hb is less than 0.2,
drift loads need not be considered. Otherwise, lower levels of multilevel roofs should be designed to sustain
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Fig. 2. Snow loads for curved roofs.
localized loads from snow drifts caused by wind over higher portions of the same structure, adjacent structures
or terrain feature within 20 ft (6 m). For snow drifts formed on lower roofs by windblown snow across the
lower roof, see Section 2.1.1.2.9.4.
2.1.1.2.9.1 Drift Load. The drift load on lower roofs should be taken as a triangular surcharge loading
superimposed on the balanced roof snow load (Pf) as shown in Figure 4.
Maximum drift height (hd) in ft (m) should be determined from Table 4 or the following formulas:
English Units:
4
3
hd (ft) = 0.43 Wb Pg+10 1.5 hc
where Pg in psf; Wb and hc in ft
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Page 11
Fig. 3. Snow loads for valley roofs.
Fig. 4. (To be used with Table 4.) Snow loads for lower roofs.
Metric Units:
3
4
hd (m) = 0.42 Wb Pg+0.48 .457 hc
where Pg in kN/sq m; Wb and hc in meters
Drift surcharge load (maximum intensity), Pd = hd D hc D
Maximum snow load (at wall) = Pd + Pf hr D
The drift surcharge load (Pd) and the maximum snow load at the wall (see Fig. 4) may also be determined
by Table 4 provided the product of the density (D) times hc or hr does not govern.
Drift width (Wd) should equal 4 hd except for rare cases when the calculated hd exceeds hc by more than
1 ft (0.3 m). For these cases, the minimum Wd should be established so that the cross-sectional area of the
drift (0.5 Wd hc) is equal to the cross-sectional area of the hypothetical drift (0.5 hd 4 hd = 2 h2d ) that
would be computed if hd were less than hc; however, Wd should not be less than 6 hc. Thus,
2
Wd = 4 hd, except when hd > hc + 1 ft (0.3 m), then Wd = 4 hd 6 h

c
hc
If Wd exceeds the width of the lower roof (this occurs frequently with canopy roofs), the drift should be
truncated at the far edge of the roof and not reduced to zero.
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Page 12
Table 4. (To be used with Figure 4) Ground Snow Load (Pg) versus Balanced Snow Load (Pf), Density (D), Balance
Snow Load Height (hb), Drift Height (hd), Max Drift Load (Pd) and Max Load (Pd+Pf)
Upwind
Distance
Wb (ft)
25
50
100
200
300
400
500
600
800
1000
5
5
10
10
15
15
14.7
0.3
15.3
0.7
16.0
0.9
0.97
14
19
1.61
24
29
2.42
36
41
3.44
51
56
4.15
61
66
4.72
69
74
5.20
76
81
5.62
83
88
6.34
93
98
6.94
102
107
1.16
18
28
1.85
28
38
2.72
42
52
3.82
58
68
4.59
70
80
5.20
80
90
5.72
88
98
6.17
94
104
6.94
106
116
7.59
116
126
1.31
21
36
2.04
33
48
2.96
47
62
4.12
66
81
4.94
79
94
5.58
89
104
6.13
98
113
6.61
106
121
7.43
119
134
8.11
130
145
English Units:
Ground Snow Load, Pg (psf)
Balanced Snow Load, Pf (psf)
20
25
30
35
40
50
20
23
27
32
36
40
Density, D (pcf)
Balanced Snow Load Height, hb (ft)
16.6 17.3 17.9 18.6 19.2 20.5
1.2
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.0
Drift Height, hd (ft)1
Max. Drift Load, Pd (psf)1
Max. Load at Wall, Pd + Pf (psf)1
1.44 1.56 1.66 1.76 1.84 2.00
24
27
30
33
35
41
44
50
57
65
71
81
2.21 2.35 2.48 2.60 2.71 2.91
37
41
44
48
52
60
57
64
71
80
88
100
3.17 3.35 3.52 3.67 3.81 4.05
53
58
63
68
73
83
73
81
90
100
109
123
4.39 4.62 4.83 5.01 5.19 5.50
73
80
86
93
100
113
93
103
113
125
136
153
5.24 5.50 5.74 5.96 6.16 6.51
87
95
103
111
118
133
107
118
130
143
154
173
5.91 6.20 6.46 6.71 6.92 7.32
98
107
116
125
133
150
118
131
143
157
169
190
6.48 6.80 7.08 7.34 7.58 8.00
108
118
127
137
146
164
128
141
154
169
182
204
6.99 7.32 7.62 7.89 8.14 8.59
116
127
136
147
156
176
136
150
163
179
192
216
7.84 8.21 8.54 8.84
9.11 9.61
130
142
153
164
175
197
150
165
180
196
211
237
8.56 8.98 9.31 9.64 9.93 10.5
142
155
167
179
191
215
162
178
194
211
227
255
60
48
70
56
80
64
90
72
100
80
21.8
2.2
23.1
2.4
24.4
2.7
25.7
2.8
27.0
3.0
2.14
47
95
3.08
67
115
4.27
93
141
5.78
126
174
6.83
149
197
7.67
167
215
8.37
182
230
8.99
196
244
10.0
219
267
10.9
238
286
2.26
52
108
3.24
75
131
4.47
103
159
6.02
139
195
7.11
164
220
7.97
184
240
8.70
201
257
9.34
216
272
10.4
241
297
11.4
262
318
2.37
58
122
3.38
82
146
4.65
113
177
6.25
153
217
7.37
180
244
8.26
202
266
9.01
220
284
9.67
236
300
10.8
264
328
11.7
286
350
2.47
63
135
3.51
90
162
4.81
124
196
6.45
166
238
7.60
195
267
8.52
219
291
9.29
239
311
9.97
256
328
11.1
286
358
12.1
311
383
2.57
64
144
3.62
98
178
4.96
134
214
6.64
179
259
7.82
211
291
8.76
237
317
9.55
258
338
10.3
278
358
11.4
308
388
12.4
335
415

1
The drift height (hd), maximum drift load (Pd) and maximum load at wall (Pd + Pf) are limited to hc, (hc D) and (hr D), respectively.
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Page 13
Table 4, Continued. (To be used with Figure 4) Ground Snow Load (Pg) versus Balanced Snow Load (Pf), Density (D),
Balance Snow Load Height (hb), Drift Height (hd), Max Drift Load (Pd) and Max Load (Pd+Pf)
Upwind
Distance
Wb (m)
10
15
30
50
100
120
150
180
200
300
0.25
0.25
0.5
0.5
2.3
0.1
2.4
0.2
.37
.85
1.10
.49
1.13
1.38
.74
1.69
1.94
.96
2.20
2.45
1.32
3.05
3.30
1.44
3.30
3.55
1.58
3.64
3.89
1.71
3.93
4.18
1.79
4.11
4.36
2.11
4.86
5.11
.43
1.04
1.54
.56
1.35
1.85
.83
1.99
2.49
1.07
2.56
3.06
1.46
3.51
4.01
1.58
3.80
4.30
1.74
4.18
4.68
1.88
4.51
5.01
1.96
4.70
5.20
2.31
5.54
6.04
Metric Units:
Ground Snow Load, Pg (kN/sq m)
Balanced Snow Load, Pf (kN/sq m)
0.6
0.9
1.0
1.4
1.9
2.0
0.6
0.9
1.0
1.3
1.7
1.7
Density, D (kN/cu m)
Balanced Snow Load Height, hb (m)
2.5
2.6
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.6
Drift Height, hd (m)1
Max. Drift Load, Pd (kN/sq m)1
Max. Load at Wall, Pd + Pf (kN/sq m)1
.46
.51
.53
.59
.66
.67
1.14
1.34
1.38
1.66
1.97
2.07
1.74
2.24
2.38
2.92
3.67
3.77
.59
.65
.67
.74
.82
.83
1.47
1.70
1.75
2.08
2.45
2.53
2.07
2.60
2.75
3.34
4.15
4.23
.86
.94
.97
1.06
1.15
1.16
2.15
2.45
2.52
2.96
3.44
3.61
2.75
3.35
3.52
4.22
5.14
5.31
1.10
1.2
1.23
1.34
1.44
1.46
2.76
3.13
3.20
3.74
4.33
4.54
3.36
4.03
4.20
5.00
6.03
6.24
1.51
1.63
1.67
1.8
1.94
1.96
3.77
4.25
4.34
5.04
5.81
6.08
4.37
5.15
5.34
6.30
7.51
7.78
1.63
1.76
1.80
1.94
2.09
2.11
4.08
4.59
4.69
5.44
6.26
6.55
4.68
5.49
5.69
6.70
7.96
8.25
1.79
1.94
1.98
2.13
2.29
2.31
4.48
5.03
5.14
5.96
6.86
7.17
5.08
5.93
6.14
7.22
8.56
8.87
1.93
2.09
2.13
2.29
2.46
2.49
4.83
5.42
5.54
6.41
7.37
7.71
5.43
6.32
6.54
7.67
9.07
9.41
2.02
2.18
2.22
2.39
2.56
2.59
5.05
5.66
5.78
6.68
7.58
8.03
5.65
6.56
6.78
7.94
9.38
9.73
2.38
2.56
2.61
2.80
3.00
3.03
5.94
6.65
6.79
7.84
8.99
9.40
6.54
7.55
7.79
9.10
10.69
11.10
3.0
2.4
4.0
3.2
5.0
4.0
3.5
0.7
3.9
0.8
4.4
0.9
.77
2.68
5.08
.91
3.18
5.58
1.31
4.58
6.98
1.63
5.72
8.12
2.18
7.62
10.02
2.34
8.17
10.57
2.56
8.96
11.36
2.75
9.62
12.02
2.86
10.01
12.41
3.34
11.70
14.10
.85
3.30
6.50
1.03
4.03
7.23
1.42
5.55
8.75
1.77
6.91
10.11
2.35
9.16
12.36
2.52
9.84
13.04
2.76
10.75
13.95
2.96
11.53
14.73
3.08
12.00
15.20
3.59
14.00
17.20
.91
4.02
8.02
1.11
4.89
8.89
1.52
6.69
10.69
1.89
8.30
12.30
2.49
10.97
14.97
2.68
11.78
15.78
2.92
12.85
16.85
3.13
13.78
17.78
3.26
14.34
18.34
3.8
16.71
20.71

1
The drift height (hd), maximum drift load (Pd) and maximum load at wall (Pd + Pf) are limited to hc, (hc D) and (hr D), respectively.
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Page 14
2.1.1.2.9.2 Adjacent Structures and Terrain Features. A drift load should be applied to lower roofs or
structures sited within 20 ft (6 m) of a higher structure or terrain feature (i.e., tanks, hills) as shown in Figure
5. The drift load should be determined using the methodology of Section 2.1.1.2.9.1; the factor 1-S/20 with
S in ft (1-S/6 with S in meters) should be applied to the maximum intensity of the drift Pd to account for the
horizontal separation between structure S, expressed in ft (m). Drift loads need not be considered for
separations greater than 20 ft (6 m).
Fig. 5. Snow loads for lower roof of adjacent structures.
2.1.1.2.9.3 Sliding Snow. Lower roofs which are located below roofs having a slope greater than 20 should
be designed for an increase in drift height of 0.4 hd, except that the total drift surcharge (hd + 0.4 hd) should
not exceed the height of the roof above the uniform snow depth, hc, as shown in Figure 6. Sliding snow need
not be considered if the lower roof is separated a distance S greater than hr, or 20 ft (6 m), whichever is less.
Fig. 6. Sliding snow load for lower roofs.
2.1.1.2.9.4 Roof Projections and Parapets. Projections above lower roofs, such as high bays or higher roofs
of the same building, penthouses and mechanical equipment, can produce drifting on the lower roof as
depicted in Figure 7. Such drift loads should be calculated on all sides of projections having horizontal
dimensions (perpendicular to wind direction) exceeding 15 ft (4.6 m) using the methodology of this Section,
even though the surcharge loading shape may be quadrilateral rather than triangular. To compensate for a
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Page 15
probable lower drift height, three-quarters of the drift height (hd) should be used, based upon a value of Wb
taken as the maximum distance upwind from the projection to the edge of the roof.
Drift loads created at the perimeter of the roof by a parapet wall should be computed using one-half of the
drift height (hd) with Wb equal to the length of the roof upwind of the parapet.
Fig. 7. Snow load at roof projections.
2.1.1.3 Rain Loads

2.1.1.3.1 General
Design rain loads should be determined in accordance with the guidelines of this section. However, the design
superimposed roof load should not be less than the minimum live or rain loads designated by the applicable
building codes or the snow loads given in Section 2.1.1.2.
2.1.1.3.2 Bases for Design Rain Loads
Minimum roof live loads and live load reductions in building codes do not apply to rain loads. Rain or snow
loads greater than such live loads govern the determination of design live loads. Rain loads should be
designed in accordance with the following guidelines, or for applicable building and plumbing codes,
whichever is the more restrictive:
2.1.1.3.2.1 Roof Drainage Systems. Roof drainage systems should be designed in accordance with one of
the methods discussed in this section, or the applicable codes, whichever results in better drainage.
2.1.1.3.2.2 Roof Stability. Roofs should be designed to preclude (i.e., ruling out in advance) instability from
ponding.
2.1.1.3.2.3 Drainage System Blockage. Roofs should be designed to sustain the load of the maximum
possible depth of water that could accumulate if the primary drainage system of the roof is blocked. The design
rain load or load due to the depth of water (total head) should be determined by the relative levels of the
roof surface (design roof line) and overflow relief provisions, such as flow over roof edges or through overflow
drains or scuppers. Roof instability due to ponding (the retention of water due solely to the deflected roof
framing) should be considered in this situation. If the overflow drainage provisions contain drain lines, such
lines should be independent of any primary drain lines. (See Figs. 8a and 8b.)
2.1.1.3.2.4 Controlled Drainage Provisions. Roofs with controlled flow drains should be equipped with an
overflow drainage system at a higher elevation which prevents rainwater buildup on the roof above that
elevation, except for the resulting hydraulic head (e.g., see typical roof drains in Fig. 8a). Such roofs should
be designed to sustain the load of the maximum possible depth of water to the elevation of the overflow
drainage system plus any load due to the depth of water (hydraulic head) needed to cause flow from the
overflow drainage system. Roof instability, due to ponding, should be considered in this situation. Likewise,
the overflow drainage system should be independent of any primary drain lines.
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Fig. 8a. Typical primary and overflow drainage systems for pitched roofs.
2.1.1.3.3 Rainfall Intensities

Roof drainage provisions should be designed to handle a rainfall intensity of at least a 1-hr event with a 100-yr
MRI. Rainfall intensity (i) is expressed in inches (mm) per hour.
Rainfall intensity maps are shown at the end of Section 2.0 (see Figs. 1317) for the Western U.S., Central
and Eastern U.S., Puerto Rico, Hawaiian Islands and Alaska. Interpolation is appropriate between rainfall
intensity lines. These maps were obtained from various Technical Papers of the U.S. Weather Bureau.
Note: The rainfall intensities will not necessarily correspond along the common boundary of the Western
and Central U.S. because the Central and Eastern U.S. map is newer [1977 vs. 1961].) The values expressed
in inches are the most intense 60-min duration rainfalls having a 1% probability of being exceeded in one
year. This is commonly designated as the 100-yr 1-hr rainfall.
Rainfall intensity (i) map for Western Europe is shown in Figure 18. The values on the map are expressed
in millimeters per hour and a 50-yr return period or 50-yr 1-hr rainfall. To convert the values to 100-yr 1-hr
rainfall for data sheet use, multiply the values by 1.07. (To convert millimeters to inches divide by 25.)
Rainfall intensity (i) for locations in Canada should be taken as 4.0 times the values tabulated by the
Atmospheric Environment Service (Ontario, Canada) in the 1990 Supplement to the National Building Code
of Canada. The tabulation presents the probable rainfall intensity in millimeters for a 15-min duration and
a 10-yr return period or 10-yr 15-min rainfall. To convert millimeters to inches divide by 25. The 4.0 multiplier
is a slightly conservative conversion from the 10-yr 15-min rainfall basis of the Canadian Code to the 100-yr
1-hr rainfall of this guideline.
In areas outside of those covered by the maps and tabulation, or in local areas of intense rainfall history,
the rainfall intensities should be obtained from local meteorological stations based upon a 1-hr duration rainfall
and a 100-yr MRI. Reasonable, but not exact, multiplication factors for converting a 1-hr duration rainfall
of 30-yr and 50-yr MRI to a 100-yr MRI are 1.2 and 1.07, respectively.
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Page 17
Fig. 8b. Typical primary and overflow drainage systems for flat roofs.
2.1.1.3.4 Stability Against Ponding

Roof instability due to ponding can be minimized or controlled in the initial roof design by one or a combination
of the following methods:
a) Provide sufficient overflow relief protection to remove the water before it reaches an excessive depth.
b) Slope the roof sufficiently to assure that water will flow off the edges of the roof.
c) Provide a sufficiently stiff and strong roof to limit the amount of deflection and to withstand ponding
as well as the total load.
d) Specify camber for roof supporting members (e.g., open web joists, structural shapes and plate girders
of steel). (Note: The Standard Specifications of the Steel Joist Institute specifies camber for all joist series
except K-Series [Open Web] Joists, which are optional with the manufacturer [see Section 2.1.1.3.7.2,
Part e.)
Design standards, such as the AISC Specifications for Structural Steel Buildings, require that roof systems
be investigated by structural analysis to assure adequate strength under ponding conditions, unless the roof
surface is provided with sufficient slope toward points of free drainage or other means to prevent the
accumulation of water. The AISC Specifications permit a reduction in safety factor to 1.25 with respect to
stress due to ponding plus the total load supported by the roof (i.e., design rain and dead loads).
2.1.1.3.5 Roof Drains and Scuppers
Roof drains may be used for a conventional or controlled drainage system. Roof drains and scuppers may
be utilized separately or in combination for primary or overflow drainage systems. The sections to follow, when
referring to drains, apply to both conventional and controlled flow drains, unless otherwise noted.
2.1.1.3.5.1 Quantity. At least two roof drains or scuppers should be provided for total roof areas of 10,000
ft2 (930 m2) or less. For larger roof areas, a minimum of one drain or scupper should be provided for each
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10,000 ft2 (930 m2) of roof area, except the roof area may be increased to 15,000 ft2 (1400 m2) with a minimum
drain diameter of 6 in. (150 mm) or scupper width of 8 in. (200 mm).
2.1.1.3.5.2 Placement. The placement of (primary) roof drains or scuppers are influenced by the roof
structures support columns and walls, expansion joints, roof equipment and other projections. Preferably,
roof drains should be located at mid-bay low points, or within 20% of the corresponding bay spacing from the
low points in each direction. If roof drains or scuppers are located at points of little deflection, such as columns
and walls, the roof surface should be sloped toward them at least 18 in./ft (1%) to compensate for minimum
deflections at these locations. In general, interior (non-perimeter) drains should not be located more than 50 ft
(15 m) from the roof perimeter nor more than 100 ft (30 m) apart. Exception: distances of 75 ft (23 m) from
the perimeter, and 150 ft (46 m) apart, may be used with a minimum drain diameter of 6 in. (150 mm).
Scuppers (primary) should be placed level with the roof surface in a wall or parapet as determined by the
roof slope and the contributing area of the roof, but should not be located more than 50 ft (15 m) from a roof
juncture nor more than 100 ft (30 m) apart along the roof perimeter, except 60 ft (18 m) and 125 ft (38 m),
respectively, may be used with a minimum scupper width of 8 in. (200 mm). Careful consideration of the above
during the design phase is essential to provide adequate and uniform drainage of each roof section.
2.1.1.3.5.3 Overflow Relief Protection. Overflow drainage should be provided for both dead-flat and sloped
roofs to prevent any possibility of water overload. The overflow relief provision establishes the maximum
possible water level based on blockage of the primary drainage system. The provision should be in the form
of miminal height roof edges, slots in roof edges, overflow scuppers in parapets or overflow drains adjacent
to primary drains, see Figures 8a and 8b. The overflow relief protection should provide positive and uniform
drainage relief for each roof section with drainage areas preferably not exceeding those of the primary
drainage or the drainage area limits in Section 2.1.1.3.5.1. Flow through the primary drainage system should
not be considered when sizing overflow relief drains and scuppers.
The inlet elevation of overflow drains and the invert elevation (see sketches in Table 6) of overflow scuppers
should be not less than 2 in. (50 mm) nor more than 4 in. (100 mm) above the low point of the (adjacent
to) roof surface unless a safer water depth loading, including the required hydraulic head to maintain flow,
has been determined by the roof framing designer.
2.1.1.3.5.4 Drainage System Sizing. After the rainfall intensity for a given location has been determined
(Section 2.1.1.3.3), one can determine the number and sizes of roof drains and/or scuppers, as well as the
sizes of vertical leaders or conductors and horizontal drainage piping, for either primary or overflow drainage
systems, as follows:
1. Sizing Conventional Roof Drains/Vertical Leaders and Scuppers
a. Determine the total number of roof drains or scuppers needed:
Equation 1.1
n=
English Units
A ; or n =
(for 6 in. dia. drains and
A
10,000
15,000 8 in. wide scuppers per Section 2.1.1.3.5.1)
Where n = number of drains needed (nearest higher whole no. 2)

A = total roof drainage area (ft2)
Equation 1.2
n=
A
930
Metric Units
; or n =
A
1400
(for 150 mm dia. drains

and 200 mm wide scuppers per Section 2.1.1.3.5.1)
Where n = Number of drains needed (nearest higher whole no. 2)

A = Total roof drainage area (m2)
1-54
Page 19
b. Determine the flow rate needed per roof drain, leader or scupper:
Equation 2.1
English Units
Q = 0.0104 i A (See Note below)

n
Where Q
i
A
n
=
=
=
=
Equation 2.2
drain, leader or scupper flow needed (gpm)

rainfall intensity (in./hr), Section 2.1.1.3.3
total roof drainage area (ft2)
number of drains needed (Equation 1.1)
Metric Units
Q = 0.0167 i A (See Note below)

n
Where Q = drain, leader or scupper flow needed (dm3/min)
i = rainfall intensity (mm/hr), Section 2.1.1.3.3
A = total roof drainage area (m2)
n = number of drains needed (Equation 1.2)
Note: The above coefficients (0.0104 or 0.0167) times i convert the rainfall intensity to an (average)
flow rate per unit area (see Table 7); however, these coefficients may vary for controlled drainage
systems (see Sizing Controlled Roof Drain/Vertical Leaders below).
c. Determine the size needed for roof drains, leaders or scuppers:
Drains and vertical leaders
Apply the flow, Q, needed per drain or vertical leader to Table 5 and select a drain or vertical leader
diameter which provides adequate flow capacity.
Scuppers
Apply the flow, Q, needed per scupper to Table 6 and select a scupper type and size which provides
adequate flow capacity.
2. Sizing Controlled Roof Drains/Vertical Leaders:
a) The methodology of this section should also be used for controlled drainage systems by simply
converting the rainfall intensity to the design peak flow rate rather than to the (average) flow rate.
b) The design peak flow rate is usually approximated at twice the average flow rate for a controlled
drain-age system.
1-54
Page 20
Table 5. Flow Capacity for Roof Drains and Piping1

Diameter of Drain or
Pipe
in.
3
4
5
6
8
10
12
15
Roof Drains and

Vertical Leaders
gpm
90
180
360
540
2
1170
Diameter of Drain or
Pipe
mm
75
100
125
150
200
255
305
380
Roof Drains and

Vertical Leaders
dm3/min
340
680
1360
2040
2
4420
English Units:
Horizontal Drainage Piping, gpm Slopes in. per ft
1 8
Slope
14
Slope
12
Slope
34
48
69
78
110
157
139
197
278
223
315
446
479
679
958
863
1217
1725
1388
1958
2775
2479
3500
4958
Metric Units:
Horizontal Drainage Piping, dm3/min Slopes percentages
1 Slope
2 Slope
4 Slope
130
295
525
845
1815
3265
5255
9385
180
415
745
1190
2570
4605
7410
13,245
260
595
1050
1690
3625
6530
10,500
18,770
1
To ensure achieving these flow capacities, roof drains must be placed at mid-bay, or the roof surfaces must be sloped toward the roof
drains (see Sections 2.1.1.3.5 and 2.1.1.3.7).
2
Design flow of this capacity is impractical; water must build up approximately 4.5 in. (113 mm) to achieve this flow.
1-54
Page 21
Table 6. Hydraulic Head Versus Flow Capacity for Roof Scuppers

(Depth of water over invert versus flow of water through scupper)
CLOSED TYPE SCUPPER
CHANNEL TYPE SCUPPER

1.5
Flow (gpm) = 2.9 bH

when h H; unitsin.
Flow (gpm) = 2.9 b(H1.5h11.5)

when h < H; unitsin.
Flow (dm3/min) = 0.0034 bH1.5

when h H; unitsmm
Flow (dm3/min) = 0.0034 b(H1.5h11.5)

when h < H; unitsmm
English Units
Scupper Flows, gpm
Water
Buildup
H, in.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Channel Type
hH
Width b, in.
6
18
50
90
140
194
255
321
393
8
24
66
120
186
258
340
428
522
12
36
100
180
280
388
510
642
786
Closed Type
Height h = 4 in.
24
72
200
360
560
776
1020
1284
1572
12
Height h = 6 in.
Width b, in.
24
6
12
24
(see channel type)

(see channel type)
177
206
231
253
236
274
308
338
354
412
462
506
708
824
924
1012
303
343
404
456
606
686
1212
1372
Metric Units
Scupper Flows, dm3/min
Water
Buildup
H, mm
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
Channel Type
hH
Width b, mm
150
63
178
327
505
705
927
1168
1427
200
84
237
437
673
940
1236
1558
1903
300
126
356
656
1009
1411
1854
2337
2855
Closed Type
Height h = 100 mm
500
210
595
1093
1682
2351
3090
3894
4758
150
200
300
Height h = 150 mm
Width b, mm
500
150
200
300
500
(see channel type)

(see channel type)
642
749
841
923
856
998
1121
1230
1284
1497
1681
1846
2141
2495
2802
3076
1105
1249
1474
1665
Notes: Whenever h H for a closed type scupper, the scupper flows under channel type scuppers are appropriate.
Interpolation is appropriate.
2211
2498
3684
4163
1-54
Page 22
Table 7. Conversion of Rainfall Intensity to Flow Rate and Rain Load per Unit Area
English Units:
Flow Rate gpm/ft2
.0104
.0156
.0208
.0260
.0312
.0364
.0416
.0468
.0520
.0572
.0624
.0728
.0832
.0936
.1040
Metric Units:
Flow Rate
dm3/min
per 1 m2
0.42
0.5
0.58
0.67
0.75
0.83
0.92
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.5
1.7
3.3
5.0
Rainfall Intensity, i in./hr

1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
Rainfall
Intensity, i
mm/hr
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
70
80
90
100
200
300
Rain Load/hr, psf

5.2
7.8
10.4
13.0
15.6
18.2
20.8
23.4
26.0
28.6
31.2
36.4
41.6
46.8
52.0
Rain Load/hr,
kilonewtons (kN)
per 1 m2
.25
.29
.34
.39
.44
.49
.54
.59
.69
.79
.88
.98
1.96
2.94
Table 8. Hydraulic Head versus Roof Drain Flow

Hydraulic Head
(Approx. Water
Depth Over Inlet)
1.0 in. (25 mm)
1.5 in. (38 mm)
2.0 in. (50 mm)
2.5 in. (63 mm)
3.0 in. (75 mm)
3.5 in. (88 mm)
4.0 in. (100 mm)
4.5 in. (113 mm)
4 in.
(100 mm)
80
120
170
180
(300)
(450)
(640)
(680)
Drain Diameter
6 in.
(150 mm)
Approximate Flow in gpm (dm3/min)
100 (380)
140 (530)
190 (720)
270 (1020)
380 (1440)
540 (2040)
8 in.
(200 mm)
125 (470)
170 (640)
230 (870)
340 (1290)
560 (2120)
850 (3220)
1100 (4160)
1170 (4430)
1-54
Page 23
c) The peak flow rate is the limited (controlled) flow rate required to maintain a predetermined depth of
water on a roof and drain the roof within a given 24-hour or 48-hour period. It varies according to the
controlled drainage design criterion, rainfall intensity and roof slope configuration.
3. Sizing Horizontal Drainage Piping:
a) Determine the flow, Qp, needed per horizontal drainage pipe section:
Qp = Q times the number of drains serviced by the pipe section
b) Determine the size of horizontal drainage piping needed:
Apply the flow, Qp, needed per pipe section to Table 5 and select the pipe diameter and slope which provides
adequate flow capacity.
2.1.1.3.6 Rain Loads with Drains and/or Scuppers
2.1.1.3.6.1 Adequate Roof Strength. It is imperative that all roof structures be strong enough to support the
maximum buildup of water that could accumulate if the primary drainage system is blocked. Roof structures
must also preclude instability due to ponding. In determining the corresponding load (total head), one should
include the loads due to the depth of water from the roof surface (design roof line) to the overflow provision
(i.e., roof edges, overflow drains or overflow scuppers) plus the depth of water (hydraulic head) needed to
cause the water to flow out of the overflow drainage system. The load due to ponding (the retention of water
due solely to the deflected roof framing) should not be included. However, it is accounted for in the roof
stability analysis. The typical primary and overflow drainage systems shown in Figures 8a and 8b illustrate
total head, hydraulic head and ponding.
2.1.1.3.6.2 Hydraulic Head. The water depth needed to cause flow out of overflow drainage systems should
be determined as follows:
a) Roof Edgesneglect the negligible hydraulic head needed to cause flow across a roof and over its
edges.
b) Overflow Roof Drainsuse Table 8 with the needed flow rate Q (Section 2.1.1.3.5.4), under an
appropriate drain diameter and determine the approximate depth of water over the drains inlet, by
interpolation when necessary.
c) Overflow Roof Scuppersuse Table 6 with the needed flow rate, Q (Section 2.1.1.3.5.4), under an
appropriate scupper type and size, and determine the approximate depth of water over the scuppers invert,
by interpolation when necessary.
2.1.1.3.6.3 Design Rain Load. The general expression given below for the design rain load for roof supporting
members is the total head times the weight of the water. Total head is measured from the design roof line
to the maximum water level (overflow discharge), as illustrated in Figures 8a and 8b of Section 2.1.1.3.2.3.
The total head includes the depths of water from the design roof line to the overflow provision plus the
hydraulic head corresponding to either an overflow drain or scupper. In addition, the roof framing designer
should prepare calculations substantiating that the roof design precludes roof instability due to ponding.
Structural roof support members should be designed to support at least a 3 in. (75 mm) depth of water on
dead-flat roofs, or at least a 6 in. (150 mm) depth of water at the low point locations of drains and scuppers
on sloped roofs, but not less than the total head. The actual rain load distribution to the structural members
will depend upon any roof slope and the overflow relief provisions.
Total Head = Maximum water depth from design roof line to overflow discharge level including any hydraulic
head (see Section 2.1.1.3.6.2).
English Units:
Design Rain Load (psf) = Total Head (in.) 5.2 15 psf for dead-flat roofs and 30 psf at low-point of sloped
roofs.
Metric Units:
Design Rain Load (kN/m2) = Total Head (mm) 0.01 0.7 kN/m2 for dead-flat roofs and 1.4 kN/m2 at
low-point of sloped roofs.
1-54
Page 24
2.1.1.3.7 Roof Slope

2.1.1.3.7.1 Roofs with Drains. To ensure that the points of maximum sag are no lower than the roof surface
between these points and the drains of roofs with interior drainage, a positive drainage slope of at least
14 in./ft (2%) should be provided. In Figure 9 this is illustrated in the sloped roof detail where ponding occurs
locally at the origin; whereas in the flat roof detail ponding occurs in every bay.
Fig. 9. Flat and sloped roofs with interior roof drains.
If a slope less than 14 in./ft (2%) is desired, the needed slope should be individually determined by deflection
analysis. If water must flow across one bay into another, relatively complicated two-way deflection analysis
is involved. The guidelines of Section 2.1.1.3.7.2 for roof slope with edge drainage are appropriate. The roof
framing designer should prepare calculations according to these guidelines, or other appropriate method, to
substantiate that the design slope is sufficient to preclude roof instability from ponding.
2.1.1.3.7.2 Roofs with Edge Drainage. If drains are not provided and drainage is accomplished by causing
the water to flow off the perimeter of the roof or if drains or scuppers are located only at the perimeter,
sufficient roof slope is vital, preferably at least 14 in./ft (2%). Under these circumstances, sufficient slope is
needed to overcome the deflections caused by the dead load of the roof plus the weight of the 1-hour design
storm less the effect of any specified camber. This is achieved when the actual downward pitch of the roof
surface exceeds the upward slope for all deflected roof framing at or near their downward support column
(or wall). (See Fig. 10)
If a design roof slope (Sd) less than 14 in./ft (2%) is desired, the roof framing designer should prepare
calculations, according to the following guidelines or other appropriate method, to substantiate that the design
slope is sufficient to preclude roof instability from ponding:
a) The actual slope (Sa) under the dead load of the roof less the upward camber, when specified, should
be at least 18 in./ft (1%).
1-54
Page 25
Fig. 10. Sloped roof with roof edge drainage.
b) The actual slope (Sa), upward from the perimeter of the roof, under the dead load of the roof plus
1-hour of rain load (see Table 7), less the upward camber, when specified, should be greater than zero
(i.e., upward positive slope, not flat).
c) All primary and secondary members perpendicular to the roof edge, for the entire roof slope, should
have actual slopes (Sa), calculated by the roof designer, meeting the slope criteria of a) and b) as follows:
English Units:
3
(D.L.) L
Sa (%) = Sd (%) + 240 (Camber)
1%
L
1.44 24 E I
3
Sa (%) = Sd (%) + 240 (Camber) (D.L. + 5.2 i) L 0%

L
1.44 24 E I
Where: Sa and Sd are the actual and design roof slopes in percent, respectively.
D.L. is the roofs dead load in psf
Camber, upward camber in inches when it is specified (not optional) by fabrication specifications,
see Part e.
i, rainfall intensity in in./hr
L, span length of member in inches
E, modulus of elasticity of members material, psi
I, effective moment of inertia of member, (in.)4 per inch of (tributary loaded) roof width
To convert roof slope (percent) to in./ft multiply percent by 0.12
1-54
Page 26
Metric Units:
Sa (%) = Sd (%) +
0.24 (Camber)
(D.L.) L
24 E I
Sa (%) = Sd (%) +
0.24 (Camber)
(D.L. + 0.01 i) L 3
> 0%
L
24 E I
1%
Where: Sa and Sd are the actual and design roof slopes in percent, respectively.
DD.L., Roofs dead load in kN/m2
Camber, upward camber in mm when it is specified not optional by fabrication specifications,
see Part e.
i, rainfall intensity, in mm/hr
L, span length of member in meters
E, modulus of elasticity of members material, in kN/m2
I, effective moment of inertia of member, in (m)4 per meter of (tributary loaded) roof width
d) If secondary members are parallel to relatively stiff perimeter walls (e.g., masonry or metal panel walls),
the actual roof slope should be increased to compensate for maximum deflection (adjusted for any
specified camber) of the secondary member closest to the wall. Therefore, the actual slope computed in
the equations of Part c above should be adjusted by a decrease as follows:
Sa Decrease (%) = (Max. Deflection of secondary member) 100
(Distance secondary member from wall)
where: deflection and distance are in the same units (e.g., in. or mm)
e) The following are cambers specified in the Standard Specifications of the Steel Joist Institute (SJI)
for LH-Series (Longspan) and DLH-Series (Deep Longspan) Joists and Joist Girders:
Top Chord Length
ft (m)
20 ( 6)
30 ( 9)
40 (12)
50 (15)
60 (18)
>60 (>18)
Approximate Camber
in. (mm)
14 ( 6)
38 (10)
58 (16)
1 (25)
112 (38)
See SJI Specifications
The above cambers should not be assumed for K-Series (Open Web) Joists because it is optional with
the manufacturer.
2.1.1.4 Other Roof Loads
2.1.1.4.1 Roof Overloading
Subjecting the roofs of buildings and other structures (e.g., silos) to temporary or fixed loads which were
not anticipated at the time of initial roof design creates the possibility of roof overloading and subsequent
collapse. Roofs are seldom designed to withstand accumulation of coal or cement dust, sand, sawdust, wood
chips, spillages from baghouses and conveyors and other debris. Any such accumulations on roofs should
be removed since they normally prevent adequate roof drainage, and may greatly increase the total roof live
load and significantly compromise the design live load.
Another source of possible overloading is the addition or modification of roof-mounted or roof-suspended
equipment and structures. These fixed loads become critical if coupled with other loadings such as rain and
snow. Thus, suitable structural reinforcement is warranted.
2.1.1.4.2 Indirect Roof Overloading
The overloading and collapse of the primary vertical support elements of the roof structure, such as columns
and bearing walls, is another cause of roof collapse. Columns adjacent to traffic aisles for manually operated
fork-lift and other trucks are vulnerable to upset if not adequately protected.
1-54
Page 27
The baseplates of these columns should be anchored to their foundations with a minimum of four 1 in. (25 mm)
diameter anchor bolts, and protected with concrete curbing or concrete-filled pipe bumpers to resist and/or
prevent impact loads from these vehicles. Walls, particularly masonry, should not be laterally loaded by placing
bulk materials (e.g., sand) or rolled products (e.g., carpets or paper) against them, unless the wall and roof
structure is designed to resist significant lateral loads. Likewise, rack storage structures or vertical stays,
for confining rolled products in storage, should not be secured to the roof framing system unless the framing
and bracing systems are designed to resist significant laterally-induced loads.
1-54
Page 28
130
125
120
115
110
105
20
I
15
S
O
45
15
W
Y
G
10
15
15
15
15
20
10
10 15
10
5
5 O
5C
Zero
15
Zero
15
15
15
40
Zero
10
15
A
10
15
10
20
20
10
O
L
10
15
10
15
10
10
P
I
V
W
Zero
E
20
20
15
Zero
20
20
Y
20
20
10
15
45
15
K
F 15
15
H 10
20
20
20
15
20
20
15
10
35
15
10
20
10
40
20 20
25
N
15
35
B 15
20
10
15
15
40
25
15
20
10
Zero
25
25
40
30
30
20 P
10
25
15
Y
10R
35
35
30
35
10
20
15
40
10
40
35
30
30
15
20
W 15
35
15
10
Zero
25
10
50
20
15
15
35
Zero
10
30
Y
10
5
F
S
Zero
30
25
115
110
105
Dots are included to assist in defining the

position of boundaries. The letter adjacent to
the dot is the first letter of the place name
there.
In these areas extreme local variations in
snow loads preclude mapping at this scale
The zoned value is not appropriate for certain
geographic settings, such as high country in
these areas
100
50
50
Fig. 11a. Ground snow load (P g) in psf for western United States.
To obtain kN/sq m, multiply by 0.048.)
100
200
Kilometers
0
50
Miles
100
1-54
Page 29
105
W
35
35
40
35
35
35
C
F
30
40
20
20
20
B 15
20 20
25
N
10
10
20
40
15
R
20
H
L
20
F S
30
D
R
25
M
N
25
15
20
20
40
10
S
G
15
15
10
20
20
15
15
10
10
15
15
W
10
20
15
M 30
35
30
20
20
35 10
40
25
35
V
W
40
50 A
45
40 L
40
60
60 W
50
60
B
50
50
60
L
15
40
20
20
70
35
60 M
W
60
70
60 B
F
H
30
F 15
35
20
15
25
15
40
50
35
25
S
85
50
70
50
30
30
90
60
L
N
K 40
30
45
40
25
25
F
95
30
W
100
J
P
35
10
5
10
10
5
5
5
30
Zero
30
Zero
S
Zero
100
there.
these areas
95
90
50
100
200
Kilometers
50
50
100
Miles
Fig. 11b. Ground snow load (P g) in psf for central United States.
1-54
Page 30
100
90
L
70
70
80
E
P
M
60
N 70
50
G
40
50
30 35
60 W
40
35
M 30
Y
P
20
W
25
25
35
35
30
R
30
L
I
10
M
H
D
C
15
10
10
C
15
C
G
15
10
J
30
20 S
25
10
25
T 30
20
D
C
20
25
30
25
20
20
25
15
40
35 N
25
C
35
30
20
35
30
A
W W
30
30
P
O
50
G
S
E I
G
35
25
40
30
20
25
40
R
N
B
35
40
60
60
60 P 50
40
60
50
50
40
E
T
Zero
F
T
ro
Zero

there.
50
100
200
Kilometers
50
50
100
Miles

these areas
Fig. 11c. Ground snow load (P g ) in psf for eastern United States.
60
1-54
Page 31
30
25
20
15
10
10
15
20
25
30
35
65
240
250
240
400
500 500
Reykjavik
290
300
290
260
260
SE
A
500
300
EG
IA
Trondheim
RW
NO
450
200
Glasgow
ATL
OC AN TIC
EA
N
300
500
150
600
95
170
150
150
40
145
100
200
200
Bordeaux 100
100
50
50
60
200
60
Madrid
200
35
90
200
90
200 50100
100
100
60
45
Milan
AD
60Florence
180
60
60
120
150
90
Belgrade
RI
AT
60
SE
Sofia
Rome
Taranto
60
120
Tirane
40
100
Sevilla
60
60
60
50
50
50
IC
90
Marseille
60
120
80
Budapest
90
Lyon
Barcelona
80
80
60
80
60
Vienna
220
100
Porto
Lisbon
Munich
Bern
40
40
145
220
50
70
Prague
135
135
135
120
50
Frankfurt
70
Paris
40 60 40
135
220
110
40
50
135 Berlin
110
180
Brussels
40
W arsaw
95
The Hague
40 90
110
40
60
55
95
Essen
40
50
40
60
BALTIC
SEA
Hamburg
London
45
Riga
Copenhagen
100
Amsterdam
40
40
70
70
40
Birmingham
30
Tallinn
Stockholm
150
200
100
40
50
65
65
60
Vilnius
55
30
200
200
450 150
NORTH
S EA
Dublin
Liverpool
250
240
220
180 200
65
Belfast
50
350
250
300
Goteborg
85
50
250
350
250
65
50
15
0
13
0
150
110
65
240
Helsinki
Starvnger
Inverness
85
40
200
180
250
150
85 110
220
300
300
65
55
400
250
350
400
400
150
50
260
500
350
60
65
260
200
60
50
MEDIT
ERRA N
Palermo
60
EA N SE
A
60
60
60
20
35
10
15
200
400
Kilometers
0
100
200
Miles
Fig. 12. Ground snow load (Pg) in kg/m 2, for 50-yr MRI, for Western Europe. (To convert kg/m 2
to kN/m 2, multiple by 0.0098. To convert kg/m 2 to psf, divide by 4.88.) (June 1984) For further
information on Germany, Switzerland and Austria, see notes for Fig. 12.
300
1-54
Page 32
Notes for Figure 12:

The ground snow load map for Europe is to be used when the property is located in the countries
indicated. Interpolation for snow loadings between isopleth lines is generally acceptable in regions not
having high hills or mountains (see footnote).
The snow loadings for Switzerland, Austria and Germany should be determined by the discussion below.
Switzerland
The following is from the Swiss Association of Engineers and Architects.
For H < 2000 m:
Ps = 40 +
( )
H , but at least 90 kg/m2

55
where H is the altitude above sea level in meters and Ps is the snow load for the altitude in question.
For H > 2000 m: Use measured snow loads.
Austria
Snow load is not always in direct proportion to altitude above sea level. The following guidelines are
approximate and should be confirmed with local data.
Altitude (m)
Up to 300
300-500
500-750
750-1000
1000-1500
1500-2000
2000-3000
Snow Load (kg/m2)

75
75-100
100-160
160-200
200-300
300-400
400-600
Germany
For Germany multiply the loads shown on the map by the following:
Altitude (m)
700-800
800-900
900-1000
Multiplier
1.3
1.6
1.9
Footnote. This guideline should be used with caution when the building is to be located on a high hill or mountain. In that case,
consult local records for maximum weight of snowfall. To convert kg/m2 to kN/m2, multiply by 0.0098. To convert kg/m2 to psf, divide
by 4.88.
1-54
Page 33
130
125
1.0
45
120
1.0
1.0
115
110
105
1.0
1.0
1. 5
1.0
1.5
50
2.0
OC
EA
100
1.5
PA
CIF
IC
2.5
1.5
40
1.5 2
.0
45
1.5
2.5
2.0
1.5
35
1.0
1.5
30
2.0
1.5
3.0
2.0
40
1.0 2
.5
1.5 1.5
35
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
1.5
2.5
2.0
3.0
400
200
3.0
2.0
2.5 2.0
2.5
3.0
Kilometers
25
100
200
300
30
Miles
25
20
115
110
105
100
100 Year 1 hour duration
Source: U.S.Weather Bureau, Technical Paper No. 40, 1961
Fig. 13. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for the western United States
25
30
35
40
45
105
3 .0
3.2 5
2. 75
2 .5
3 .2 5
3.0
3.5
4.0
3.25
3.25
105
2.75
3 .2 5
2 .5 2.75 3.0
110
100
4.25
4. 25
3 .7 5
2.7 5
100
95
4.75
2.75
85
RIOR
LAKE SU PE
3.25
90
3.5
2.75
2.5
3.5
85
4.5
4.25
3 . 75
4 .0
2. 6
4.28
2.75
4.5
2.25
IO
75
LAK E ONTAR
2 .5
LAKE
ERIE
2.75
2.75
3 .25
2.5
LAKE HUR ON
2.25
XICO
GULF OF ME
4.75
80
AN
LAKE MIC HIG
2.75
3. 0
2.5
3.0
2. 25 2.25
2.25
2.5
2 .25
2.5
2.5 2. 25
90
5.0
2.5
4. 0
3.25
3.5 3.75
3.0
5
2.7
2.25
75
25
300
400
30
35
40
45
200
Miles
100
Kilometers
200
REPRESENTATIVE FOR FLORIDA KEYS
2. 5
2. 0
65
100-YEAR 60-MINUTE
PRECIPITATION (INCHES)
* KEW WEST. FLORIDA VALUE
Legend:
80
4.5
4.25
2. 25
2.25
2. 0
2.25
2.25
70
Page 34
Fig. 14. Rainfall Intensity (i) in inches per hour for the central and eastern United States.
4 .5
3.75
3.75
3 .25
3.0
95
CEA
N
A TL
A NT
IC O
50
1-54
6730'
6715'

5.5
6645'
5 4.5 4
6.5
3.5
6630'
4.5
4.5
6615'
4.5
6615'
660'
5.5
4 4.5 5
660'
6545'
5.5
6545'
10
40
VIEQUES ISLAND
3.1
180'
1815'
1830'
1845'
6515'
CULEBRA ISLAND
6530'
5.5 4.6
65
30
10
Miles
20
Kilometers
20
30
50
6515'
1-54

Page 35
Fig. 15. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for Puerto Rico. (To convert to millimeters per hour multiply by 25.4.)
Source: U.S. Weather Bureau, Technical Paper No.42, 1961
670'
4.5
5
Min Val 3.4
6630'
ATLANTIC OCEAN
6645'
1730'
4.5
670'
1730'
6745'
6715'
1745'
3.1
MONA ISLAND
6730'
1745'
180'
1815'
1830'
1845'
6745'
100-YEAR 1-HOUR RAINFALL (INCHES)
1.5
2.5
2
2.5
1560'
2.5
2.5
2
2
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
1560'
1600'
45
HAWAII
1.5
15530'
5.5
15530'
15930'
5 44
5 6
KAUAI
15930'
5
6
Source: U.S. Weather Bureau, Technical

Paper No. 43, 1962
190'
1930'
200'
NIHAU
220'
1600'
5
160
19
20
21
160
NIHAU
22
1580'
2.5
6.5
3
3
KAUAI
159
159
2130'
OAHU
2030'
210'
158
158
1.5
2.5
2.5
LANAI
5 4
5.5
3
7
8
156
40
Miles
155
155
40
60
19
20
21
22
2030'
1560'
210'
1560'
MAUI
5
6
7
8
Kilometers
10 20 30
20
HAWAII
MAUI
156
15630'
KAHOOLAWE
157
LANAI
MOLOKAI
157
3 2.5 2.5 3
2.5 2.5
2.5
45
MOLOKAI
15630'
KAHOOLAWE
1570'
2.5 3
2.5 2.5
1570'
Page 36
Fig. 16. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for Hawaiian Islands.
(To convert to millimeters per hour multiply by 25.4.)
Miles
40
60
190'
1930'
Kilometers
10 20 30
20
1550'
OAHU
200'
40
2130'
1550'
220'
1580'
100-YEAR 1-HOUR RAINFALL (INCHES)
1-54
55
60
65
70
Adar
0.90
175
Atka
0.80
175
0.88
Dutch
Harbor
0.49
0.6
160
1.2
Meshik
0.9
Chignik
0.5
0.9
0.8
155
King
Salmon
0.8
155
0.8
Takotna
Galena
Shungnak
Barrow
Kodiak
0.8
1.2
0.6
Umiat
150
150
1.2
1.4
1
0.8
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
.5
140
140
Yakutat
0.9
Northway
Fort
Yukon
Kaktovik
145
Cordova
1.4
Anchorage
0.6
Fairbanks
0.4
145
1.2
1.2
1.4
1.2
200
Miles
100
200
300
130
1
Metlakatla
0.6
Kilometers
100
0.8
130
Ketchikan
Juneau
0.8
1.2
1
0.6
135
1.4
1.2
135
55
60
65
70
1-54

Page 37
Fig. 17. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for Alaska.
(To convert to millimeters per hour multiply by 25.4.)
0.8
Bethel
0.6
160
Kotzebue
0.8 0.7
0.5
Point
Lay
0.4
Cold
Bay
0.8
165
0.8
Mekoryuk
Nome
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
165
0.5
0.5
St. George
170
St. Paul
0.57
0.48
Gambell
170
1-54
Page 38
NORWEGIAN
SEA
65
43
Trondheim
32
32
32
37
54
54
32
43
37
43
37
Oslo
32
32
60
Stockholm
43
Glasgow
32
37
27
32
32
54
27
NORTH
SEA
48
Dublin
37
32
37
32
37
Birmingham
32
43
64
64
64
32
Wars
32
32
Frankfurt
48
54
Paris
32
Prague
32
32
50
70
48
54
48
32
32
48
Bern
134
43
64
Budapest
54
Yon
96
107
Vienna
54
Bordeaux
59
70
Munich
32
86
80
86
64
48
Milan
54
48
54
48
43
45
107
37
43
70
54
Madrid
96
Barcelona
59
59
Florence
Belgra
AD
128
48
96
128
54
RI
AT
IC
48
128
64
96
70
86
64
55
Berlin
Essen
Brussels
32
70
32
32
32
Lisbon
BALTIC
SEA
43
32
48
86
27
48
48
32
59
Copenhagen
Hamburg
London
48
48
54
48
54
54
43
43
43
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
48
32
Belfast
Liverpool
43
32
48
70
59
107
59
59
MEDITERRANEAN
SEA
T irane
43
48
70
SE
A
Taranto
48
40
59
75
54
64
75
Palermo
54
75
86
10
15
400
200
Kilometers
100
200
300
Miles
Fig. 18. Rainfall intensity (i) in millimeters per hour for Western Europe, 100-yr 60-minute rainfall.
(To convert to in./hr, divide by 25.)
20
1-54
Page 39
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Loss History
3.1.1 Roof Collapse-Snow, Rain and Other Roof Loads
Large accumulations of snow, rain or other means of overloading the roofs of industrial or commercial
buildings can play havoc with business operations. According to the FM Global Research loss statistics, over
1700 losses occurred, some involving multiple buildings and/or structures which suffered roof collapses from
1977 through 1996 as a result of such roof overloadings.
The primary cause of rain overloading is ponding water accumulating in depressions and the excessive
buildup of rainwater on roofs. Most rain loading collapses occur on essentially flat roofs, slopes of 18 in./ft
(1%) or less, of relatively lightweight construction and designed for minimum live loads.
A roof designed as dead-flat or sloped only 18 in./ft (1%) to either interior drains or free drainage (roofs edges)
probably contains low spots by the time it is constructed. Water ponding on a roof surface will remain until
it evaporates. Ponding can be troublesome because it may involve freeze-thaw cycles or prolonged moisture,
both of which are detrimental to the roofing materials. The National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA)
recommends a minimum 14 in./ft (2%) slope on roofs. The most serious difficulty with ponding is that it can
lead to overload problems on the roof structure.
As rainwater or snow meltwater flows to low areas, these areas tend to sag increasingly, allowing a deeper
pond to form. If the roof structure does not possess enough stiffness to resist this progression and stabilize,
collapse by localized overloading results. This mechanism is commonly known as the ponding cycle and it
has been responsible for most roof collapses due to rain loads or the combination of rain and snow loads.
Lightweight, flexible roof structures are particularly susceptible because they do not have enough stiffness to
resist or stabilize the ponding cycle. Theoretical calculations for ponding are very complicated. The AISC
Specifications describes a method for determining minimum stiffness necessary for two-way framing systems
to preclude roof instability or the prevention of ponding collapse.
Excessive buildup of rainwater is also caused by inadequate interior drains or perimeter scuppers, rainfall
intensities greater than predicted, clogged drainage devices, and the backup of storm drainage systems. All
of the above caused overloading and subsequent roof collapse.
When code guidelines for live load reductions are followed, the practical result is that very flexible roofs are
constructed which are highly susceptible to ponding and frequently unable to resist rain or unbalanced snow
loads.
4.0 REFERENCES
4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 1-14, Construction Systems.
Data Sheet 1-55, Weak Construction and Design.
4.2 Others
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), Allowable Stress Design Specification for Structural Steel
Buildings, Commentary K, Chapter K2.
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for
Structural Steel Buildings, Commentary K, Chapter K2.
American Iron and Steel Institution (AISI), Base Test Method for Purlins Supporting a Standing Seam Roof.
American Iron and Steel Institution (AISI), Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural
Members.
ANSI A58.1, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures.
ANSI/ASCE 7-88, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures.
Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center (AEIDC).
1-54
Page 40
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL).

European Committee for Standardization (CEN).
Eurocode 1: Part 2.3 Action on Structures Snow Loads, DD ENV 1991-2-3:1966.
National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA).
National Weather Service, Technical Notes.
1990 Supplement to the National Building Code of Canada.
Standard Specifications of the Steel Joist Institute (SJI) for LH-Series (Longspan), DLH-Series (Deep
Longspan) Joists and Joists Girders and K-series (Open Web) Joists.
Swiss Association of Engineers and Architects, Snow Loads.
The Division of Building Research, National Research Council, and the Meteorological Branch, Department
of Transport, Canada.
U.S. Weather Bureau, Technical Papers.
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
The following discussion of terms will facilitate use of this data sheet. When using building and plumbing
codes, use the interpretations provided therein.
A.1 Roof Loads and Drainage
A.1.1 Controlled Roof Drains
The design of controlled roof drains is similar to conventional roof drains. The difference is that controlled
drains are equipped with restrictive devices to accurately set the flow characteristics to the controlled drainage
requirements. The purpose of controlling roof drains is to have the roof serve as a temporary storage reservoir
of rainwater (e.g., to prevent flooding of storm sewers).
A.1.2 Design Roof Line
The design roof line is an imaginary line established during the design stage, as either dead-flat or sloped,
by setting elevations at points of support (i.e., columns or walls) for roof framing members. The design roof
line is not the actual roof line because framing members sag under the dead weight of the roof system, and
sag additionally under super-imposed live loads such as snow and rain. (See Figs. 8a and 8b.)
A.1.3 Ponding and Ponding Cycle
Ponding refers to the retention of water due solely to the deflection of relatively flat roof framing (see Figs.
8a and 8b). The deflection permits the formation of pools of water. As water accumulates, deflection increases,
thereby increasing the capacity of the depression formed. This phenomenon is known as the ponding cycle.
The amount of water accumulated is dependent upon the flexibility of the roof framing. If the roof framing
members have insufficient stiffness, the water accumulated can collapse the roof.
A.1.4 Dead Load
The dead load of the roof is the weight of its permanent or fixed components including supporting members,
deck, insulation, roof covering, gravel and suspended or supported ceilings or equipment, such as heaters,
lighting fixtures and piping, which were anticipated at the time of design.
In some cases, dead loads which were not anticipated are added to existing buildings or an allowance for
future dead loads was included in the design dead load. For the purposes of this data sheet, any portion of
the dead load exceeding the design dead load should be subtracted from the design live load; any unused
portion of the design dead load may be added to the design live load.
Dead load is normally expressed in pounds per square foot (psf), kilonewtons per square meter (kN/m2) or
kilopascal (kPa).
1-54
Page 41
A.1.5 Live Load

The live load of the roof is the weight allowance for temporary or movable loads, such as rain, snow or
construction materials, equipment and workers, which will occasionally be present.
The design live load represents the superimposed weight which the roof system can support, within allowable
design parameters, beyond its own dead load. In cases where re-roofing materials or equipment or structures
which were not included in the design dead load are added to the roof system, their weight should be
subtracted from the design live load.
Most building codes and design standards permit reductions in minimum (roof) design live loads, excluding
snow or rain loads, based on the tributary loaded areas supported by roof members (joists, beams, etc.).
This data sheet restricts live load reductions for lightweight roof constructions, see Section 2.1.1.1.2. Usually
the minimum design live load is 20 psf (1.0 kN/m2) with a reduction to 16 psf (0.8 kN/m2) for members
supporting a tributary area of 201 to 600 ft2 (19 to 56 m2), and a reduction to 12 psf (0.6 kN/m2) for members
supporting a tributary area greater than 600 ft2 (56 m2). This means that roofs assumed to have a 20 psf
(1.0 kN/m2) live load capacity, as commonly stated on the roof plan drawings, may actually only have an
effective load capacity of 12 psf (0.6 kN/m2). Usually, only the design calculations identify whether live load
reductions have been taken. When code guidelines for live load reductions are followed, the practical result
is that very flexible roofs, highly susceptible to ponding and frequently unable to resist rain or unbalanced snow
(drifts) loads, are constructed. It is likely that live load reductions have been applied to minimum design live
loads, even in new construction, when rain loads due to drainage system blockage is not considered or
appropriately understood (Section 2.1.1.3.2).
Live load is usually expressed in pounds per square foot (psf), kilonewtons per square meter (kN/m2) or
kilopascal (kPa).
A.1.6 Total Load
The total load of the roof is the combination of the dead plus live loads, excluding wind and earthquake loads.
The design total load should be effectively resisted by each of the structural members of the roof system.
Building codes and design standards establish allowable (design) working stresses and deflection limits, and
these may only be exceeded when considering dead and live loads in combination with wind or earthquake
loads.
A.1.7 Tributary Loaded Area (TA)
The TA is that area of the roof supported by a roof (supporting) member. Tributary loaded areas for typical
primary and secondary members are illustrated in Figure 19. For secondary members, such as joists, the TA
is the joist length times the joist spacing. For primary members, such as beams or trusses usually supporting
uniformly spaced joists, the TA is the beam or truss length times its spacing. As a rule of thumb, the TA for
primary members is the area of a bay (a layout of four columns constitutes a bay) or precisely the product of
the average column spacing in each direction. An exception to the rule of thumb is construction with members
framed along exterior column lines or along double column lines at expansion joints; then the TA is the
member length times one-half the member spacing plus the roof overhang beyond the column centerline.
All of the above is applicable to single span or cantilevered roof framing (Data Sheet 1-14, Construction
Systems).
A.1.8 Roof Strength

The term roof strength and total roof strength, for the purposes of this data sheet, are used interchangeably
with design live load and total load, respectively. Roof strength is the measure of a roof assembly and
supporting systems ability to support loads above the design dead load without exceeding the allowable
design parameters. Total roof strength is the measure of the roof systems ability to support the design dead
plus live loads without exceeding the allowable design parameters. Roof strengths are also expressed in
psf, kN/m2 or kPa.
Steel roof deck manufacturers often provide allowable uniform total load tables in their catalogs. This can
be misleading since the strength of members supporting the deck is governed by the design total load and
not the load capacity of the roof deck. The supporting members, because of this difference, will usually
collapse well before a failure of the deck occurs. The primary determinant of roof strength, therefore, is the
roof supporting members with appropriate adjustment for any live load reductions.
1-54
Page 42
Fig. 19. Typical tributary loaded areas for primary and secondary members.
A.1.9 Safety Factor

The safety factor of a structural member is defined as the ratio of its strength (yield stress) to its maximum
anticipated design stress (working stress). In steel design using elastic-design methods, a design stress
equal to two-thirds of the minimum yield stress of the material is often used. This results in a safety factor equal
to 1/0.67 or 1.5.
While it is helpful to recognize this safety margin, it is equally important to understand that safety factors
are provided for the many uncertainties associated with materials, design, fabrication, installation and
unpredicted loads in excess of design values. The building designer should not compromise or use any portion
of the safety margin for design purposes except when permitted for ponding analysis and wind or earthquake
load combinations.
Loads in excess of design values may occur when based on this guideline, which establishes design values
that reduce the risk of load-induced collapse to an acceptable low limit. The implications of such excess
loads, however, should be considered. For example, if a roof is deflected at the design snow load so that
slope-to-drain is eliminated, excess snow load may cause ponding and perhaps progressive failure. The
rain-load to dead-load or snow-load to dead-load ratios of a roof structure are an important consideration when
assessing the implications of excess loads. If the design rain or snow load is exceeded, the percentage
increase in total load is greater for a lightweight structure (all metal, insulated steel deck or boards-on-joists
roof constructions) than for a heavy structure (concrete deck or plank-on-timber constructions). Thus, the
lower the safety margin (expressed as a load), the higher the probability for roof collapse due to snow or rain
excess loads. This fact is supported by collapse loss history.
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY
May 2006. Minor editorial changes done for this revision.
September 2001. Redrawn maps for ground snow load and rainfall intensity were updated.
1-54
Page 43
January 2001. This revision of the document has been reorganized to provide a consistent format.
GIRTS Issued: Subject: ZEE SECTION PROPERTIES 2/1/93 Table C-22.
APPENDIX E ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES AND JOB AIDS
E.1 Snow Loading Illustrative Examples
The following examples illustrate the methods used to establish design snow loads for most of the roof
configurations discussed in the data sheet.
Example 1: Determine the balanced and unbalanced design snow loads for a proposed building for
Milwaukee, WI. It has galvanized steel, insulated panels on a gable roof, sloped 8 on 12 (see Fig. 20).
a) Ground snow load (Pg) from Figure 11b:
Pg = 30 psf (1.4 kN/m2)
b) Flat-roof snow load (Section 2.1.1.2.5 or Table 2)
Pf = 0.9 Pg = 0.9 (30) = 27 psf (1.3 kN/m2)
c) Sloped-roof (balanced) snow load (Section 2.1.1.2.7):
Ps = CsPf = 0.66 (27) = 18 psf (0.9 kN/m2)
where Cs = 0.66 (Table 3 for slippery, cold, 8 on 12 sloped roof)
d) Sloped-roof (unbalanced) snow load (Section 2.1.1.2.8.1): 1.5 Ps = 1.5 (18) = 27 psf (1.3 kN/m2)
e) See Figure 20 for both snow loading conditions.
Fig. 20. Design snow loads for Example 1.
Example 2: Determine the roof snow load for a proposed (bow-string truss) curved roof building for Boston,
MA. The building has an 80 ft clear span and 15 ft rise, circular arc wood deck roof construction with insulation
and built-up roofing (see Fig. 21).
a. Ground snow load (Pg) from Figure 11c:
Pg = 30 psf (1.4 kN/m2)
b. Flat roof snow load (Section 2.1.1.2.5 or Table 2):
Pf = 0.9 (30) = 27 psf (1.3 kN/m2)
c. Vertical angle measured from eave to crown (see Fig. 21):
Tangent of vertical angle =
1 2
rise
span
= 15 = 0.375
40
Vertical angle = 21
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Page 44
d. Sloped-roof (balanced) snow load:

Ps = Cs Pf = 1.0 (27) = 27 psf (1.3 kN/m2)
where Cs = 1.0 (Table 3 for cold, other surface roof)
e. Unbalanced snow loads (Section 2.1.1.2.8.2):
Eave slope = 41 (see Fig. 21)
The 30 point is 30 ft (9.1 m) from the centerline (see Fig. 21).
Unbalanced load at crown w/slope of 30 (Fig. 2, Case I):
0.5 Ps = .5 (27) = 14 psf (0.6 kN/m2)
Unbalanced load at 30 point (Fig. 2, Case II):
2 Ps = 2(27) = 54 psf (2.6 kN/m2)
Unbalanced load at eave (Fig. 2, Case II):
2 Ps (1 eave slope 30 )
40
227 (1 41 30) = 39 psf (1.9 kN/m2)
40
f. See Figure 21 for both loading conditions.
Example 3: Determine the design snow loads for the upper and lower flat roofs for a proposed building to
be located in Lansing, MI. The elevation difference between the roofs is 10 ft (3 m). The upper roof is 200 ft
(61 m) wide and the lower roof is 40 ft (12.2 m) wide (see Fig. 22).
a) Ground snow load (Pg) from Figure 11c:
Pg = 35 psf (1.7 kN/m2)
b) Flat-roof (balanced) snow load for either roof (Section 2.1.1.2.5)
Pf = 0.9 (Pg) = 0.9 (35) = 32 psf (1.5 kN/m2)
c) Maximum snow load at wall (lower roof) (Section 2.1.1.2.9.1):
Max. load at wall = Pd + Pf hr D
from Table 4, with Pg = 35 psf and Wb = 200 ft; D = 18.6 pcf and
Pd + Pf = 125 psf 10 18.6 = 186 psf
Max snow load (lower roof) = 125 psf (6 kN/m2)
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Page 45
d) Drift width (Section 2.1.1.2.9.1):

Wd = 4 hd when hd hc + 1 ft
from Table 4, with Pg = 35 psf and Wb = 200 ft;
hd = 5.01 ft
Wd = 4 (5.01) = 20 ft (6.1 m)
e) See Figure 22 for snow loads on both roofs.
Example 4: Determine the design snow loads for the upper and lower flat roofs of the proposed building in
Example 3, if the upper roof is 40 ft (12 m) wide and the lower roof is 200 ft (61 m) wide (see Fig. 23). (Note:
This roof configuration forms the greatest snow drift by windblown snow across the lower roof because the
lower roof is much wider than the upper roof, see Section 2.1.1.2.9.4.)
a) Items a and b from Example 3 are applicable.
b) Maximum snow load at wall (lower roof) (Section 2.1.1.2.9.4):
Max. load at wall = 34 (Pd) + Pf from Table 4, with Pg = 35 psf and Wb = 200 ft;
Pd = 93 psf, Pf = 32 psf
Max snow load (lower roof) = 34 (93) + 32 = 102 psf (4.9 kN/m2)
c) Drift width (Section 2.1.1.2.9.1) Wd = 34 (4hd);
from Table 4, with Pg = 35 psf and Wb = 200 ft; hd = 5.01 ft
Wd = 34 (45.01) = 15 ft (4.6 m)
d) See Figure 23 for snow loads on both roofs.
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Page 46
E.2 Roof Drainage and Rain Loading Illustrative Examples:
The following examples illustrate the methods used to establish design rain loads and roof drainage for some
of the roof drainage systems discussed in the data sheet.
Example 5: A proposed building for Dallas, TX, has a roof, 168 ft (57 m) by 336 ft (102 m), with bay
dimensions, 28 ft (9 m) by 28 ft (9 m). Joists are spaced 5.6 ft (1.8 m) o.c., normal to beams which span
from column to column. The roof edge has a continuous cant 3-12 in. (88 mm) high except a varying height
parapet, 10-12 in. (267 mm) max where scuppers are shown. Size the (primary) roof drains and overflow
provisions (using roof edges or scuppers as appropriate), denoting the required hydraulic head at the primary
drainage device (drains), and the total head at the overflow provisions (roof edges or scuppers) and the
design rain load to be used by the roof framing designer, when:
a) The roof is dead-flat with interior roof drains (at mid-bay) and roof edge overflow relief as shown in
Figure 24a.
b) The roof is sloped, 14 in./ft (2%), to the low-point line where roof drains are placed. Overflow relief is
by scuppers set 3-12 in. (89 mm) above the low-point line at the perimeter of the roof as shown in Figure
24b.
Solution (a.) Flat Roof Figure 24a
1. Rainfall intensity (Fig. 14): i = 4 in./hr (100 mm/hr)
2. Number of drains needed (Section 2.1.1.3.5.4, Part 1.a):
A
n=
= 168 336 = 3.8 8 (using eight 6 in. [150 mm] dia. drains)
15,000
15,000
3. Flow rate needed per drain (Section 2.1.1.3.5.4, Part 1.b):
Q = 0.0104 i A = 0.0104 4 168 336
n
8
Q = 294 gpm (1110 dm3/min)
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Page 47
4. Roof drain size needed (Section 2.1.1.3.5.4, Part 1.c):

According to Table 5, with 6 in. dia. drain, Q = 540 294 gpm (with 150 mm dia. drain,
Q = 2040 1110 dm3/min)
5. Hydraulic head at drain inlet (Section 2.1.1.3.6.2 and Table 8):
Hydraulic head (by linear interpolation)
= 2.5 + (294 270) (1/2)

(380 270)
Hydraulic head = 2.6 in. (65 mm) < 3.5 in. (88 mm) roof edge height
Therefore, overflow relief allows the needed drain flow.
6. Total head at roof edge overflow provision (See Fig. 8b):
Total head = Roof edge height
Total head = 3.5 in. (88 mm)
7. Design rain load (Sect. 2.1.1.3.6.3):
Design rain load (psf) = Total head5.215 psf.
Design rain load = 3.55.2 = 18.2 psf (0.86 kN/m2)
Fig. 24a. Flat roof plan for Example 5.
8. The flat roof should support the maximum depth of water of 3.5 in. (88 mm) or 18.2 psf (0.86 kN/m2)
over its entirety. The roof framing designer should check the roof for instability due to ponding based on this
load. Installing wide, low hydraulic head scuppers along the roof edges could reduce the design rain load
and also the minimum design live load for the roof framing, see Section 2.1.1.1.2. (Note: Snow load should
not govern at this location.)
Solution (b.) Sloped Roof Fig. 24b
1. Items 1 through 5 from Solution (a) are applicable.
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Page 48
2. Number of scuppers needed (Section 2.1.1.3.5.4, Part 1.a):

A
= 3.8 4 (using four 8 in. [200 mm] min. width scuppers)
n=
15,000
3. Flow rate needed per overflow scupper (Section 2.1.1.3.5.4, Part 1.b):
Q = 0.0104 i A = 0.0104 4 168 336
n
4
Q = 587 gpm (2220 dm3/min)
4. Overflow scupper size needed (Section 2.1.1.3.5.4, Part 1.c):
Size of four overflow scuppers to be equivalent to the eight roof drains (Sect. 2.1.1.1,
Recommendation 2.1.1.1.15.):
Needed flow capacity Q = 8 (540) = 1080 gpm (4090 dm3/min)
4
Select equivalent scupper from Table 6 for needed flow capacity Q (Part 4). Assume a scupper, 7 in.
(180 mm) by 24 in. (610 mm) wide with H = h. Flow capacity (under channel type) Q = 1284 1080 gpm
(4860 4080 dm3/min).
According to Sect. 2.1.1.1, Recommendation 2.1.1.1.12, the scupper height h should be 1 in. (25 mm) higher
than the (estimated) water depth H. Check Table 6 for H = 71 = 6 in. (150 mm) under channel type (H < h)
for the needed flow rate (Part 3):
Q = 1020 587 gpm (Q = 3860 2220 dm3/min)
Fig. 24b. Sloped roof plan for Example 5.
5. Hydraulic head (H) at scupper (Section 2.1.1.3.6.2 and Table 6):

Hydraulic head (H) = 4 + 587 560 = 4.1 in. (103 mm)
776 560
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Page 49
6. Total head at scupper overflow provision (see Fig. 8b) w/scupper set 3.5 in (88 mm) above roof surface:
Total head = hydraulic head (H) + height to scupper invert
Total head = 4.1 + 3.5 = 7.6 in. (190 mm)
7. Design rain load at low-point line (overflow scuppers) [Sect. 2.1.1.3.6.3]:
Design rain load (psf) = total head (max) 5.2 30 psf (1.5 kN/m2)
Design rain load (max) = 7.6 5.2 = 39.5 psf (1.9 kN/m2)
8. The sloped roof should support a maximum depth of water of 7.6 in. (190 mm) at the low-point line of
the roof and a maximum average depth of water, of 3.8 in. (95 mm) or 19.8 psf (1 kN/m2) across the valley
of the sloped roof. The roof framing designer should check the roof for instability in the roof valley due to
ponding based on the design rain loads. Above the valley of this sloped roof, applicable code permitting, the
roof beams and joists may qualify for reductions in the minimum design live loads, see Section 2.1.1.1.2.
Example 6: A proposed building to be located in St. Louis, MO, has a roof 200 ft (61 m) by 400 ft (122 m)
and it has six roof drains (at mid-bay). Overflow drains are placed adjacent to the primary drains and set 3 in.
(75 mm) above the roof surface. The roof slopes 14 in./ft (2%) as shown in Figure 25. Size the primary and
overflow roof drains, denoting the required hydraulic head above the overflow roof drains and the total head
and the design rain load to be used by the roof framing designer.
Fig. 25. Roof plan for Example 6.
a) Rainfall intensity (i) Figure 14 i = 3.3 in./hr (84 mm/hr)

b) Total number of drains (primary and overflow) needed: (Section 2.1.1.3.5.4 Part 1.a)
A
n=
= 200 400 = 5.3 6 (using six 6 in. dia [150 mm] drains)
15,000
15,000
c) Flow rate needed per drain (primary and overflow) (Section 2.1.1.3.5.4 Part 1.b):
Q = 0.0104 i A = 0.0104 3.3 200 400
n
6
Q = 458 gpm (1730 dm3/min)
1-54
Page 50
d) Size of the primary and overflow drains (as equivalent) and their hydraulic heads:
Select a 6 in. dia. drain (Table 5); Q = 540 458 gpm (150 mm dia. drain;
Q = 2040 1730 dm3/min)
Hydraulic head (Table 8 by interpolation) = 3 + (12) (458 380)
(540 380)
Hydraulic head = 3.25 in. (83 mm)
e) Total head at overflow drains (Fig. 8a):
Total head = hydr. head (max) + height to overflow drain inlet
Total head (max.) = 3.25 + 3.0 = 6.25 in. (159 mm)
f) Design rain load at low point of roof (Section 2.1.1.3.6.3):
Design rain load (psf) = total head (max) 5.2 30 psf (1.5 kN/m2)
Design rain load (max.) = 6.25 5.2 = 32.5 psf (1.6 kN/m2)
g) In the low areas of the roof, at the roof drains, the design rain load (max.) will be 32.5 psf (1.6 kN/m2)
but it will rapidly reduce with the roof slope of 14 in./ft (2%) away from the low areas and possibly qualify
for live load reductions, see Section 2.1.1.1.2. The roof designer should check the roof for instability in
the low areas due to ponding based on the design rain loads.
Example 7: A proposed building to be constructed of tilt-up walls and a plywood diaphragm roof is to be
located in Santa Cruz, CA. The roof is 150 ft (46 m) by 500 ft (152 m) and it has five roof drains near the
perimeter (at mid-bay) and five overflow scuppers in the parapet walls set 4 in. (100 mm) above the low-point
of the roof and 2 in. (50 mm) above the adjacent roof surface. The roof slopes, 14 in./ft (2%), from a high-point
line along one side of the building to roof drain cricket areas along the opposite side of the building (see
Fig. 26). Size the (primary) roof drains and overflow scuppers, denoting the required hydraulic heads at the
drains and scuppers and the total head and design rain load to be used by the roof framing designer.
Fig. 26. Roof plan for Example 7.
a) Rainfall intensity (Fig. 13): i = 2 in./hr (50 mm/hr)
1-54
Page 51
b) Total number of drains and scuppers needed (Section 2.1.1.3.5.4):

A
n=
(using five 6 in. dia. drains and five 8 in. wide scuppers [150 mm dia. drains and
15,000 200 mm wide scuppers])
c) Flow rate needed per drain and scupper (Section 2.1.1.3.5.4):
Q = 0.0104 i A = 0.0104 2 150 500
n
5
Q = 312 gpm (1180 dm3/min)
d) Size of (primary) drains and their hydraulic head:
Select a 6 in. dia. drain (Table 5); Q = 540 312 gpm (150 mm dia. drain, Q = 2040 1180 dm3/min)
Hydraulic head at drains (Table 8 by interpolation) Hydraulic head at drains = 2.5 + (1/2) (312 270)
380 270
Hydraulic head at drains = 2.7 in. (68 mm)
e) Size of overflow scuppers, equivalent to the roof drains (Sec. 2.1.1.1, Recommendation 2.1.1.1.15),
and their total head (similar to Fig. 8b):
Select an equivalent scupper from Table 6 with flow Q 540 gpm (2040 dm3/min):A channel scupper,
4 in. (100 mm) high by 24 in. (610 mm) wide: scupper flow capacity Q = 560 540 gpm (2120
2040 dm3/min).
According to Section 2.1.1.1, Recommendation 2.1.1.1.12, the scupper height h should be 1 in. (25 mm)
higher than the (estimated) water buildup H. Checking Table 6 for h = 4-1 = 3 in. (75 mm) for the needed
flow rates:
Q = 360 312 gpm (Q = 1360 1180 dm3/min)
f) Hydraulic head (H) at scupper (Section 2.1.1.3.6.2 and Table 6):
Hydraulic head (H) = 2 + 312 200 = 2.7 in. (68 mm)
360 200
g) Total head at low point of roof = hydraulic head (H) + height to scupper from the roofs low-point.
Total head at low-point (max.) = 2.7 in. + 4 in. = 6.7 in. (168 mm)
Total head adjacent to scuppers = hydr. head (H) + height to scupper from adjacent roof surface.
Total head at scuppers = 2.7 in. + 2 in. = 4.7 in. (119 mm)
h) Design rain load at roof drains, low-point of roof (Sect. 2.1.1.3.6.3):
Design rain load (psf) = total head (max.) 5.2 30 psf (1.5 kN/m2)
Design rain load (max.) at drains = 6.7 5.2 = 34.8 psf (1.7 kN/m2)
i) Design rain load at scuppers (Section 2.1.1.3.6.5)
Design rain load = total head (max) 5.2 psf (Note: minimum rain load does not apply because
scupper is not at roofs low-point.)
Design rain load at scuppers = 4.7 5.2 = 24.4 psf (1.2 kN/m2)
j) In the low areas at the roof drains, the design rain load will be 34.8 psf (1.7 kN/m2), but it will rapidly
decrease with the roof slope of 14 in./ft (2%) away from the low cricket areas and possibly qualify for live
load reductions, see Section 2.1.1.1.2. The roof designer should check the roof for instability in the low
areas due to ponding, based on the design rain loads.
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Page 52
E.3 Job AidsSnow and Rain Loads and Drainage
NOTE: Reference to Section, Figure and Table numbers is to Section 2.0. Most referenced Figures
from Section 2.0 are reproduced in this Job Aid.
Part 1. Roof Snow Loads (New Construction)
1-54
Page 53
Part 2. Flat-Roofs and Low-Sloped Roofs (Ref Sect 2.1.1.2.5/2.1.1.2.6)
1-54
Page 54
Part 3. Sloped-Roofs (Ref Sect 2.1.1.2.7/2.1.1.2.8.1)
1-54
Page 55
Part 4. Sloped-Roofs (Continued)
Fig. 1. Snow loads for hip and gable roofs.
1-54
Page 56
Part 5. Curved Roofs (Ref Sect 2.1.1.2.8.2)
Fig. 2. Snow loads for curved roofs.
1-54
Page 57
Part 6. Valley-Roofs (Ref Sect 2.1.1.2.8.3)
Note: The above snow methodology is also applicable to multiple gable and barrel vault roofs.
1-54
Page 58
Part 7. Lower-Roofs (Ref Sect 2.1.1.2.9)
Fig. 4. (To be used with Table 4) Snow loads for lower roofs
1-54
Page 59
Part 8. Lower Detached Roofs

From Adjacent Structure or Terrain Feature
(Ref Sect 2.1.1.2.9.2)
Fig. 5. Snow loads for lower roof of adjacent structures.
1-54
Page 60
Part 9. Sloped Roofs Sliding Snow Onto Lower Roofs

(Ref Sect 2.1.1.2.9.2)
Fig. 6. Sliding snow load for lower roofs
1-54
Page 61
Part 10. Roof Projections and Parapets

(Ref Sect 2.1.1.2.9.4)
1-54
Page 62
Part 11. Roof Rain Loads (New Contruction)
1-54
Page 63
Part 12. Roof Drains and Scuppers (Ref Sect 2.1.1.3.5)
1-54
Page 64
Part 13. Roof Drains andScuppers (Continued)

(Ref Sect 2.1.1.3.5)
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Page 65
Part 14. Overflow Relief Provisions

(Ref Sect 2.1.1.3.5.3)
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Page 66
Part 15. Overflow Relief Provisions (Continued)

(Ref Sect 2.1.1.3.5.3)
1-54
Page 67
Part 16. Sloped Roofs (Ref Sect 2.1.1.3.7)
(Job Aids May 1998)

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Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

ROOF LOADS FOR NEW CONSTRUCTION

1. Snow loads for hip and gable roofs. ................................................................................................... 9

Roof Loads for New Construction

2006 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Roof Loads for New Construction

2006 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Roof Loads for New Construction

2006 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Roof Loads for New Construction

2006 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Roof Loads for New Construction

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2.1.1.2.2 Snow Load Notation

Roof Loads for New Construction

FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

2.1.1.2.4 Snow Density

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Roof Loads for New Construction

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Note: Interpolation is appropriate.

2.1.1.2.7 Sloped-Roof Snow Loads

Unobstructed Slippery Surfaces

All Other Surfaces

2.1.1.2.8 Unbalanced Roof Snow Loads

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Roof Loads for New Construction

Fig. 1. Snow loads for hip and gable roofs.

2006 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Roof Loads for New Construction

FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

Fig. 2. Snow loads for curved roofs.

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Roof Loads for New Construction

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Fig. 3. Snow loads for valley roofs.

Wd = 4 hd, except when hd > hc + 1 ft (0.3 m), then Wd = 4 hd 6 h

2006 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Roof Loads for New Construction

FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

Note: Interpolation is appropriate.

2006 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Roof Loads for New Construction

FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

Note: Interpolation is appropriate.

2006 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Roof Loads for New Construction

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Fig. 5. Snow loads for lower roof of adjacent structures.

Fig. 6. Sliding snow load for lower roofs.

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Roof Loads for New Construction

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Fig. 7. Snow load at roof projections.

2.1.1.3 Rain Loads

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