Cavity nucleation during hot forging of Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V alloy with

colony alpha microstructure

DONG Xian-juan()1, 2, LU Shi-qiang()1, ZHENG Hai-zhong()1,
LI Xin ( )1, OUYANG De-lai ()1
1. National Defense Key Disciplines Laboratory of Light Alloy Processing Science and Technology,
Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, China;
2. College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing University of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China
Received 28 December 2009; accepted 23 April 2010
Abstract: The initiation sites and influencing factors of cavity nucleation were investigated for a Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V alloy with
lamellar starting structure, using the isothermal hot compression test. All samples were deformed to a true strain of 0.70 in the
temperature range of 750950 C and strain rate range of 0.00110 s1. The corresponding microstructures were observed by means
of the metallurgical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). It was found that all cavities occurred at the bulge regions
of the compression specimens. Most of cavities nucleated along prior beta boundaries oriented 45 to the compression axis, while
others nucleated at the interfaces of lamellar alpha colonies. Cavity nucleation was inhibited with increasing the volume fraction of
beta phase and the volume fraction spheroidized of lamellar alpha phase.
Key words: Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V alloy; cavity nucleation; lamellar alpha colony; dynamic spheroidization

1 Introduction
With the nature of the close-packed hexagonal
crystal structure and the strong dependence of the flow
stress on processing parameters, titanium alloys are more
difficult to deform than the ferrous metals. Consequently,
more care must be taken during hot procedure in order to
obtain defect-free material with desired microstructure.
The hot workability of titanium alloys may be limited by
the generation of undesirable defects such as wedge
cracks, cavities, flow localization and adiabatic shear
bands. Thereforethe mechanisms that lead to form such
defects are very important for the thermomechanical
processes.
Much research has been devoted to develop an
understanding of cavity behavior for a wide range of
metals and alloys[14]. It mainly focused on the cavity
nucleation mechanism during superplastic deformation
using hot tension tests[56]. In superplastically formed
parts, the presence of cavity is often concerned because

cavity beyond a critical level is unacceptable due to its

adverse effect on mechanical properties. Some forgings
exhibit cavities during hot deformation as well, resulting
in premature fracture and a deleterious effect on
subsequent service properties. Initially, grain-boundary
cavities of Ti-6242 alloy with beta perform
microstructure during forging were observed by
PRASAD et al[7] at 982 C and 0.01 s1 with a true
strain of 0.6. But the substantive work pertaining to this
problem is the research on Ti-6Al-4V alloy conducted by
SEMIATIN et al[89] in which cavities were found near
the bulged free surfaces of the compression samples. The
mechanisms of cavity nucleation were considered to be
identical to those observed previously for uniaxial
tension of Ti-6Al-4V alloy with a colony
microstructure[10]. But until now, no reports have been
reported about the influencing factors on cavity
nucleation of titanium alloys with a colony alpha
microstructure during forgings.
The objective of the present work was to research
the cavity nucleation behavior of Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V

Foundation item: Project(2009ZE56014) supported by the Aeronautical Science Foundation of China; Project(gf200901008) supported by the Open Fund of
National Defense Key Disciplines Laboratory of Light Alloy Processing Science and Technology, Nanchang Hangkong University, China
Corresponding author: LU Shi-qiang; Tel/Fax: +86-791-3863039; E-mail: [email protected]
DOI: 10.1016/S1003-6326(10)60638-3

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DONG Xian-juan, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 20(2010) 22592264

alloy with colony alpha microstructure during hot

forging. For this purpose, isothermal and constant strain
rate compression tests were conducted at various
temperatures and strain rates. This study will be highly
beneficial to design hot processing technics, control
microstructure evolution and avoid defect formation in
products.

2 Experimental
Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V alloy used in the present study
had the following chemical composition (mass fraction,
%): Al 6.3, Zr 1.97, Mo 1.4, V 1.4, O 0.08, N 0.01, Ti
balance. The beta transus temperature for this material
was approximately 990 C. Raw material was beta
solution treated at 1 020 C for 30 min and furnace
cooled to obtain lamellar starting structure (Fig.1). It was
a typical Widmansttten structure consisting of lamellar
alpha colonies in large prior beta grains of about 450 m,
grain boundary alpha layers of 5 m in thickness, thin
beta layers between the colony boundaries and grain
boundary alpha. Cylindrical specimens of 12 mm in
height and 8 mm in diameter were machined for
compression tests. These tests were conducted using a
Thermecmastor-Z hot working simulator over
temperature range of 750950 C at 50 C intervals and
strain rates of 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1 and 10 s1. Proper
lubrication to the specimens was ensured with
borosilicate glass at the grooves of the cylinder ends. A
thermocouple was welded at mid span of the specimen,
which was used to control and measure the actual
temperature of the specimen. The specimens were heated
with a rate of 10 C/s and soaked for 210 s at the
deformation temperature prior to isothermal compression.
The specimens were deformed to half the height in each
case to impose a true strain of 0.70 and cooled
immediately to room temperature by helium gas.
Deformed specimens were sectioned parallel to the
compression axis and prepared for microstructure
examination by standard procedures. The specimens
were etched with Krolls reagent and quantitative
metallographic analysis was used.

Fig.1 Initial microstructure of Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Nucleation sites of cavities
The microstructure observation of longitudinal
sections for Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V alloy reveals that
cavities occur dominantly in the bulge regions of the
compression specimens. Cavity nucleation is controlled
by the maximum normal stress between the interface of
matrix and the second phase[11]. Fig.2(a) shows the
longitudinal section schematic diagram of the
compression specimen, in which I, II and III represent
stagnant, bulge and severe region, respectively. The
stress states of them are shown in Fig.2(b) and 2(c).
During uniaxial compressive deformation, the principal
stress in stagnant and severe regions is triaxial
compressive stress. However, in the bulge region the
principal stress state is biaxial compressive and uniaxial
tensile stress. It is now clear that cavities nucleate
dominantly in the bulge regions of the compression
specimens where the circumferential tensile stresses
develop.

Fig.2 Longitudinal section schematic diagram of compression

specimen (a), and principal stress states of regions I and III (b)
and region II (c)

The SEM micrographs for cavities nucleation at the

prior beta boundaries are illustrated in Fig.3. The
compression axis is vertical. Fig.3 shows the cavities
nucleate preferentially in the thin beta layers existing at
the interface of the grain boundary alpha layers and the
lamellar alpha colonies. The lamellar alpha colonies and
the grain boundary alpha layers are inherently harder to
deform than the thin beta layers between them. During
hot deformation, stress concentrates at the interface of
the grain boundary alpha and thin beta layers. If it is not
relieved by the deformation of adjacent alpha phase,
cavities are expected to nucleate along the interface

DONG Xian-juan, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 20(2010) 22592264

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Fig.3 SEM micrographs of grain boundary cavities for Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V alloy in bulge regions of compression specimens:
(a) 750 C, 0.1 s1; (b) 800 C, 0.1 s1; (c) 850 C, 0.1 s1; (d) 850 C, 1 s1

under shear and tensile mixed stress conditions. Similar

nucleation sites were found during uniaxial tension for
Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-6242 alloy with transformed beta
microstructure[10, 1213].
A statistical analysis for the orientation of the prior
beta grain boundaries cavities nucleated with respect to
compression axis is shown in Fig.4, which covers data of
50 boundaries. The distribution indicates that the sites for
cavity nucleation preferentially occur along the prior beta
grain boundaries orienting 45 to the compression axis. It
is similar to the orientation of grain boundary cracks
observed previously for Ti-6Al-4V alloy with
Widmansttten preform microstructure during uniaxial
compression[1415].These predominant orientations are
attributed to the sliding of the prior beta boundary with
near 45 orientation, where the shear stress is the
maximal. In addition, SEMIATIN and his coworker have
investigated the sites for cavity nucleation during
uniaxial tension and hot torsion of Ti-6Al-4V alloy[2,
16]. The results indicate that most cavities nucleate along
the prior beta grain boundaries perpendicular to the axial
direction of specimens, where tensile stress is the
maximal.
According to the microstructure examination, it is
worth noting that the cavities nucleate not only at prior
beta grain boundaries but also inside of the prior beta

Fig.4 Statistical distribution of angle between prior beta grain

boundaries for cavity nucleation and compression axis

grains. The corresponding micrographs of intragranular

cavities are illustrated in Fig.5, where the compression
axis is vertical. As seen from Fig.5, cavities nucleate
mainly at the interfaces of lamellar alpha colonies.
During compression alpha colonies distort as an integral
whole for their different orientations, which resulting the
intense stress concentration at the interfaces of lamellar
alpha colonies. If the stress concentration is not relieved
by deformation of alpha colonies in the subsequent
process, cavities are expected to nucleate. Thus, it can be

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DONG Xian-juan, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 20(2010) 22592264

Fig.5 SEM micrographs of intragranular cavities for Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V alloy in bulge regions of compression specimens:
1
(a) 750 C, 1 s1; (b) 800 C, 1 s1; (c) 850 C, 1 s1; (d) 800 C, 0.01 s

seen that the size of lamellar alpha colony has an

important influence on cavity nucleation. As for the exact
mechanisms, further research is needed because the
research on intragranular cavities of lamellar titanium
alloy during hot forging has not been reported up to now.
3.2 Influencing factors on cavity nucleation
Table 1 displays the hot deformation parameters of
cavity nucleated for Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V alloy. It can be
seen from Table 1 that the cavity nucleation is inhibited
within a certain extent with the temperature increasing
and strain rate decreasing. This is reasonable in view of
the variation of the volume fraction of beta phase and
dynamic spheroidization behavior of the lamellar alpha
phase. SESHACHARYULU et al[14, 17] showed that
grain boundary cavities and wedge cracks disappeared
gradually with temperature increasing and strain rate
decreasing. As described in section 3.1, cavity nucleation
is the result of the incompatibility between the hard
lamellar alpha phase and the soft beta layer adjacent to
the alpha grain boundary. The volume fraction of beta
phase of Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V alloy increases noticeably
to 40% at 900 C, as shown in Fig.6. This will lessen the
incompatibility and thus relieve the stress concentration

Table1 Hot deformation parameters of cavity nucleated for

Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V alloy
Temperature/C 0.001 s1 0.01 s1 0.1 s1

1 s1

10 s1

750

800

850

900

950

represents no cavity nucleation and represents cavity nucleation in

bulge regions of compression specimens.

Fig.6 Variation in volume fraction of beta phase with

temperature for Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V alloy

DONG Xian-juan, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 20(2010) 22592264

at the interface of the lamellar alpha and thin beta phase.

Moreover, it has been proposed that the size and
population of cavities were influenced by the phase
proportion in two-phase alloys[18].
The variation of volume fraction spheroidized of
lamellar alpha phase with temperature at different strain
rates for Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V alloy is shown in Fig.7.
The data come from metallographs in the bulge regions
of the compression specimens. Here, spheroidization is
taken to be the alpha phase morphology with aspect ratio
less than or equal to 3. At 950 C, the volume fraction
spheroidized cannot be achieved because the
microstructures were masked by the massive secondary
alpha phase transformed from beta phase. As seen from
Fig.7, the volume fraction spheroidized has a strong
dependence on temperature and increases obviously with
temperature. Combined with Table 1, the greatest interest
is the fact that no cavities nucleate in the bulge regions of
the compression specimens when the volume fraction
spheroidized is higher than 10%. Thus, the limiting
temperature and strain rate conditions for cavity
nucleation are related to the volume fraction
spheroidized of lamellar alpha phase. NICOLAOU et
al[19] have found that when the microstructure became
uniform, in the case of full spheroidization, the volume
fraction of cavity of Ti-6Al-4V alloy remained constant
and did not noticeably change with further deformation.

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C and 900 C, the corresponding strain rates range of

0.0010.01 s1 and 0.0010.1 s1.

4 Conclusions
1) Cavities occur dominantly in the bulge regions of
the compression specimens. There are two major types of
nucleation sites: grain boundary cavities and
intragranular cavities.
2) Grain boundary cavities nucleate preferentially at
the thin beta layers existing at the interfaces of the
boundary alpha layers and the lamellar alpha colonies.
Most of the grain boundary cavities nucleate at prior beta
boundaries orienting 45 to the compression axis.
Intragranular cavities nucleate mainly at the interfaces of
alpha colonies.
3) Cavity nucleation is inhibited by increasing
volume fraction of beta phase and the volume fraction
spheroidized of lamellar alpha phase. No cavities
nucleate in the bulge regions of the compression
specimens when the volume fraction of beta phase is
above 40% or the volume fraction of spheroidization is
higher than 10%.
4) The optimum thermomechanical parameters in
forging for Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V alloy are determined to
be 850 C and 900 C, the corresponding strain rates
range of 0.0010.01 s1 and 0.0010.1 s1.

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(Edited by LI Xiang-qun)