2008 Environmental Construction Handbook
2008 Environmental Construction Handbook
2008 Environmental Construction Handbook
Construction
Handbook
Environmental
Construction
Handbook
Anne Dye & Mike McEvoy
Contents
Preface
vii
Introduction
ix
2 Houses
35
73
143
195
229
257
293
313
Index
315
Preface
When we were putting the finishing touches to this book, in late August 2007,
the year had already set records for heat, followed by the wettest summer in
living memory. The press, of course, had had a field day: here at last, they said,
was physical evidence darkly seeping through front doors in Tewksbury and
Sheffield of anthropogenic climate change. Whether or not 07 is part of the
overall pattern of climate change or largely a product of natural variation is
yet to be seen but it did, nonetheless, bring climate change yet again to public
attention.
Compelling scientific evidence along with the change in public and political
opinion has led to an apparently exponential growth in the number of books
published on the subjects of ecology, sustainability and green architecture.
When in 2002 we were starting to draft material for an educational CD-ROM
about sustainability in schools and houses funded by the EPSRC, aimed at
older school children we decided to build on the research for the CD, to include
more building types and to expand it into a resource for building professionals
and, to a lesser extent, for interested lay-people.
We found ourselves almost overwhelmed by the sheer volume of material that
was at our disposal and it became increasingly clear that we were running to
stand still. No sooner had we put our thoughts in order than another publication
would arrive on our desks, or our regular trawls through Internet or library
databases would land yet more research papers. It was disheartening: the book
would be out-of-date before we had even finished the final chapter! And much
of the material was contradictory: for instance, was thermal mass friend or foe?
The arguments coming from the back-to-nature groups and the technophiles
were equally passionate; they were increasingly able to back up their arguments
with data of varying methodological rigour.
One afternoon we realised that we werent talking to each other about the data
we had unearthed so much as about how we ended up at a particular viewpoint,
or how a design team had reconciled their design with their (or indeed the
clients) sustainability agenda. We concluded that by adding how and why
Preface
vii
we had chosen the material included in the book it would become useful: it
might show readers how they could move their own thinking forward. For these
reasons some of the case studies we have included in the book are of slightly
older buildings which have proven their green credentials over time as well
as newer ones.
Without the experiences of the designers, these studies could not have been
written. We wish to pass on our heartfelt thanks for their time, the considerable
attention they gave to the material they provided, as well as for the lengthy and
enjoyable conversations we had with many of them about aspects of sustainable
design over and above those we were discussing in regards to the case study.
A number of students who have read for an MPhil in Environmental Design
in Architecture at the University of Cambridge have generously contributed
research undertaken during their time in Cambridge and for this rich source
of material, and advice, we are extremely grateful. The contributors from both
groups were: Arup; Lizzie Babister; Bennetts Associates; Chetwood Associates
Architects; ECD Architects; Mark Gaterell; Alec Gillies (Hampshire County
Council Architects Department); Dean Hawkes (Greenberg and Hawkes);
Jessica Hrivnak; Neath Port Talbot County Borough Council; David Thompson;
Alan Tye Design; and Peter Williams.
It is our hope that the list of contributors, as well as the number of building
types covered, will increase in any future edition of the Handbook. We would be
glad to hear from readers who have suggestions for material that could usefully
be included or new case studies.
Anne Dye and Mike McEvoy
October 2007
viii
Introduction
Constructions contribution to climate change and resource depletion presents
two of the greatest challenges facing building professionals today. Our original
intention for this Handbook was to produce an edited summary of modern
methods of construction which were consistent with sustainability principles.
The existing material in the area seemed broadly to fall into a few categories:
inspirational, lavishly illustrated books celebrating low-tech, almost vernacular,
architecture using recycled and low-energy materials or high-tech computercontrolled low-energy buildings; how-to books, allowing an architect or
competent homebuilder to recreate the low-tech buildings they had just
drooled over in the inspirational books (often using methods of construction
and materials that have fallen into disuse other than for craft or renovation
purposes); technical books full of scientific data relating to both climate
change and building performance; and government regulatory and guidance
documents.
As our research for this book progressed the aim became modified somewhat:
we wanted to show how we had approached the apparently bewildering array
of advice and regulatory information. Because of the rate of change of this
regulatory information this is, indeed, the most that any book of this type can
achieve; UK Building Regulations, for example, are set to be updated every three
years from now until 2016.
Change is not confined to legislation. In the case of factories, the decline in
the UKs manufacturing base during the later part of the 20th Century meant
that there was little impetus for new publications, although the construction
of warehouse space continued apace. A recent resurgence in manufacturing
(albeit from a low base) gives new relevance to the inclusion of this building
type. Inevitably, however, these types of change mean that some of our sources
pre-date the current millennium, but much of the reasoning in them remains
relevant. Other building types, too, have found a life in new guises. Libraries, for
example, are being transformed into learning resource centres, and we would
hope to include them in a future edition of the book.
Introduction
ix
climate change
ozone depletion
freight transport
waste disposal
eutrophication (nutrients encouraging overgrowth of oxygenconsuming organisms to the detriment of other organisms)
summer smog
mineral extraction.
xi
closer than any other to the affections of architects, given the infinite variety of
possible solutions, and complexity of problems they entail, within a restricted
format. The following chapters are concerned with housing (as a type distinct
from the single, often one-off houses, in the preceding chapter) then offices
(where the need to decrease energy use can call for considerable ingenuity),
schools, supermarkets and factories.
We have thought of this book as being similar to a travel guide; you might be
interested in reading the beginning of the book as background, and then dipping
into the following chapters while journeying through the development of a
design.
Introduction
xiii
Methods of
Assessing Buildings
It seems at first that there are nearly as many methods of assessing a building as
there are ways of defining sustainability or ways of constructing the building in
the first place. The number of assessment tools is growing fast, as architects and
other building consultants each devise a system which best suits their needs.
The one thing they all have in common is that they measure the performance
for a number of indicators, such as the sustainability indicators issued by the
government, against benchmarks.
With any assessment, the answer you get depends very much on how you ask
the question. Any scientist will tell you that the results of an experiment can
be meaningless an artefact of the methodology used if it is not devised
properly. So too, eco-labelling can be merely greenwash, misleading or, at
worst, factually inaccurate[1].
One eco-labelling scheme that has been successful is the EU energy label that
must be displayed on all new domestic white goods and light bulbs. Part of
the reason for the success of the EU scheme is that it compares relatively few
variables for products that have the same basic purpose and then presents the
results in a way that is easy to read. Despite this, even though buildings vary
enormously in size, function and construction, it can be possible to give them a
single rating as is done with BREEAM, EcoHomes, LEED and for the result
to be meaningful.
Assessments can vary from simple checklists, or rankings of construction
materials, through to sophisticated models. However, more complicated need
not necessarily be better. A number of factors determine which assessment or
tool is the most appropriate for a project:
indicators considered
CO2 emissions by end user: industry, domestic, transport (excluding international aviation), other
Aviation and shipping emissions: greenhouse gases from UK-based international aviation and
Smoking: prevalence of smoking (a) all adults, (b) routine and manual socio-economic groups
Childhood obesity: prevalence of obesity in 2- to 10-year-olds
Diet: people consuming five or more portions of fruit and vegetables per day and in low income
households
Getting to school: how children get to school
Accessibility: access to key services
Road accidents: number of people and children killed or seriously injured
Air quality and health: (a) annual levels of particles and ozone, (b) days when air pollution is
moderate or higher
Housing conditions: (a) social sector homes below the decent homes standard, (b) vulnerable
households in the private sector in homes below the decent homes standard
Households living in fuel poverty: (a) pensioners, (b) households with children, (c) disabled/
long-term sick
Homelessness: (a) rough sleepers, (b) households in temporary accommodation: (i) total, (ii)
households with children
Satisfaction in local area: households satisfied with the quality of the places in which they live
(a) overall, (b) in deprived areas, (c) non-decent homes
UK international assistance: net official development assistance (a) % of gross national
income (comparison with selected countries), (b) per capita (comparison with selected countries)
schemes)
Flooding: (to be developed to monitor sustainable approaches to ongoing flood management)
Sustainable development education: (to be developed to monitor the impact of formal learning on
knowledge and awareness of sustainable development)
Local environment quality: (to be developed using information from the Local Environment Quality
Survey of England)
1. DEFRA, Foundations for our Future DEFRAs Sustainable Development Strategy, DEFRA, London, 2002. p14.
2. From The UK Government Sustainable Development Strategy, Cm. 6467, DEFRA , London and
www.sustainable-development.gov.uk, March 2005, pp168-176. Crown copyright.
3. A measure of particulates that can be carried into the lungs.
4. Gross Value Added. A measure of economic output.
5. Ammonia.
1 Inputs
The governments framework indicators above (Box 1.1) will no doubt be edited
as our understanding of sustainable development advances, but at the present
time it appears fairly comprehensive. So we will move on to consider the inputs
needed for the assessment. The amount of information that is available about a
project will depend largely on the design stage.
2 Outputs
Whether the results from an assessment are going to be useful depends very
much on who is going to use the results: building professionals, large client
organisations, home owners or building managers.
For example, the My Home online home energy check[2] from the Energy Saving
Trust could help a homeowner who wants to improve the energy efficiency
Methods of Assessing Buildings
of their home but who doesnt know where to start. However, it would be
completely inappropriate for a housing association which, from April 2003, has
been required to use the BRE EcoHomes assessment and achieve at least a pass
(if it builds grant-funded social housing).[3] (The Housing Corporation increased
the requirement to a very good rating in 2006.[4] )
3 Creator
3.1 Location
A number of assessment methods have been tailored by their creators in relation
to the conditions found in specific countries or regions. Climates and economic
conditions vary considerably around the globe and can have huge effects on
a buildings performance one reason for the different emissions targets for
different countries under the Kyoto protocol.
Box 1.2 The triple bottom line in action from one to five stars
Sustainable development is often thought of as development which has a positive impact on all three
bottom lines: economic, environmental and social. While it is a common concept (see, for example,
www.forumforthefuture.org.uk, www.tbli.org or www.sustainability.com), many remain sceptical about
whether it can be put into practice. When Australias State of Victoria proposed more stringent building
codes for housing, they were concerned that the changes would be unpopular and so made the case for
legislative change in economic and social terms too.
Background
Australia has one of the higher per capita rates of CO2 emissions: it is ranked 16th in the world, with the
average Australian emitting just under twice the CO2 of an average Briton.<1>
continued
Victoria was the first Australian state to introduce, in 1991, minimum standards for the insulation of
dwellings, decreasing energy use by slightly over a third<2>. This represented an increase in the rating from
1 to around 2.2 stars. (The Star (House Energy Rating) system is described in greater detail in Appendix
1). If the State was to meet its Kyoto commitment the treaty requires a slowing of the increase in CO2
emissions to only 8% on 1990 levels by 2008/2012<3> a decrease in domestic energy use was urgently
needed, since energy use in the sector was growing by 1.24% per annum.
After consultation, the State brought in a requirement that, from 1 July 2005, for single dwellings or
apartments, compliance with the new residential energy standard will require a building to be five-star
energy rated. In addition, water saving features and a rain water tank or solar hot water system will be
required.<4>
A five-star dwelling is estimated to use around half the energy of a typical existing building in
Victoria, though it will be somewhat less energy efficient than new buildings in Europe or North
America.
To meet the new standards the design of a new home would need to have increased insulation (both in
walls and improved glazing), improved airtightness and a change in the distribution of glazing. For winter,
north-facing glazing increases useful solar gain, while shading decreases the need for summer cooling.
The use of thermal mass is considered too, with buildings with low-mass timber floors being required to
have better insulation and smaller windows.
Environmental benefits
Increasing the energy efficiency of Victorias homes has two main environmental benefits: a decrease in
the total amount of energy used and a decrease in the peak amount of energy used. The State estimates
that peak demand on the power grid, caused by comfort cooling, could be reduced by up to 45%. This
should decrease the risk of power shortages in summer and save money that would otherwise have to
be invested in additional power stations.
The main advantage is the reduction in the total energy demand. Growth in domestic energy consumption
would be slowed from 1.24% pa to 0.46% pa. Analysis modelled the effect of the changed regulations
over a 20-year period, at the end of which the energy savings would total some AU$124 million per
annum (51 million<5>). This is an annual saving of around 760,000 tonnes of CO2 equivalent (CO2-e) and a
total abatement over the entire 20-year period of 7.6 million tonnes CO2-e.
Economic benefits
Analysis suggests that the changed regulation would provide an economic stimulus, with an increase in
GDP of AU$500570 million NPV (net present value) which is around 206235 million. Also, 9001100
new jobs could be expected to be created.
continued
Social benefits
As well as the social benefit of job creation, there are other advantages to the changes. The estimate that
a five-star home would be up to 5C warmer in winter and 10C cooler in summer (compared to a two-star
dwelling) was lauded in Victorias Minister for Plannings introduction to the consultation document on
the proposed changes to the Building Code. The effect of fuel poverty on vulnerable groups is predicted
to be reduced: another political benefit.
For owner-occupiers too, a five-star home is predicted to be more affordable. Heating and cooling
equipment can be smaller, and therefore less expensive, and the increased capital cost of a dwelling
could be offset against lower energy bills.
1. The USA is ranked 10th, the UK 36th. The highest per capita emissions are from the US Virgin Islands at
around 550% of USA emissions. See Marland, G., Boden, T. and Andres, B., Ranking of the worlds countries
by 2000 per capita fossil-fuel CO2 emission rates, http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov, Carbon Dioxide Information
Analysis Centre, 2000.
2. State of Victoria, Regulatory Information Bulletin Energy Efficiency Standards for New Residential Buildings,
www.buildingcommission.com.au, Sustainable Energy Authority Victoria, 2002.
3. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change A Guide to the Climate Change Convention and its
Kyoto Protocol, UN Climate Change Secretariat, Bonn and http://unfccc.int, 2002.
4. www.buildingcommission.com.au
5. Exchange rates as in The Times, 18 May 2005, 1: AU$2.43
4 Assessor
Early design stage tools or assessments are usually used by the buildings designers.
Some tools which have the advantage of being easy to use, have in-built data and
assumptions that are hidden to the architect or engineer. The immediacy of the
results may consequently be undermined by their simplification.
Tech weighting
Vernacular weighting
Insulation
9/10
0.3
0.5
Controls
2/10
0.5
0.2
Materials
8/10
0.2
0.3
63
53
73
For example, the BREs Green Guide<1> uses a weighting system<2> agreed upon by representatives of
interested groups, from central government to materials manufacturers and environmental activists. Out
of the 13 indicators considered, the effect on climate change is given the greatest importance, with a
weighting of 38%.
Weightings can also be variable, as in the GBC Tool discussed at the end of this chapter. This can be
appropriate where a methodology is being used in a number of different climate zones or economic
areas. Obviously the limitation here is that only assessments which use the same weightings are directly
comparable.
1. Anderson, J., Shiers, D.E. and Sinclair, M. The Green Guide to Specification, Watford, 3rd Edition, BRE, 2002.
2. Dickie, I. and Howard, N. Assessing environmental impacts of construction Industry consensus, BREEAM and UK
Ecopoints, BRE Digest 446, Watford and www.brebookshop.com, BRE, May 2000.
5 Scope
The assessment may deal only with building components or systems (in which
case it is likely to be used mostly in early design stages), with whole buildings or
sometimes with whole developments and urban environments. Arups SPeAR
tool is one assessment that can deal with these.
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A key aspect of SPeAR is the composite output diagram, see Figure 1.1, which summarises, in a clear
and visually striking format, the wide range of issues that need to be considered. This clarity of communication of complex issues is a key strength of the tool, considerably aiding the decision-making process.
The four quadrants of the SPeAR diagram correspond to the four key aspects of sustainability.
EC
ON
continued
10
tones) is represented from the median line towards the centre of the diagram. Negative (unsustainable)
performance (usually shown in red tones) is represented towards the circumference of the diagram.
Median ~ good practice
+3
Beyond best practice
The aim of a sustainable design project, therefore, should be to obtain a balanced diagram with positive
results (green tones) distributed across all four quadrants.
Spreadsheets are used to complete the assessment. Each quadrant of the SPeAR diagram is divided into
a series of sectors, or topics, see Figure 1.1. For example, environment includes air quality, land use, water,
ecology and cultural heritage, design and operation, and transport topics. The spreadsheets include a
series of indicators for each topic, see Figure 1.3. These include both a set of core indicators as well as
project specific indicators. The fact that the indicators used in each appraisal are tailored to a specific
project makes it a flexible and highly adaptable tool.
Natural
Resources:
Water
Optimum measures
Worst case
Consumption
No awareness of the
need to reduce water
consumption rates
Potable
Water
Harvesting
No harvesting of water
Appliances
No consideration given to
low-water-use appliances
-1
-2
-3
Degree of
certainty
(%)
Average
score for
subject
X
0
LCA
weightings
rating/result
11
There are other wood certification schemes around the world (examples of others are discussed in a
Friends of the Earth briefing paper<2>), but in the UK it is the FSC that predominates and earns support
from NGOs such as Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace.
Specifying FSC certified products can earn points for building certification schemes. For example, specifying FSC certified timber for 75% of the timber in housing gives full credits in the appropriate section of
the EcoHomes assessment.<3> The FSC website, www.fsc-uk.info, has an online product search for private
and trade customers, and also a database of internationally certified forests and products.
1. FSC Principles and Criteria For Forest Stewardship. FSC, www.fsc-uk.info, 2000.
2. Counsell, S., Briefing Timber: Eco-labelling and Certification. Friends of the Earth, London, 1995,
www.foe.co.uk
3. www.fsc-uk.info
12
materials selection, and which either do not neatly fall into either the embodied
energy or LCA camp, or offer a stripped down version of these methodologies
(FSC at www.fsc.org, for example).
Embodied energy
Embodied energy is simply the amount of energy that has been consumed in
the manufacture, transportation to site and, sometimes, use and disposal of a
material. It may be quoted as cradle to gate or cradle to grave.
Data about embodied energy can be given as a per mass figure or in terms of
structural elements, as in the case of the BREs Green Guide (discussed later in
this chapter). Data for structural elements, can be more informative as it takes
into account different structural and other properties. The ratings given in the
Green Guide are a useful starting point for the discussions of construction
methods in later chapters.
13
It is a fair assumption that materials with a high embodied energy are likely to be
manufactured by a process that has negative environmental consequences other
than purely energy use, for example in the case of ore-smelting which may result
in heavy metal pollution. However, this doesnt always hold true (blowing foam
insulation using gases containing ozone depleting substances (ODS) thankfully a practice on its way to extinction is a good example). Life cycle analysis
can be used to quantify these other environmental impacts.
data
e.g. climate
change data
LCA
weightings
ISO 14040
14
rating/result
The international standards for LCAs are the ISO14040 series[8] though results
from different ISO compliant LCAs may not be comparable. As the BRE points
out, there is no single right answer for applying LCA.[9]
6 Building type
If a buildings performance is to be ranked against benchmarks then obviously
a building-type-specific assessment needs to be used. Finding a suitable
assessment method can be problematic for less common building types, or
for buildings that are for mixed use, although the BRE can undertake bespoke
BREEAM assessments.
7 Building assessments
A summary of the features of a selection of UK assessment methods is given in
Appendix 1.
There are a number of assessments that have been developed overseas. A good
starting point for obtaining information about them is the UNs Sustainable
Building and Construction Forum[10] or the IEAs Energy Conservation in
Buildings and Community Systems Programme Annex 31[11], but a summary
of the assessments mentioned in this chapter is given in Appendix 2.
8 Case studies
The Cambridge case study below is the first in the book for several reasons:
It has the ideal combination of both client and design team for whom
the environmental performance of the building is a prime concern.
It does not fall neatly into any of the categories of building type that are
to follow. This is in part deliberate, though it also allows the discussion
of an interesting example which we would have had difficulty finding
a home for elsewhere! The building is to accommodate a range of uses,
and the design solutions in the case study introduce concepts which
are common to a range of different building types which we will return
to throughout the book for example, how to plan the appropriate
use of thermal mass. This is also the reason that this case study will be
somewhat longer than most in the book.
15
Design Team
Architects: Edward Cullinan
Service engineers: Max Fordham LLP
Structural engineers: Buro Happold
Construction cost consultants: Gardiner and Theobald
Design: 2002
Cost: est. 16.5 million
Background
The Cambridge University Botanic Garden, founded in 1762, has been at its
present site since 1846. It accommodates an important collection of living
plants, an extensive herbarium[12] containing specimens collected by Charles
Darwin, among others, and a specialist library, known as the Cory Library. The
buildings in which the herbarium and library are housed are separated from
each other and do not currently provide conditions suitable for their delicate
collections. The University proposes a new, purpose-built home for them which
will also contain teaching and lecture spaces.
The Botanic Garden has more than purely academic functions: it is a place of
great beauty and heritage value, attracting both tourists and local residents. Like
so many other historic cultural attractions the Gardens visitor facilities are
both limited and rather outdated. Hence, the new library and herbarium are to
16
Box 1.6 Project goals for the Cambridge University Botanic Garden
Design a building and landscape which presents a public face to Cambridge and thereby
strengthens links between the local community and the University.
Design with accessibility in mind for all types of people: young and old, students and families, the
able and the less able.
Design a building that people will love and take care of for a long time; for its beauty, practicality
and ability to accommodate changes in use and technology.
Express the importance of trees, as the most fundamental plant to our survival, as our client says...
plants are the basis for all life on earth. Timber has proved itself to have green credentials which
are hard for other materials to compete with. Timber for the project must come from sustainable
sources.
continued
17
Create a landscape which harmonises with the historic garden, supports biodiversity and does not
Source: Edward Cullinan Architects et al., Cambridge Botanic Garden Stage C report.
a 120-seat auditorium
This list does not fully convey the complexity of the task that the designers have
been set; in fact, it is a very different list the list of the project goals which
makes the complexity of the task explicit.
18
Design
Sustainability has been a principal concern during the design of the building.
An exhibition about the building and its green credentials will be housed in
the new building to raise awareness about sustainable construction; this is in
part why the sustainability has been made explicit in places, such as in the use
of timber for the main structure and the proposed photovoltaic (PV) cladding.
These aims have knock-on effects, such as requiring the long axis of the building
to run eastwest, to maximise the southerly faade.
However, it also suffuses every other decision from the choice of materials, or
the depth of the building, which is dictated by the maximum depth for natural
ventilation and by daylighting considerations.
Other key concerns are the minimisation of waste on site and reducing the
impact of construction on the surrounding environment, the people who live
locally, and those working on site. This can be achieved by decisions such as using
components prefabricated off site so as to minimise time on site, as does avoiding
the wide-scale use of concrete and by substituting elements traditionally cast insitu with precast elements. In fact, decisions such as designing for change of use
minimises the impact on local people by reducing the likelihood of the building
being demolished in the near future if the Gardens needs change.
These have all been very quantifiable design aims; less so are the aims to design
in response to the Garden itself, and to create, in the words of the architects, a
beautiful, expressive and evocative building.
An integrated, efficient structure
The lamella structure of the roof is a form of construction that originated during
the early years of the 20th century. It is a two-way spanning structure, with the
members orientated at an angle to the edge of the structure: it can be seen as a
grid of diamonds rather than a grid of squares.
The roof is to be of two shells of constant curvature joined at the apex to form a
distinctive three-pin arch. Once the fittings at the nodes between the 400 mm
grid elements are tight, the structure resists deformation. These nodes can be
either pinned or moment (rigid) connections, both of which can be accommodated by a fitting such as the Shearlock fitting developed by Cowley Structural
Timberwork, though at the moment pinned joints are envisaged.
A lamella roof is an inherently efficient structural form, and this theme is carried
through to the rest of the building with stressed skin floors, which can span
further for a given loading and structural depth than conventional floors.
19
20
Both lamella and floor elements can be prefabricated under controlled conditions off site. This means that build quality can be assured as well as minimising
both time on site and, therefore, disturbance to local people.
The lightweight structure minimises the need for extensive foundations, and
the proposed piled foundations reduce the need for excavations still further.
Though the designers have tried to avoid the use of concrete where possible, the
ground beams are to be precast reinforced masonry beams. Where blinding is
required under the ground floor, it is proposed that limecrete is used.
Materials
Inevitably, of course, the design of any building calls for pragmatism as we have
seen in the use of precast ground beams and will look at in the use of cement
fibre boards to provide thermal mass, and also as we shall see in our discussion
of the environmental servicing strategy for the building. Nonetheless, the choice
of materials is of great importance to the success of any sustainable building.
A final choice regarding materials would be inappropriate at stage C, but broad
criteria have been laid down.
energy.
Use timber wherever possible, e.g. as the primary structure, cladding, internal linings, furniture
etc.<1>
Design to save materials using standard modules, and for ease of maintenance, replacement and
recycling.
Avoid, wherever possible, the use of concrete and gypsum-based products.
Use natural finishes, and avoid coatings and materials which contain harmful substances or
preservatives.
Reuse materials found on site, e.g. hardcore from the demolished Bowls Club building, timber
from felled trees.
Create a super-insulated building using environmentally friendly insulation such as sheeps wool.
Source: edited extract from Edward Cullinan Architects et al., Cambridge Botanic Garden Stage C report.
1. Stone in the Cambridge area is generally unsuitable for building: clunch from the surrounding areas is very
soft. In older buildings in the town which use it, a cladding of a more weather-resistant (and grander) material
has generally been used.
21
This can then inform design choices such as, for example, in the case of the
selection of a timber structure. The actions arising from the broad criteria are:
to research supplies of reclaimed and FSC certified timber in the local area
This in turn leads to design decisions such as making internal partitions, ceilings
and acoustic panels from timber, treated with beeswax or linseed oil, on timber
stud.
Likewise, it means that the insulation materials such as sheeps wool (preferably
from local sources), blown cellulose, shredded newspaper and cork (for floor
underlay and acoustic absorption) will be considered in preference to, for
example, phenolic foam.
Even the choice of furniture is to be influenced by the guiding principles. The
use of noxious glues and finishes is to be avoided, and wood felled on site is
earmarked for possible bespoke furniture.
Services
The designers worked on the building so that all of its parts work together, for
example its PVs would be both a weatherproof layer and a power source as well
as having a very definite aesthetic. However, it is still worthwhile to look at the
environmental systems separately, as follows.
22
Thermal performance
The requirement for thermal energy in the building has been minimised as far
as possible through increasing the performance of the envelope, something that
is still important even when energy is to be supplied from renewable sources.
Wind turbines were in the news at the time that this case study was written
because it appears that they create a warmer nocturnal microclimate beneath
them[14]: a timely reminder that even renewables are not entirely benign.
Insulation Double-glazing or high-performance triple-glazing (frameless to
maximise daylight) are proposed.
Thermal mass Spaces, such as the office, classrooms and exhibition areas will
benefit from having some thermal mass to even-out temperature fluctuations.
A stereotypical thermally massive building would be one with thick masonry
walls and possibly stone floors: the thermal mass being part of the structural
system of the building.
However, stone floors are intended for areas with high foot traffic, so in areas
such as the offices (which will have carpets that decouple the thermal mass from
the occupied space) a more inventive approach is needed. Cement fibreboard
panels, 75 mm thick, will provide all the thermal mass needed over a diurnal
cycle to give reasonable summertime temperatures. In addition, because the
thermal mass is decoupled from the structure of the building, the amount of
thermal tempering could conceivably be changed if the buildings use changes.
Ventilation
Unwanted air infiltration can add considerably to heating loads, and undo the
benefits of thick insulation. Careful detailing and quality control strategies
on site can decrease unwanted air infiltration that would add considerably to
heating loads. The [now compulsory] pressure testing of completed buildings
will assess the success of these strategies.
Controllable ventilation is needed, however. The strategy for ventilation in the
building has been to exploit both wind and the stack effect, and this has affected
the development of the cross section of the building, as shown in Figure 1.7,
with apex rooflights designed to encourage stack effect ventilation irrespective
of wind direction.
The manually operated windows and user-controlled, electrically actuated,
rooflights will give the buildings occupants adaptive opportunities to control
both air quality and comfort.
Mechanical ventilation costly in energy, materials, maintenance and space
has been avoided except in kitchen and sanitary areas.
Methods of Assessing Buildings
23
Light
Windows and rooflights for the building have been planned to
minimise the need for artificial lighting and to minimise unwanted
solar gain while allowing occupants to experience the beauty of the
surrounding gardens.
24
Most occupied spaces are located on the north side of the building to
avoid direct solar gain while providing views out over the main garden.
The ground floor exhibition space and cafe will be naturally daylit
via windows to the north and south which will allow views
through the building to the garden beyond and by a north light in
the roof.
Glazed partitions are to be used within the interior to allow inner areas
to benefit from natural light.
Water
The aim in the design of the new building is not only to minimise water use,
where possible, but also to use the three sources of water on the site (mains
water, rainwater and groundwater) in the most efficient way.
Mains water will supply all of the new buildings needs for drinking, washing
and food preparation. This frees up water obtained on site for uses where the
quality of the water need not to be so high; very little water treatment will be
needed in the new building. Demand is to be minimised by the use of low-wateruse appliances.
Rainwater collected on site is estimated to meet 80% of the demand for WC and
urinal flushing (WC and urinals account for one-third of the buildings total
demand).
Water for WCs does not need to be potable quality, and the only treatment is to
filter the rain water before it reaches the 60,000 litre storage tank. The tank is
underground, which keeps the temperature of the water low (1020C) and will
retard the reproduction of bacteria. From the main store, water will be pumped
to a smaller high-level tank (this will also have a backup connection to the mains
water supply) from where it will reach WCs by gravity flow.
Groundwater currently supplies irrigation water for the main garden, and the
existing pipework system is to be extended to supply the planted areas around
the new building.
A wastewater connection is likely to be needed for foul water only, as the
combination of permeable paving and soakaways are to absorb rainwater
run-off.
The use of reed beds to treat grey- and blackwater was investigated, but the reed
bed would need to be 12 m2 per person, and with the large number of visitors
expected, this would not be possible. However, a demonstration project to treat
waste from the offices has been considered.
25
Energy supply
One of the design aims for the building was for it to be carbon neutral after 20
years. This means that energy for the building will need to come from non-fossil
fuel (i.e. renewable) sources.
As can be seen from Table 1.2, there is plenty of energy coming onto the site but,
as always, harnessing it is not an entirely simple proposition.
Table 1.2 Approximate energy sources and requirements on site
kWh pa
(kWh/m2 pa)
8,843,750
7,718,750
1,539,000
1,125,000
189,700
(70)
electrical load
81,300
(30)
67,750
(25)
40,650
(15)
Assumed CO2 conversion factors: electricity 0.47 kgCO2/kWh; natural gas 0.2 kgCO2/kWh;
oil 0.29 kgCO2/kWh.
Source: Edward Cullinan Architects, Cambridge Botanical Garden Stage C report
Electrical load One way to decrease the CO2 emissions resulting from the
electrical requirements of the building would be to buy electricity through a
green tariff scheme from the National Grid. However, generation on site is
preferred as this would not only reduce transmission energy losses but would
be a very visible statement of the buildings green aspirations. Though the use of
a wind turbine was investigated, the favoured solution was to install PVs on the
roof of the building.
In Cambridge, maximum solar radiation can be collected by a surface facing
due south at an incline of 32 from horizontal. The roof of the proposed building
is 10 east of due south, but this only results in a 5% reduction in PV output over
a wide range of roof slopes. The building is also being designed to minimise
overshadowing by nearby mature trees.
26
27
cost (/W)
13
4.5
11.5
3.5
2.91
3.5
30
0.51.5
13
Monocrystalline silicon
Polycrystalline silicon
Theoretical PV maximum*
Tree
Maximum theoretical photosynthetic efficiency
Source: All from Edward Cullinan Architects, Cambridge Botanical Garden Stage C report apart from:
* from Thomas, R. (ed), Photovoltaics and Architecture, Spon, London, 2001, p7.
from Bowen, H. J. M., Introduction to Botany, Newnes, London, 1965, p. 119. quoted in Thomas, R. (ed), Photovoltaics
and Architecture, London, Spon, 2001, p7.
Hall, D. O., Biomass energy, Energy Policy, Vol 19, No 8, 1991, pp. 711737 quoted in Ormerod, W., Riemer, P. & Smith,
A., Carbon Dioxide Utilisation, International Energy Authority Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme, www.ieagreen.org.uk,
1995.
The initial purchase cost of a woodchip-fired boiler is higher than that of an oil
or gas boiler, but operational costs are expected to be lower.
Unfortunately, sufficient fuel cannot be produced on the Botanic Garden site
space heating alone would require two hectares (20,000m2) so local sources
are being investigated in order keep the amount of energy used in the fuels
transport to a minimum.
28
Background
The new faculty of Sports Science for the University of Gloucestershire, which
was commissioned in October 2000 and completed September 2002, was
designed with the intention of setting new standards in sustainability for higher
education buildings. Following research funded by the EUBART programme
(European Bio-climatic Architecture with Integrated Renewables and Real-Time
User Feedback), various innovations have been introduced to enable the scheme
to exceed current best practice. In addition, the main faculty building was one
of 18 projects to get a share of the UK DTIs 14million large scale photovoltaics
demonstration grant. Feilden Clegg Bradley (who subsequently designed the
Sports Science faculty, the high-tech Learning Centre and residential accommodation for 200 students) initially undertook the masterplan for the campus.
29
Design
The central external space, for both drop-off car parking and pedestrian circulation, runs northsouth and, as a result, has maximum exposure to sunlight.
This zone extends northwards to form a tapis vert of all-weather sports surface, a
public footpath forming the division. The east side of the central area is bounded
by student accommodation and the Students Union.
On the other side of the central space are the educational facilities, the multi-level
Learning Centre being designed as if it were a gatepost to the campus. A grand
staircase within a timber-lined vertical hall provides its vertical circulation; the
galleried floors for computer use are lit from the north. A double-height glazed
colonnade links the visitor to the building across a rectangular body of water
which extends from the central space, out to the tree-lined edge of the site.
The open-plan study area is distributed across three levels, united by the toplit atrium that contains the vertical circulation. On the southern side of the
atrium a suite of teaching rooms, offices and a lecture theatre for 200 people are
organised along corridors that look back into the atrium.
The caf is attached to the visually recessive Sports Science and Administration
building, and faces across the water to the glazed wall of the Learning Centre.
The caf faces the sunlight reflected from the pool of water.
Materials
The student accommodation comprises simple cubic terraced groups clad in
two-tone render and oak boards that will, with time, turn silver. The palette of
render, oak boards and glazing is disposed across expanses of elevation, relating
well to the clear larger-scale mass of the buildings.
Recycling
In terms of sustainability, the architects wanted (in their design evaluation) to give weight to the reuse of existing buildings, in order to conserve
their embodied energy. In the end, however, they reluctantly decided on the
demolition of all buildings on the site, recycling as much material as possible
and, in the process, creating crushed and ground brickwork and concrete that
would provide hardcore for the new buildings.
Thermal performance
The residential and Student Union buildings were constructed to a high standard
of thermal insulation, in excess of the requirements of the Building Regulations
at the time. To moderate the internal environment of the library and teaching
spaces, the building has a Termodeck system that utilises the thermal mass of
concrete floor planks to provide cooling in summer and reduce heating loads
30
in winter. In winter, warmer air is drawn through the floor slabs, raising their
temperature and radiating the heat to the occupied spaces.
The air is then discharged into the raised access floor and emitted through the
floor diffusers, as if it were a displacement ventilation system. Stale air rises in
the atrium to a roof-level plant room, and heat from this air is transferred to the
incoming fresh air stream by a thermal wheel.
A buffer zone and entrance space for both new buildings is heated minimally
to avoid condensation. The heat is supplied from the exhaust air from the
Termodeck floor in the Learning Centre. During summer nights, cool outside
air is used to pre-cool the floor slab, thus decreasing the risk of summertime
overheating and therefore the need for air-conditioning in the Learning
Centre.
Light
To minimise lighting loads, the library areas are well illuminated by diffuse
daylight from the north-facing windows, while carefully designed shading to
the windows eliminates most direct sunlight from the internal spaces.
Methods of Assessing Buildings
31
The waveform roof over the sports hall and the adjoining laboratories admits
north light that reduces artificial lighting loads and ensures an even distribution
of daylight in the spaces below.
Occupant and light-level sensors are incorporated into luminaires to reduce the
energy consumption of unoccupied areas, switching and dimming the lamps
in response to the availability of natural light. The lamps used throughout are
efficient T5 fluorescents. Artificial lighting is used in conjunction with a sophisticated building management system (BMS) for individual and central control
over the lighting system.
The control system will also provide user feedback on comfort criteria by linking
the networked workstations in the Learning Resources Centre to the BMS
control system. This is part of an experimental programme being conducted in
conjunction with universities in Kassel (Germany) and Visby (Sweden) to assess
the value of providing improved access to energy data and control systems in
shared workspaces.
Energy supply
The waveform roof over the sports hall also provides 30 south-facing roof
slopes that are clad with PV cells. The PV installation was designed to yield
an annual electricity output of approximately 65% of the energy consumption
of the Sports Science building, or approximately 25% of the electrical requirements of the two new buildings. This final phase of the buildings construction
Figure 1.10 Caf terrace
facing the Learning
Centre
32
9 Notes
1.
33
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Technology, A better quality of life: A strategy for sustainable development for the
United Kingdom, The Stationery Office, London, 1999. para 1.1.
ISO 14040:1997 deals with LCA principles and framework, 14041:1998 with goal
and scope definition and inventory analysis, 14042:2000 with life-cycle impact
assessment and 14043:2000 with life-cycle interpretation. More information on
the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) website, www.iso.org.
Howard, N., Edwards, S. and Anderson. J., BRE methodology for environmental
profiles of construction materials, components and buildings, BR370, BRE,
Watford and http://cig.bre.co.uk/envprofiles, 1999. p. 4.
www.unep.or.jp/ietc/sbc
www.annex31.com and www.ecbcs.org
A systematically classified collection of dried plants.
Edward Cullinan Architects, Cambridge Botanic Garden Stage C report, p28.
Ravilious, K., Weather hots up under wind farms, New Scientist,
www.newscientist.com, 4 November 2004.
10 Further reading
1.
34
Houses
We begin by considering the design of individual new houses, and the case studies
concluding this chapter are two notable examples of contrasting approaches to
the design of houses where environmental concerns have been to the fore. But
firstly we begin by establishing the environmental context.
Buildings account for around half of the UKs total energy consumption: the
domestic sector housing accounts for the lions share of this. In terms of
final energy[1], domestic consumption accounts for 28%[2] of the total, just
behind transport, which consumes a little over a third of the total.
However, through modern housing design there is great potential to reduce
the domestic sectors overall energy consumption, and therefore the national
CO2 production. For example, houses constructed to the 2002 revision of the
Building Regulations are likely to have fabric heat losses that are over 30%[3]
lower than those built to the 1995 revision. These in turn having 50%[4] of the
space heating requirements of pre-20th century housing.
UK housing is one of the more enduring parts of our building stock, with many
properties lasting over 100 years[5]. Not only does this mean that there are a large
number of older buildings where energy savings may be made (either through
refurbishment or replacement) but that new housing could similarly have a long
life during which time energy saving measures will be of benefit.
We can see that, just by tackling thermal efficiency alone, there is the potential
for significant and on-going energy savings. This would be a worthwhile aim
purely in terms of the promise of a decrease in the national production of CO2.
However, the benefits go beyond the purely environmental.
For instance, fuel poverty, defined as the situation where a household needs to
spend more than 10% of its income on heating, affects over four million people in
the UK[6]. Cold homes, and mould growth due to the consequential condensation
contribute to poor health and premature deaths among vulnerable groups such
as the very young, the elderly and the sick. It is estimated that this contributes
to, on average, 40,000 additional deaths[7] each winter and puts considerable
strain on the NHS. Furthermore, there is also a clear link between poor quality
Houses
35
Ecology and land use: ecological value of the site, greenfield and
brownfield issues
Rather than consider each category to be of equal importance, the final assessment gives weightings to each area. The weightings were agreed upon by a
panel of interest groups, from government policy makers through construction professionals to environmental lobby groups. We will look briefly at each
36
of these categories and the issues related to them before considering methods
of construction.
1.1 Energy
There is great potential for reducing the amount of energy used to heat homes
(and thus the amount of anthropogenic CO2 emitted into the atmosphere) by
increasing insulation standards. In fact, the single most effective measure for
reducing the UKs dependence on fossil fuel, in relation to housing, is to reduce
the total amount of space heating required in winter
A buildings heating requirements can be split into two. The heat losses through
the walls roof and floor of the building are considered together as fabric losses,
while the losses incurred as ventilation air leaves a building are, unsurprisingly,
referred to as ventilation losses and include both losses through planned
ventilation and infiltration through the building fabric.
Fabric losses
The 2002 amendment to the Building Regulations (Part L) made the U-values
for the elemental method of demonstrating compliance much more onerous
than those from the 1995 amendment. However, in addition to the elemental
and target U-value methods of demonstrating compliance, there is the Carbon
Index method defined in the 2001 SAP which is intended to allow for greater
flexibility in design while still minimising energy use, and this was incorporated
into the 2006 revision to Part L.
Houses
37
Figure 2.1
Embodied
energy and total
energy use for a
standard house
and a superinsulated one.*
Note:
* The standard house is assumed to have 10% embodied energy at 50 years. The super-insulated house is
assumed to have twice the embodied energy as the standard house. A 1% growth in embodied energy is
assumed for replacement of fabric in both cases. Edwards, B. and Turrent, D. (eds), Sustainable Housing
Principles and Practice. Spon, London, 2000. p. 24.
2002
SAP 60 or less
SAP over 60
0.2
0.25
0.2
0.2
0.25
0.25
0.2
0.25
0.16
Flat roof
0.2
0.25
0.25
0.45
0.45
0.35
(i) exposed
0.35
0.45
0.25
(ii) semi-exposed
0.6
0.6
0.25
3.3
2.2
3.3
2.0
Sources
* Department of the Environment, The Building Regulations Approved Document L. London and www.odpm.gov.uk: HMSO,
1995. p. 8.
ODPM, The Building Regulations Approved Document L1. London and www.odpm.gov.uk: TSO, 2002. p. 12.
Heat gains such as solar gain and heat from the occupants may, in a wellinsulated building, be of the same order of magnitude as the heat loss of the
building. Taking these gains into account, as well as the potential thermal mass
of the building (with its potential to temper diurnal temperature fluctuations)
will inevitably lead to the installation of a heating system with a lower output.
Indeed, where a house has been designed to maximise and control solar gains an
admittance procedure calculation may indicate that a traditional heating system
may be omitted altogether. While this makes the additional insulation attractive
from the point of view of both the environment and construction costs, it can
have major drawbacks. For example, it would be very difficult to warm a cold
house from empty on just casual gains after an unoccupied period.
Houses
39
Solar utilisation
The most readily available form of renewable energy is solar energy. In northern
Europe, direct gain passive solar methods are favoured, where solar energy is
admitted to a room through windows and rooflights orientated towards the sun.
Because the solar irradiation varies throughout the day, positioning thermal
mass within the space, in the path of the sun, evens out some of the temperature
fluctuation through the day. The heat from the sun can then be stored relatively
effectively until later in the day so that the requirement for artificial heat can be
lessened.
The problem is to balance the admission of solar energy in relation to winter
heat loss. Summer overheating in houses is most easily avoided by ventilation,
reducing the size of the windows (as long as this does not significantly restrict
ventilation) or by providing external shading, which would preferably be
adjustable. As buildings become more heavily insulated, direct gain becomes less
useful because it can lead to overheating, even in winter. Methods of utilising
solar energy are therefore open to ingenuity.
The value of solar gain varies not only throughout the course of the day, but also
from season to season. In the middle of winter, nearly all solar energy retained
indoors will be useful. However, the greatest heat losses are in the evening and
morning when sunshine is not available, although exposed thermal mass may
be used to store energy for later in the day. As a consequence, other methods of
capturing solar energy become of interest.
Trombe walls, where a thermally massive wall (usually painted black to absorb solar energy better),
with ventilation gaps top and bottom, is placed between glazing and a room
continued
40
These may also be used in conjunction with TIMs transparent (or translucent) insulation materials to
improve the insulation value of the glazing element. The British Fenestration Rating Council defines a TIM
as having a thermal transmittance of less than 1W/m2K.<2> <3> However, as U-values for window glazing
units creep downwards<4> the division will become increasingly redundant. The more novel materials
used in TIM include silica aerogels, honeycomb capillaries and transparent foams which may be used in
conjunction with a noble gas (such as argon) or partial evacuation all with the aim of cutting down heat
loss through convection in the space between glazing panes.
Blinds are fitted in the space between wall and glazing to decrease unwanted solar gain in summer.
Sunspaces act as a thermal buffer in winter but, owing to the solar heating of their internal surfaces, they
can supply preheated background ventilation to rooms in winter. To gain the most benefit, the sunspace
has to be separated from the internal spaces by doors that are kept shut in the winter. It has been found,
however, that the vast majority of conservatories tend to be used as occupied rooms and are heated,
even if they were not originally designed to be; in this case, the sunspace can act as a thermal drain on
the building.
1. See Goulding, J.R., Lewis, J.O. and Steemers, T.C. (eds), Energy in Architecture The European Passive Solar Handbook, Batsford, London, 1992. Chapter 5 gives an in-depth discussion of passive solar heating, plus equations
for design use.
2. The units are the same as for U-values but the two are not equivalent because transmittance takes account of
surface effects.
3. www.bfrc.org
4. For example, Pilkington make double-glazed insulating glazing with a mid-pane U-value of 1.2. PDF: Pilkington
Solar Control Glass Range, Pilkington, www.pilkington.com, Jan 2005. p. 4.
Ventilation losses
When insulation values are increased, the ventilation losses become proportionally more important. In older UK housing, background ventilation in winter
is provided by air leakage through cracks in the structure and chimney stacks.
In fact, lighting a fire could set up such strong convection currents that enough
Houses
41
air could be drawn into the building to provide a comfortable cooling breeze in
summer although with uncomfortable draughts in winter.
Ventilation has to perform different functions at different times of the year.
In winter, enough fresh air is required to dispel indoor pollutants but without
undue energy loss. Apart from the variable quantity of air provided, the amount
of air that is admitted through infiltration is strongly dependent on changes
in wind direction. In this case, a well-sealed construction in conjunction with
engineered trickle ventilation the build tight; ventilate right method has
become an accepted solution to providing ventilation while limiting heat loss
and draughts.
In summer, higher air velocities are required to increase thermal comfort, and
these are usually provided by opening windows, doors or louvres. This works
as long as the air outside is cooler than the air within the building or if warmer
air can be cooled by evaporation (for example, by being drawn through a garden
or past a courtyard fountain), without uncomfortably increasing the humidity.
In the UK, there are a few summer days when external air temperatures are so
warm as to pose a problem for passive systems. Under these circumstances, it
is best to keep windows closed, draw the blinds or curtains and to use some
form of air movement generator, ceiling fans being quite effective for this
purpose.
42
Electrical demands
Heating is obviously not the only demand for energy in a house; there is hot water
to be provided as well as electricity for lighting and household appliances.
Water heating is a significant domestic energy requirement. Solar hot water
generation is now a very viable alternative to fossil-fuel-fired boilers or electric
immersion heaters (which are extremely inefficient in terms of primary energy
and should be avoided wherever possible).
In most homes, there is sufficient daylight during most of the day, so little
artificial light should be needed apart from, perhaps, some task lighting. This
is, of course, dependent on a relatively shallow floor plan and ample, suitably
placed, windows. Light walls, ceilings and furnishings are to be preferred from
a daylighting point of view though they may not necessarily be aesthetically
desirable. Choosing lamps with a greater efficiency than the traditional tungsten
filament is essential if energy use is to be decreased.
There has been an enormous increase in the number of electrical goods used
in recent years. It used to be that a living room would have two or four socket
outlets; now we have a double, or even a quadruple, gang on every wall! And then
there are all of the television and FM aerials, phone sockets, cable TV outlets
and broadband connections that connect us to the outside world.
It is difficult to know what a designer can do to ensure that the multitude of
appliances are used responsibly, other than locating the socket where it can be
reached easily, and ensuring that they are of the switched type. Whether mobile
phone chargers are unplugged when not in use and whether TV sets are not left
on standby is up to the occupant. However, the provision of an outside area with
a clothes line gives the opportunity to dry clothes without resorting to the use
of a drier, and is awarded points in the EcoHomes assessment.
It has been suggested that significant savings in electricity use will be made
by improvements in the efficiency of household appliances. In the short term,
however, since the number of appliances per household is steadily rising, and
given the increasing number of households of smaller size, each with their own
appliances, the demand for electricity is unlikely to fall.
1.2 Transport
It is often quoted that a family car can produce around the same amount of
CO2 per annum as a house for a family of four[9]. The location of housing has a
considerable impact on how far a buildings occupants need to travel, what form
of transport they use, the food miles embodied in their groceries and so forth.
Houses
43
In terms of a single house, there is little that can be done to encourage use of
more sustainable forms of transport, other than to provide covered bike parking,
as the location of the house is often out of the designers control. It is in relation
to housing that there is the possibility of affecting change, such as was undertaken at the BedZED development, discussed in Chapter 3.
1.3 Materials
Transport and energy use are not the only culprits when it comes to pollution. In
addition, there are the environmental impacts due to the quantity of materials
used in construction, which account for over half of the total materials use in
the UK.[10] In turn, aggregates account for half of the 420 million tonnes (about
seven tonnes per person) of materials used annually for construction.[11]
Timber is a favourable material for use in house construction in terms of its
embodied energy characteristics, and also because it captures and entrains CO2
throughout its period of growth (although mature trees produce and absorb
CO2 at about the same rate). Timber should, however, only be obtained from
carefully managed woodland with a mixture of young and mature trees, since
the older ones are important for the water cycle of the forest and its ecosystem.
A mixture of species is also important, as it maintains ecological diversity,
although a drawback is that a smaller percentage of the trees will be suitable
for logging.
In an equatorial rain forest only a small percentage of the tree population is
suitable for logging. These ecosystems are particularly fragile, so care obviously
needs to be taken if tropical hardwoods are to be specified. The Forest Stewardship
Council (FSC) is a good source of information on sustainable timber (see Box
1.5), as is the International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO) for tropical
timber, and in the UK, the UK Woodland Assurance Scheme (UKWAS).[12]
Because timber is imported from so many different sources, it remains difficult
to assess the precise levels of environmental impact. The best aim should be
to use timber from well-managed and regulated forests, and to reuse timber if
possible. And it is best not to specify simply timber from sustainable forests but
to look into the environmental policy of the supplier.
1.4 Water
A major impact of housing construction and use is in relation to water economy.
Consumption in the UK continues to rise with each person in a household using
around 150154 litres per day.[13] Although new sources of supply have been
44
introduced, and new infrastructure has been constructed to move water from
areas with excess supply to those in deficit, both high capital cost and energy
expenditure is involved, as well as environmental impacts. For this reason, an
aim for future housing is to reduce water consumption.
Water used for showers and baths and washing machines also impacts on the
energy consumption of a home.
Condensation
Condensation in buildings can lead both to health problems and to structural
problems within buildings. If it occurs on the inner surface of a wall, moulds
can breed, causing respiratory problems, an issue particularly associated with
poorly insulated, poorly ventilated buildings. If, however, it occurs within the
fabric of the building, problems such as the corrosion of metal components, the
rotting of wooden ones and the saturation (and thus decreased performance) of
insulation may result.
Houses
45
heating the air in the building[14] (which will reduce the relative
humidity and warm the construction).
46
the use of a vapour control layer so that water vapour, which will be
driven by the difference in vapour pressures inside and outside the
building, cannot move through the construction
ensuring that the temperature of the construction does not reach the
airs dewpoint temperature by insulating the building and locating the
insulation appropriately.
Condensation only becomes a problem when it persists for a long period of time.
Bathrooms and kitchens, if they are well ventilated, are unlikely to suffer any
serious damage.
2. Construction issues
The indicators of sustainability (discussed in Chapter 1) can be applied to all
types of housing. From a historical point of view, however, it makes sense to
discuss single houses first.
In the 1970s the autonomous house (one that existed in a symbiotic relationship
with its local surroundings and made no demands on local mains services) was
the exemplar of current thinking in the field of environmentally responsible
housing. In recent times, this approach has been re-evaluated, and attention has
shifted to the rather broader issues that are involved in the design of sustainable
communities. We will move on to consider these in the next chapter.
Houses
47
Location
The preferable arrangement is to locate the insulation on the outside of the
construction. In flat roofs, this has led to the now familiar upside-down roof;
for pitched roofs, various systems are marketed where profiled insulation panels
are fixed at the outside of the rafters.
Walls having external insulation with a render of weathercoat is one way of
addressing the problem, although there is some anecdotal evidence of this being
unpopular with planners. This removes the option of brick being the outer
visible material, but it has the additional advantage that thermal mass within the
building can be employed to help temper the internal temperature. (Thermal
mass is discussed in detail in Chapter 3.) Vapour control layers, correctly
employed, are essential for managing condensation risk.
It is unlikely that condensation can always be avoided, so thought should be
given to ensuring there is an escape route for moisture.
To locate the insulation at the centre of the construction is a good compromise
since the structural temperature across the thickness of the wall can be held
above the dewpoint temperature of the air. There are, however, attendant
construction problems: the thickness of insulation needed in contemporary
construction is a challenge to the usual methods of making walls and roofs in
houses. The width of cavity required in masonry walls makes it difficult to achieve
an adequate connection between the two leafs of the wall without using special
wall ties, such as those developed for use at the BedZED development. Similarly,
roof rafters are usually of insufficient depth, while placing the insulation at
ceiling level creates a considerable temperature differential between the roof
48
structure and the rest of the building in wintertime. New components such as
plyweb beams are being used to create the necessary depth while not greatly
increasing the weight of the structure.
Alternatives are to locate the insulation at the inside of the construction,
although the condensation risk is then greatly increased, and exacerbated by the
inevitable cold bridges where the structural connections to the floors and roof
breach the insulation.
Insulation materials
Insulation materials have a low thermal conductivity and trap air (or other
gases) in pockets or between fibres. They can cut down on the passage of heat
in three ways:
conduction: since both the solid material and the trapped gas are poor
conductors of heat
Insulation materials have a very low density (as a consequence of the large
amounts of gas within them) particularly in relation to other materials that may
be used on site, such as brick and steel. Usually, a good general rule of thumb
to estimate the relative environmental impact of different materials is that the
less dense material will have a much lower impact than the denser one. Because
many foamed insulation materials use gases other than air as the blowing agent
(which may have serious environmental implications), and because of the large
volume of insulation needed, the type of insulation should be chosen with care.
Houses
49
Comments
Foamed glass
Notes: The BRE functional unit is 1 m2 of material to give an equivalent performance to a 50mm thickness of expanded
polystyrene (EPS).
BRE ratings: A = within the top third across a range of environmental impacts, B = within the middle third, C = within the
bottom third
Source: Anderson, J. and Howard, N., The Green Guide to Housing Specification An environmental profiling system for building
materials and components used in housing, Watford, BRE (2000). pp. 3031.
50
Bricks are capable of a long life and can be readily recycled, if they are used in
conjunction with lime mortar. In spite of this, the environmental performance
Houses
51
of brickwork is less than other masonry materials because of the energy used
in firing, even when manufactured using a mechanised continuous kilning
process.
The mass of the walling materials means that they do not rate as favourably
as low-mass framed structures, although the difference is less marked when
considering aerated blocks which have the advantages of being both lightweight and having good insulation properties. Consequently, both brick cavity
construction (with cavity insulation and an aerated block inner leaf) and framed
construction achieve a BRE A rating.[16]
52
The timber structure performs well because of its low mass, renewability and
because its processing is not particularly energy intensive or polluting.
The decking material has little mass relative to the structure, and so has relatively
little environmental impact. Despite this it is worth noting that:
insulation for the ground floor should not use ozone depleting gases.
(Floor coverings are not discussed here as they are usually laid by house-owners;
nonetheless, since they are relatively frequently replaced, their impact can be
considerable, particularly if they are synthetic fibres, i.e. made from fossil fuels.
Wool, cork and timber are thus preferable, as is natural or recycled underlay.)
Where suspended ground floors are laid over concrete, the concrete impacts
poorly on the overall rating, especially in terms of mineral extraction. Recycled
aggregate mitigates this effect as long as transportation distances are not too
great. Ideally, aggregate would be recycled from the site and crushed on the
site.
Houses
53
3.2 An alternative
Loadbearing stone cavity walls + slate pitched roof
Figure 2.6 Stone and block cavity wall
Stone and slate require limited processing and so have some advantage over
brick and blockwork.
Although slate is a traditional roofing material in the UK, slates are now
frequently sourced from Spain and South America. This should be avoided as
both slate and stone are heavy to transport. If used, they should preferably be
sourced locally.
54
Chipboard and OSB are made from waste materials but require a relative large
amount of energy in their processing. They also suffer from the off-gassing of
organic chemicals, such as harmful formaldehyde. Consequently, the environmental rating falls, in comparison to solid wood boarding, scoring only a B.[24]
Houses
55
Table 2.3 Ecopoints evaluation of generic constructions for houses, using BREs Envest tool
12m
8m
Generic house type: 12m 8m (ground and upper floors each 96 sq m); no. storeys: 2;
storey height: 2.8 m; % cellular: 80%; location: S.E. England; soil type: firm clay
Ecopoints
Ground floor
12
1.5
Upper floor
1.0
External walls
Block
Brick
Rockwool
157
123
8
19.3
15.3
1.0
288
35.4
53
15
6.5
1.9
68
8.4
Sub-total
Internal
partitions
Windows
Softwood double-glazed
40
4.9
Roof
Pitched timber with gables + purlins 1.4 m c/c, 0.75 kN/m2 loading
Clay tiles + 150 mm rockwool insulation
7
32
0.9
3.9
Floors
2
37
0.3
4.6
39
4.8
65
17
8.0
2.1
82
10.0
Sub-total
Wall finishes
Ceiling
23
2.8
Sub-structure
142
17.5
813
4.23
Source: based on Anderson, J., Shiers, D.E., Sinclair, M., Green Guide to Specification, (3rd Edition), BRE, Watford, 2002.
Commentary: Houses are a relatively low impact building type in terms of their basic construction form due to the extensive
use of timber for floors and roofs. The most heavyweight components, forming the substructure and external walls, account
for the largest proportion of the total. A more accurate appraisal would, however, have to take into account the extent of
kitchen and bathrooms fittings and servicing that are subject to relatively high rates of replacement.
56
57
Artificial lighting
The GLS lamps that are most widely used in houses, although generally popular
because of their colour temperature, are inefficient.
In the past, fluorescent lamps were often disliked on account of lamp flicker,
gear hum, poor colour rendering and the blue/green colour temperature, which
was unflattering to skin tones. These problems have been largely solved by
newer lamps. For example, a 58W/827 lamp provides a warmish light (colour
temperature 2700K) with good colour rendering (the colour rendering index is
RA 8089) and can be dimmed with a hum-free high-frequency (HF) ballast.[28]
It also has an impressive life: around 20,000 hours, compared to the 1000 hours
of a GLS lamp.[29]
To show compliance with Building Regulations a proportion of the lighting
circuits inside a new dwelling 1/3 to 1/2 depending on the number of rooms
should accept only lamps with an efficiency greater that 40 lumens per
circuit-watt.[30] Of course, in a truly sustainable home (a best practice or
advanced standard home) the proportion of energy efficient lamps will be
much higher.[31]
4.2 Ventilation
Natural ventilation
Unwanted infiltration can account for up to 25% of the total heat loss from the
average UK home.[32]
Many air leakage paths are associated with the junctions between timber and
58
other components, for example where windows join walls, and around the edges
of window sashes and doors. These problems are exacerbated by our damp
climate since timber components expand, shrink and move with changes in
humidity. Infiltration rates in older homes are often around 2 ach, but this may
be reduced to 0.30.6 ach by draught-proofing windows and doors.[33]
The suspended timber floors common in many older properties are, in terms of
their environmental impact, a relatively good form of construction. However,
they are responsible for a high proportion of infiltration, particularly where
square-edge timber is used, when there are unsealed gaps at the junction with
skirting boards and when floor joists pass through the inner leaf of walls.
Coverings such as carpet can partially ease the problem.
Similarly, gaps in ceilings, around loft hatches and light fittings etc., are potential
infiltration routes.
While uncontrolled infiltration is best avoided, some ventilation is needed in
winter. Trickle vents at high level above windows are the most usual way of
providing winter background ventilation. They help both to reduce condensation and to reduce the extent to which windows are opened in winter, thereby
cutting down heat wastage.
Passive stack ventilation (PSV) may be used as an alternative to extract fans
in kitchens and bathrooms. The ductwork needs to extend to, or beyond, the
highest point of the roof. The system draws air out from the warm and wet
rooms of the house (in much the same way that heat disappears up a chimney)
and so effectively encourage loss of heat. However, it can be fitted with heat
exchangers, as was undertaken at the BedZED development, or it can be used in
conjunction with supply air windows to form a dwell-vent whole-house ventilation system.[34]
Artificial ventilation
Extract fans and fan-driven cooker hoods are the most commonly used domestic
mechanical ventilation. Fully ducted mechanical ventilation and heat recovery
(MVHR) systems, which are a standard component in Scandinavian housing,
are becoming more common in the UK the Red House case study at the end
of this chapter is one such home.
MVHR systems rely on a constantly operating fan and, though they may be
variable in speed, their energy consumption can be a concern to a houses
occupants. That there is permanent ventilation may be seen as beneficial in
terms of air quality, but only if ducting is kept scrupulously free of dirt, allergens
and pathogens.
Houses
59
5 Case studies
The case studies in this chapter represent two different approaches to the
design of sustainable one-off detached houses. Although the Red House is a
new construction and the Hawkes House is old enough to have been recently
extended as the occupants needs changed, they have their green aspirations in
common, as well as providing exemplary insights into the reinterpretation of
the English detached house.
Though both are heavily insulated they do show considerable differences, through
their differing sites, ages, client requirements and designers view of the sustainability debate. The Hawkes House, with its careful orientation (it has good solar
access and is designed to take advantage of it) and spatial elaboration has the
Arts and Crafts Movement as its spiritual predecessor, whereas the Red House
looks to Scandinavia to inform its design. The Red House is on a shaded site and
lowers its energy consumption through good airtightness and highly controlled
services. They both, however, form essays on living with sustainability.
60
Houses
61
prototype for further house construction the Tyes intend to build more houses
in the future.
Structure
The upper floors are of lightweight construction rising from a concrete
basement, partly set into the site and partly opening onto a sheltered sunken
garden. The high performance fabric follows Scandinavian precedent, from
the prefabricated panel construction of the basement through to the heavily
insulated timber panel walls and the red pantile clad roof. The detailing of the
boarding, the nailing, ventilation and so on, is very important and has evolved
in Sweden over decades. A high degree of airtightness is achieved through the
construction methods.
Materials
Much of the structure is wood, partly because of its sustainable credentials (not
least because it ties up atmospheric CO2) and partly because the clients liked the
comfortable feeling in wood houses. In this context, to be ecologically sound,
the wood needs to be fast growing. This determines the timber species and
longitude where grown, which has some effects on the properties of the wood,
particularly its strength.
The exterior timber is treated with a matt red paint, Falu rd farg, characteristic of many Swedish farm buildings on which it has been used for over 200
years. Falu is a town in Sweden formerly renowned for copper mining of which
the red pigment is a by-product. The finish:
is breathable so the wood can take in water and let it out again
The Vittinge Lafarge red clay tile roof tiles were imported from Sweden where
they are made today as they were 300 years ago. The tiles were not available
in UK and the decision to import them was made because they are larger in
size than UK tiles (and so compatible with the Swedish design of roof trusses
etc.), have a more suitable colour for the design of the building, have good
condensation-reducing properties and have simpler fixing details. For example,
the ridge does not have to be bedded in cement.
The floors are Rappgo Swedish pine supplied by Anglo Norden UK. They are
pretreated with lut, to keep the beautiful blond original colour, and then
62
treated with white oil which is a virtually invisible oil finish. Lut (lye in English)
is a highly caustic solution of sodium hydroxide and/or potassium hydroxide.
Although it is relatively environmentally benign it should be used with great
care as skin and eyes can suffer serious burns on contact. The floors are cleaned
and maintained with white soap diluted 1:20 with water. This cleans and seals
the floor, including the joints, and adds a touch of whiteness.
Although floors treated in this way are used for public buildings in Scandinavia,
the architects experience suggests that they need careful maintenance.
The Lindab galvanised steel colour-coded gutters, down pipes, leaf collectors
and flashings can be reused and are preferable to plastic goods.
Services
Thermal performance
The super-insulated Red House has very low U-values:
63
tional heat retaining properties; for example, it can retain 20% of its heat 36
hours after firing. The mass of the stove compensates for the relative lack of
thermal mass in the upper storeys. The warmth from the stone is distributed
throughout the house by the continuous ventilation air system, and there is
a local adjustable fresh-air vent near the fire if required.
A chimney fan is used to avoid a long flue; this has the added advantages of
avoiding the difficulties of creating a draught when lighting the fire, preventing
rain damp in the flue and ensuring that the fire burns brightly. In practice, the
fan only needs to be used for a few minutes until the natural draught takes
over.
Houses
65
To get the most heat out of wood, and to reduce pollution, the latest Swedish
advice is:
Only burn dry, fine, split wood that has dried for at least 6 months, or
12 months if hardwood. Newly cut wood releases more tar and it takes
twice as much wood to get the same warmth.
Maintain good ventilation. This gets maximum heat from the fuel and
reduces carbon monoxide emissions.
Take a look at the chimney: it should not have black deposits, and wood
ash should be fine and grey.
In addition to the stove, the house has an electric heating system this can be a
sustainable choice if a gas supply cannot be connected and the heat demand is low.
66
A device enabling mains signalling which uses the normal electricity mains
wiring to transmit messages to heaters (and other electrical equipment) is
incorporated. Every connected heater can be individually programmed to be
on or off at any hour of the day, and these times can be different for each day.
For example, the bathroom might be programmed to be on more frequently or
heaters to be on at different times at weekends when occupants may be at home
more. It is also possible to give switching instructions by calling the system by
phone, for example if the occupants wanted to turn on the heating just before
arriving home after a weekend away.
Heaters also have their own thermostats to override the standard programmes
chosen. The system is automatically frost protected.
Communications
An Allgood colour video entry system is installed so that visitors at the garden
gate can be seen and allowed entry by a person in the entrance hall or basement
studio.
Landscape
The grounds around the house have been kept as natural as possible, again
following the Scandinavian example.
Transport
The clients work from home or in the ATD studio, which is adjacent to the
house. The house is also within walking distance of a small town.
Background
This is one of a series of designs for houses by Greenberg and Hawkes that began
with the Golden House, Doughty Mews, London, 19835[41]. In each of these
houses, the aim was to respond to the specific needs of the client and to the
conditions of the site, while developing an interpretation of the modern house
that, among other things, addressed the question of energy-conscious design.
That said, the overriding concern was to produce designs in which the energyrelated elements were wholly integrated.
Houses
67
room. The bedrooms, however, are relatively low-ceilinged and dimly lit. Storage
spaces are designed as rooms within rooms, as are the bathrooms.
The environmental design of the house was to sustain both work and social life.
For over 12 years it has done this in all seasons. The spatial and environmental
diversity that it offers provides agreeable settings for the lives of the inhabitants.
In winter, the living room is intensively used when it receives solar gains. At
other times, the heating system is used frugally, spaces are only heated when
they are in use. This habit, in combination with the inherently efficient design,
achieves low energy consumption.
Structure
The construction is conventional load-bearing masonry supporting timber roof
structures of rafters and joists.
Materials
The main living spaces are contained within heavily insulated roof and walls,
which are of insulating blockwork, painted and rendered on the outside, and
with a plaster finish on the internal face.
Services
Thermal performance
Insulation: The house is insulated to higher standards than the Building
Regulation requirements of the time. At approximate U-values of 0.2 W/m 2K,
for walls and roof, these are comparable with 2003 requirements.
Because the solar access at the site is relatively unobstructed, the section was
made such that it allows wintertime solar admission while in summer the
timber-framed circulation route, with its bay window which projects into the
courtyard, is a sunlit space distinct from the inner carpeted area which remains
shady and cool.
The kitchen is a high room, half vaulted and with clerestory windows, that ventilates well so that the fan extract hood at low level is rarely needed.
The natural servicing strategy of the house provides a variety of environments,
allowing the occupants adaptive opportunities to withdraw to cooler areas
away from the south faade in the heat of a summer day, or to bask in warming
winter sunshine while being protected from chill air temperatures. A balanced
distribution of low and high admittances is employed to create a thermally
comfortable environment. The solid block walls surrounding the major spaces
do, however, provide a degree of longer-term storage for solar heat.
Houses
69
Light
The tall bay window is a key element of the living room. It is used for informal
dining and as a workplace, and is the principal source of daylight and of useful
solar gains to the entire room. Light is distributed down a timber-clad halfvaulted ceiling. The kitchen has a similar ceiling
vault this time painted white and is illuminated by a clerestory window located above the
flat-roofed study and entrance. A mechanically
controlled opening light provides high-level
ventilation.
Energy supply
All mains services were available at the site, and
the house has conventional connections to these.
The systems are also conventional. Space and
water heating are gas fired. A combi boiler, with
a simple timer control, serves the space heating
and the hot water requirements of the kitchen
and one bathroom. A secondary instantaneous
gas water heater supplies the second bathroom.
This decision was made to avoid the operational
waste of a long dead leg connection to the main
boiler.
(i)
70
6 Notes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Final energy is the energy that is delivered to the end user; primary energy is the
total amount of energy used, before losses occur in conversion processes (such as
the generation of electricity) and in transmission.
DTI, Digest of United Kingdom Energy Statistics 2004. DTI, www.dti.gov.uk,
London, 2004. p. 14.
Calculated through taking Building Regulations U-values (elemental method)
and applying the areas of building elements for different housing types, and their
proportional make-up in building stock. From Anderson, B.R., Review of Part L
of the Building Regulations: U-values, Heating efficiency, SAP and Index methods.
Oscar Faber and DETR, www.odpm.gov.uk, 1999. Table 4.2.
Houghton, J. Global warming: The complete briefing. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1997.
Edwards, B. and Turrent, D. (eds). Sustainable Housing Principles and Practice.
Spon, London, 2000. p. 118.
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR). Quality and
Choice: A Decent Home for All. DETR, www.odpm.gov.uk. London, 2000. Para
2.23.
ibid.
Rao, S., Yates, A., Brownhill, D. and Howard, N. EcoHomes The environmental
rating for homes. BRE, Watford, 2003.
BRECSU. General Information Report 89. BedZED Beddington Zero Energy
Development, Sutton. Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme (DETR),
www.bioregional.com, London, 2002. p. 15.
Lazarus, N., Summary: Beddington Zero (Fossil) Energy Development
Construction Materials Report Toolkit for Carbon Neutral Developments Part
1, BioRegional, Surrey and www.bioregional.com, 2002. p. 5.
ibid.
FSC: www.fsc.org, ITTO: www.itto.or.jp, UKWAS: www.forestry.gov.uk
OFWAT, Security of supply, leakage and the efficient use of water 20034 report.
OFWAT, Birmingham and www.ofwat.gov.uk, Dec 2004. p. 47.
The more even the heating, the less the risk that areas where air stagnates (such
as behind furniture) will form condensation. See Thomas, R. (ed), Environmental
Design an introduction for architects and engineers. Spon, London, 1999. pp.
2426.
Radiation can only travel through substances that are transparent to the
wavelength. The solid parts of insulation are usually both opaque and with low
surface emissivities, so little radiant energy is emitted. Progressively, less heat
is then emitted from each surface within the insulation towards the cold side of
the insulation. Coating the material with a foil surface can reduce the amount of
radiant heat loss still further. This layer may also serve as a vapour control layer.
Anderson, J. and Howard, N., The Green Guide to Housing Specification. BRE,
Watford, 2000. pp. 89.
Houses
71
17.
18.
19.
20.
23.
24.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
72
ibid., p. 13.
ibid., pp. 1213.
ibid., pp. 2223.
The chlorine in PVC is responsible for dioxin formation.
ibid., pp. 1617.
ibid., pp. 1213.
Meteorological Office. UK climate and weather statistics 2004 Seasonal
weather summary. Meteorological Office, www.met-office.gov.uk, 2004.
EST, Good Practice Case Study 441. Low-energy domestic lighting looking good
for less, Energy Saving Trust, www.est.org.uk, 2002. p. 2. A useful discussion of
energy-efficient lighting for housing is Energy Efficiency Best Practice in Housing.
Energy Efficient lighting Guidance for Installers and Specifiers, www.est.org.uk,
EST, 2004. p. 2.
ibid., 2002.
ODPM. The Building Regulations 2000, Conservation of fuel and power
Approved document L1, conservation of fuel and power in dwellings, 2002 edn,
www.odpm.gov.uk, ODPM/HMSO, London, 2003. paras 1.541.57.
EST, Energy Efficiency Best Practice in Housing. Energy Efficiency in New Housing,
Energy Saving Trust, www.est.org.uk, 2003.
Perera, E. and Parkins, L. Build Tight Ventilate Right Building Services Journal.
Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers, June 1992. pp. 3738.
Lowe, R.J., Curwell, S.R., Bell, M. and Ahmad, A. Airtightness in masonry
dwellings: laboratory and field experience. Building Services Engineering Research
and Technology, 1994. 15 (3). pp. 149155.
www.dwell-vent.com
Most efficient boilers from SEDBUK online (www.sedbuk.com) database, 1 July
2005.
SEDBUK online (www.sedbuk.com) database.
www.enigma-insulations.co.uk
The unit is VM-400. Technical details can be found at www.villavent.co.uk
When specifying heat recovery units, a balance needs to be found between the
potential energy savings from heat recovery and the pressure loss across the heat
exchanger, with consequent increase in fan energy requirement.
This is with a physical filter. With an electrostatic filter, 97% of particles down to
0.1mm can be removed, see www.villavent.co.uk
www.polypipecivils.co.uk
Golden House, Bloomsbury, London, The Architects Journal, 30 October 1985.
Housing Sustainable
Communities
1 Discussion
The previous chapter was concerned with one-off, exemplary and (in the
instance of the case studies) detached houses. Such pathfinder projects
point the way for the mass of housing; the affordable homes required in
quantity over the coming years. Given a concern for the design of the
local environment, the aim should be to achieve the wider goal of housing
sustainable communities.
73
74
2000
1000
0
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
2050
Year
10000
10000
Loft insulation
Curtains
Cavity walls
Double glazing
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
500
2000
2000
450
1000
1000
400
0
2000
350
0
2010
2020
2030
2040
2050
Year
(i)
8000
Loft insulation
Curtains
Cavity walls
Double glazing
9000
(ii)
10000
2000
Loft insulation
Curtain
Cavity walls
Double glazing
2010
2020
300
2030
2040
2050
Year
250
200
Figure 3.1 Saving in heating energy demand under different climate scenarios:
9000
150
(i) low emissions scenario and (ii) high emissions scenario.
Loft insulation
Curtains
Cavity walls
Double glazing
50
0
2000
6000
2010
2020
500
4000
450
3000
350
1000
300 0
2000
250
2040
2050
2030
2040
2050
500
450
Loft insulation
Curtain
Cavity walls
Double glazing
Loft insulation
Curtain
Cavity walls
Double glazing
400
350
2010
2020
2030
2040
2050
Year
200
300
250
200
150
150
100
100
50
50
0
2000
2030
Year
5000
400
2000
Cooling load, kWh
100
7000
8000
2010
2020
2030
2040
0
2000
2050
(ii)
(i) 500
2010
2020
Year
Year
450
Loft insulation
Curtain
Cavity walls
Double glazing
400
Figure
3.2 Cooling loads under different climate scenarios:
(i)350low emissions scenario and (ii) high emissions scenario.
300
250
200
despite a rising mean temperature,[3] and thus any extra insulation in buildings
would save even more energy.
150
100
50
0
2000
2010
2020
However, if the Gulf Stream remains active, we are faced with between a two
2030
2040
2050
Year
degree
increase in mean temperatures (for a low CO2 emissions scenario) and a
33.5 degree increase (if emissions are high). Although warmer winters will reduce
both the energy required for heating and cold-related deaths in the UK, there
75
increasing wind speeds mean higher heat losses from (and wind loads
on) buildings but also an increased potential for power generation.
Precipitation
Total rainfall and peak rainfall are both expected to increase[10][11] leading to:[12]
76
It is worth noting that these changes will affect not only the construction
industry. Ecosystems and agriculture may be affected[13] changing humanitys
ability to feed itself and affecting the diseases to which we are exposed.[14] With
an increasing global population, we can ill afford to put even more stress on
ecosystems.
77
To say we need more houses is simple; the question of where and how they
should be built is less simple. Not all cities have the same demand for new
housing, our existing building stock also requires attention and, at the beginning
of the 21st Century, population growth is not the only demographic change that
we are faced with.
% population growth,
1981 to 2002
49,561,800 (83.7)
+5.9
Northern Ireland
1,696,600 (2.9)
+10.0
Scotland
5,054,800 (8.5)
-2.4
Wales
2,918,700 (4.9)
+3.7
England
Source: Population Estimates Webpage, National Statistics, www.statistics.gov.uk. 2003. Crown copyright
Source: Mid-2002 Population Estimates, National Statistics, www.statistics.gov.uk. 2004. Crown copyright
We find ourselves in a situation where there are highly buoyant housing markets
in some places and an oversupply of housing in other areas. It is estimated that
around 730,000 dwellings 3.4% of the total housing stock[22] stand empty.
This could supply the housing demand for over four years if they were suitable.
Obviously some of these houses would be unsuitable to be lived in: some will be
unfit for habitation, some will be too remote from potential employment, some
will be suitable only for seasonal occupation, some will be in areas with very
high crime rates, and so on.
About 90% of properties classified as being in a low demand area are in some
40 local authorities in the North and Midlands, with twice as many being social,
rather than private sector, homes.[23]
The government is seeking to put pressure on the owners of empty properties.
Through the New Empty Dwelling Management Orders allowed by the Housing
Act 2004 local authorities can take over the management of private properties
without becoming the legal owner.[24]
78
1971
2001
2.91
2.33
one person
23
31
31
22
27
29
2 parents
92
75
lone mothers
22
lone fathers
6574 years
75 and over
Source: Rickards, L., Fox, K., Roberts, C., Fletcher, L. and Goddard, E., Living in Britain. No 31.
Results from the 2002 General Household Survey., National Statistics and TSO www.statistics.
gov.uk, 2004: (a) p18; (b) p21; (c) p22; (d) p24.
79
With changes like these, we will need to build fewer large family homes,
more one-bed and studio dwellings, more retirement/sheltered housing plus
associated crches, after-school clubs, community centres and drop-in centres
for the elderly.
It is not only the changing type of household that means we need different types
of housing. Many people are now choosing to work at home for all or part of the
time seeking the elusive ideal work/life balance.
Good housing design supports these types of change: the BedZED development
is a good example of planning with changing working patterns in mind.
80
prices.[31] The increasing[32] number of households living in temporary accommodation (in 2005, it was 100,000[33]) is another symptom of the crisis in the
affordable housing sector.
Rented accommodation
The number of social houses built has been falling from c. 42,700 pa in 19945
to c. 21,000 in 20023[34] but our need for them hasnt. The UK needs between
17,000 and 26,000 new social houses per year.[35] The government has responded
by saying that it aims to increase the annual supply of new social housing to
45,000 pa by 201011, rising to 50,000 at the next spending review.[36][37] Plus
they expect 95% of all social housing to meet decency standards by 2010.[38][39]
Home owners
In areas where there is high housing demand such as the South East lower
income households are often priced out of the market. The Barker Report[40]
concluded that the government could manipulate house prices by increasing
the housing supply; in order to decrease house price growth to the European
average, the annual supply would have to be increased by 120,000, i.e. a doubling
of current construction rates.
The government has a number of schemes to increase home ownership, such as
the First Time Buyers Initiative, the Homebuy, Right to Buy, and Right to Acquire
initiatives, Key Worker Low Cost Home Ownership (LCHO) programmes and
the 60,000 Home competition.[41]
81
2. Construction issues
reducing environmental impact
2.1 Reducing environmental impact
We briefly considered the embodied energy of buildings in Chapter 1, noting that
it is starting to account for a greater proportion of a buildings total energy use.
The construction of new homes is thought to be responsible for 23% of
the UKs total annual CO2 emissions, while household energy consumption
accounts for 29%.[42] This would seem to indicate that embodied energy is a
relatively unimportant factor in housings sustainability; however, it accounts
for over half of our annual resource use by weight[43] and so is worth considering further.
Until now, embodied energy has generally been found to be secondary to operational energy in studies
of the whole life energy use of buildings. As building regulations become increasingly stringent, however,
calling for extra insulation and thicker constructions, the relative importance of the last three components the embodied energy is increasingly significant.
My research set out to analyse how the projected demand for 3.8 million homes by 2021<2> can be met
most effectively in terms of total environmental impact. Dynamic thermal computer modelling, and
embodied energy analysis software, developed by the BRE, was used to assess the whole life energy
impact of a likely future dwelling, over a 100-year lifespan.
Both operational and embodied energy were analysed for four different construction types. One is heavyweight (traditional brick and block construction) and three lightweight:
82
For each, I investigated the impact of orientation, glazing ratio and different building regulation scenarios,
in the context of projected climate and demographic change.
A single-person apartment within a larger, three-storey block was analysed to reflect the demand for
smaller households and more dense developments that are likely to be built in the 21st Century.
The apartment was assumed to have openable windows and an MVHR system to provide minimum fresh
air requirements for use when the windows are not open.
Fabric U-values and airtightness levels were stipulated for two future scenarios, based on government
consultation figures published in 2000,<3> and are given in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Assumptions for modelling
PRESENT
(2000)
Building element
Construction type
Air-tightness (m3/hr
per m2 at 50 Pa)
External walls
0.35
Roof
0.2
Timber frame
10
Ground floor
0.25
LGSF volumetric
1.3
Windows and
external doors
1.9
SIP
U-value, W/m2K
U-value, W/m2K
Construction type
External walls
0.2
Roof
0.16
Timber frame
Ground floor
0.2
LGSF volumetric
Windows and
external doors
1.6
SIP
U-value, W/m2K
10
FUTURE
Building element
(superinsulated)
External walls
0.1
Roof
0.1
Timber frame
Ground floor
0.1
LGSF volumetric
Windows and
external doors
1.2
SIP
Air-tightness (m3/hr
per m2 at 50 Pa)
3
3
1.3
1
Construction type
Air-tightness (m3/hr
per m2 at 50 Pa)
3
3
1.3
1
Research findings
Given the assumptions for the model, for all of the proposed building types:
Increasing thermal efficiency and airtightness reduces the relative effect of traditional energy
efficient design
Embodied energy is the determining factor of total environmental impact.
continued
83
Embodied energy effects outweigh operational energy savings from increased insulation, see
Figure 3.3.
Embodied energy effects outweigh energy savings from orientation, glazing and thermal mass.
Moreover, heavyweight construction was found to suffer a greater operational energy penalty when not
orientated due south than the other three construction types, and it suffered a relatively high operational
penalty if the glazing ratio was not optimal for the orientation of the building.
These findings suggest that, instead of concentrating solely on operational energy, the Building
Regulations should include standards for embodied energy too, reflecting its growing significance in the
development of UK housing.
Figure 3.3 Operational and total building savings in Ecopoints
LGSF
Future
TF
SIP
B&B
Total energy
Operational energy
LGSF
2008
TF
SIP
B&B
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Future
B&B
LGSF
84
LGSF
If the future demand for housing
were to be met by adopting timber frame or timber-based SIP
construction rather than conventional brick and block, the UK could potentially save 4.4 million tonnes of
TF
CO2 annually or over 400 million tonnes over a 100-year building life, see Figure 3.4. This is equal, annually,
to 1.17% of the 60% target reduction
in CO2 emissions set by the government for the UK before 2050.<4>
SIP
TF
SIP
continued
2
SIP
B&B
Ongoing research is needed to evaluate the effects of changing methods of construction and to
investigate the interaction
energy in the refurbishment, demolition and
-2 -1 of
0 embodied
1 2 3 4 5 and
6 7operational
8 9 10
replacement of existing housing.
Building regulations and construction type
Future
TF
SIP
B&B
LGSF
2008
LGSF
TF
SIP
B&B
-0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
1. Cole, R. and Kernan, P., Life-Cycle Energy use in Office Buildings, Building and Environment, Vol. 31, No. 4. 1996.
p. 307.
2. BRECSU, General Information Report 89. BedZED Beddington Zero Energy Development, Sutton. Energy Efficiency
Best Practice programme, Watford, www.bioregional.com, 2002. p. 8.
3. ODPM, Current thinking on possible future amendments of energy efficiency provisions, ODPM, www.odpm.gov.uk,
Nov 2000.
4. ODPM, Proposals for amending Part L of the Building Regulations and Implementing the Energy Performance of
Buildings Directive A consultation document. ODPM and www.odpm.gov.uk, London, July 2004. p. 5.
85
mass does not always deliver sufficient energy savings to be worthwhile, and
so careful design is needed. When deciding on the amount of thermal mass to
provide, considerations to be taken into account might be:
For a building type that is more or less in continuous occupation, there are
considerable advantages in using the mass of the construction to store solar
energy inputs and to buffer the internal environment from the diurnal (and to a
lesser degree longer period) external temperature fluctuations. Whether housing
can still be considered to be a continuously occupied building type is open to
debate. Households where all the adults leave the home to work are increasingly
common, as are households where one or more people work from home.
At the same time, there is a move towards the production of more prefabricated
building products, with the resulting possibility of increased quality control and
decreased time on site. This mitigates in favour of lightweight building components such as the growing use of timber stud panels, with an outer skin of brick,
or the more recent introduction of steel stud panelling in housing construction.
These methods result in buildings with relatively low thermal mass and a consequently fast thermal response.
Given the increased tendency of heavily insulated buildings to overheat, and the
inability of the construction to damp down the variations in temperature, the
debate of heavyweight vs lightweight is set to continue.
Table 3.4 Sustainability at BedZED
Site:
Structure:
6.3 m crosswalls with clear spanning pre-cast slabs gives flexibility in internal accommodation.
Materials:i,ii,iii
15% of construction materials at BedZED were reclaimed or recycled, and were cheaper or the
same price as the conventional products.
95% of structural steel on site was reclaimed,<1> with a cost saving of 4%.
Reclaimed softwood joist and floorboards were used for mezzanine floors.
Reclaimed timber was used for internal partitions.
86
52% of construction materials were sourced from within a 35 mile radius of the site.
The average material sourcing distance was 66.5 miles 40 miles less than the national
average.
In situ concrete came from a batching plant just a few hundred metres away.
Internal staircases are of locally sourced softwood.
Cost:i,ii
The overall expected cost was 13701470 /m2, 3.4 to 4.7% greater than that of a typical
Peabody development (10001100 /m2).
Recycled aggregate and sand were cheaper than virgin products.
Pre-stressed concrete saved time, money and materials.
FSC certified green oak weatherboarding was cheaper than brick and, over its lifetime,
imported preserved softwood.
Thermal
performance:i
Water:i
87
Energy:i,iii,iv
The total embodied energy was reduced by 12.5% by using timber windows rather than uPVC.
PV panels are integrated into the construction.
Heat and power come from a 135 kW CHP plant.
Fuel for the CHP plant comes from carbon neutral tree waste from nearby London Boroughs.
Theoretical SAP(1998) rating of 150.
Transport:i,iv
PVs feed electric car chargers on site, are sufficient for 40 cars.
A car ownership pool reduces private car ownership.
Parking is on the perimeter of the site, keeping the centre for pedestrians and cyclists.
Cycle racks and shower facilities are provided for cyclists.
Lifestyle:i,iv
Landscape:
i,iv
Note:
1. Reclaimed steel is preferable to recycled steel, where quality allows, as it is dismantled and then re-erected on site, whereas
recycled steel undergoes energy intensive re-melting.
Sources:
i. The BedZED Exhibition, currently (2005) Bill Dunster Architects, available from www.surreycc.gov.uk, 2002.
ii. Lazarus, N., Summary: Beddington Zero (Fossil) Energy Development Construction Materials Report Toolkit for Carbon Neutral
Developments Part 1, BioRegional, www.bioregional.com, 2002.
iii. Lazarus, N., Summary: Beddington Zero (Fossil) Energy Development Toolkit for Carbon Neutral Developments Part II,
BioRegional, www.bioregional.com, 2003.
iv. Dunster, B. & Carter, G., General Information Report 89. BedZED Beddington Zero Energy Development, Sutton, Watford and
www.bioregional.com, Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme, 2002.
88
89
encouraging smaller stores as a partial alternative to supermarkets, and facilitating home deliveries, are all measures that have been adopted at BedZed.
The architects believe that if all urban fabric that is replaced was built to BedZED
standards the UK could be carbon neutral by the start of the next century.[51]
With the government aiming to reduce CO2 emissions by 60% by 2050[52], and
for new housing in future to be zero carbon, the ongoing development of ZEDs
can only be welcomed.
90
In the future it is likely that the Building Regulations will come to cover
embodied energy[62] as well as increasing requirements for existing buildings.[63]
The government is likely to look for an increase in performance of around
2030% at each review of Part L.[64] This might mean a change in indicative
U-values from:
Airtightness and other standards are set to become more stringent too.[66] We
should also note that refurbishment of existing buildings can be very efficient in
terms of embodied energy, although the gains in terms of performance are lower.
stopping floods before they start (or reducing the severity), i.e. reducing
the peak storm-water load on surface water drainage, either by reducing
the run-off to begin with (e.g. by reducing hard surfaces in landscaped
areas) or by intercepting water before it reaches the storm drains,
through the use of catchment ponds, water meadows etc.
stopping the flood water from getting to the buildings, through the
use of flood defences. This may be as simple as locating the building on
the higher part of a site or with more complex flood barriers (though
be wary of increasing the risk of flooding elsewhere, and take into
account the great speed[71] of flood water that will occur if the defence is
breached or the flood waters rise above the level of the defences)
91
the thermal risks of under insulation are high (since peak summer
temperatures are set to increase and mean winter temperatures may
decrease)[72]
92
Table 3.5 Approximate insulation thicknesses to achieve ZED standard (i.e. 0.1 W/m2K)
Insulation material
550
Sheeps wool
500
410
Polyurethane foam
290
TRI-ISO SUPER 9
3 sheets*
Notes: All thicknesses were calculated using data from CIBSE Guide A - Design Data, 5th Edn, St Albans, 1988, except for * which
is a very approximate value deduced from www.enigma-insulations.co.uk
93
The concrete used for thermal mass has a relatively high embodied energy, but this was minimised by
using concrete blocks that were made just six miles away.<5> Other materials for the houses were sourced
locally, and much of the labour came from the future residents. Several hundred native trees were also
planted on site, which slightly mitigates the effect of the embodied energy in, and pollution caused by,
the construction materials.<6>
The impact of the buildings on the environment is also reduced by careful servicing design.
The only water supply to the houses is rainwater, with the glass conservatory roofs providing drinking
water, which is filtered and treated with UV light. Hot water is generated by a heat pump. Wastewater is
treated on site by a septic tank and water treatment pond.
The site has two 5 kW grid-connected wind turbines (this removes the need for batteries) and a 7.6 kW PV
array. These charge the sites electric car.
1. Vale, Robert, Housing project Hockerton. www.greenhouse.gov.au, Australian Greenhouse Office Department of the Environment and Heritage (2004). p. 6.
2. An Index of Initiatives for Building Homes as if Tomorrow Matters, London, RIBA, 1997. p. 31.
3. Some houses have wood-burning stoves in the conservatories to provide occasional heating for parties, etc.,
see op. cit. Vale, 2004, p. 3.
4. Polystyrene is an organic polymer with the chemical formula (C8H8)n.
5. op. cit. RIBA, 1997, p. 31.
6. ibid.
7. www.hockerton.demon.co.uk
apartment lifestyles that we see on the continent to see that denser cities are a
viable possibility.
That this chapter follows the one concerning single houses is deliberate. Rather
than looking at houses in isolation, it is vital that we look at houses in context: a
houses location and surrounding built environment can have an enormous effect
on the way in which it is used and its consequential environmental impact.
In fact, both of the case studies in Chapter 2 do take account of wider issues.
The Hawkes house increases urban density by occupying a site which previously
provided gardens for nearby houses. It is also within easy cycling distance of
Cambridge town centre, with its shops and services.
The Red House occupies part of the site where Alan Tyes home and studio
already stand. It is an excellent study in the livework principle: the occupants
need only walk across the garden to reach the design studio, and there are facilities within the house for a home office too.
The Hockerton Project, though it consists of five houses, is perhaps nearer to the
original philosophy of autonomous houses (discussed in Box 2.6), than either of
these. The difference between autonomous schemes and sustainable communities is that, while the first aim to be as self-contained as possible, sustainable
schemes aim to reduce their environmental footprint.
The problems for housing design in the future are both environmental and
societal. We need to find a way of decreasing our environmental footprint and
we need to find it fast. At the same time, we need to find ways of doing it that
dont hinder flourishing communities.
2.5 Eco-footprinting
The embodied energy/CO2 of their homes is obviously not the only impact that
a homes residents will have. A persons eco-footprint is the proportion of the
Earths surface that is required to support them, not just in terms of energy, but
for oxygen, food, water, pharmaceuticals, space and the materials to make the
consumables they buy.
Bill Dunster Architects looked at the idea of eco-footprinting, when they were
working on the BedZED project, and they concluded that if all of the people on
the planet were to have an equivalent lifestyle to those in the UK, three Earths
would be needed to support them. This is clearly unsustainable, so two solutions
one light green (a transitional lifestyle, with an eco-footprint of two planets)
and one dark green (an ideal lifestyle, with an eco-footprint of one planet) were
proposed, see Table 3.6.
Housing Sustainable Communities
95
Dark green:
Home
Travel
Recycle 60 % of waste.
Food
2.6 Volumetric
The forms of buildings which are emerging from the sustainability debate differ
greatly. On one hand are heavyweight buildings, with construction that relies
on local skills and materials, typified by the Hockerton Project and BedZED. On
the other are lightweight buildings (which may be preferable in terms of overall
energy use see earlier in the chapter), produced with an increasing degree of
prefabrication.
History
As we will investigate the use of standardised and prefabricated components has
great potential in the building of sustainable housing, though it has a slightly
chequered history.
The industrial revolution was fuelled in part by technological advances that
allowed for the mass production of products of increasing complexity and of
assured quality. This move away from fabrication by artisans has allowed the
production of items as intricate as the computer and the modern car at prices
that consumers are willing to pay. In 2002, more than half of all households in
the UK had access to a computer at home (most of these have internet access)
and nearly three-quarters have access to a car or van.[78]
Although modern houses will contain relatively sophisticated items, such as
96
condensing boilers, they have almost all been built by skilled tradespersons.
A construction site offers nowhere near the potential for quality control or
standardisation that can be achieved in a factory, even when a number of
identical houses are being built.
Despite this, there has been interest in increasing mechanisation of the
construction process since quite early in the 20th century. Lightweight system
designs were investigated by designers such as Jean Prouv and Buckminster
Fuller, and modern examples include crane-installed bathroom/kitchen
pods.[79]
Changing perceptions
Many of the post-war prefabs are well loved, even today. However, poorly
designed products of 1960s system building badly marred the reputation of
housing prefabrication and this has given rise to a lingering perception that the
97
Advantages of prefabrication
Affordability and key-worker housing
Hastening the progress of prefabrication is about much more than a desire to
improve build quality. It is seen as a way of quickly building affordable key-worker
housing and of helping to solve the housing crisis in the South East.[80][81]
The linchpin of the governments recent programme to increase the number of
homes being built for what it calls key workers those on whom we depend but
whose incomes are unlikely to allow them to live near their place of work is the
proposal for prefabricated homes.
Build where others cant
Because factory-produced housing is relatively light in weight, recent proposals
have included inhabited bridges over waterways and railway lines[82] an ancient
idea revisited.[83]
Fast construction
For example, at Cartwright Pickards 6th Avenue in York construction took less
than half the time the client would normally expect, with a consequential saving
in land finance costs.[84] Plus the off-site construction means that vulnerable
interiors and insulation[85] are only exposed to the vagaries of the British climate
for a minimal period.
98
Reducing time on site also reduces the impact of the construction on the site
and the neighbours. Traffic to the site is decreased as is the impact of noise.
Because foundations can be less extensive than with traditional construction,
the building impacts less on the drainage patterns on site.
Increased space
James Pickard believes that using modular construction allows Cartwright
Pickard Architects to design homes with 10% more usable interior space than
the norm.[86]
Increased thermal efficiency
The projected decreased running costs (due to increased insulation Yorkon
estimates their 2002 housing system should use 20% less energy than those
designed to meet the 1995 Building Regulations[87]) should be taken into account
when considering the, currently, higher construction costs.
In fact, thermal efficiency is not the only sustainability aspect of factory
housing, as Lizzie Babister explores (Box 3.7).
99
Efficient use of site area owing to narrower wall and floor sections
Modules can be built so that structure and insulation are integrated so narrower wall and floor sections can
be achieved than with traditional construction. This allows for more usable space in plan and section, and
potentially more efficient use of the site. However, not all modules are built in this way, so the assumption
cannot be made that space will be saved simply through modular construction.
Reduction in wet trades
Factory construction usually uses dry trades that, in conjunction with waste management, can be very
efficient. Dry alternatives to wet processes can use less energy, but the embodied energy of the materials,
and their contribution to overall energy consumption, should also be taken into consideration.
For example, cement mixing for brickwork uses a higher level of energy than installing lightweight steel
framing. However, the embodied energy involved in making brick is less than that involved in making steel
so this may cancel out the energy saved at construction stage. Also, pressure from a planning authority
may result in the use of brickwork as cladding, the installation of which re-introduces wet trades.
Lightweight units using less energy to lift them into place
Modular units made from lightweight steel sections are designed to be transported on articulated lorries
and to be craned into place. This repetitive method enables very rapid erection of the building. Savings
in energy are even greater with larger projects.
Recyclable
Modular units can usually be recycled in part or as a whole. A significant amount can be salvaged from
any one building, depending upon the materials and how they have been joined. A steel structure can
be dismantled easily. Windows can also be detached if they are screwfixed. However, interiors are often
finished in a similar way to traditional buildings so their recycling may be no easier.
Whole modules are generally bolted together so they can be taken apart easily, allowing for the recycling
of entire rooms. An entire hotel was once dismantled in this way and transported on the back of lorries to
a different site, where it was rebuilt and reclad.
Summary
Modular construction has certain characteristics that lend it to being a sustainable construction method,
but is not inherently sustainable. For this reason, it is important that sustainability is a key aim so that the
modular process can be partnered with a carefully chosen workforce and suitable materials to exploit its
sustainable characteristics.
100
Disadvantages of prefabrication
Societal
There are, of course, disadvantages to prefabrication. Some are physical, and
so may be addressed by new technology and good design, and others are social
and are more difficult to quantify and to resolve. Certainly, there are some who
view increasing mechanisation and a decreasing involvement of skilled craftspeople in much the same way that William Morris and his contemporaries
viewed the increase in mechanisation of the production of other consumables.[88]
This is something of a chicken-and-egg situation: increasing mechanisation
means a decrease in the demand for skilled labour which means the number of
craftspeople decreases and the price for them increases, which leads to calls for
increasing mechanisation!
Research has identified a number of consumer views which are hostile to the
success of prefabrication methods in relation to housing:[89]
However, given that the modular housing at Murray Grove is valued to be more
expensive than the average for the area,[90] there is certainly hope that these negative perceptions can change. On the continent, prefabricated housing is much
more accepted, for example the Ikea/Skanska-developed Bo Klok housing,[91]
and in Japan up to 40% of housing is built using prefabricated units.[92]
Physical
Thermal risks: There are inherent thermal bridging and vapour control issues
to be addressed when working with steel framed and clad units. Manufacturers
such as Yorkon believe they have solved the major problems through materials
choice and detailing, which was the subject of a research contract at Oxford
Brookes University.[93]
Prefabricated buildings tend to be low in thermal mass, partly because of
the transport mentioned above. Because of this, and the good standards of
insulation, there is a danger of summer overheating. These risks can be reduced
by careful design. Cross-ventilation, such as at Allford Hall Monaghan Morris
Raines Dairy development in London,[94] and at Murray Grove,[95] can help as can
shading windows with projecting balconies or overhanging roofs.
101
empty and redundant existing offices, and some half-finished buildings, were
converted to housing.
Because of their heritage as office buildings, where space needs to be flexible to
accommodate changing tenants, these structures can contain many different
types of dwelling. Compared to the rigidity of volumetric construction, which
combines dwelling plans from a repetitive module, frame structures have the
great advantage of being inherently reconfigurable:
In the same way, a frame initially used for family housing could be
further converted to starter flats or sheltered housing.
Housing requires relatively little pipework and few ducts. These can be
concealed (above a false ceiling) under the flat plate concrete structure
commonly used for office buildings.
103
104
Rendered insulation
The market pressure that created SIPS is for wall systems that simplify the
construction process. Polymer-modified render, introduced from the continent,
also does this. The insulation is fixed to a blockwork structure and is then sealed
with a thin layer of impervious render. This avoids both the frequent panel joints
required in render faades, and space-consuming wall cavities.
Care does need to taken to design out condensation problems with this, as with
any impervious coating. Render, in conjunction with timber frame is common
in the US,[99] but the humid climate of the UK and the extent of timbers differential movement must raise concerns about the durability of these composite
constructions.
105
106
107
(i)
(ii)
Both of these framing structures are light and consequently have an advantage
over heavy masonry. They are also quick to install on site, because inner walls
can largely be prefabricated in a factory before fitting on site.
Where steel stud is used, aluminium-foil-backed insulation is located to the
outside of the frame. The foil acts as a vapour control layer on the room side and
to control radiative heat loss to the cavity on the external side. Flexible wall ties
are required because of the different expansion characteristics of the various
components. These bridge both the insulation and the foil backing, forming cold
bridges.
Cold bridging is a disadvantage where timber studwork is used too: insulation
is installed between the timber members, which then act as cold bridges. This
can be overcome by using an insulated lining bonded to the back of the plasterboard. The vapour control layer in this case is also bonded to the back of the
plasterboard. Unfortunately, this is liable to be damaged by nails and during the
installation of electrical outlets.
Both frame types are therefore at risk of condensation damage, though careful
detailing and installation can minimise risk.
Again the type of insulation has little effect on the overall rating of the structure
(with the usual proviso regarding ozone depletion).
The BRE rating for both structures is an A.[102]
108
Neither fibre cement nor polymer slates perform particularly well in terms of
their environmental rating, mostly because of the relatively large amount of
energy used in their production.
Fibre cement is economical in terms of cost, though life expectancies are lower
than for traditional tiles. They may be recycled, but currently few are. The
environmental rating is a B.[103]
Polymer/resin bonded slates have a low rating (C[104]) because of their poor
performance in terms of recycling and because of the large amounts of fossil
fuels used in their manufacture.
(i)
(ii)
109
Generic house type: 12m 6m (ground and upper floors each 72 sq m); no. storeys: 3;
storey height: 2.8 m; % cellular: 80%; location: S.E. England; soil type: firm clay
%
Ground floor
170
10.5
Upper floor
238
14.7
External walls
167
10.3
Internal
partitions
12
0.7
Windows
115
7.1
Roof
5
119
0.3
7.4
Floors
18
289
1.1
17.8
307
19
Sub-total
110
Ecopoints
Wall finishes
25
44
1.5
2.7
69
4.3
Ceiling
Plaster + emulsion
26
1.6
Sub-structure
132
8.2
1620
11.25
Source: based on Anderson, J., Shiers, D.E., Sinclair, M., Green Guide to Specification, (3rd Edition), BRE, Watford, 2002.
Commentary: Compared with the evaluation in the previous chapter for houses the embodied energy per sq. m. of floor area
is greatly increased. The incorporation of concrete floors, ground and intermediate is responsible for this greater impact.
Elements such as composite wood block flooring also score very highly, which would argue in favour of using the natural
alternative.
3.2 An alternative
Following the example of Bill Dunster Architects at BedZED can be a sustainable
path.
Structure
Dense concrete block cross-walls, 6.3 m centre to centre, were used as an
element of the schemes thermal mass strategy, to even out diurnal temperature
variations to reduce the likelihood of overheating in summer, and store solar
heat in winter, while compensating for overcast days.
Walls
External walls have a 300-mm cavity filled with mineral fibre insulation.
The stretcher bond outer brick skin is fixed across the cavity to the inner
leaf of blockwork by two-part stainless steel wall ties, achieving a U-value of
0.1 W/m2K, and achieving 2 ach when pressure tested to 50 Pa. At the upper
walls, local oak weather-boarding was nailed to softwood stud frames, the
timber cladding aligning with the face of the brickwork below.
Floors
Self-centring prestressed concrete floor panels form permanent shuttering to
the in-situ floor slab which has a tiled finish to expose the thermal mass of the
slab to the room. In the workspaces, recycled steel beams achieve clear span
floors, and reclaimed softwood joists and floorboards are used for construction
of the mezzanines.
Housing Sustainable Communities
111
Roofs
Sedum-planted landscape roofs consist of two-layer bituminous felt waterproofing on timber decking supported by curved laminated timber beams.
Windows
Windows are Danish triple-glazed windows with a low-emissivity coating,
in durable hardwood frames. Conservatories are double-glazed with photovoltaic cells to south-facing roofs. The extent of opening windows is sufficient
to turn the sunspaces into balconies in summer obviating the need for shading.
Rooflights are aluminium framed and triple glazed.
112
3.5
40%
Mech. vent'n losses
infilt'n losses
Fabric losses
Percentage vent'n
3.0
35%
Heat loss, kW
25%
2.0
20%
1.5
15%
1.0
30%
2.5
10%
0.5
5%
0.0
0%
Detached Mid-terrace Corner flat
('95)
('95)
('95)
Source: author, based on data from: The Building Regulations Conservation of fuel and power, Approved
Document L1, 1991 and 2002, www.odpm.gov.uk; and The Building Regulations 2000, Review of Approved
Document F Ventilation, A consultation package, London and www.odpm.gov.uk.
the screed around the pipework provides some thermal mass to help
even out diurnal temperature variations, but remains relatively warm,
thus overcoming the problem of cool radiant surfaces in thermally
heavy buildings without optimal solar gains
low water temperatures mean that the system can take advantage of low
grade heat from CHP plant.
113
Generally low capital cost (however natural ventilation can be relatively expensive in non-domestic
buildings).
Passive Stack Ventilation (PSV): air is extracted from kitchens and bathrooms through the stack effect in
vertical ducts. Incoming air is drawn in from trickle vents.
...additional advantages of PSV
PSV works less well when the inside/outside temperature difference is reduced in summer and some days
in spring and autumn.
Notes: At BedZED the extract and intake cowls, designed to be wind assisted, incorporate a 70% efficient heat exchanger.
See Dunster, B., and Carter, G., General Information Report 89. BedZED Beddington Zero Energy Development, Energy Efficiency
Best Practice Programme, Watford and www.bioregional.com, 2002. p. 12.
Mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (MVHR): in addition to intake and exhaust ductwork and fans, a
heat exchanger recovers heat (or coolth) from outgoing air passing it on to incoming air. Heat exchangers can
be, for example, a plate heat exchanger or thermal wheel.
114
Positive input ventilation (PIV): A fan draws air from the loft space into the stairwell/hallway putting the
whole house at positive pressure. Air exits from trickle vents.
...additional advantages of PIV
Dynamic insulation: Incoming air is filtered through the building fabric itself. Vitiated air is mechanically
extracted.
...additional advantages of dynamic insulation
Dwell-vent: Air enters through supply air windows and is expelled through passive stacks. Air enters at a vent at
the bottom of the outer frame and rises by the stack effect to the head of the window where it enters the room.
Fan exhaust can be used where a hybrid solution is required but dwell-vent is essentially a passive alternative to
MVHR.
...additional advantages of dwell-vent
115
The main drawback is that underfloor heating needs to run near continuously
in the heating season as it takes time for the floor to reach running temperature
and this can be an issue where this hasnt been impressed upon the occupants.
Covering the floor with carpet (an insulator) decreased the systems efficacy,
which again is a user education issue.
Heat loads can be low enough that a heating coil can be incorporated into
an MVHR system meaning that a traditional heating system can be omitted
altogether. If a traditional system is desired there are also benefits:
Radiators can be smaller (as we saw in the Hawkes House, Chapter 2).
While considering the sizing of heat emitters it is helpful to note that moving from
a heavyweight to a lightweight building also has a potential effect. When specifying radiators, it is usual to specify one with a larger heat output than needed
for the steady state heat losses for the design day. This is so that, if the house has
been unoccupied for a while, the system wont take days to achieve a comfortable
temperature. Some of the additional heat goes into the air in the rooms, and some
into warming up the fabric of the building; with a heavyweight building this
takes a fair amount of energy. Lightweight buildings have a much faster thermal
response so the heat emitters need not be over-sized to the same extent.
The 1995 Approved Document Part F was mainly concerned with IAQ, possibly
pre-empting the 2002 revisions to Part L which asked for airtightness to be better
than 10 m3/h per m2 (cubic metres of air per hour per square metre of building
fabric) at a pressure difference of 50 Pa.[106] It is worth noting that BRE believes
that the best airtightness that can be achieved currently, using conventional
techniques, is 34 m3/h per m2 at 50 Pa.[107] This reduces heat lost through
uncontrolled infiltration.
The 2006 revision of Part F has emphasised the need for controlled ventilation
with set performance standards, so that energy efficiency and IAQ can both be
maintained, rather than simply setting increased free areas for trickle ventilators. It was argued that the move towards performance-based building control
assessment would result in novel ventilation schemes being easier to achieve.
These requirements should result in a background ventilation rate of 0.5 to 0.75
ach.[108]
The final thing to note is that it is important that all newly built dwellings are
thoroughly flushed with clean air before occupation to disperse pollutants, such
as VOCs, that are a result of the construction process.
117
helped to maximise light within rooms while limiting glare. Light shelves,[109] as
are seen in many traditional buildings on the continent, are useful too.
In some recent low energy schemes, where to save energy the windows have
been reduced in size, the same strategies have been applied. For example, in Rick
Mathers student housing at the University of East Anglia splayed reveals act to
counter some of the effects of the trend towards smaller windows.[110]
One of the side effects of solar design guidelines has been to limit the area of
window orientated towards the north. Anecdotal evidence suggests that northfacing kitchens can be gloomy with the result that lights are left on during the day.
An example of a development where thought has been given to making lighting
sustainable is at the Greenwich Millennium Village. Here, floor-to-ceiling
heights were determined by the need to allow daylight to the back of rooms,
and light shelves were installed. Downstand beams (which could reduce light
penetration into occupied spaces) were avoided. External shadings and internal
blinds control solar gain and glare, respectively.[111]
118
Depending on the height and width of the courtyard, the light from the sky vault may be completely
absent because of the proximity of the facing buildings. Therefore, the reflective properties of materials
within the courtyard are significant, and affect the availability of daylight in rooms in the lower storeys of
the building. Using light and reflective materials such as glazed tiles in the courtyard can be beneficial,
see Figure 3.11.
Figure 3.11 Average daylight factors in
test model for sample room
Source: Jessica Hrivnak
The results show that there is a balance between the size and efficacy of windows. In such instances
where the sky-view in the courtyard is restricted by overhanging walkways, the scale model tests found
that even increasing the glazing by 50% (thus also increasing heat losses) did not improve the daylight
factors in the lower areas of the building. The use of walkways in courtyard schemes should therefore be
avoided, and internal access cores used when daylight is at a premium.
Moreover, adopting a strategy of equal maximum glazing on all floors and faades can result in considerable overheating problems in the uppermost storey. Incrementally, increasing window sizes towards the
ground floor achieves a balance between the problems of heat gain/heat loss and daylighting. However, it
should be noted that deep, single-aspect rooms opening off a courtyard should be avoided, as even wallto-wall glazing will rarely achieve satisfactory effects. Moreover, it can be seen that inappropriate glazing
results in glare and privacy problems. It is observable that this causes widespread use of curtains during the
day, which negates the benefits of the glazing, and increases artificial lighting and energy use.
119
120
There is also greater opportunity to explore options for soft landscaping, such as
the gravel car parking at BedZED, which allows water to percolate away into the
surrounding soil rather than rushing away through storm drains,
121
such as from TVs, crying infants, boisterous parties or even washing machine
spin cycles being equally problematic. People need to be able to go about their
daily lives without being unduly disturbed by noise from their neighbours,
or having to worry that they will be making too much noise themselves. This
means that any sound-reduction measures in housing are likely to have a huge
benefit in terms of quality of life.
Table 3.10 Common acoustic terms
Ctr
dB (decibel)
Logarithmic scale to measure sound power, on which zero dB is the threshold of hearing and
130 dB causes pain.,
DnT,w
Characterises the sound insulation between rooms, based on the difference in sound level
between a pair of rooms, in a stated frequency band, corrected for the reverberation time.*
LnT,w
A single number used to characterise the impact of sound insulation of floors, in terms of the
sound pressure level, in a stated frequency band, with reverberation time correction.*
Sources:
* The Building Regulations 2000, The Building (Approved Inspectors etc) Regulations 2000, Resistance to the passage of sound,
Approved Document E, TSO, London and www.odpm.gov.uk, 2003. pp. 7475.
CIBSE Guide C, Reference data, Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann for CIBSE (2001). p. 64.
Burberry, P., Mitchells Environment and Services, London, 6th edn, Mitchell Publishing Co. 1988. p. 120.
122
Site the noise sensitive areas (bedrooms) away from noise sources, using
less sensitive areas (hallways, kitchens and bathrooms) as a buffer, e.g.
Coopers Road (see Case study, below).
Make sure that, where pipes, ducts, cables etc., pass through walls, the
gap is acoustically sealed.
As with many measures for sustainable buildings, acoustic insulation can have
other benefits. For example, retrofitting double glazing to an existing building
can help acoustically as well as thermally. Likewise, because of the way sound
travels, walls with thermal mass (thermally massive materials are usually dense)
can reduce sound transmission. If the mass per surface area of a wall doubles
there is a 5 dB i.e. noticeable reduction in noise.[124]
5. Case studies
5.1 Coopers Road Estate regeneration: Southwark, London
Architects: ECD Architects Ltd
Client: Peabody Trust and London Borough of Southwark Housing
Service engineers: Max Fordham LLP
Structural engineers: Price and Myers
Landscape architects: Jennifer Coe Landscape Architects
Cost consultants: BPP
EcoHomes Assessor: Faber Maunsell
Design: 2001
Construction: started 2003 (completion of Phase One; early 2005
Background
In 1999, the Peabody Trust joined forces with Southwark Housing and appointed
ECD Architects to prepare a masterplan for the redevelopment of the Coopers
Road Estate.
Planning approval for the new design was obtained in November 2001, and
construction work started on site in February 2003 under a Design and Build
form of contract. Phase One of the works was completed in early 2005 and has
achieved an EcoHomes rating of very good.
123
124
Despite some antisocial elements, the original estate had a strong sense of
community, which was an essential ingredient for the long-term success of the
project. The local residents were fully engaged in the development of the proposals
at every stage, from the initial master planning through a series of design workshops,
to selection of the main contractor and tenant choice items on internal finishes.
The brief for the new estate was for a mixed tenure development of 154 new
homes. When completed, the new estate would have 121 affordable rent units and
33 shared-ownership units. All homes are designed to Lifetime Homes standards
(see Box 3.13), with five units being fully wheelchair accessible. The scheme would
be built in two phases to allow the gradual decanting and demolition of existing
blocks. The density of the new development is 355 habitable rooms per hectare.
Design
The new build scheme is based on four courtyards and aims to have a major
impact on the lives of those used to the failed 1960s housing model it replaced.
The courtyard form, evolved in consultation with the residents, encourages a
sense of community and engenders a strong sense of identity. It also creates a
clear hierarchy of private, semi-private and public spaces and provides a good
model for urban regeneration.
Each courtyard consists of approximately 40 homes in a mix of one- to threebedroom apartments and three- or four-bedroom family houses, providing a
balanced community with a composition of four-storey flats and three-storey
houses. This arrangement has been designed to be flexible to meet future
changing needs and developments in living patterns.
The design principles for Coopers Road were:
to restore the fabric of the city, with streets, courts, mews and gardens
the form of the courtyard housing continues an urban design theme
from the 19th Century, when local maps show a pattern of streets with
houses grouped together in short terraces
125
From the outset, both client and design team shared a commitment to make
Coopers Road a model of sustainable urban regeneration. First and foremost
this meant designing a scheme that would provide good quality, appropriate
accommodation not just in the short term but 100 years from now. Another
main aim was to design buildings that could feasibly achieve zero CO2 emissions in the long term without major modifications to the fabric, services or
infrastructure.
Orientation and solar access were foremost in the consideration of the planning
of the courtyards:
The lower three-storey houses are placed to the south of the higher
four-storey flats.
Roofs are designed to face south wherever possible, for the future
retrofit of solar or photovoltaic panels.
external access: wider parking spaces; minimal distances from parking to dwellings, with low gradi
ent approaches; entrances that are covered, level and well lit; specific dimensions for stairs and lifts;
specific widths of corridors and doorways
internal access: turning space for wheelchairs in living accommodation, e.g. a turning circle of
1.5 m; an entrance-level living room; a room that can be used as a bedroom on the entrance level
in dwellings over a number of storeys; space for a stair lift or traditional lift; a route for a hoist from
main bedroom to bathroom
sanitary accommodation: (a wheelchair-accessible WC on the entrance level and provision for
future shower installation; walls in bathrooms and toilets that can take handrails; easy access to
bath, WC and basin
environment: low-level living room windows for view from wheelchairs
services: mid-level between 450 and 1200 AFFL sockets and controls.
1. See DETR, The Building Regulations 1991 Access and facilities for disabled people, Approved Document M, 1999
edition, TSO, London and www.odpm.gov.uk 1999. Also ODPM, The Building Regulations 2000 Access to and
use of buildings, Approved document M, 2004 edition, TSO, London and www.odpm.gov.uk, 2004.
2. Carroll, C., Cowans, J. and Darton, D. (eds), Meeting Part M and designing Lifetime Homes, Joseph Rowntree
Foundation, York, www.jrf.org.uk, 1999, p. 6.
126
Structure
Materials
Material choice: Materials were typically selected for their low embodied
energy content, recyclability and impact on the environment when disposed
of. This meant a preference for timber and masonry rather than plastics and
steel. A-rated construction materials were used for the windows (softwood
frames) and the upper floors of the houses (timber joists with plywood finish).
HCFC-free insulation was used throughout, and timber cladding was specified
from sustainable sources. The contractor was encouraged to source materials
from within a 50-mile radius, to minimise CO2 emissions released through
transportation.
127
The inner-city environment of the new estate required a range of robust finishes
to surfaces and boundaries, particularly for the public realm, including porous
paving and brick paviors. Garden walls in conjunction with the architectural
form present a secure perimeter to the blocks. The walls create a protected
and beneficial environment for the healthy growth of evergreen hedges and
climbers.
Recycling: On-site waste was minimised through material choice, prefabrication
of some elements, careful detailing and scheduling. The main contractor also
recycled on-site construction waste. All dwellings are provided with recycling
bins within the kitchens, designed to separate household waste. Houses have an
individual external recycling store, and communal stores are provided for the
flats.
Services
Flexibility and adaptability were also key issues for the design team. Service risers
in Coopers Road are located on the outside of the building for ease of access and
have also been oversized to facilitate the installation of future technologies as
they become more economically viable.
Thermal performance
Orientation and solar access were foremost in the consideration of the planning
of the courtyards. By maximising the daylight into the homes, the demand
for artificial heating has been reduced. This has been further reduced by good
insulation: the weighted average U-values for the development are 16% better
than the unadjusted Building Regulations (2002) target U-value.
Light
The design reduces the need for artificial heating, through sunlight and daylight
access. Energy-efficient light fittings are provided in internal rooms. All external
feature, security and communal lighting are dedicated compact fluorescent lamp
fittings. Security lighting also has movement detection and daylight cut-off.
Water
Water consumption has been minimised by specifying dual-flush WCs (6/4
litre), aerated taps and small baths (less than 150 litres to overflow). The water
consumption is 44 m3/bedspace/year according to the EcoHomes methodology.
The communal garden areas have rainwater butts for irrigation purposes.
128
Energy supply
As well as making provision for future installation of PVs, CO2 emissions have
been reduced significantly by the incorporation of a gas-fired community heating
system with combined heat and power (CHP). This system has been selected
both on its own merits, for its environmental showcase value and as part of the
clients ongoing commitment to the environment. During the design process it
was very helpful for the design team to show some existing CHP installations in
London to occupants from Coopers Road, to reassure them that the technology
was safe and reliable.
A gas-fired CHP plant has been installed which provides approximately 11% of
the heat demand of the development and approximately 12% of the electricity
demand the unit has a 30kW electrical output. Average CO2 emissions for
each dwelling are estimated to be less than 25 kg/m2 pa.
Landscape
The aim of the landscape design for the new estate was to create both a physical
continuity between the four new courtyard blocks and a highly legible space
that is easy to understand. The grain of the new estate allows long views and
an ease of orientation that creates a sense of physical security. In addition the
landscape scheme aims to achieve a sense of wellbeing at many levels. It provides
the essential contact with the natural world and the changing seasons.
129
Within each courtyard all the properties at ground-floor level have a small
patio garden, which opens into a communal garden for the use of the courtyard
residents only. Residents will become involved in the management of these
spaces, the idea being that they will become a focus for community pride.
Properties above ground level have private balconies or sky gardens. Within
the communal gardens there are designated areas for gardening, childrens play,
cycle storage, composting, seating and rainwater harvesting.
Trees are planted within the streets and define the edge of circulation spaces,
home zones (described below) and car parking. Their location, to the northern
side of the blocks, prevents overshadowing and does not limit the passive solar
gain to the south-facing elevations. The street trees have been selected from
native species or cultivars of indigenous species hornbeam, ash, pear and
sorbus. Fruit trees and useful plants that attract wildlife are planted within the
back gardens and courtyards. Trees assist the health of the environment, with
intake of CO2, emission of oxygen, filtering of dust and other contaminants,
and also support a range of wildlife species, particularly birds and insects. A
hedge of native species willow, elder and hawthorn is proposed adjacent to
the eastern and northern boundaries as cover and food for birds and insects.
Planting elsewhere has been specified to be robust and drought resistant.
130
Transport
Access roads are designed as home zones to enable pedestrians to have priority
over vehicles. A home zone is a street or group of streets designed primarily to
meet the interests of pedestrians and cyclists rather than motorists, opening up
the street for social use. Legally, neither pedestrians nor vehicles have priority,
but the road may be configured to make it more favourable to pedestrians.
In addition, the roads are designed as short runs, intersected by squares and
traffic-calming measures. Vehicles will also be restricted to 20 mph.
Background
The White City project is the result of a winning entry for an international
design competition to develop best practice in affordable housing, launched in
the spring of 2003. This competition is the first of a series of AngloFrench
collaborative projects with sites in London and Paris, aimed at bringing new
thinking to the design of affordable housing in both countries.
Sponsored by CABE and its French equivalent DAPA (the Direction de
lArchitecture et du Patrimoine), the scheme is a collaboration between
Cartwright Pickard Architects and French architects BC Architects together
with Octavia Housing and Care Housing Association.
The scheme has collected a CABE Festive Fives 2003 Award and was a winner of
the schemes with detailed planning permission of the Housing Design Awards
2004, promoted by the RIBA, RITP, ODPM and NHBC.
131
Part of the site was occupied by a bus depot, leaving areas of contaminated
ground which needed to be dealt with prior to construction. Trials indicated
that the contaminated soils were not sufficient to be reused to provide a suitable
engineering base for the roadways. However, providing a suitable capping layer
for the landscaped areas was viable. This would allow for a reduction of the
amount of material that would need to be removed from the site because it
could be mixed with lime to provide a suitable growing medium to enhance the
landscaped areas.
The brief and design rationale
One of the principal objectives of the design was for the new housing and
external spaces to establish a real sense of place and wellbeing for its residents,
to provide a development to delight both residents and passers-by. The development incorporates 27 houses and 51 flats and maisonettes for rent or shared
ownership.
As well as aiming to move the design of affordable housing forward, the project
has defined sustainability objectives. An EcoHomes rating of very good or
excellent is to be achieved through, among other proposals, improvements upon
the Building Regulations in terms of thermal and acoustic performance of the
construction.
Design
The site has offered a number of challenges to be overcome. The retail development is bounded by a seven-storey citadel wall forming the northern
boundary to the site from which extend a series of timber-clad blocks, up to
four storeys in height, providing a succession of mews spaces alternating with
private gardens.
The blocks have been orientated perpendicular to the main boundary wall with
the fingers protruding to the south; although this does not make use of a southfacing faade, the design intent was to focus on the quality of the intermediate
spaces between the blocks. This also allows dwellings to be accessed from the
mews spaces and from shared stair cores allowing for efficient distribution of
services.
In all cases each of the units has direct access to some form of external space,
be it a balcony, external terrace or rear garden. These provide private external
spaces to augment those provided in the public mews spaces. A pedestrianfriendly access road, over-sailed by dramatic cantilevers, separates the housing
from a landscaped parking strip.
Despite the minimal length of south-facing faade, the dwellings have been
132
designed with the reduction of energy use in mind, through passive means. The
spaces have been designed to meet and exceed the requirements for daylight
but with standardised window openings, minimising the number of bespoke
components. The depths of the units have been considered to allow for natural
cross-ventilation through the dwellings.
Structure
Precast pile foundations were considered to be the most appropriate for the
site given the unsuitability of the founding stratum and the proximity of the
adjacent housing. Above this, the ground-floor slab consists of a beam and block
floor on ground beams, forming a ventilated sub-floor void.
A number of structural options were considered for the project, with a steel
frame with precast concrete hollow plank floors being chosen to facilitate speed
of erection, minimising the loadings on the pile foundations and giving the
required material density so as to achieve a suitably high acoustic separation
between dwellings.
A number of external wall constructions were considered in terms of their
thermal, acoustic and material make-up. Light gauge steel frame and timber
structural insulated panels offer significant thermal improvements on the
Building Regulations requirement. A breathable construction comprising an
infill walling system was proposed to fit within the steel frame to provide a
thermal envelope upon which a timber rain screen cladding system is to be
fitted.
The systems reviewed were typically made of an internal lining board, vapour
barrier framing system with insulation, and an external weather board covered
by a fully lapped breather membrane.
These panels were either pre-formed, or site manufactured with windows prefitted prior to offering up the wall panel to the faade from cherry pickers or
hoists, negating the need for scaffolding, while reducing erection times and site
wastage.
The roofing proposed is a built-up standing seam system with a mill-finished
aluminium top layer to facilitate recycling of the materials at a later date.
The built-up system was chosen as it provided a clear strategy for providing
airtightness and gave a finished roof with minimal maintenance requirements
over the design life of the project.
Precast concrete stairs were installed to the common areas, timber staircases
being constructed within the dwellings themselves. The thinking was to install
the domestic stairs as early as possible, to enable their use as site access.
Housing Sustainable Communities
133
(i)
Source: Grant Associates Landscape Architects
(ii)
134
Materials
All materials and products were assessed for their longevity in use and their
ability to be recycled after the design life has been exceeded.
A particular concern were to balance the specification against the requirements
of the Housing Association in terms of maintenance and life expectancy of the
project as a whole. The cladding of the faades is a case in point; numerous
products were assessed before settling on kiln-dried European Oak which
provides a durable, sustainable material requiring minimal maintenance in
keeping with the design aspirations of the scheme, which has been detailed to
accentuate the geometry of the blocks and to provide a suitable rainscreen to
the faade.
The scheme has been considered from the outset as providing an invigorating place in which to live and providing a sustainable, efficient method of
construction which allows for effective use of resources in use throughout and
beyond the design life of the project.
Services
Thermal performance
In response to the desired environmental quality of the dwellings, a wholehouse ventilation system was used. This comprises a heat exchanger with heat
recovery to reduce heat loss from the dwellings. Air is supplied from a central
hall and extracted via a unit over the cooker. The system also extracts from the
bathroom areas. The only penetration of the faade is thus a concentric duct
providing intake and exhaust.
Light
Though all dwellings have been designed to make good use of daylight, there
will always be a need for some artificial lighting, especially to establish a sense
of security for the residents.
All shared area and external lighting is switched by dusk-to-dawn sensors to
balance energy requirements against achieving the recommendations of the
Secured by Design principles that are deployed across the site
Sound
All internal partitions and separating walls are designed to improve upon the
Building Regulations with regards to sound transmission; using plasterboard
on metal stud. A raised acoustic floor comprising sustainably sourced flooringgrade ply on acoustic battens is to be employed to maintain the acoustic
requirements and to provide a service area for pipework runs.
Housing Sustainable Communities
135
Energy supply
A centrally located energy centre was installed, comprising gas-fired condensing
boilers with a combined heat and power plant. This serves a district heating
system, having buried LPHW mains, for the individual flats via local valve
assemblies with integral heating meters in each apartment.
Water metering is an effective way of encouraging users to limit water use.
Likewise heating meters are a way of decreasing energy use where communal
heating is installed, where there may be a temptation to use heat profligately.
The BedZED development also uses this strategy.
6. Notes
1.
136
3. ibid.
4. Stern, N., The Economics of Climate Change The Stern Review. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 2007, p. 144.
5. op. cit. ODPM 2004, pp. 1415.
6. ibid. p. 7.
7. ibid. p. 14.
8. ibid. p. 17
9. ibid.
10. ibid. p. 18.
11. Though possibly not uniformly across the country, see Experts blame it on the jet
stream. www.timesonline.co.uk, The Times, 21 June 2005.
12. op. cit. ODPM, July 2004, Section 9 p. 18.
13. A possibility discussed in Climate change hits base of food chain. New Scientist,
No 2461, 21 August 2004, p. 18.
14. Malaria could be reintroduced to the UK as warmer conditions favour insect life,
although the risk of outbreaks is low. See Health Effects of Climate Change in the
UK. An update of the Department of Health report 2001/2002. www.dh.gov.uk,
Department of Health and Health Protection Agency, London, 2007, p. 35.
15. ODPM, Sustainable Communities: Homes for All. HMSO/ODPM London,
www.odpm.gov.uk, 2005. p. 16.
16. ODPM, Sustainable Communities: Building for the Future. ODPM,
www.odpm.gov.uk, 2003. p. 8.
17. Barker, K., Review of Housing Supply. Delivering Stability: Securing out Future
Housing Needs. Final Report Recommendations. HM Treasury,
www.hm-treasury.gov.uk, 2004. p. 3.
18. ONS, Mid-2002 Population Estimates. National Statistics,
www.statistics.gov.uk, 2004.
19. UN, World Population Prospects: The 2002 Revision. United Nations,
www.un.org, 2003, p. 35.
20. Natural change accounted for nearly three-quarters of the total population
change between 1981 and 2002. op. cit. ONS, 2004.
21. op. cit. UN, 2003, p. vi.
22. op. cit. ODPM, 2003. p. 11.
23. ibid. p. 49.
24. op. cit. ODPM, 2005, p. 45.
25. DETR, Quality and Choice: A Decent Home for All The Housing Green Paper.
DETR, London, www.odpm.gov.uk, 2000. p. 7.
26. ...less than 1% lacks any of the basic amenities of a kitchen sink, a bath or shower
in a bathroom, a wash hand basin, hot and cold water to each of these and an
indoor toilet. ibid. p. 7.
137
27. The government defines a decent home as one that: is above the current
statutory minimum standard for housing is in a reasonable state of repair
provides a reasonable degree of thermal comfort has modern facilities and
services. National Statistics Website, Housing: Percentage of households living
in non-decent housing: Sustainable Development. National Statistics,
www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase, 2002.
28. Figures refer to housing stock in 1996. ibid.
29. The Government has aims to make all social housing decent by 2010. op. cit.
ODPM, 2003. p. 13.
30. op. cit. Barker, 2004.
31. In 2002 37% of new households could afford to buy, whereas in the late 1980s 46%
could. ibid. p. 3.
32. ibid. p. 1.
33. op. cit. ODPM, 2005. p. 40.
34. op. cit. Barker, 2004. p. 8.
35. ibid. p. 5.
36. op. cit. ODPM, 2005. p. 40.
37. Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG),
Homes for the future: more affordable, more sustainable. TSO, London,
www.communities.gov.uk, 2007, pp. 7274
38. op. cit. ODPM, 2005.
39. op. cit. TSO, p. 7280.
40. op. cit. Barker, 2004.
41. see op. cit. ODPM, 2005.
42. Lazarus, N., Summary: Beddington Zero (Fossil) Energy Development
Construction Materials Report Toolkit for Carbon Neutral Developments Part
1. BioRegional, Surrey, www.bioregional.com, 2002. p. 4.
43. ibid. p. 5.
44. If the energy used in the manufacture and transport of building materials is
derived from fossil fuels then the embodied CO2 is equivalent to the embodied
primary energy. This assumption doesnt hold if the energy comes from hydroelectric power, or other renewables.
45. op. cit. Lazarus, 2002, p. 4.
46. ibid. p. 3.
47. The BedZED Exhibition, Bill Dunster Architects, www.surreycc.gov.uk, 2002.
p. 17.
48. Dunster, B. and Carter, G., General Information Report 89. BedZED Beddington
Zero Energy Development, Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme, Sutton,
Watford, www.bioregional.com, 2002, p. 3.
49. op. cit. Lazarus, 2003, p. 3.
50. ibid.
51. op. cit. Bill Dunster Architects, 2002, p. 16.
52. op. cit. ODPM, 2005, p. 62.
138
139
82. Dilley, R., Build castles in the sky, BBC News Online, http://news.bbc.co.uk, 18
July, 2002.
83. There were houses on London Bridge prior to the mid 1700s (www.bbc.co.uk/
history), and Firenzes Ponte Vecchio is still occupied by buildings, as is Baths
Pulteney Bridge.
84. Pickard, J., Sixth Avenue A Very Handsome Building Connections (Yorkon
Magazine), Issue 5, 2002. p. 4.
85. Wet insulation does not perform as well as dry just as a wet sweater performs
worse than a dry one.
86. op. cit. Pickard, 2002, p. 6.
87. Blackwell, P., Improving energy efficiency through off-site construction,
Connections (Yorkon Magazine), Issue 5, 2002. p. 13.
88. Berge, B., The Ecology of Building Materials, Architectural Press, Oxford, 2001,
Chapter 3, pp. 4352.
89. Laing, R., Craig, A. and Edge, H. M., Prefabricated Housing: An Assessment
of Cost, Value and Quality. www.rgu.ac.uk, The Robert Gordon University,
Aberdeen, 2001. pp. 810.
90. It also has traditional terracotta cladding, which may have helped its image.
91. www.skanska.com
92. Richards, D., The Smarter Way to Build, OSC Off Site Construction, April 2004.
p. 8.
93. op. cit. Blackwell, 2002, pp. 1213.
94. As shown by plans supplied by Yorkon.
95. Plans are given in Houses from the Factory, Architecture Today, AT 96. pp.
6064
96. Cole, M. and Stevens, N., Is Off Site In Sight?, OSC Off Site Construction, April
2004, p. 5.
97. Heres one I built earlier, Guardian Unlimited, http://society.guardian.co.uk, 18
November 2001.
98. BRE, An Introduction to Building with Structural Insulated Panels (SIPS), BRE
Information Paper IP13/04, Building Research Establishment, Garston, 2004.
99. Callender, J.H., Time Saver Standards for Architectural Design Data, McGraw
Hill, New York, 1974, p. 551.
100. Cook, G.K. and Hinks, A.J., Appraising Building Defects: Perspectives on Stability
and Hygrothermal Performance. Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow, 1992,
p. 48.
101. BRE, Multi-storey Timber Framed Buildings, BRE BR454, BRE, Garston, 2002.
102. Anderson, J. and Howard, N., The Green Guide to Housing Specification, BRE,
Watford, 2000, pp. 811.
103. ibid. pp. 1215.
104. ibid.
105. ibid. pp. 2223.
140
106. ODPM, The Building Act 1984, The Building Regulations 2000, Review of
Approved Document F Ventilation, A consultation package, www.odpm.gov.uk,
ODPM/HMSO, London, July 2004, p. 18.
107. ibid. p. 19.
108. ibid. p. 37.
109. A useful pictorial representation of the effect of light shelves and blinds on
daylight distribution can be found in Baker, N. and Steemers, K., Energy and
Environment in Architecture A Technical Design Guide. Spon, London, 2000,
Chapter 6.
110. Photographs of Rick Mathers housing at UEA can be found in: Dormer, P. and
Muthesius, P., Concrete and Open Skies: Architecture at the University of East
Anglia. Unicorn Press, London, 2001, p. 2021.
111. Greenwich Millennium Village, Quality of Environment and Construction
Datasheets, Greenwich Millennium Village, London (date unknown)
112. op. cit. Dunster and Carter, 2002, p. 13.
113. Ising, H., with Babisch, W., Guski, R., Kruppa, B. and Maschke, C., Exposure and
Effect Indicators of Environmental Noise, WHO, http://www.euro.who.int, 2003,
p. 21.
114. WHO, Report on the second meeting on night noise guidelines, WHO, Geneva,
http://www.euro.who.int, 2004.
115. Hygge, S., Noise exposure and cognitive performance Children and the elderly as
possible risk groups. WHO, http://www.euro.who.int, 2003.
116. op. cit. Ising et al., 2003, pp. 1, 412.
117. Sleep is, of course, an important part of home life, and important for health.
The WHO is drawing up guidelines for night-time noise.
http://www.euro.who.int/Noise
118. op. cit. WHO, 2004.
119. op. cit. Ising et al., 2003, pp. 24, 1221.
120. DEFRA, Towards a National Ambient Noise Strategy A Consultation Paper from
the Air and Environmental Quality Division, www.defra.gov.uk, DEFRA, London,
Nov 2001, p. 19.
121. EU standards mean that noise from vehicles has been reduced. Also measures
have been taken by the UK government to reduce noise due to the roads
themselves, such as the erection of noise barriers or quieter road surfaces. ibid.
pp. 4346.
122. ODPM, The Building Regulations 2000, The Building (Approved Inspectors etc)
Regulations 2000, Resistance to the passage of sound, Approved document E,
London and www.odpm.gov.uk, 2003 edn., TSO, 2003. p. 8.
123. For housing formed by change of use, the requirements are less onerous: for
airborne sound, 43 dB and for impact 64 dB. ibid.
124. Sneider, A., Noise Pollution Issues in Dwellings, IMBM, www.imbm.org.uk, 2005.
141
6 Further reading
RCEP, Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution 22nd Report, www.rcep.org.uk.
Hacker, J. and Twinn, C., UK Housing and Climate Change Heavyweight vs lightweight construction, Bill Dunster Architects with Arup Research + Development,
October 2004.
Environment Agency, www.environment-agency.gov.uk, is a useful source of information on flooding and sustainable damage, and provides maps of flood plains.
Houses from the Factory, Architecture Today, AT 96. pp. 6064.
Partington, R., Prefab Sprouts, The Architects Journal, 25 November 1999. pp. 2534.
142
Offices:
the Working
Environment
The office building is a type which, perhaps more than any other in the 20th
Century, embodied the economic imperatives of the age, its own characteristic technologies (the raised floor and suspended ceiling, for example) and
consequent environmental impacts. Whereas contemporary UK housing, at
least superficially, isnt at a great remove from pre-modern types, the office
block is very much the outcome of recent history. But just as with dwellings,
offices are responsible for greenhouse gas emissions that have repercussions
on the environment. Because energy saving strategies are not one size fits all
it is important to look at the ways in which patterns of energy use differ in
these buildings types. So, how and why do the CO2 emissions from offices and
dwellings differ?
143
Offices are likely to contain a higher proportion of high-embodiedenergy items (such as data networks, power trunking and specialist
luminaires) at fit out than houses.
144
Type 1. Naturally ventilated with cellular offices between 100 and 3000 m 2 in
area.
These tend to be smaller, more technologically straightforward buildings,
relying on the use of daylight, with simple control systems for artificial lighting,
and limited common spaces, the catering within the building being restricted in
all probability to a tea kitchen.
Type 2. Once again naturally ventilated with some cellular offices and conference
rooms, normally in the range of 500 to 4000 m2. They are predominantly open
plan, having higher light levels than the previous example but with their deeper
plans limiting the access of daylight. In this case, artificial lighting is commonly
switched on across a wider office area, and there tends to be a higher concentration of office equipment including vending machines.
Type 3. Air-conditioned, standard these are usually purpose-built speculative
developments with deeper floor plates than type 2. Benchmarks are based on
variable air volume (VAV) air-conditioning. Typically, sizes range from 2000 to
8000 m2.
Type 4. Air-conditioned, prestige these purpose-built buildings may be a head
office or regional office, including a staff restaurant, a central computer suite,
and generally more extensive IT capability using a wide range of equipment and
more centralised facilities.
Across the range of buildings that contributed to the survey, the annual
delivered energy consumption varied widely from under 100 to over 1000 kWh/
m2. It was found that, in good practice offices, energy costs could be 3050%
below the level of the average. To make a comparison between different types
entailed making some assumptions: for example, the gross to net ratio for these
different types of office varied from an average of 76% for type 1 buildings to
68% for type 4.
The good practice benchmark is equal to the lowest quartile of the energy
consumption data collected. A typical office in the 1990s might produce a little
under twice the CO2 that a good practice one would[3], something that can start
to be remedied as offices become ready for refurbishment. ECG019 suggests that
new offices should improve upon good practice from the 1990s.
145
CO2 emissions
(kgCO2 per m2 per year)
56.8 (typical)
32.2 (lowest quartile)
72.9 (typical)
43.1 (lowest quartile)
3. Air-conditioned, standard
Typically 2000 m2 to 8000 m2. Largely purpose built and often speculative. Similar to type 2, but with deeper floor plates. Benchmarks are
based on VAV air-conditioning.
151.3 (typical)
85.0 (lowest quartile)
226.1 (typical)
143.4 (lowest quartile)
Notes: floor area is treated floor area, i.e. excluding car parking and the like. All data from ECG019 are derived from measurements of buildings, taken in the 1990s. Source: data adapted from: Energy Consumption Guide 19 Energy use in offices,
2003 edn, Action Energy/The Carbon Trust, www.thecarbontrust.co.uk, 2003. pp. 721.
Although the data sets are not directly comparable, we can see the same large
variation in CO2 emissions across the office types (Figure 4.2) as we did in Figure
4.1. Breaking the results down we see that:
The increase across the groups in the amount of energy needed for
heating, hot water and lighting is negligible in comparison.
With the enormous increase in ICT use over the 1990s, the energy load due to
electrical equipment for the smaller office types will probably be greater than
shown here and the increase across the building types more gentle.
146
Notes: The category air-con here includes pumps, fans and controls as well as cooling and
humidification which explains why non-conditioned types 1 and 2 do consume some energy in this
category. Energy used for catering is omitted in this comparison.
Source: author data adapted from Energy Consumption Guide 19 (2003), pp. 2021
147
The itemised figures for the consumption of energy show that fossil fuel
consumption was similar in all four cases, but slightly more for the prestige
office because of it occupants tending to have longer working hours, and on
account of the likelihood of its having a centralised kitchen and restaurant. On
the other hand, electricity consumption increases rapidly from the simpler to
the more heavily serviced types of office. In particular the air-conditioned types
3 and 4 which use a lot more electricity to run fans, pumps and controls for their
air handling systems.
Similarly, as office buildings get larger and deeper, lighting electricity
consumption rises, making effective lighting controls a necessity to stop lights
from being left on all the time. The more sophisticated office types use more
office equipment, and their equipment loads are a function of growth in ICT.
Heat production by computers, which used to be thought a particular problem,
has diminished over time, as desktop computers have become more energy
efficient. As office buildings grow in size and complexity, however, telecommunications equipment and lifts consume more energy, so that electricity in
air-conditioned offices can account for 80 to 90% of their total energy costs and
carbon dioxide emissions.
Having established benchmarks for typical buildings, and good practice
buildings, it was then possible to pinpoint those aspects of a buildings
environment that are conducive to achieving energy savings. For example, it
was shown that heating costs could be reduced by 50%, and electrical costs by at
least a third, by using readily available techniques such as making the building
better insulated, using more efficient boilers, improving control systems, and
improving the hot water systems efficiency. Substantial savings were shown to
be possible by making modifications to plant and management. Lower electrical
costs for air-conditioning systems can be achieved by the use of better controls,
from designing systems with lower pressure drops requiring less powerful fans,
and using modern fluorescent tubes in light fittings, which can make delivery of
artificial lighting a lot more economical.
ECG019 explains a methodology that enables building owners and contractors
to compare the efficiency of their buildings with the benchmarks by gathering
together information from electricity bills, and other fuel bills. This entails
isolating those parts of the building, which are particularly energy intensive
such as kitchens, computer rooms, and HVAC plant. Then to establish a target
for reductions based on priorities, and having decided on a list of measures to be
taken, to timetable them in relation to future plans for maintenance[4].
148
149
The regulations apply only to those parts of the building given over to typical
office activities, i.e. excluding areas such as swimming pools, computer rooms,
kitchens and restaurants.
Adjustments have to be built into the calculations if heat recovery equipment
and thermal storage devices (such as ice storage for cooling) are to be used, and
similarly for space heating using heat pumps, CHP and renewable energy which
is offset against the CPR.
Heating and hot water using gas or oil has about a two-to-one ratio between the
CO2 produced by a typical type 4 and a good practice type 1 office. A computer
room was assumed to exist in type 4 offices but not in type 1, and was responsible for approximately one quarter of the buildings emissions. More dramatic
was the spread between a typical type 4 and a good practice type 1 in terms of
the electricity consumed by fans, pumps and controls, at approximately 25 to 1.
The lighting bills, given that type 4 is anticipated to be a much deeper building,
have a ratio of 4 to 1. This bears out the considerable reductions that can be
achieved by making the best use of natural light and avoiding air-conditioning.
commuting, such as tele-working, give incentives to staff for the use of public
transport, and encourage cars to be shared, or provide a dedicated bus service.
Benefits accrue for reduction in car parking requirement, particularly since it is
provided at great cost on city centre sites. BREEAM lists several other advantages derived from reduced car dependence: financially in that staff productivity
increases when travel times are reduced, and in terms of staff health benefits as
a result of reduced exposure to traffic fumes; also, being seen to be green can
enhance the organisations public image.
151
152
153
2. Environmental issues
2.1 Daylighting vs artificial lighting
Because working hours in offices are principally the hours of daylight, there
are considerable advantages in maximising an office buildings potential use of
daylight. The major difficulty in achieving this goal is the unequal distribution
of daylight levels. Illuminance levels fall away sharply as room depth increases
away from windows. This not only means that light levels will be insufficient
at the back of deeper office spaces but also that the relatively bright surfaces
adjacent to the windows will be a source of glare.
Advanced daylighting systems are most useful in the generally overcast sky
conditions of the UK in allowing a more even distribution of light within rooms,
partially by redistributing light, but mostly by suppressing excessive light levels
within the immediate vicinity of windows.
Daylight is the medium to which the human eye is biologically adapted. For the
best perception of objects, and optimum colour rendering, the quality achieved
by daylight is preferable to any artificial light source. In addition, the artificial
lighting used in offices can account for up to 50% of primary energy use, but
because there is a close correlation between office working hours and hours
154
155
One of the most common ways to introduce daylight to the interior of office
buildings is by the use of an atrium. An atrium designed to achieve reasonable
daylight factors at the atrium floor in wintertime may be too brightly lit, causing
glare, in the summer, so moveable shading at the roof of the atrium is very
desirable. The upper floors of offices surrounding the atrium can be directly lit
from the sky, but the lower floors will be mostly reliant on reflections from the
floor surface of the atrium bouncing light back into the surrounding rooms.
From a daylighting point of view the use of extensive planting within the atrium,
which is of relatively low reflectivity is not helpful. The changing daylight conditions from the top to the bottom of an atrium suggests that windows lighting
rooms need to be designed in specific localised ways, according to their height
above the atrium floor and below its roof; as a result the design of atria within
office buildings can be of considerable architectural interest.
157
windows are best kept closed and a draught induced by the use of fans, but
these occasions are usually limited to a few days or a couple of weeks a year. The
internal gains are a problem to be considered at the design stage. Solar gain is
the major external source of overheating; accordingly, shading systems for office
buildings have become usual, components that have to be designed in relation to
the orientation of the glass, and the amount of glass within the faade.
For buildings designed to achieve passive solar heating in winter, the majority
of the glazing will be in a southerly direction, so the shading can be in the form
of projecting louvres or gridded walkways that may double as window-cleaning
access. Southern elevations will have less solar gain in summertime when the
elevation of the sun is higher in the sky so overhangs and projections above
windows will function well, but east and west elevations, and particularly west
facing elevations, pose a real problem for the prevention of overheating since
the sun is then shining into the building after its fabric has already heated
up. External fins or extra deep reveals to the windows may help overcome the
problem. Another possible solution is to have over-sailing upper floors, each
floor jutting over the one below.
However, it is particularly difficult to prevent shading devices reducing daylight
levels at the back of rooms in wintertime. Adjustable shading is beneficial from
this point of view though it may entail external moving parts and their longterm maintenance problems.
Although sunlight passing through windows is the principal source of
overheating, shading the external walls of the building in summer also helps
keep the building cool.
This can be achieved by the use of light-coloured and reflective finishes, and
careful disposition of external landscaping. Once heat gains have been reduced
as far as possible, ventilation can be used as a summer cooling strategy; the aim
should be to reduce the indoor temperature in working hours to be not more
than 25.5C for more than 100 hours a year and not more than 28C for more
than 25 hours a year.
For natural ventilation to work when the weather is warm outside, but cooler
than within the building, a sufficient quantity of air should be supplied through
opening windows, or from an atrium, to dissipate hot air from within the
building. In this way, both evaporative and convective cooling of the buildings occupants can be achieved; ceiling fans operating at low speeds are also
effective.
Deciding whether or not outside ambient air temperature is above or below
comfort level is a function of the dry resultant temperature. At low air speeds
Offices: the Working Environment
159
the dry resultant temperature is the mean of the air temperature and the radiant
temperature of the space. Generally, 27C is regarded as the maximum temperature for naturally ventilated buildings. The standard technique for naturally
ventilated buildings is to make best use of the buildings thermal mass in combination with a night cooling strategy. In this way, the construction of the building,
its environment and the envelope of the building all combine together to make
a passive environmental strategy.
Thermal mass depends on the admittance of the internal surfaces of the
building, but this needs to be coupled with the air space of the room, so it is
important not to conceal the thermal mass behind suspended ceilings or raised
floors. Thus removing or eliminating raised floors and suspended ceilings, and
their detrimental consequences for architectural space, is the logical benefit of
an environmental construction strategy.
160
Perforated overhangs are preferable since they will allow warm air to escape
rather than channelling it into the building when windows are open during
summertime. They will, however, draw the no sky line towards the front of
the room and reduce daylight levels at the back of the space in wintertime.
A possible compromise is to contain Venetian blinds within the cavity of the
windows, which may be operated by the user or the BEMS.
Hybrid ventilation
Entirely passive systems of ventilation are not suitable for some situations,
because of the difficulty of achieving satisfactory indoor air quality and comfort
conditions throughout the year, so hybrid ventilation (also known as mixed
mode ventilation) is becoming widely adopted.
Natural ventilation systems can have problems with draughts in wintertime and
overheating in summer, whereas air-conditioning systems are often the cause
of user complaints because of their lack of individual environmental control.
Hybrid ventilation provides access to the appropriate characteristics of each
mode according to the prevailing weather conditions. The reduced use of fans
and other mechanical plant achieves substantial overall reductions in energy
consumption.
Hybrid systems make use of natural ventilation when appropriate, but have
control and mechanical systems that enable artificial active technologies to
be utilised when required. Part of the cost of the plant is transferred into the
building costs associated with the construction of passive stacks, intelligent
window systems, and a building section conducive to airflow.
Hybrid ventilation may incorporate other low-energy characteristics such as
advanced daylight systems, passive solar heating and night cooling. Consequently
an integrated approach to the overall design of the building is required. They
make use of different features of mechanical and natural ventilation at different
times of year, or day, or season. The intelligent controls that are an integral part
of hybrid ventilation switch between natural and artificial modes in order to
save energy. Mechanical and natural systems have developed separately over the
years with limited potential for substantial gains in efficiency, but their combination offers the potential for further improvements, and for the considerable
savings that can be achieved by eliminating air-conditioning.
Hybrid ventilation requires both components of an artificial servicing system
and building elements such as windows to be under the command of the building
management system. The intention is to maximise the extent of natural servicing
and reduce the mechanical component, implying that a broader tolerance to
variable room temperatures will be required. Where local requirements and
Offices: the Working Environment
161
162
a difficulty though the ban imposed in 2007 has eliminated this problem. The toxins emitted by building
materials particularly carpets, are problematic in office buildings, as is the presence of dust mites (though
they can be removed by regular and efficient cleaning). The influence of particulates on human health is
still unclear.
The goals that are rewarded within the BREEAM assessment include having windows that open, ventilation systems that take in fresh air rather than relying entirely on recirculation, and natural ventilation that
achieves the same aim by the use of trickle vents. BREEAM also seeks to ensure that the intake of air to
the building avoids recirculation of air exhausted from indoors, and among housekeeping issues, that an
efficient cleaning regime is adopted, in conjunction with schedules of maintenance.
The occurrence of legionnaires disease is an event when buildings are directly implicated in having a
detrimental effect on human health since the majority of cases are the result of poor hot water supply
systems in non-domestic buildings. Prevention is a matter of rigorous maintenance and carrying out
safety checks on existing equipment. Incidence of legionnaires disease can also be related to the design,
operation and maintenance of cooling towers. The system must allow regular, complete cleaning, which
greatly reduces the incidence of legionnaires disease, and the towers have to be carefully designed to
enable all the condensate to be removed. These requirements are obviously important for the promotion
of good heath for the buildings occupants. There may, of course, be legal ramifications where safety
guidelines have not been adhered to by building owners.
Another aspect with health implications considered by BREEAM is noise. Although a high level of noise
can be a nuisance, conversely, in open plan offices the lack of background noise can make acoustic
privacy a problem, so a compromise needs to be reached. Thermal comfort issues in office buildings are
likely to be principally concerned with the incidence of overheating in high summer. Usually, in the UK,
provision of sufficient natural ventilation will overcome this problem other than in city centre locations
where a noisy and polluted environment requires the installation of a mechanical system.
BREEAM also gives credit for the building having the means to locally control temperatures, and for
standard techniques having been used at the design stage to assess thermal comfort, and for the building
having a method of monitoring and targeting office conditions.
In terms of lighting, most people prefer daylight and a view out whilst avoiding solar gain. Artificial
lighting systems need a personal level of control by occupants and a correct and maintained level of
lighting. Fluorescent lighting can be responsible for headaches and eyestrain, particularly if conventional
ballasts have not been replaced by high frequency ones (that also have the advantage of being energy
saving).
1. Baldwin, R., Yates, A., Howard, N. and Rao, S. BREEAM 98 for Offices. BRE Centre for Sustainable Construction
Garston 1998: www.bre.co.uk/envest
163
3. Resource management
3.1 Renewable energy, water conservation, recycling and
waste
BREEAM assessment[9] also takes into consideration the use of resources, the
extent of water conservation, the use of recycled material, and waste management
aspects of office construction. The choice of A-rated building elements from
the BRE Green Guide to Specification (as illustrated within this book) earns
credits within BREEAM. The additional benefits that are cited are financial, in
that ecologically friendly constructions may in fact be cheaper than alternatives particularly if they can be locally sourced. In terms of human health, the
Green Guide is also concerned with the toxicity of materials, for the overall
management and image of an organisation in being able to project a green face
to the world, and in helping to establish environmental management procedures
within companies.
BREEAM makes an award for the sourcing of timber from sustainable, managed
forests, in line with the Forest Stewardship Certification scheme, as well as the
Timber Trades Association and Forests Forever environmental policies. Among
the other benefits listed are those to human health in that the preservation of
tropical forests also achieves retention of the plant habitat that is the source of
many of todays medicines.
The reuse and recycling of construction and demolition waste is a huge issue since
the construction industry is responsible for between a quarter and a third of all
the waste produced in this country each year. There are several internet-based
materials information exchange systems which can help overcome the general
lack of knowledge for the sourcing of recycled materials. Companies need to
have management systems for waste disposal to deal with the bottles, cans and
paper generated in offices, including purpose-designed storage arrangements,
and a policy has to be in place for the storage and collection of office waste.
BREEAM encourages the reuse of existing buildings rather than the construction
of new. Despite the fact that new buildings may be more efficient from an energy
point of view compared with old ones, many buildings are demolished simply
because their location is wrong rather than because they are impossible to
repair or unsuited to their purpose. So, within the BREEAM assessment, the
refurbishment and retention of elements from existing buildings is promoted,
as is the reuse of construction and demolition materials. To achieve the aims of
BREEAM, a large proportion of the existing structure and envelope of a retained
building has to be reused, and recycled material should be employed.
164
Because water demand has risen so sharply over the past 30 years (by 30%)[10]
and because the construction of reservoirs is expensive and environmentally
damaging, UK policy is to reduce the demand for water. In office buildings,
on average 43% of water is used for flushing WCs, 20% for flushing urinals,
27% for washing, 10% for kitchens and canteens. BREEAM assessment awards
credit when the predicted or actual water consumption meets specified targets.
A variety of technical solutions are available, such as sanitaryware needing
less water, in conjunction with methods of measuring and controlling water
consumption.
165
the maintenance cycles throughout the buildings life including its final
demolition
What they found was that, based on a 60-year life, there was very little difference when considering, for example, a mechanical supply and extract option in
relation to the five structural types.
This was also the case when comparison was made between their overall lifetime
energy consumption, and the production of CO2, whether resulting from the
use of steel or concrete. What was also discovered was that the initial embodied
energy due to the structure was a very small proportion of the overall energy
consumption throughout the buildings life. Comparatively, the extent of operational energy dwarfed that of embodied energy.[16]
166
167
168
It was found that there was very little difference in their performance.
169
however, highly recyclable, and the proportion of metal recycled from scrap
reduces the extent of steel productions environmental impacts. These advantages are optimised if steel structures are designed to be demountable, by the
use of bolted rather than welded connections.
171
Single-ply roofing
Figure 4.6 Profiled deck
roof plus single-ply
waterproofing
172
Being a high mass element, this floor system achieves only a C rating, though
lighter weight alternatives, such as ribbed slabs or waffles, do better with a
B. Flat slab construction does particularly badly in relation to the volume of
mineral extraction it requires, because the quarrying of aggregates has a considerable impact on its local environment. Recycled aggregate has advantages from
this point of view, and its use is increasing. However, from the point of view of
energy, the crushing, sorting and transport of recycled aggregates is likely to
be comparable to the virgin material, and there may be quality control issues
requiring additional cement content in the mix thus undermining the environmental benefits.
173
Cladding
Figure 4.9 Precast
concrete spandrel
panels
Precast concrete, because of its high mass, receives a B rating across a number
of alternative specifications. When used as the inner skin to marble cladding
panels its rating drops to C because of the stones high mass and the extensive
support system required.
Composite windows with an aluminium rainscreen outer surface to an inner
timber frame achieve a B rating similar to aluminium windows but with
improved ratings across most categories of the analysis compared to aluminium,
for example in relation to both CO2 emissions and climate change.
A galvanised steel profiled deck with an asphalt inverted warm roof, and
insulation weighted down by paving slabs, achieves an A rating comparable
with timber joisted roof constructions. This rather surprising result is due to the
relatively light weight of this alternative, but the rating reduces to a C if a steel
deck is used in combination with a warm roof built off a concrete slab. Inverted
roof construction has the advantage of providing a protective environment for
the waterproofing which lengthens its serviceable life between replacement
intervals. In the Green Guide, this is given the rather conservative estimate of
30 years for an asphalt roof. The waterproof layer is the roof component with
highest environmental impact on the rating for the roof as a whole.
174
Table 4.2 Ecopoints evaluation of generic constructions for offices, using BREs Envest tool
30m
15m
Generic office type: 30m 15m (450 m2 per floor); total 2250 m2; no. storeys: 5;
storey height: 3m; % cellular: 10%; location: S.E. England; soil type: firm clay .
Ecopoints
Ground floor
717
4.9
Upper floor
2969
20.2
External walls
3063
20.8
Internal partitions
908
6.2
Windows
571
3.9
Roof
1389
9.4
Floors
237
1.6
1404
9.5
1642
11.1
92
0.6
400
2.7
492
3.3
Sub-total
Wall finishes
Sub-total
Ceiling
319
2.2
Sub-structure
Piled foundations
788
5.3
Super-structure
Steel frame
1023
7.0
14726
6.6
Source: based on Anderson, J., Shiers, D.E., Sinclair, M., Green Guide to Specification, (3rd Edition), BRE, Watford, 2002.
Commentary: As might be expected for a building with heavyweight cladding consisting of a stone facing to concrete
spandrel panels, the external elevations account for a high proportion of the total. The extensive use of carpet, a short life
component with high embodied energy, also makes a significant contribution to the embodied energy per m2 of floor area.
The overall figure is, however, moderate compared with other building types, as a result of the compact building form.
175
177
7 Case studies
7.1 New Street Square a commercial development in the
City of London
This case study was supplied by courtesy of Bennetts Associates.
Client: Land Securities
Architect: Bennetts Associates
Contractor: Sir Robert McAlpine
Structures: Pell Frischmann
Size: 102,200 m2
Design: 20034
Completion: Spring 2008
Background
It has long been accepted that design innovation in the office sector is most
likely to come from the owner-occupiers. Organisations such as Powergen and
Wessex Water see radical change in the workplace as part of an overall, longterm plan and make corporate decisions tailored to their operational needs.
By contrast, the sector that deals in offices for rent is notoriously conservative.
Short-termism and the need to avoid buildings that are aimed too specifically at
one user or another dominate trading patterns.
178
owner-occupied office buildings have (at least since the late 1990s)
tended to follow the north-European pattern, with narrower plan forms
and more benign environmental systems
commercial developers have steadfastly adhered to the American, airconditioned model regardless of local conditions.
Architects, and many others interested in sustainability, have known for years
that the commercial office sector would be among the last to embrace the
changes needed for the pursuit of sustainability. The reasons for this conservatism are worth exploring further, to set the New Street Square scheme in its
economic context:
1. Office developments are often bought, sold and let like any other commodity.
It is unlikely that the initiating entrepreneur/developer will get a return
from any additional investment which benefits the occupiers such as, for
example, installing sun shading.
2. Anything considered novel (such as an exposed structure or air supplied
from the floor) would be certain to attract unwelcome questions about
future performance from potential purchasers such as the investing institutions, who buy property to bolster the nations pension funds.
3. Rented office buildings must appeal to the broadest range of tenants if they are
not to run the risk of being un-let for extended periods. This generally rules
out inflexible plan shapes or technical solutions such as natural ventilation.
4. Advisors and agents are generally paid on results, so an innovative design will be
resisted for reasons of vested interest unless they confer a market advantage.
5. The structure of property transactions in the UK is closely linked to that of
the USA, one byproduct of which is the standardisation of technical specifications to suit global occupiers. In this respect, the City of London office
market is perhaps the most conservative of all, as it is dominated by large,
fast-changing occupiers in the worldwide banking and legal sector. The
sheer scale and speed of property transactions in the City makes the introduction of innovation especially hazardous; it is a highly specialised market
that often seems resistant to ideas from outside.
179
discovery on the users. Each serves a different audience: the east-west route
provides a desire-line for pedestrians who are presently obliged to walk around
the area, whereas the north-south route creates a direct, canopied connection to
Holborn Circus at one end and an entrance to the small scale of Pemberton Row
at the other. All of these new connections are lined with shops or restaurants
and the wider spaces are animated by meeting places, public art and places for
performance, so as to create life and public activity at street level.
The conjunction of a regular pattern of spaces or routes with an irregular site
boundary generates four plots around the square for major buildings of various
sizes and plan forms with the intention of ensuring a degree of economic
flexibility in a constantly changing market one high-rise tower (Building A),
two medium-rise, atrium buildings (Buildings B and D) and one low-rise block
(Building C). In addition, there is a small pavilion (Building E) that serves as
a management suite and access to the basement car/cycle park. Quite apart
from townscape considerations, the varying height of the buildings ensures the
maximum level of sunlight penetration into the square, with the tallest to the
north and the lowest to the south.
181
182
Structure
Since the widespread adoption of the American practice for steel frame
construction and full air-conditioning in the early 1980s, few City buildings
have been designed in concrete. The choice of concrete for the structure of New
Street Square is significant, therefore, as it challenges conventional wisdom and
departs from established norms for cost, speed and buildability on congested
sites. Thanks to pressure on steel prices caused by an overheated Chinese
market, concrete in 20034 was competitive and, as post-tensioning meant
that floor slabs with long spans could be procured without downstand beams,
the resulting structure is far more adaptable than the steel equivalent. Rather
than reduce the floor-to-floor heights in response to the thinner structure
represented by the flat slab solution, Land Securities agreed that the additional
internal height should be used to enhance flexibility by offering the prospect of
several alternative servicing solutions.
Services
Thermal performance
The architects were aware that most property advisers would not accept
sustainable design solutions if they were based on, say, vaulted concrete structures and natural ventilation, as they are perceived to be far too inflexible and
technically inadequate for the City market. However, as long as the initial design
did not prevent a conventional solution such as fan-coil air-conditioning at some
time in the future, there was no reason to resist an innovative design.
Unlike steel, the dimensions of the flat concrete structure allows three possible
options (Figure 4.12):
Option 2 a chilled ceiling combined with air supplied from the floor
Even though a deeper than normal raised floor is required in order to accommodate the air supply, the overall flexibility of the design means that all options
can be accommodated within a conventional storey height for the life of the
building. This should satisfy the agents who are interested in the first tenant as
well as those who are committed to the long-term.
183
Figure 4.12:
Environmental solutions
185
Background
In November 2000, Arup was commissioned by its landlord, London Merchant
Securities (LMS), to undertake the refurbishment of the Arup head office at 13
Fitzroy Street and the adjoining building at 36 Howland Street. The project was
to involve the removal of all faades and complete clearance of the interiors,
back to the reinforced concrete frame and floor plates.
The intention was to provide a single high-quality building which would reflect
Arups corporate identity, both internally and externally.
186
to create flexible (i.e. generic) space for future adaptation and change
The project objectives that were developed and agreed by the client, the project
design and management team and Arups London Accommodation Committee
(representing building users) included:
The building was planned to reflect aspirations that emerged from early staff
surveys for more flexible spaces and a high quality environment with a sense of
Offices: the Working Environment
187
188
Howland Street
Rear
Orientation
north-east
south-east
south-west
external louvres
Heat
double-glazed
windows
double faade
Air
manually operated
windows as air
quality here is
acceptable
Noise
noise levels
acceptable, so no
noise reduction other
than double glazing
Services
Thermal performance
A key problem with the refurbishment was the development of a heating and
ventilation system that would meet the twin objectives of cost-efficiency and
sustainability. The low floor-to-ceiling height of the 1960s buildings ruled out
ceiling ducts. To overcome this problem, fresh air is drawn via a roof-mounted
plant down the faade into floor plenum chambers. A computer-controlled
Building Management System (BMS) controls the heating and ventilation
systems.
The expression of the ventilation ducts is not the only way in which the buildings faades differ (compare Figure 4.15 and Figure 4.16). They all respond to
their orientations and to the street onto which they face, see Table 4.3.
Light
Generous glazing maximises daylight in the building, within the constraints of
the existing low floor-to-ceiling heights. A new atrium also brings daylight into
the heart of the building.
Artificial lights are always going to be needed when natural light is insufficient;
these are controlled by daylight sensors.
Water
Showers have been installed, along with cycle parking, to discourage car use.
189
Communications
The building includes fully equipped server and communications rooms, key
elements of Arups resilient systems programme, designed to ensure that communications can be maintained and data protected during extreme events and
emergencies. These are connected via high-speed fibre optic links to two other
server rooms in nearby Arup offices to provide a high degree of resilience.
A detailed set of primary targets was then developed from the SPeARTM spreadsheets, drawing on expertise from the sustainability team. These were developed
190
citon
a re
Constru
Fo
r
&
Sp
ac
We
lf
Under
h&
alt
OU
RC
Waste Hierarchy
gy
atio
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tilis
dU
En
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g Occu
ial
Tr
a
Ben
ns
po
oduc tiv
s/C
ost
ity
rt
EC
ES
worst case
pant Pr
efit
IC
Soc
Lan
IC
ON
nit y
Inclusion
OM
EN
Building
VIR
e
ac
Sp
&
OM
Waste Hierarchy
gy
atio
tilis
er
En
He
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citon
a re
Constru
We
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Under
h&
Fo
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Building
He
VIR
ON
dU
rt
ss
Ame
rials
te r
Wa
ce
lls
k il
t/S
en
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c ts
plo
Effe
Em
tive
peti
Co m
Viability
Lan
se
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ost
ET
Heritage
Buildin
s/C
CI
AL
Air Qua
Cultural
Mate
ity
LR
optimum
logy &
Ac
oduc tiv
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ES
y
l He &
rita
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po
efit
RA
LR
RC
Archaeo
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RA
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t/S
en
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T
te
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it y
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Heritage
rials
te r
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n
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logy &
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rita
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lo
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log
Cult
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T
te
Wa
EN
EN
Air Qua
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optimum
ON
worst case
Table 4.4 Primary targets developed for one indicator conservation of water resources
Use low water appliances and intelligent water/control flushing
Use treated potable water to meet all potable demands (drinking, kitchens,
showers) and good maintenance.
Use borehole water for flushing toilets
Use filtered tap water rather than bottled. Fit a water meter to mains supply.
Adequate maintenance (stop dripping taps etc.)
Direct rainwater runoff onto gardens in localised areas where appropriate
Collect, treat, store and distribute harvested rainwater for toilet flushing
No harvesting
Borehole water to meet all potable, flushing, cooling water demands. Heat
exchangers for cooling water and hot water systems. Push button taps. Low water
use and intelligent controls
Borehole for toilet flushing. Mains for potable. Low use appliances/intelligent
controls.
Low use appliances/intelligent controls.
Ideal (Score 3)
Good (Score 2)
Acceptable (Score 1)
Source: Arup
with the aim of providing site-specific design solutions. Table 4.4 illustrates
primary targets for one indicator from the spreadsheet, conservation of water
resources.
During the concept design and scheme design stages, the primary targets were
used on a day-to-day basis as a mechanism for iteratively appraising and refining
the design process.
Offices: the Working Environment
191
Conclusions
Tackling the broad concept of sustainability using SPeARTM on the Fitzrovia
Project has helped to identify some critical areas, which are fundamental to the
success of any efforts aimed at enhancing the sustainability of a scheme:
8. Notes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
193
Schools: a Changing
Curriculum
1 Discussion
The school system in the UK is a very large organisation both in terms of its
scale there are 8 million children in full-time education attending 25,000
schools around the country and in accounting for a cost of 20 billion a year,
or over 5% of the governments total expenditure[1]. The process of education
in schools is dependent on the mobilisation of large quantities of material and
resources, for example books and paper, furniture, school meals and the energy
used in their preparation, in addition to the components and energy used in the
construction and operation of buildings. The national energy bill for schools
exceeds 100 million per year.
All of these various aspects of resource deployment impact on the wider
environment. Most definitions of sustainability, including the one most often
quoted, as propounded by the Brundtland Commission[2], make reference to the
ecological legacy we are bequeathing to our children, and what must be done
for the benefit of future generations to reduce the impact that human activities
have on the natural environment. There are, as a consequence, two aspects to
the drive for sustainability in the use of energy and materials in schools. The
first is to make school consumption patterns more efficient, and the second is
to educate children to understand the importance of these issues so in future
better-educated attitudes can be brought to bear on the achievement of a more
sustainable world.
195
use it to a greater extent, for example to heat rooms and for cooking purposes.
More generally, electricity is the power source for artificial lighting, fans and
pumps, and some kitchen equipment. The energy consumption profile for a
typical school in the UK anticipates that nearly 80% of the total goes towards
space heating and the supply of hot water, less than 10% each are given over to
the next largest uses, which are lighting and catering. Powering computers is a
growing energy cost but, at the time of the ECOnstruct research, it was still only
in the region of 2% of the total.[3]
In order to save money, therefore, the achievement of greater efficiency of
heating systems is an obvious focus for attention. However, since electricity is
often six times as expensive as fossil fuel in terms of delivered kWh, the actual
cost of the fossil fuel used in schools may, in effect, only represent less than 45%
of the total expenditure, despite fossil fuel energy being responsible for the vast
majority of overall consumption. In cost terms, the relative proportions attributable to different areas throughout a school are rather different as a result. The
percentage used to heat spaces and water is reduced to only just over 50%, and
lighting becomes a lot more significant at 24%.
Consequently, achieving reductions in the amount of electricity used in schools is
a priority for the reduction of costs. In addition, of course, electricity production
has a major impact on the volume of CO2 that finds it way into the atmosphere,
because of the inefficiencies involved in the generation of electricity, and the
losses inherent in distribution via the National Grid.
196
197
large appliances
Large appliances mainly refers to computers which, by the end of the 20th
Century were found in primary schools at a level of provision of one machine per
thirteen pupils; in secondary schools the ratio was one per nine. Taking account
of the numbers of printers and photocopiers, this means that on average there
could be one large appliance per 10 students in UK schools, with an assumed
composition of 50% inert and 50% plastic, and a five-year lifespan.
198
Fixtures and fittings are principally furniture, which the analysis assumes are
made from an equal mixture of inert material, plastics and wood.
The third category is the structure and constructional elements of the school
buildings.
School buildings fall into a number of constructional types. The most recognisably obvious of these are the brick-built Board schools from the Victorian
era, many examples of which are still serviceable and in use, and the steel and
panel prefabricated system schools from the 1960s. The vast majority of the
school building stock (80%) was built after the Second World War and, of these,
50% are of steel or concrete frame construction. A study in New Zealand[8]
has shown that the CO2 emissions from the building materials used for both
concrete and steel frame construction is comparable to the equivalent forms
of construction used for office buildings which, based on a 50-year lifespan, is
approximately 9 kgCO2/m3 per year.
To determine the outputs in terms of mass flow, generally liquids and solids
remain liquids and solids as they pass through the school. The exception is
energy, since fossil fuels, once burnt to produce heat and electricity, produce
gaseous waste in quantities that can then be converted to a mass of CO2, or a
mass of carbon, emitted in relation to one pupil per year. Energy is by far the
largest of these at over 50% of the total. The CO2 emissions due to the admission
of inert material, including the schools construction materials, is 10% comparable to that attributable to other categories of material such as paper, plastics
and packaging and chemicals. Food constitutes 3% of the total, and the CO2
impact of the mass of water supply is minimal.
Clearly, the operational energy of a school is the significant factor in any strategy
aimed at reducing its environmental impact and increasing its sustainability. Of
equal importance will be the environmental management of the building, and its
environmental design. Management decisions can aim to make reductions at each
of the three stages of the lifecycle of the inputs to the building. The first is reducing
the supply required, either by changing to a supply that produces less CO2, such
as reducing electricity use in favour of fossil fuel, or better still by converting
to renewables. Second, the environmental impact of the school can be ameliorated by improving the efficiency of the heating system, for instance by installing
condensing boilers. Finally, the outputs from the school can be reduced by the
introduction of recycling strategies. The educational benefits from engagement
with management approaches are self-evident. For example, aluminium cans
dispensed from the schools vending machines may impact badly on the success
of the strategy unless, of course, the aluminium has been recycled rather than
smelted from ore, a study that can be made by the children themselves.
Schools: a Changing Curriculum
199
201
203
205
206
207
208
BRE, Building Bulletin 83: School Environment Assessment Method (SEAM). BRE, Garston, 1996.
209
210
Structure
Timber frame with external walls of rendered block, or loadbearing
insulated block, plastered internally and clad with cedar boarding
211
Roof
Glulam trusses + purlins/rafters, insulated deck + metal roofing
Figure 5.4 Glulam
beams and columns,
sw joists + sw
boarding, zinc sheet
waterproofing
Schools are usually low-rise buildings, so the construction of the roof can be
expected to have quite a large impact compared with other elements of the
construction.
Perhaps surprisingly, low pitched roofs perform almost as well within the Green
Guide ratings as does traditional clay tiled pitched roofing, even when built off a
steel structure, on account of their low mass and lightweight construction.
Zinc sheet roofing has become more efficient in recent years owing to the introduction of long strip metal sheet, which has reduced the amount of cutting and
waste and the number of joints required across the fall of the roof.
Zinc is generally considered to have a relatively short life expectancy compared
to other sheet metals, particularly compared with lead which has been the traditional choice in the UK. However, zinc alloy, which is the contemporary zinc,
has relatively enhanced life expectancy.
As with other metal roofing materials, zinc can be recycled, with the expenditure of far less energy compared with the production of virgin metal from ore.
212
Floors
Lino/timber flooring on ply or chipboard panels on concrete slab
Figure 5.5 Ground and
upper floors: Screed
over beam/ block
suspended floor
As in the case of roofing, the ground floor in a low-rise school can be expected
to have a relatively large effect on the overall environmental impact because of
its large area.
Although timber structure would be the preferred option, the use of beam and
block flooring is lighter in weight and therefore has less impact than a comparable solid concrete slab. Beam and block has the additional advantage of being
speedy to assemble on site, having easier quality control and being less susceptible to the effects of ground movement. A beam and block floor with screed
covering achieves an A rating.[18]
The amount of insulation in everyday construction is a small proportion of the
overall mass of the floor and so makes little difference to the rating, unless a
type of insulation is chosen that entails the use of ozone-depleting agents
(see Chapter 2). It can be seen that achieving a BREEAM preferred A rating
is relatively easy with lightweight steel frame and curtain walling technology,
whereas by comparison concrete construction and heavy cladding performs
badly.
Poured-in-place concrete floors, on the other hand, achieve a C rating because of
their relatively greater mass. Power-floating does, however, remove the necessity
for the use of dense and heavy sand/cement screed, which is an advantage.
Environmental impact can be further improved by the use of PFA (pulverised
fuel ash) or GGBS (ground granulated blast furnace slag) aggregate which are
by-products of electricity and steel production and consequently have limited
impact.
213
Glazing
Aluminium-faced composite windows
Composite windows with an aluminium rain screen outer surface to an inner
timber frame achieve a B rating similar to aluminium windows but with
improved ratings across most categories of the analysis compared to aluminium,
for example in relation to both CO2 emissions and climate change.
So despite having reduced climate change impact (particularly compared
with aluminium framed glazing such as curtain walling), the proportion of
timber in their make-up reduces the extent of recycled material used in their
manufacture.
Because the impact of the glass is less than 20% of the embodied energy
content of the window, the specification of the glass and whatever coatings
are employed has little effect on the overall environmental impact, despite the
improvement that extra panes and coatings might have on the glazing units
thermal performance.
Partitions
Painted blockwork or brickwork
Brickwork used for internal partitions can achieve the best ratings if it is fairfaced rather than plastered, receiving an A, as does aerated block even if it is
finished with plasterboard (on dabs) and painted. The aggregates used for the
production of lightweight block have to travel a long way whereas the materials
for heavyweight block are relatively close to hand for UK construction. Therefore
and perhaps surprisingly, dense block finished with plasterboard and paint also
receives the best rating, and aerated block uses less raw material but has limited
potential for recycling.
Table 5.1 Ecopoints evaluation of generic constructions for schools, using BREs Envest tool
50m
18m
214
Generic school type: 50m 18m (900 sq m ground floor); no. storeys: 1; storey height:
4.5m; % cellular: 60%; location: S.E. England; soil type: firm clay.
Ground floor
Upper floor
none
External walls
Ecopoints
1434
24.4
869
14.8
Internal
partitions
420
7.1
Windows
258
4.4
Roof
1385
23.5
Floors
103
1.8
139
2.4
242
4.1
200
3.4
721
12.3
Sub-total
Wall finishes
Gloss paint
Ceiling
none
Sub-structure
Super-structure
5881
6.5
Source: based on Anderson, J., Shiers, D.E., Sinclair, M., Green Guide to Specification, (3rd Edition), BRE, Watford, 2002.
Commentary: Given the single-storey model used for this analysis, the predominant role of the ground floor and roof is
not surprising. The floor construction is heavy in weight and has a high embodied energy, but because of the energy used
in the extraction and manufacture of the metal roofing the Ecopoint rating for the roof is nearly equivalent to that of the
floor. Although the elevations form a lesser part of the overall area, the same argument applies to the figures relating to the
materials used for the walling and metal windows.
215
216
achieved through the use of artificial lighting. Through talking with the staff and pupils it was clear that,
owing to their ability to control their thermal environment, by drinking a cool drink, or opening or closing
a window, that thermal extremes were not of great concern, unlike the quality and amount of daylight
which, within the fixed envelope of a building, is much more difficult to increase.
Knightwood did not benefit from the direct visual and physical landscape around it, unlike the other two
schools. In talking to the staff and pupils at all schools, it seemed that the buildings which responded
environmentally to the seasons and their site as well as creating an open internal landscape with the
use of light and temperature to create a thermally and visually dynamic environment, provide the most
stimulating of learning and teaching environments with the most positive user feedback.
Those who are involved in the design of primary schools therefore must challenge the guidelines which
they are presented with, which require maximum and minimum temperature, humidity, acoustic and
lighting levels, as these are not what result in successful design; rather it is the interpretation of these and
a response to the client in providing a dynamic and stimulating environment.
The findings of the study, and a reason for HCADs success in the design of their school buildings, can
be summed up in the words of Nev Churcher, an architect with the HCAD who has been responsible for
some of their most notable and successful schools:
The ancient adage from Vitruvius, commodity, firmness and delight, is still just as relevant today, and
underpins our design aims, to which we now add sustainability, energy and access criteria. Most important
is the need to produce a sense of place and inevitability and places with as rich a mix as possible a
total learning environment where natural and created elements are in harmony.
217
218
6. Case Study
6.1 Case study: Great Binfields Primary School, Basingstoke,
Hampshire
Client: Hampshire County Council
Architect: Hampshire County Council Architects Department
Design team: Alec Gillies with Martin Hallum, Bruce Kingsley-Smith, Annie
Templeton, Eilidh Gutteridge, Shaun Mildenhall, Andrew Bacon
Quantity surveyor: Neil Sheppard with Chris Hore of Selway Joyce
Mechanical engineer: Gareth Bartlett
Electrical engineer: Steve Perry
Structural engineer: Dave Williams
Landscape architect: Mike Rothery with Geoff Durk, Jonathan Howe
Contractor: Richardsons of Nyewood Ltd
Site agent: Bob Sykes
Construction: August 2000 August 2001 (buildings), May 2002 (landscaping)
Schools: a Changing Curriculum
219
Background
Great Binfields Primary is a school for 210 pupils, with the possibility of
expanding the capacity to 420. It also includes a support unit for up to 10
visually impaired children who, for the majority of the day, will be integrated
into mainstream classes.
220
Design
The classrooms, roofed in cedar shingles, are arranged on the inner edge of the
horseshoe-shaped plan (Figure 5.6). They look onto a sheltered south-facing
courtyard occupied by sculptures inspired by the woodland (Figure 5.7). The
shared teaching spaces on the outer edges of the plan open onto a natural habitat
study area in the surrounding woodland.
To assist people with physical disabilities, the building incorporates extra wide
doorways, three wheelchair-accessible toilets and two wheelchair-accessible
showers. There is a generous drop-off area for vehicles to deliver and pick up
children with special needs at the front entrance.
To assist people with visual impairment, all teaching spaces are well lit with
natural light, see Figure 5.8. Artificial lighting is via dimmable high-frequency
colour-corrected fluorescent fittings. All surfaces have a low reflective matt
finish, and care has been taken with colour choice and contrast. All signs are in
a clear simple typeface at a consistent height and incorporate Braille. To assist
people with hearing impairment, there are acoustic ceilings in all of the teaching
spaces and in the corridor.
221
Structure
The structural frame of the building
is made from parallel strand lumber
(PSL), shown in Figure 5.8. This is
reconstituted timber made from
young, fast growing small diameter
trees of second or third growth.
Although this material is processed,
it was chosen for this project as the
result of a costbenefit analysis.
Almost all of the wood on each log is
used; this means that fewer logs are
used for the same structural task.
Although it contains some wood that
is ordinarily thrown away or burned
for fuel, it has structural strength
superior to most timbers. Waste
wood is used for energy in the plant
which manufacturers PSL.
Materials
Bricks and mortar
The bricks of the external walls
have been sourced locally and laid
in hydraulic lime mortar which has
no cement content. The use of lime
mortar removed the need for mastic
movement joints and will also allow the possible reuse of the bricks in the
future.
All the facing bricks are from Michelmersh in Hampshire where extraction
of the clay is immediately adjacent to the factory. Sourcing materials locally
decreases the embodied energy of the product by reducing the amount of energy
used in their transport to the site.
Materials are not the only input to the building process which was sourced
locally. The contractor, including the majority of their in-house staff, is based
in Petersfield, Hampshire and all members of the design team live and work in
Hampshire. The artists who supplied the sculptures are based in Portsmouth,
Hampshire.
222
Recycled materials
All of the window frames contain recycled aluminium. The damp proof membrane
for the building is VisqueenTM which is made from recycled polythene. All of
the pinboards are Colourboard, by Sundeala Ltd, which is made from recycled
waste newsprint. The acoustic ceiling tiles contain recycled glass. The concrete
block shear walls are made from blocks which contain recycled aggregate in the
form of furnace bottom ash.
Recyclable and reusable materials
Service ways have been designed to be accessible and refittable so that the
building can accommodate change over time. The basic fabric of the building
has been designed to assist its own dismantling ready to be recycled. For
example, the bricks can be reused as they are laid in hydraulic lime mortar
with no cement content, the PSL structure is simply pinned together and the
floors are made from precast concrete beams and pots. The TPE (thermoplastic
elastomer) flat roof membrane and all the polybutylene pipework for service
distribution is recyclable.
Insulation
None of the insulation used in the building has been manufactured using CFCs
or HCFCs.
Finishes
All varnishes and paints in the school are linseed-oil-based and made
from renewable natural materials with no petrochemical-based solvents or
ingredients.
The carpet is made with a high content of natural materials and has been tested
for VOC emissions in accordance with German standards. Linoleum flooring
has been used in preference to PVC-based material.
Services
Service ways have been designed to be accessible and refittable.
The polybutylene, [C4H8]n, pipework for all service distribution is recyclable
and there is a generous provision of isolating valves to avoid draining down the
systems during maintenance.
223
Thermal performance
High thermal mass in the solid walls and floor reduces fluctuations in temperature, and thus both summer overheating and changes in load on the heating
system in winter.
Ventilation
Clerestory windows, as well as lighting the classrooms, assist natural crossventilation by being controlled by electronic temperature and rain sensors. This
system can be overridden and operated manually by individual members of
staff.
Light
The daylighting design aims to maximise natural light, while minimising
discomfort from glare and overheating.
The south-facing courtyard elevation has a 1.2 m overhang over full-height
windows (Figure 5.7) while high-level clerestory windows facing generally north
are used throughout (Figure 5.8). Those windows facing east, exposed to the
sun, use solar control glass, while those facing west are shaded by the hall. Both
east and west windows are shaded to a certain extent by the surrounding trees.
All electric lighting in the teaching spaces is high-frequency high-efficiency
dimmable fluorescents.
Sound
All teaching spaces and the main corridor of the school have acoustic ceilings
to absorb noise within each space, thereby reducing disturbance to surrounding
spaces.
Water
Percussion spray taps have been fitted, and a generous provision of isolating
valves has been made to prevent the need to drain down the entire system
during servicing.
Energy supply
The building has a low-temperature under-floor heating system. The high
thermal mass of the floors, along with that of the walls, reduces temperature
fluctuations in the space and also evens out the heat demand of the system. By
reducing peak heat demand, smaller boilers could be used than with a radiatorbased system; by reducing fluctuations in heat demand, the boilers can operate
near to peak efficiency for a greater proportion of the day.
224
The boilers are fuel efficient, low NOx, natural gas fired, condensing boilers. NOx
emissions are estimated to be only 40 mg/kWh. Natural gas contains very little
sulphur, so SO2 emissions will also be low. CO2 emissions from the heating and
hot water generation are estimated to be 75 kg/m3. This level meets the good
energy targets of the government, CIBSE and BRE.
Heating system circulation is driven by energy-saving pumps with electronic
speed control.
Landscape
The landscaping strategy draws heavily upon the woodland location of the new
school.
Existing woodland
The Great Binfields copse is an ancient woodland and although, in the 1970s,
the wood was converted to a conifer plantation, a narrow fringe of native broadleaved trees, such as oak, ash, wych elm, field maple and crab apple has been
retained. Despite the pine trees, much native woodland flora has survived with
species of note including solomons seal, dog violet, primrose and bluebell.
Schools: a Changing Curriculum
225
The management programme for the Great Binfields copse will encourage the
native species present to flourish and spread while the introduced pine trees are
progressively removed through felling.
Care was taken during the construction of the school to limit its adverse impact
on its woodland site, with special funding being set aside to develop the adjacent
woodland as an outdoor educational area for use by the school.
Although the project involved the felling of some trees, many more will continue
to be planted on site. The seed-rich topsoil removed from the edge of the wood
to make way for the building has been used under the newly planted tree banks
to encourage woodland plants.
The subsoil taken from the foundation excavations has been used to level the
playing field: off-site removal of subsoil has been minimised.
Compost used on the site will be peat-free and made from recycled garden
waste.
Transport
A green travel plan has been developed for the school. The objective of this plan
is to minimise the number of car journeys to and from the school to minimise
pollution and encourage energy conservation as well as to reduce road traffic
congestion and encourage road safety.
The modal share of journeys to primary schools in Basingstoke is 42% walking
to school and 48% being taken by car. Only 1% of journeys to school are made by
cycle (source: Hampshire County Council Transpol data). The target for Great
Binfields Primary is 65% walking, 20% by car, 5% by cycle, and bus/taxi 10%.
Wide consultation with statutory bodies, local residents, parents and staff will
take place through HCCs Headstart Community Involvement Programme in
order to achieve these objectives.
A path connecting the school to an existing pedestrian route to the north will
be constructed. Cycle racks for 10 pupils cycles have been included (5% of pupil
numbers). A shower for staff has also been included.
7. Notes
1.
226
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Further Reading
Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme, Energy Efficient Refurbishment of Schools.
Good Practice Guide 233, BRECSU, Garston, September 1997.
Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme, Energy Efficient Design of New Buildings
and Extensions for Schools and Colleges. Good Practice Guide 173, BRECSU, Garston,
March 1997.
227
Supermarkets:
Energy and
Shopping
1. Discussion
While department stores have been closing in many city centres, supermarket
chains have taken an increasing share of the UK retail market. For that reason
much of this chapter is concerned with supermarkets, which are selling an
increasing range of goods as well as groceries, in fact taking on the character of
department stores.
Government-funded research in the early 1990s found that the annual UK cost
of energy used in retail outlets was 1.8 billion[1] of which between 5% and 10%,
that is 90180 million, could be saved by better design and improved housekeeping practices.
Although this is only a small percentage of UK annual retail turnover, it is a
significant percentage of retail profits, and is a large proportion of the service
charges made for rented retail premises.
A basic decision in the cause of sustainability is the choice of fuel to be used for
heating. Electricity is only viable for small and well-insulated premises where
the additional cost involved in installing or maintaining a gas or oil boiler would
be prohibitive. The prerequisites for a shop to use less energy and produce less
CO2 are that:
229
Further guidance can be found in the government report The impact of large
food stores on market towns and district centres,[3] which is concerned with the
impact of out-of-town developments on the environment, and maintaining the
viability of existing shops within the city, and the environmental quality of the
city centres. From the point of view both of conserving the countryside and
of maintaining the health of existing city centres, environmental policy and
energy policy coincide.
Many towns have now appointed managers to champion the cause of town
centres, and to ensure their continuing profitability and competitiveness.
Through the process of consultation, the needs of less-mobile groups, such as
the elderly and disabled and young families with children, are represented. By
their involvement at the preliminary stage of design, the development can avoid
loss of functionality and the risk of early obsolescence, and help achieve town
centre environments that are safe and attractive. The interacting issues here
are to do with access to and within the centre, crime prevention and quality of
environment.
There is a complementary Planning Policy Statement No. 7 (PPS7): Sustainable
Development in Rural Areas which also seeks to maintain viable town centres
and to concentrate development on brownfield land, but also aims to promote
competitive and efficient retail development that is accessible particularly by public
transport, walking and cycling. PPS7 is particularly concerned with the conservation of the countryside, and its quality of environment, while safeguarding the
character of rural towns and attempting to reduce dependence on the motor
car. (PPS7, published in August 2004, replaces PPG Note 7: The Countryside
Environmental Quality and Economic and Social Development, February 1997.)
231
Earth Summit in Rio in 1992, to reducing motor car use, to promoting alternatives to the private car, and to encouraging development within existing centres
in order to overcome the dispersal of land uses into the countryside. PPG13, the
planning policy guidance note for transport, requires that residential areas are
integrated with other land uses in order to reduce lengthy journeys, and that
retail premises should either be located centrally, or alternatively on sites at the
edges of centres. Retail premises should be close enough to be readily accessible by foot, and able to be served by a variety of transport means including
public transport. It requires that local authorities take into account the amount
of transport that will be generated by retail developments and indeed how travel
reductions can be initiated.
This is an attempt to reverse the pattern of development since World War II
and to put the emphasis back on town centres and existing areas in preference
to out-of-town locations. As well as the need to reduce the energy and CO2
emissions due to transport, the other important aims are to reduce pollution
and to improve outdoor air quality. The chemicals contained within exhaust
fumes can contribute to photochemical smog, and some are carcinogenic, while
nitrogen and sulphur oxides cause acid rain. In addition, the noise generated by
road traffic is a major reason for natural ventilation to be eschewed in favour of
air-conditioning, with consequent environmental damage. Congestion makes
roads dangerous for cyclists and deters bicycle riding.
The greater use of public transport and bicycles would largely overcome
pollution problems, but inevitably car parking will be required at shopping
centres where large and bulky purchases are being made, and for shoppers with
mobility problems, or for whom public transport would be inconvenient. The
reduction of vehicle pollution has implications for the location of retail development: it should be close to its intended market, employees must be encouraged
to travel by public transport and bicycle, and facilities should be provided for
bike parking. Shopping centres that contain a variety of types of store reduce
the necessity for shoppers to visit different shopping centres to complete their
purchases. Larger shopping centres should attempt to maximise the amount of
shopping spend per kilometre travelled, and thereby reduce the national length
of shopping journeys made per year.
in a mall. Consequently, by far the largest proportion of their energy cost is due
to electricity used for lighting, but because they tend to have high ceilings and
thus a large volume to heat, fossil fuel space heating and domestic hot water are
responsible for a fair proportion of the total. This proportion diminishes for other
non-food shops where mechanical ventilation and possibly air-conditioning and
lifts increase the relative amount of electricity that is consumed. Supermarkets,
although predominantly self-service food stores, tend increasingly to include
other uses such as an in-store baker, delicatessen and restaurants. In this case,
it is food refrigeration that is responsible for half of the overall energy cost, airconditioning and lighting for another quarter, and the bakery, space heating,
domestic hot water and other miscellaneous electrical uses that account for the
last quarter of the total.[4]
Retailers are becoming interested in the cost savings that can be made by
reducing energy consumption. Sainsburys has been a leader both in reducing
energy consumption and in the development of alternative renewable
sources. Its annual spending on power is around 50 million. To cut down on
fuel bills, it launched a campaign within the firm called Save It which is to
remind employees to turn off lights and use other easily implemented energy
saving ideas. Sainsburys also introduced a programme aimed at reducing the
companys energy consumption by 11% within two years, which would in turn
reduce Sainsburys carbon emissions by 10% by the year 2005. It is also looking
into the use of renewable energy sources with a view to 10% of its energy bills
coming from renewables in the coming years.
Another company that is very active in this area is MFI. Since 1994 the company,
which in total has about 500 stores, has used a variety of measures aimed to cut
its carbon emissions by 50%. A building management system, which automatically controls the stores heating and lighting levels, was introduced at a cost of
800,000 expenditure that was repaid by energy savings within 12 months.
A typical innovation was the fitting of self-dimming lights within a 50,000 m 2
warehouse that paid for itself within 18 months. Having achieved rigorous control
over energy bills, the company then moved on to the replacement of conventional power sources by renewable energy. Fifty outlets are being powered from
renewable energy obtained from an independent supplier who sells electricity
obtained from wind farms and gas from landfill.
These initiatives, although still rare, have a growing momentum. Under the UK
governments Renewables Obligation every electricity supplier in the country
has a requirement to provide a proportion of its production from renewable
sources.
233
To consume energy in the most efficient and sustainable way and minimise waste. This concern
impinges on both the design and operation of Sainsburys buildings and equipment so that they
operate at maximum efficiency.
As much waste heat as possible is reused, and they now have a programme for the continuous
monitoring and reviewing of energy performance.
To apply to the groups operations the most recent and best of available technologies, which entails researching the most advanced building and servicing systems from sources worldwide.
To achieve ongoing reductions in energy consumption through improved technical procedures,
but also by involving staff in the drive to achieve energy efficiency.
By the purchase of energy at the most beneficial rates, and monitoring its consumption, it becomes possible to target potential improvements. The company keeps abreast of developments
within the electricity supply industry for negotiation of the most preferential deals.
Sainsburys participates in a variety of national and international award schemes through which it aims
to promote staff and customer awareness of the local and global issues relating to the efficient use of
energy.
1. Sainsburys press release: Sainsburys switches to Ecotricity for renewable energy, www.j-sainsbury.co.uk.
234
235
236
Introduction to Energy Efficiency in Shops and Stores. Department of the Environment, BRESCU, March 1994.
concentrated around the same location; the waste heat is then available either
for domestic hot water heating or space heating.
The refrigerants used for food storage are a problem because the large volumes
of CFCs and HCFCs lost to the atmosphere through leakage, and during maintenance operations, are a major cause of ozone depletion. It is estimated that up to
80% of the refrigerant chemicals sold in the UK are lost in this way; food refrigeration plant is estimated to lose 50% of its refrigerant when the equipment is
being serviced (over its lifetime), which clearly has profound implications for
its detailed design. A variety of strategies can be put in place to overcome the
problem. Refrigerant leakage detectors can be fitted to enclosed chillers and
wired up to an alarm system, and other detection systems are available for
monitoring open cabinets. The plant needs to be designed for easy maintenance,
adequate space being available around all sides of the machines so that leaks of
refrigerant can easily be noticed, collected, stored and returned, while the ozone
depleting characteristics of the system being proposed can be determined from
the initial specification of the equipment.
The relative effects of the various compounds currently in use are a function
of their ozone depletion potential (ODP), which is defined as the total change
in ozone per unit mass, when the substance has reached a steady state in the
atmosphere. CFC11 is the most damaging of these materials and, having an
ODP of 1.0, is the benchmark against which the others are assessed. The first
step towards elimination of the environmental damage that they cause was the
Montreal Protocol that limited emissions of CFCs and halons, which was signed
by many of the worlds governments in 1987. The substitute materials HCFCs
are, however, similarly damaging in the short term, if to a lesser extent in the
long term (over a period of hundreds of years), so the intention of more recent
agreements is that HCFCs should be phased out of use in the relatively near
future. Chillers that employ inorganic chemicals rather than hydrocarbons are
already available and have the further advantage that they can run on gas rather
than electricity, but unfortunately they are a lot less efficient than the ozone
depleting alternatives.
237
is the build-up of excess heat due, for example, to the amount of lighting power
being used, and the heat thrown out by refrigeration equipment. Measures to
reduce over-heating include making sure that any rooflights face away from the
sun so as to reduce the amount of solar gain entering the space, and by limiting
their area. Similarly beneficial is if shading is provided to south-facing windows
by overhangs or louvres, and the use of solar control or fritted glass may also
be appropriate. High volume spaces may be less of a problem from this point of
view since the heat will tend to stratify at a level above head height.
In any case, it may be necessary to incorporate mechanical ventilation for smoke
clearance in case of fire, then perhaps forming one component of an assisted
natural ventilation system for smaller supermarkets, rather than providing full
air-conditioning. In which case, appropriate measures can include designing for
reduced lighting loads, specifying efficient lamps, and specifying a wider band of
permissible comfort conditions when writing the design brief for the building.
Unless temperatures are likely to exceed 28C for more than a few hours a year,
air-conditioning may not be required. If it proves necessary nonetheless then
reducing the volume of air supplied to the minimum, and making sure that the
recurrent problem of spaces being heated and cooled at the same time is avoided,
will both help reduce energy consumption. Cooling the air supply to 24C may
be sufficient to achieve comfort. Given appropriate weather conditions it might
be possible to use outdoor air directly for cooling; for efficiency it is important
that the building is appropriately ventilated, and that good use is made of waste
heat. If possible radiant cooling panels should be fitted at the point of delivery,
to minimise the amount of ducting and to avoid pumping large volumes of cool
air around the building.
Concern about the refrigerants used within food refrigeration equipment is also
applicable to air-conditioning systems. Leak detection devices will not work
when air-handling plant is out of doors, or with air-cooled condensers, which
are usually located externally on a roof. In these cases, equipment should be
manually checked every six months to make sure that no leaks have occurred.
The chiller condenser should not be used as a holding store for the refrigerant
during the shut-down process of the machine; instead a separate container
needs to be incorporated within the system to store the refrigerant during the
maintenance process. These refrigerant recovery units incorporate a pump for
the return of the refrigerant to the chiller circuit.
If on the other hand condensers are not included, particularly in older systems
that employ cooling towers, the environmental problem then becomes one of
avoiding legionnaires disease. Both the cooling towers and the condensate
draining from the air-conditioning plant can be a source of the bacterium
238
which is responsible for about 300 cases a year of the infection, of which about
12% prove fatal. Consequently, the cooling towers must be properly designed,
operated and maintained to allow cleaning and maintenance, and effective
water treatment. A well-designed cooling system should enable the cleaning out
of all the condensate and sludge and provide easily accessible drainage points at
the lowest levels of the system. Of course, avoiding air-conditioning altogether
also helps avoid the risk of legionnaires disease.
Artificial lighting
Display lighting is an important aspect of merchandising. This has usually
resulted in stores of all types being uniformly illuminated to a consistently high
level allowing flexibility for the reorganisation of displays. Sainsburys store at
Greenwich has illustrated the potential for a return to a design paradigm closer to
the 19th Century market hall, background lighting being provided by rooflights
and daylight for much of the day. Display lighting can, as a consequence, be
locally disposed using high intensity sources such as tungsten halogen lamps.
General lighting for backup during the day and for general lighting at night is
likely to be provided by fluorescent fittings or metal halide lamps, both of which
have relatively favourable levels of luminous efficacy. Multi-storey shops may, of
course, reduce the potential for daylighting other than on the upper retail levels
as is particularly the case for larger stores with sizable floor plates.
239
such as found in do-it-yourself stores and car parks, but their colour rendering is
still inadequate for more sensitive display areas.
Other measures to improve efficiency include replacing the diffusers in old
luminaires with reflectors, because prismatic and opal diffusers have poorer
performance. Generally, if a light installation is over 15 years old, it is worth
replacing the fittings and updating the lighting controls to enable light levels to
be locally controlled by the staff.
Timed controls can be installed to switch off lights in sequence across the store
when the store is closing, and the sorts of controls used in offices, such as timed
controls, daylight detection controls and presence controls, may also be useful
in less frequently used areas such as storage rooms.
Naturally, adequate maintenance and a good operational regime are necessary
to achieve efficiency. Simple measures are effective, for example appointing
someone in the store to be responsible for turning lights off at the end of the
day, using daylight wherever possible and keeping windows and rooflights clean,
turning light levels down when the building is not open to the public but merely
being used for stocking shelves, and making sure that display lighting is not
used out of hours.
2. Construction
Within existing buildings, a refurbishment programme offers the opportunity
for roof and wall insulation to be upgraded, and windows to be replaced with
double or multiple glazing with a low-emissivity coating, or for secondary
glazing to be installed alongside existing windows to improve their performance.
Doors are an important source of heat loss in such heavily trafficked buildings;
revolving doors perform well from this point of view, but the draught proofing
of other personnel doors combined with the use of door closers, and the fitting
of insulated doors to loading bays also offer energy advantages.
Shopping centres are one of the most frequently refurbished building types. The
frequency of refitting is around 67 years for particularly popular locations but
typically around 810 years. Over the course of the buildings lifetime, the inputs
of materials and energy during refurbishment programmes will be a substantial
proportion of the whole lifetime energy cost. Less successful shopping centres are
refurbished in order to maintain their fabric, but the more fashionable locations
will be upgraded to maintain a contemporary appearance, and to retain their
place in the market from the point of view of rents, their mix of tenants, and to
remain competitive with other retail outlets. The importance of a recognisable
image, particularly for retail chains, may place significant barriers in the way of
Supermarkets: Energy and Shopping
241
a more ecological approach. There are, of course, exceptions such as the Body
Shop where ecological responsibility has become part of the corporate ethos.
The environmental impact of refurbishment can be reduced if a policy of
rational periodic renewal addresses the durability characteristics of the buildings components in terms of their inherent life expectancy. Relevant factors
include the tendency of retail buildings to have large areas of low-level glazing,
and that particularly visible parts of the building fabric are likely to require easy
replacement on account of wear and tear, and to keep a fresh appearance.
242
Structure
Steel or concrete columns clad in precast or brick or block, external
block/precast cavity walls
Figure 6.2 Masonry
cladding to steel hollow
section column
Roof
Steel or engineered timber trusses + purlins/rafters/battens and
concrete tiles and metal suspended ceiling
Figure 6.3 Tiled roof
on rafters, purlins and
exposed tubular steel
trusses
Suspended ceilings are very widely used in supermarkets and form one of this
building types largest elements by area. Because they are light in weight, their
impact in terms of embodied energy is limited, although proportionately their
Supermarkets: Energy and Shopping
243
Floors
Ceramic tiles or terrazzo flooring on in-situ slab
Figure 6.4 Tiled solid
floor laid on grade
Being a high-mass element, this concrete floor system achieves only a C rating
(though lighter weight alternatives such as ribbed slabs or waffles do better with
a B). Flat slab construction does particularly badly in relation to the volume of
mineral extraction it requires, because the quarrying of aggregates has a considerable impact on its local environment. Recycled aggregate has advantages from
this point of view, although it is little used at the moment. However, in terms of
embodied energy, the crushing, sorting and transport of recycled aggregates is
likely to be comparable to the virgin material, and there may be quality control
issues requiring additional cement content in the mix thus undermining the
environmental benefits.
Hard floor finishes from natural sources such as terrazzo, ceramic or quarry
tiles perform well (all achieve an A rating) because of the limited energy inputs
to their production but also because they are hard wearing and are therefore less
likely to be replaced.
244
Glazing
Curtain walling or shop windows, revolving steel doors
Figure 6.5 Stainless
steel shop window
Internal partitions
Glass block walls
Although long an architectural favourite, glass blocks have adverse environmental impacts by virtue of their weight, the thickness of the material and the
amount of energy used in their production.
245
Table 6.1 Ecopoints evaluation of generic constructions for supermarkets, using BREs Envest tool
100m
20m
Generic supermarket type: 100m 20m; (ground floor 2000 sq m); no. storeys: 1; storey
height: 5.0 m; % cellular: 10%; location: S.E. England; soil type: firm clay
Ground floor
Upper floor
none
External walls
Ecopoints
4690
32.1
774
5.3
996
6.8
1770
12.1
514
3.5
413
2.8
Glass block
Windows
Roof
466
3.2
3786
25.9
Floors
terrazzo
197
1.3
Wall finishes
171
1.2
304
2.1
474
3.2
Sub-total
Ceiling
222
1.5
Sub-structure
383
2.6
Super-structure
Concrete columns
1059
7.3
14618
7.3
Source: based on Anderson, J., Shiers, D.E., Sinclair, M., Green Guide to Specification, (3rd Edition), BRE, Watford, 2002.
Commentary: The extensive use of high embodied energy materials for both structure and finishes explains the quite high
overall figure for the total embodied energy per sq. m. The long span roof and large volume enclosed might give a different
impression if considered in terms of embodied energy per cu. m. But the other damaging characteristics of this building type
in terms of travel, food miles and operating energy result in embodied energy being a relatively minor consideration.
246
4. Case study
4.1 Sainsburys store at Greenwich, London
Client: Sainsburys plc
Architects: Chetwood Associates
Background
Although highly atypical of general UK supermarket construction, the
Sainsburys store on Greenwich Peninsula, close to the Millennium Dome,
represents the first of a new approach to a more sustainable standard for
supermarkets.
The site
The store is located at the end of the Greenwich peninsula next to the (former)
Millennium Dome, the site has been planned to accommodate a bus lane,
designed to accommodate a future London Transport Transit link. Behind the
supermarket is a lake and planted meadow that are to be a wildlife reserve used
as a retaining area for surface water running from the car parks, selected indigenous plant species being used for landscaping. The external illuminated shop
signs are powered entirely by wind and solar energy, excess electricity being
stored in batteries for use at night. The masts onto which the advertising panels
are mounted also provide support for a wind turbine and photovoltaic array. By
generating electricity on site CO2 emissions are reduced.
Two 75-mm deep boreholes were sunk into the aquifer beneath the site to provide
water at a constant temperature, the water is used to cool the building through
a system of underfloor piping; it also supplies water to the refrigeration system.
In turn, heat from the refrigeration system is discharged to the boreholes as an
alternative to air-cooling, which, with the relative variability of air temperature
compared with ground water, makes for a more efficient system.
The form of the building is completely integrated with its site, which is banked
up to the roof, the outline of which has been designed as an integral aspect of the
overall form. Earth is mounded against the building on two sides, which forms a
smooth profile, reducing wind turbulence that would otherwise increase winter
heat loss. Air is drawn into the store under the surrounding earth banks through
the suspended sales floor and supplied to the sales areas using natural buoyancy.
Other aspects of the site layout include landscaping with indigenous and
drought-tolerant plants, the inclusion of a Woodland Trust reserve, sheltered
cycle racks with access to a system of footpaths and cycleways across the
Greenwich Peninsula.
Supermarkets: Energy and Shopping
247
249
aluminium, the walls flanking the earth mounds to either side of the entrance
are clad with untreated oak boards with Forestry Stewardship Council certification. The internal environment of the building explores the possibility of
reducing electricity consumption by the use of daylight to as large an extent as
possible, and the use of natural rather than mechanical ventilation.
Design
As with any long-span shed type building, the design of the roof is a major
consideration, particularly so in this case since the roof is the main lighting
mechanism for the building and it also plays a part in the ventilation system.
The overall form of the roof is a northlight factory profile, but the angle of the
glazing is somewhat less than 90 degrees to make the shape more aerodynamic
since it was decided that the sharp angles characteristic of traditional northlights
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251
generate turbulence, and the resulting suction pressure increases heat loss from
the roof. The choice of roof covering was between the mill-finished standingseam aluminium that was eventually used, and a PVC-based membrane. The
latter was rejected because of the controversy that broke out when it was used
for the Millennium Dome, and because the metal roof that was chosen resulted
in a more distinctive design.
That the choice was between two less than ideal alternatives illustrates the
difficulty of constructing sustainable flat roofs, or roofs with little slope. Millfinished aluminium does at least obviate the need for the VOCs used to make the
plastic coating to profiled roof sheeting. Also, standing-seam strip roofing relies
on its method of jointing to achieve watertightness rather than being effectively
glued together with mastic, the short-life hydrocarbon sealant required by other
low-slope systems.
The insulation used was RockwoolTM which, rather than one of the foamed plastic
alternatives, is free from CFCs and HCFCs, and is 10% thicker than required by
the then current Building Regulations. The roof panels were profiled on site in
standard module widths of 400 mm. The rolling plant was located adjacent to
the building so the motive force of the machine could provide enough impetus to
project the lengths of metal strip up onto the roof. Fabrication of some complex
forms was required. The combination of a barrel vault with the inclined surfaces
of the sawtooth rooflights resulted in an S-shaped profile at the junction,
but it was found that this could be made without using tapered sheet as was
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253
originally thought necessary; studies carried out with scale models showed that
the material had enough flexibility to make the shape from standard sheet, with
favourable implications for the amount of off-cut waste that was discarded.
The glazed sections are about 1800 mm high and total in length about half a
kilometre of glazing, which is either high-performance double glazing, or
incorporates automated louvres to control the direction and quantity of light
entering the building. The structure of the roof is a series of steel beams intersected by curving secondary beams beneath each of the sawtooth sections. The
insulated profiled metal roofing is supported off steel frames fixed alternately
to the bottom and top of the secondary steelwork to create a location for an
insulated steel double skin gutter that forms a walking surface between the
sloping glazing and profiled roofing. The glazed sections have, at the apex of the
sawtooth, automated ventilation and smoke extract dampers. As far as possible,
recycled material has been used throughout the building. It is, of course, one
of the advantages of aluminium that a large proportion comes from recycled
sources although the virgin metal is very energy intensive to produce.
The lightweight steel frame was quite fast to erect so the roof construction could
begin before completion of the mass concrete surrounding walls, which provide
thermal mass to the building and help to reduce temperature fluctuations.
Other examples of the use of recycled materials in the building include the rubber
flooring to the entrance area, which was made from recycled bus and aeroplane
tyres. Walls within the landscaped areas that obscure the service yard are made
from gabions containing crushed concrete reclaimed from the site and are planted
with creepers. Internally, linoleum flooring is used on account of its relatively
benign environmental characteristics compared with plastic flooring, and partitions within the customer toilets are made from recycled plastic bottles.
Services
The design makes a concerted effort to deal with the more intransigent aspects
of energy consumption within this kind of structure. Whereas artificial lighting
and ventilation are the norm for supermarkets, here the principal background
lighting is provided through the rooflights assisted by the light-coloured floor
and ceiling that make the best of available daylight. Artificial lighting is used
only to directly illuminate the merchandise on display, rather than providing
general lighting. The sales floor background lighting is turned off during the
day, with display lighting maintained at the level required for local illumination.
The light fittings themselves have been chosen for low energy operation. The
exception to that is the sparing use of tungsten halogen lamps for the lighting
of higher value products, the luminaires being attached to display shelving for
flexibility, and independent of the lighting to the adjoining aisles.
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The controls that make this possible are similar to those that would normally be
found in an art gallery. Sensors operate banks of louvres within the rooflights,
to reduce the direct admission of sunlight, but also to maintain a constant level
of illumination while preventing night time light pollution.
The floor finish is white-flecked terrazzo, which provides a reflective surface to
bounce light back onto the metal ceiling, preventing the incidence of glare but
also rendering the interior bright and airy.
The ventilation system is similarly innovative. Air is tempered by passing
through a concrete undercroft, having been drawn in from outdoors, before
entering the space at the base of the display cabinets. Hot water coils within
the undercroft make it possible to preheat the air if necessary. The resulting
displacement method is energy efficient since the air only needs to be cooled to
one or two degrees below comfort temperature, consequently only low-grade
heating and cooling sources are required, as provided by the on-site CHP plant
and borehole water cooling. The system is also healthy since used air and germs
are expelled at the high point of the roof, where mechanical dampers at the head
of the glazing exhaust air directly to the outside.
The disadvantage is that, whereas cold air spilling onto the floor from refrigerator cabinets would, in a conventional installation, become mixed with the
room air, because of high velocity supply air entering above head height, in
this instance the cool air isnt so readily dispelled. In order to overcome this
problem, and to prevent the chiller cabinets having to be continually defrosted,
they have extract grilles beneath them to take air back into the undercroft
and thereby to recycle some of the cool, and consequently dry, air. The refrigeration packs are ozone benign and propane-based, a glycol solution being
used within the under-floor pipework which supplies the sales floor cabinets
and freezers.
As is usual in supermarkets, because of the presence of the chiller cabinets
within the sales space, some heating is required for the majority of the year.
The CHP unit is not only able to provide 85% of the annual electrical load, but
also to provide enough heat energy for background space heating of the store.
Effectively, therefore, the heating is provided without any CO2 being generated,
but because the available heat is more than sufficient to meet the supermarkets needs, an economic case could not be established for reclaiming heat from
the exhaust ventilation. Delivery into the space is by an underfloor piped low
pressure hot water system so the sales floor acts as a giant radiator. Heat is
supplied by the CHP plant via a plate heat exchanger, or alternatively, when
cooling is required, by use of borehole cooling water, which is at a constant
temperature of 1012C.
Supermarkets: Energy and Shopping
255
5. Notes
1.
256
Factories: the
Industrial Agenda
1. Discussion
Since the 1970s, the pattern of new industrial building in the UK has followed
the direction of the countrys economy, resulting in a marked reduction in heavy
industry, and a shift towards light engineering and services, which have very
different requirements in terms of space[1]. At the same time, the increasing
need for energy saving has led to a closer control of construction standards;
consequently comfort conditions have improved, with positive benefits for
productivity within the workplace. The general environment in these new and
improved factories may, as a result, not be very much different from that found
in contemporary office buildings.
257
General issues
It has been estimated that half of the readily achievable energy savings in UK
factories are related to a relatively small number of factors: the extent of the
buildings insulation and air leakage, inadequacies in the heating system and
losses in distributing heat around the building, lack of controls, wrongly set
thermostats, lack of maintenance, and inefficient lighting installations.[2] Since
the early 1990s, the governments Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme
has taken steps to improve the energy performance of all sectors of industry
by providing information and guidance (e.g. through site visits) to help factory
owners and tenants introduce energy management not just to control their
buildings, but the processes too.[3]
1.2 Pollution
Undoubtedly, energy savings are possible in most types of industrial building,
with benefits not only in terms of energy consumption and cost, but also in
relation to CO2 emissions, and the increased profitability and competitiveness
that accompanies this reduction in overheads. These savings can be significant
since energy-efficient factories can consume 3050% less energy than those of
average performance. The refitting of some older buildings has achieved a 50%
reduction in heating and lighting costs without detriment to comfort conditions
or quality of product.
The amount of energy used varies widely across the industrial sector depending
on the type of building, the processes that it is to enclose, and the nature of the
site and its location. To determine the amount of energy use is quite difficult
since it depends not only on the type of fuel being consumed, but also on the
proportion that is devoted to heating, lighting and ventilating the building, as
opposed to the energy required for the production process. This can sometimes
be difficult to determine; for instance a ventilation system in a factory may be
an essential aspect of the production process as well as providing a satisfactory
internal environment.
1.3 Processes
Energy consumption varies widely across industrial sectors. The largest users
are the paper industry and factories producing cooked foods, which have an
average fuel consumption of between 8001000 kWh/m2 of gross floor area per
year, as compared with the relative frugality of cold food production units where
the median for the sector is just short of 200 kWh/m2.[4] Across all industries,
258
the top 10% have been found to be consuming 50% more than the average for
their sector. Some of this may be due to variations in production processes, but
it indicates the potential for the reduction of energy use in factories.
Despite the wide range of manufacturing processes, very few use more energy
to service the building than does the process taking place within it, when
considered on a kWh/m2 per year basis.
Different industrial processes use different types of fuel; the older heavy industries tend to consume fossil fuel, while light manufacturing makes greater use
of electricity. Similarly, most building heating will be supplied using fossil fuel
as the delivered form of energy, but because electricity is that much more costly
per m2 of floor area, the electricity costs roughly match those of fossil fuel across
most types of process. Since the extent of CO2 emissions varies more or less in
proportion with the unit cost of fuel, the relative costs also give an indication
of the relative production of greenhouse gas between sectors; laboratories and
chemical production plants being the worst polluters, and light manufacturing
and engineering are among the least polluting of industrial uses.
It is also worth noting the trend towards a change in use for traditional shedtype factory buildings. For example, where steel manufacturing factories once
covered acres on the fringe of an industrial town, we now see similar acreage
covered with massive distribution centres or shed-type buildings used as quasioffices for the ubiquitous call centre.
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1.4 Typology
Government-funded research dating back to the 1990s classified factory
buildings into four types[5]:
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General manufacturing buildings The norm for general manufacturing buildings is a clear height of 8 metres, possibly with gantry
cranes and storage racking, and tall equipment. High pressure sodium,
metal halide or fluorescent fittings are used to achieve 200 lux; there
may be clerestory windows or rooflights but, in this sort of building,
they are likely to be dirty and heavily obscured. There may be mezzanines in parts of the building, heating to 16C being provided by warm
air, radiant heaters or steam heating. High level natural ventilation or
mechanical extract may be used to exhaust the excess heat produced by
the manufacturing process.
1.6 Benchmarking
Surveys carried out on industrial buildings during the 1990s were used by the
governments Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme to build a software
tool that rates factories against benchmarks for their design and operation.[7]
The surveys were of a wide range of industrial buildings of different sizes and
ages, with a wide range of performance in a proportion of one to eight from
the least to the most energy consuming. The main contributory factors to poor
performance were aspects of the operational management of the building such
as loading doors that were left open, and poorly controlled heating and lighting
systems. Interestingly, it was shown that buildings could be refurbished to a
standard equivalent to new buildings, suggesting that there is a lot of potential
for enhanced environmental performance within the industrial sector.
The benchmarks, now published as Energy Consumption Guide 81 (ECON
81), are site-specific, and can be used to identify and prioritise areas where
savings can be made. The benchmarks were developed in relation to a level of
performance better than that required by the Building Regulations at the time,
but anticipating the future direction of the Regulations. The most recent version
of the benchmarks includes two different performance measures, because it was
Factories: the Industrial Agenda
261
proportion of a factorys overall heat loss, which can be exacerbated if doors face
towards the prevailing wind so an orientation 90 degrees to the prevailing
wind direction is the most favourable. Well-sealed and insulated doors that are
easy to operate, perhaps by their being operable by electric motor, offer the best
solution to these problems. Plastic curtains or air curtains can be beneficial
for room comfort and can have energy advantages if doors are often left open;
on the other hand they can result in excessive periods of door opening during
milder winter weather because people do not bother to close the doors!
As with other building types, increasing levels of insulation result in ventilation heat loss becoming the predominant issue; fabric losses having been
reduced in recently constructed factories. Adequately sealing to eliminate
infiltration in winter is an increasingly important and difficult issue given
the lightweight cladding usual for factories. The extent of leakage depends
primarily on wind speed, if it is in excess of 2 m/s, but during calm conditions
it will be driven mainly by the air buoyancy within the building induced by the
difference between inside and ambient temperatures. Because wind speeds
vary considerably, the rate of infiltration in winter is also likely to vary: for
a typical 1000 m 2 factory the rate varies between 0.1 and 0.8 ach, with an
average of 0.25 ach. Smaller buildings, having a larger surface to volume ratio,
are likely to have a yet larger rate of leakage, typically averaging 0.5 ach for a
250 m 2 building.
Junctions between elements of the construction are the most usual cause of
leakage, requiring both careful detailing and attention to workmanship on site.
Leakage often occurs at junctions between the roof and walls at lower level
where lightweight wall cladding abuts lower-level brickwork, and around doors
and roof vents. Surveys have shown that filler blocks sealing the ends of profiled
sheet cladding are often omitted. Similarly the eaves junction, or where lightweight cladding abuts a masonry plinth wall, and also the corners of factory
buildings, have been found to be common causes of leaks.
263
of fans, although it has been shown that fans supposedly designed for 4 ach in
actuality only achieve 2 ach unless doors are left open. Unless this is anticipated, air can be drawn in through the heating systems flue. If fans for summer
operation are being used in winter, and high levels of air extract are required,
the heating system has to be designed accordingly. Extract will especially be
required if the production process is polluting, for example local to welding
booths and soldering baths.
Natural ventilation is usually only suitable for industrial buildings that do
not have excessive heat gains due to the processes involved or to the level of
occupancy, and not where pollutant concentrations are high, or where a very
controlled environment is needed for the production process.
Warm-air heating
Warm-air heating systems come in a variety of types either using fuel such as
gas directly, or indirect systems employing piped steam or hot water fed from
a central boiler. Air is directed by a single-speed fan over the heat source and
delivered into the space through adjustable louvres at about 60C, cooling to
about 40C within a metre of leaving the unit. At higher temperatures, air has
too great a buoyancy, stratifying at high level rather than mixing with the air
within the room. If the heated air is supplied at a lower temperature, occupants
are likely to complain about draughts. Warm air heaters are available for floor
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or wall mounting; and condensing, indirect gas heaters are now available that
function at about 90% efficiency.
Radiant heaters
Radiant heaters come in different forms that operate at different temperatures.
Gas-fired types and electric quartz units heat to about 800C; direct gas-fired
radiant tubes to 400C; and lower-temperature medium-pressure hot-water
heaters are fed from a central boiler plant at 110C. The higher the temperature,
the greater the extent to which they work by the radiation of heat to bodies and
objects within the space, while at lower temperatures heat is transferred into the
room mostly by convection currents established by the contact of moving air
with the surface of the heater.
Choice of system
In older buildings that are likely to be poorly insulated and have higher ventilation rates, a high proportion of convected heat will be lost through the fabric,
so a radiative type of heater would be more efficient, although high temperature
radiators are more likely to lead to overheating. In more contemporary, wellinsulated and sealed factories, convection will lead to a general raising of air
temperatures that will be contained within the building envelope, contributing
to a feeling of comfort, but in large volume buildings with high ceilings, radiant
heaters may be preferable because they can efficiently heat people and surfaces
without having to heat all the air within the building.
The problem with warm air systems is that hot air tends to collect beneath the
roof, resulting in: higher conduction heat losses through the fabric and higher
ventilation heat loss; higher average room temperatures; and, in spaces beneath
lower ceilings, overheating. In order to improve the distribution of air, ducted
systems are preferable to the use of unit heaters. In high or poorly insulated
spaces ceiling-mounted fans can help to produce beneficial air movement and
will guard against stratification by mixing the air; this can be particularly useful
during hot summer periods. However, the mixing achieved increases the overall
air velocity, which may be the cause of discomfort in lower rooms or where
sedentary work is being performed. Fans should not be necessary in modern,
well-insulated spaces, for a factory with its eaves at a height around 5 to 6 metres,
if a temperature gradient of less than 4C can be achieved.
In light industrial factories, where work can be mostly sedentary, a heating
system that dominates the environment such as high-velocity air heaters, or
high-intensity radiant heaters, may be less appropriate than a method providing
overall heating from a low velocity warm air system or a low temperature
Factories: the Industrial Agenda
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267
rooflights facing south to even-out the distribution of light, and overcome the
problem of shadows, but with potential for overheating.
Double-pitch shed roofs or flat roofs are suitable for daylighting, provided that
vertical surfaces are light and reflective to even out the appearance of brightness
in the space, and as long as there are sufficient rooflights to provide adequate
daylight levels. An even pattern of rooflights covering about 10% of the roof will
achieve a daylight factor of approximately 5% and adequate visual rendering of
the space. Multiple bay shed roofs have a number of detailing problems such as
lengthy valley gutters, plus the difficulty of integrating luminaires and ducting
within the roof shape, so rooflights have to be designed with these considerations in mind.
Integrated solutions
A good case can, however, be made for a better standard of construction for
factories, as is required anyway for better thermal performance, so that roof
lighting can provide an overall level of background lighting with local tasks
being performed with the aid of artificial task lighting. Although it has been
popularly assumed that, to reduce heat loss, you require smaller windows and
rooflights, an adequate provision of daylight can offset the requirement for
artificial lighting to be extensively used, and thereby enable both savings of
primary electrical energy and the consequent high levels of CO2 emissions.[8]
This strategy is dependent on adequate controls that are easy and convenient to
use being an intrinsic element of the design.
Controls can then enable general artificial lighting to be in operation only
when daylight levels are inadequate, in which case, total annual primary energy
consumption is minimised if the area of rooflight is between 15 and 20% of
the floor area of the building, so although heating energy rises with increasing
rooflight area it is more than offset by savings in artificial lighting. This is,
however, contrary to the advice given in the CIBSE guide[9] which suggests that,
in speculative factories that are predominantly daylit during working hours,
lighting control systems will not be economic. Furthermore, there are recorded
cases of factory units designed to be daylit, where the control system has been
disabled and artificial lighting used all the time. However, where the building is
being designed for a specific enterprise, the greater use of daylight and control
systems may be justified as part as an overall energy strategy, and factory units
having 10% area of the roof as rooflight, imparting approximately 5% daylight
factor, represent a good baseline for the achievement of contemporary energysaving criteria.
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Fluorescent lighting
Where electric lighting is required to be used for extended periods of time, use of
the most efficient lamps for their purpose militates in favour of 26 mm diameter
fluorescent tubes replacing older 36 mm tubes, provided that the existing
control gear is switchstart. Similarly, long-life compact fluorescents should have
replaced tungsten GLS lamps in all service areas and corridors. It can be worth
replacing lighting installations as little as five years old, since contemporary
systems can be twice as efficient if high-intensity discharge lamps are used, or
slightly less if using efficient fluorescent fittings with high-frequency electronic
ballasts. Of all the main energy efficiency measures that can be implemented in
factories, improved lighting has the lowest payback period, a mere 1.5 years.
Choice of lamp
The usual choice of lamp in factories is between fluorescent and high-pressure
sodium, although metal halide lamps are sometimes used where a better
standard of colour rendering is required, but the resulting power consumption
is likely to be greater. The choice between sodium and fluorescent fittings, from
the point of view of operating energy, is not significant provided that high efficacy
types are used and contained within luminaires having a high light output ratio.
Better colour rendering can be obtained with fluorescent lamps, but where they
are to be mounted at heights in excess of 4.5 metres, installation costs are likely
to favour sodium.
Lighting controls
In areas such as storage rooms, which are intermittently used, or if the buildings users cannot readily operate light switches, e.g. in a warehouse occupied
by forklift truck drivers, presence sensors may be an appropriate solution.
More complex control strategies such as completely integrated building energy
management systems (BEMS) are usually implemented on larger sites. They do
not necessarily result in efficiencies; in fact, control regimes are often too lax,
resulting in lights being left on for longer than necessary. So controls need to be
combined with a strong management strategy promoting automatic reversion
to lights off and clearly indicating when lights around the building are, and are
not, in operation.
269
by boilers to make up for process air that is lost to the atmosphere. However, the
reclamation of heat within production processes, for return to the process, is
beneficial, with an anticipated payback period of 1.8 years, although the overall
savings to be made are small compared with those due to other heating-related
factors such as the efficiency of the buildings boilers.
Overall costs were comparable with the base case, although a higher proportion was being spent on the
roof, rooflights, frame and lighting of the passive solar factories. (Having said that, it has to be conceded
that lighting controls do add to factory construction costs.)
Since the schemes succeeded in producing energy savings, the project was considered to point the way
ahead for low-energy factory construction.
1. Jestico + Whiles, Ryder Nicklin, ECD Partnership, for the Design Studies Programme, Architects Journal, 31
January 1990, pp5965.
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Thermal performance
A high proportion of both the steel and aluminium used in construction comes
from recycled material. Nevertheless, both are materials with high embodied
energy in their manufacture, impacts that are amplified by the plastic-coated
finishing process. They also require the use of thousands of self-tapping screws
which join the cladding back to the purlins in the roof, and cladding rails in
the walls. The large number of fixings form cold bridges, and the standard of
workmanship is critical because misalignment can cause localised buckling of
the outer panel and potential leaks. In addition, if inadequate care is taken when
fixing the insulation, misalignment can largely negate its value, an effect that
has been demonstrated by the use of thermographic cameras.
A common cause of reduced performance is compression of low-density quilt
insulation, often as a result of the thickness of the insulation being greater than
the spacers between the inner and outer sheets. If end laps are inadequately
sealed, the resulting air movement through the air gaps within the panels will
similarly reduce their U-value by inducing cooling convection currents around
the insulation. A variety of other workmanship-related faults have been shown
to result in increased heat loss gaps left between abutting sheets, missing
areas of insulation around roof openings and rooflights, insufficiently fixed and
sagging insulation within walls, and whole areas of insulation missing as a result
of poor site supervision.
Factories: the Industrial Agenda
271
The form of construction itself exacerbates some of these problems: for example,
quilt insulation is difficult to install in walls on windy sites, and the lack of
dimensional coordination between insulation and other components in many
site-assembled three-layer walls and roofs, results in excessive trimming to size
and poor performance. A three-layer insulation should, however, be capable of
good thermal performance if these practical difficulties are avoided.
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273
The offices were originally equipped with a boiler and low-temperature hot
water system providing heating and hot water. The warehouse was subsequently fitted out with an indirect gas-fired ducted warm air system, controlled
by temperature sensors incorporating a locally controlled branch adjacent to
the doors that was designed to compensate for periods when they are standing
open. Extract fans providing 4 ach were located in the roof for summertime
ventilation. Fluorescent lamps in reflective luminaires were used throughout to
give a light level of 300 lux in production areas and 150 lux in the warehouse,
where movement detectors switch individual aisles between storage racks.
Thermographic photographs illustrated some missing areas of insulation and
sheeting rails forming cold bridges; also, inadequate sealing at the junction
between the profiled cladding and the plinth showed up in the photographs as
air leakage. Even so, the rate of infiltration annually was 0.30.45 ach, favourable
in comparison with the CIBSE guideline of 0.5 ach.[13]
The energy consumption statistics indicated that the energy consumption of the
building, at 192 kWh/m2, was within the good performance band, because the
environment throughout was more typical of a factory rather than a warehouse.
Gas consumption for space heating was the major energy use at 86%, although
only constituting 58% of the total cost. Lighting energy use was low, although
artificial lighting was in constant use in the north-facing offices, despite their
considerable area of glazing, a source of thermal discomfort that led to the
installation of extra radiators. Overall, the case studys appraisal highlighted
the problems associated with quilt insulation but applauded the positive contribution to energy saving made by the movement sensors in the warehouse.
the number of opening windows in the offices. Even so, and despite the glazed
wall being north-facing, the offices did overheat in the summer of 1990, although
this was thought to be due to the amount of electrical equipment in use rather
than solar gain.
A gas-fired boiler supplies the radiator system, with thermostatic radiator valves,
heating the offices and plate-making area. Hot water is produced local to points
of use by electric water heaters.
Unit air-conditioners have been installed in the plate-making room and rooms
housing computer equipment. In the factory areas, heat is provided by six gasfired warm air heaters hung from the roof that are controlled by thermostats
and time clocks. These spaces also have de-stratification fans and roof extract
fans that can provide ventilation, extraction and re-circulation as required by
the varying heat loads in the building, according to the operation of the printing
press.
In the offices, high efficiency fluorescent and compact fluorescent fixtures are
used with metal halide lamps, for good colour rendering, illuminating the
production areas and designed to give 300 lux at the work surface. Locally, this
is raised to 500 lux by the addition of fluorescent lighting.
Thermographic photographs confirmed that the building that was generally
well installed, achieving the intended design values, although the photographs
revealed one area where the insulation had either slipped or had not been
installed at all. Pressurisation tests in the offices indicated a rate of leakage
of 0.31 ach compared with the CIBSE guideline of 1.0 ach suggesting that the
curtain walling was well sealed.
The building is in operation seven days a week throughout the year, and has
high process energy consumption, which also contributes to the space heating
requirement for the building. Although 84% of the electricity used was for
the printing press, making the building overall energy intensive, the building
itself was found to be within the good rating band. This was due to the highefficiency lighting and hot water systems, and because the cladding was shown
to be providing the overall level of thermal enclosure that had been intended.
Generally, the appraisal was good; comfort conditions having largely been
achieved despite the variable heat output of the printing press by the use of
appropriate energy-efficient equipment and straightforward controls.
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Structure
Steel or concrete portal frame, external walls of three-layer
insulated profiled metal or composite metal panels/brick cavity
walling at plinth
The choice of steel or concrete is likely to be of little consequence (as explained
in Chapter 6, Offices).
Roof
Three-layer insulated metal roof or composite metal panels
Figure 7.2 Three-layer
construction
276
Lightweight cladding systems all achieve an A rating[15] if they are of threelayer construction having an inner metal liner panel with insulation sandwiched
between the liner panel and the outer profiled sheet. This is true for both steel
and aluminium systems but most particularly if stainless steel is employed
because of its ability to be recycled and because a large proportion of the alloy
is already returned to use as a result of recycling. Systems with a drywall lining
on galvanised cold-formed steel framing (rather less common nowadays) are
rated less highly.
Floors
Cast-in-place slab, insulated beneath, grano or similar wearing
surface
Figure 7.3 In-situ
concrete slab laid on
grade
The mass of concrete required, along with the large amount of mineral extraction,
explains the C rating[16] of this flooring. However, the use of recycled aggregate
(provided it is sourced relatively locally) can improve things somewhat.
The mass of the concrete, which is undesirable in terms of transport energy,
can improve the internal environment of the completed building, and in
industrial buildings this may be the only available thermal mass. Compared
to traditional masonry construction, where thermal mass is exposed, the
lightweight materials usual for cladding contemporary factories has relatively
little thermal mass. If the factory is in nearly continuous occupancy (if the
production process is 24-hour) the concrete floor can provide valuable thermal
mass, as long as it is effectively coupled to the space, i.e. without any floor
covering.
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Glazing
Glass reinforced plastic (GRP)/polycarbonate rooflights, patent
glazed clerestories
Figure 7.4 Translucent
GRP profiled sheeting
GRP is a lightweight material, and the area of the external envelope of an industrial building is unlikely to be significant compared with other elements of the
building. Of itself though, the material is not favoured owing to the polluting
and energy-consuming characteristics of its production, and the limited extent
and capability that it has for recycling.
Internal partitions
Blockwork between units
As noted in Chapter 3, (Housing), blockwork, whether aerated or dense, performs
well under analysis (for the Green Guide). Some manufacturers produce blocks
that are suitable for fair-faced construction, only requiring a coat of paint, which,
if it is of appropriate specification, will result in an environmentally favourable
specification.
278
Table 7.1. Ecopoints evaluation of generic constructions for factories, using BREs Envest tool
120m
80m
Generic factory type: 120m 80m; (ground floor 9600 sq m); no. storeys: 1; storey height:
7 m; % cellular 20%; location: S.E. England; soil type: firm clay
Ground floor
Upper floor
none
External walls
Ecopoints
22510
49.0
polyurethane insulation
3331
7.3
Internal partitions
3774
8.2
Windows
1275
2.8
Roof
Steel trusses +
1292
2.8
3145
6.9
Floors
25 mm granolithic finish
1265
2.8
Wall finishes
Gloss paint
1248
2.7
Ceiling
none
Sub-structure
Raft foundation
439
1.0
Super-structure
Steel frame
5768
12.6
45885
4.8
Source: based on Anderson, J., Shiers, D.E., Sinclair, M., Green Guide to Specification, (3rd Edition), BRE, Watford, 2002.
Commentary: For a fairly minimal type of construction that is generally light in weight the ground floor construction is a
major contributor in terms of overall embodied energy impact. The generally poor performance of the building type in terms
of operational energy consumption, which is commonly without heat reclaim, will however be a larger concern for lifetime
energy evaluation.
279
5. Case studies
5.1 Production facility, Cummins Power Generation,
Manston, Kent
Client: Cummins Engine Co.
Architects: Bennetts Associates
Structural engineer: WhitbyBird
Services engineer: Ernest Griffiths and Son
Cost consultant: Gardiner and Theobald
Main contractor: Tarmac
280
Background
For many engineering companies, the 1990s were uncertain times. In East Kent,
where the local coalfields had been closed and the port of Ramsgate was in
decline, this was especially true.
One engineering firm had been manufacturing diesel generators in the region
since the 1930s but, after a period of decline, its future was secured when it was
acquired by the American corporation Cummins.
The Cummins Engine Company has a long history of architectural patronage. In
the USA, the companys home town of Columbus, Indiana, features a diversity
of buildings by distinguished modern architects from Saarinen to Meier and,
in the UK, plants were designed by Kevin Roche in the 1960s and ABK in the
1970s. The company ethos supported the design of high-quality workplaces for
all employees and, with this, a responsible attitude to long-term flexibility and
adaptability.
281
8m above the finished floor. The completed sets are then subjected to a testing
regime prior to shipping. The testing process involves continuous running of
sets under load for up to 24 hours and necessitates total acoustic enclosure.
Engine exhaust is vented, and cooling air supplied. This process takes place in
large, highly serviced enclosures known as test cells.
The 8 ha site purchased by Cummins was large enough to allow for the
construction of an initial 15,000 m2 of accommodation with space for future
expansion by up to 100%.
Design
Initially Cummins prepared a diagram of the production process in which the
test cells were located at the sides of the production lines; this layout resulted in
a long rectangular plan with test cells at the three-quarter point in the process.
Although ideally suited to the current production process, this layout would
have severely constrained future flexibility.
Bennetts Associates response was to propose that the process of testing take
place outside the main production hall, and that the test cells and a despatch bay
be housed in a series of plug-in units attached to the rear of a main production
space. In this way, the main production hall could be constructed on a uniform
grid and height, in a more flexible square plan without the constraints introduced
by the abnormal activities. The resulting uniform cross-section was designed
to integrate daylighting, natural ventilation, heating and services routes within
a single structural idea.
The building users range from the fitters, planners and production staff, closely
tied to the factory floor, to the office-based sales and support team. The plant is
282
also visited by customers both prior to orders being placed and for the witnessing
of tests at the end of the production process. For this reason, the building has to
be both a high-quality workplace and a showcase for the company.
Corporate standards of the multinational parent company dictated that all the
building users should share the same front door, and the internal planning of
the building was configured to both emphasise the connection between factory
and offices, and to give customers a dramatic view of the production work in
progress from the main reception.
Offices and entrance are housed in a strip across the entire eastern face of the
production hall. The three storeys of accommodation are contained beneath an
extension of the main factory roof which oversails to provide entrance canopies
at either end of the offices. A level change across the site of about 3 m results
in the lowest floor of the offices forming an undercroft at production-floor
level while a retaining wall across the site allows the main building entrance to
occur at the middle office level. From here, there are dramatic views across the
production floor through a fully glazed firewall.
Like many of Bennetts Associates, buildings, the design of the Cummins factory
emerged through consciously developing a series of opportunities. From the
Figure 7.7 Interior view
283
initial analysis of the process, selected key ideas were refined in order to create
drama on a large scale. This was achieved within an extremely limited budget
and a total project timescale of 18 months.
Structure
The steel-framed roof of the main production hall is divided into three linear
bays supported on structural columns at 28.8 14.4 m centres. Travelling cranes
are provided to two of the three bays. The cranes sit on their own supporting
structure on a square grid of 14.4 m. This structure is independent of the factory
roof enabling other crane configurations and orientations to be adopted for
Figure 7.8 Interior view
284
future production processes. The initial three bays are located across the site
such that, in the future, the grid could be continued and the building extended
by a further three bays.
Each roof column is cruciform in plan and, once above the height of the
craneage, divides into four tapering arms. These arms support the edges of a
7.2m-wide flat roof strip which delineate the three main structural bays of the
roof. Between these flat roof strips, curved beams span the remaining 21.6 m,
forming a distinctive arched cross-section. At the apex of each of the three
bays, a linear rooflight provides uniform daylighting and opens for ventilation.
Pipework and cabling runs are concentrated in the flat-roof sections above the
column grids. This leaves the main curved spans virtually free of services.
Services
The office strip is 14.4 m deep and is divided into an open plan area and a
highly serviced strip. The production area and offices are naturally ventilated
via openable windows, and hotspots requiring mechanical ventilation, such
as meeting rooms, equipment rooms and cellular offices, are placed along the
glazed wall between factory and offices.
The production area is predominantly day-lit, and the effect of this lighting
is emphasised by a white concrete floor throughout. Glazing proportions and
rooflight positions were modelled prior to the design being finalised. The
resulting strip windows at the base, clerestory and apex of the factory serve to
accentuate the component parts of the building and maintain views and even
daylighting while maintaining relatively modest glazed areas.
Heating of the production space is by radiant panels which ensure that, in such
a large volume, the heat is delivered where it is needed. The openable high-level
rooflights operate in tandem with continuous horizontal strip-windows at lowlevel. Opening lights within these lower strips provide natural ventilation to
the production area with air exiting at high level. The large expanse of concrete
floor also plays an important part in the stabilisation of the internal factory
environment by providing valuable thermal mass not present in the relatively
lightweight superstructure.
One of the main by-products of the testing regime is waste electricity. Early in
the project it was agreed to make provision for the possible export of this waste
power to the national grid. At the time, there was little interest in take-up from
the grid and, regrettably, the export provision was not carried out. Provision
was, however, made for future export in the configuration of the main electricity
terminations for connection to the grid.
285
Source: Neath Port Talbot County Borough Council (copyright: Peter Knowles Photography)
286
Figure 7.10
View at night
Source: Neath Port Talbot County Borough Council (copyright: Peter S. Jones)
287
Because of the speculative nature of the project at the inception stage, it was
decided to design in sufficient flexibility to allow the production space to be let
by multiple tenants, working on the principle that the internal space could be
divided equally. This resulted in an idea to form pop-ups and pop-outs. The
enlarged spaces inform the service design, by providing a means of daylighting,
ventilation and services containment and access; predominantly they provide a
means of sub-dividing the production area.
The building has been let to an automotive cable system company who chose
the Gateway Building as the location for its European manufacturing operation
because of the buildings innovative sustainable design approach, which they
believe reflects the image they wish to promote. Since occupation, the tenant
has taken advantage of the adaptable design and has expanded its office
accommodation into the second floor level. Further plans are in hand to expand
the production area by 100%.
Source: Neath Port Talbot County Borough Council (copyright: Andrew Southall)
288
Construction
The basic structure of the building is a repeated portal frame with blue-coated
composite cladding, thin film amorphous photovoltaic panels marking the
entrance to the reception and production areas at the south faade. Windows
to the office areas are shaded by 45-degree-angled awnings onto which are
mounted crystalline photovoltaic cells which, it is estimated, will have the
capacity to provide more than double the electricity required for the external
lighting scheme. This was used as justification for the external lighting that
spectacularly renders the building fluorescent blue when illuminated at night.
Materials
The cladding appears to change colour with the weather, while in the evening
the external lighting imparts a fluorescent blue glow.
The building was designed to satisfy the requirements of BREEAMs New
Industrial Units Version 5/93 and was given a BREEAM rating of excellent.
Presented with a RIBA Award in 2002, the Gateway was designed to set a
standard for the rest of the redevelopment of the site. Although built to a tight
budget, it incorporates novel environmental features and integrates renewable
energy provided by photovoltaic cells.
Services
The 100 m2 of photovoltaic cladding is in two forms: thin film amorphous,
which provides the entry statements to the reception and production on the
south elevation, and crystalline, which inclines at an angle of 45 degrees and
provides power and shading to the office. It is calculated that the amount of
power produced over a year will pay for external lightings electricity requirements twice over.
Daylighting scheme
The daylighting scheme was modelled in the artificial sky at Cardiff University,
and was estimated to achieve a minimum daylight factor to the production areas
of 2%, a large proportion of which is provided through the roof projections that
are glazed with U-section cast glass planks.
Ventilation
In the offices, behind the PV awnings, are manually operated windows,
cross-ventilation being achieved by buoyancy, as air is drawn out through
chain-operated louvres at the roof projections, which act as chimneys for this
purpose.
Factories: the Industrial Agenda
289
Source: Neath Port Talbot County Borough Council (The Welsh School of Architecture Design Research Unit)
An automated version of the same strategy is used to ventilate the factory spaces.
Ventilation to the production areas is provided by louvres which are installed to
the south elevation of the pop-outs and exiting air is drawn via a roof-mounted
louvre, the vents being controlled by a thermostat and rain sensor.
6. Notes
1.
Jones, P., Low-Energy Factories: 1 Setting Priorities, Architects Journal, 16th May
1990, p. 65.
2. Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme, Guide 18 Energy Efficiency in
Industrial Buildings and Sites. HMSO, May 2004.
3. See, for example, www.carbon-trust.co.uk, and www.envirowise.gov.uk
4. Op. cit., Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme.
5. ibid., p. 1.
6. BRE, BREEAM New Industrial Units: Version 5/93. Watford, BRE,1993.
7. Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme, Energy Consumption Guide 81
Benchmarking tool for industrial buildings heating and internal lighting. HMSO,
May 1994.
8. Jones, P., Low-Energy Factories: 6 Future Trends, Architects Journal, 13th June
1990, p. 63.
9. CIBSE, Guide F: Energy Efficiency in Buildings (2004) and Guide H: Building
Control Systems, (2000), CIBSE, London
10. Jones, P. Op. cit., p. 1.
290
11. Light Industry Passive Solar Factories, Architects Journal, 31st January 1990,
p. 59.
12. Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme: Case Study 106 Barclays Bank plc,
Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire. HMSO, March 1995.
13. CIBSE, Guide A: Environmental Design, Chartered Institute of Building Services
Engineers, London, 2006. See Table A4.13, Section A4: Air infiltration and
natural ventilation.
14. Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme, Case Study 144, Reed Southern Print
Ltd, Colchester, Essex. HMSO, March 1995.
15. Anderson, J. and Shiers, D., The Green Guide to Specification, Blackwell
Publishing, 2002.
16. ibid., p. 13.
291
Appendix 1
Energy use
Inputs
Outputs
Created by
BRE
Assessor
Designer
Methodology
Design Stage
Final/existing buildings
Scope
Building type
Notes
There are two versions: BREDEM-8, which gives monthly data, and BREDEM-12 which
gives annual results
Sources of
information
BREDEM-8:
Anderson, B.R., Chapman, P.F., Cutland, N.G. et al, BREDEM-8: Model description, BRE
Report 327, BRE, Watford, 1997.
BREDEM-12:
Anderson, B.R., Dickson, C.M., Henderson, G., & Shorrock, L.D., BREDEM-12: Model
description, BRE Report 315, BRE, Watford, 1996.
Anderson, B.R., Chapman, P.F., Cutland, N.G., Dickson, C.M., Henderson, G., Henderson,
J.H., Iles, P.J., Kosmina, L. & Shorrock, L.D., BREDEM-12: model description. 2001 update,
BRE Report 438, BRE, Watford, 2002.
Appendices
293
Inputs
Outputs
Created by
BRE
Assessor
Accredited assessor but checklists can inform design and give informal prediction of
the final rating
Methodology
Design stage
Scope
Whole building assessment. New build, major refurbishment and existing buildings
Building types
Offices, houses (EcoHomes, below), industrial units, retail units, health buildings and
schools
BREEAM for schools replaces the self-assessment SEAM (Schools Environmental
Assessment Method) tool
A bespoke BREEAM can be used for other building types, such as leisure centres and
laboratories
Notes
Sources of
information
294
EcoHomes
Indicators
Inputs
Outputs
Created by
BRE (UK)
Assessor
Accredited assessor but checklists can inform design and give informal prediction of
the final rating
Methodology
Not in public realm: guidelines for design only; requires the completion of a SAP
Design stage
Scope
Whole building assessment; new build, major refurbishment and existing buildings
Appendices
295
Building type
Notes
Sources of
information
Rao, S., Yates, A., Brownhill, D. & Howard, N., EcoHomes The environmental rating for
homes, BR389, BRE, Watford, 2003.
Comprehensive guidance for designers can be found in:
EcoHomes - The Environmental Rating for Homes, The Guidance - 2005, BRE, Watford and
http://products.bre.co.uk/breeam
296
Ecopoints
Indicators
Climate change
Acid deposition
Ozone depletion
Pollution to air: human toxicity
Pollution to air: low level ozone creation
Fossil fuel depletion and extraction
Pollution to water: human toxicity
Pollution to water: ecotoxicity
Pollution to water: eutrophication
Minerals extraction
Water extraction
Waste disposal
Transport pollution and congestion
Inputs
Outputs
Ecopoints
Created by
BRE (UK)
Assessor
BRE EcoPoints are then used in designer tools such as Envest 2 and The Green Guide
to Specification
Methodology
Design stage
All
Scope
Building type
All
Appendices
297
Notes
Sources of
information
298
BRE, Ecopoints a single score environmental assessment, BRE, Watford and http://cig.bre.
co.uk/envprofiles, May 2004.
Ecotect
Indicators
Inputs
Building dimensions
Building orientation
Building component information structure and services
Ecotect can also import IES (Illuminating Engineering Society) data
Outputs
Fabric costs
Cumulative resource use: energy use, water use, rainfall etc.
Lighting environment details: overshadowing, sun-path diagrams, shading tables,
interactive sun-path, annual sun-path, shadow profiles, sun penetration, solar rays,
projected shading rays, solar projections, solar envelope generation, solar access,
PV array sizing and load matching data, solar stress, insolation analysis, surface
insolation, daylight factors, artificial lighting levels, lighting vectors (for visual
comfort and glare assessment), daylight autonomy and vertical daylight factor
Acoustic environmental details: reverberation times by frequency band, acoustic
ray and particle plots, sound levels, linked decay rates and acoustic paths
Thermal environment: internal temperature, heating and cooling loads (and
distribution), spatially distributed & mean radiant temperatures and discomfort times
Data for Part L submissions
Data can also be exported to: RADIANCE, POV Ray, EnergyPlus, HBT2 Thermal Analysis,
OpenGL, VRML ...and other programs by application to creators.
Created by
Assessor
Designer
Methodology
Design stage
Scope
Whole buildings
Building type
All
Notes
Produces very beguiling graphics, but is probably only appropriate as a design tool
One of Square Ones objectives to encourage energy efficient design.
Sources of
information
Appendices
299
Envest 2
Indicators
As for Ecopoints
Inputs
Main dimensions: gross floor area (m2), number of storeys, storey height (m), building
width (m), plan depth (m)
Glazing ratio and doors: glazing ratio (%), rooflight ratio (%), internal door area (%)
Building type: head office (yes/no), air conditioned (yes/no), catering facilities on site
(yes/no), cellular space (%)
Other: operational life (5-100 yrs), discount rate (%), occupancy (m2/person), days in use
per year (days), soil type, (rocky, compact sand/gravel, stiff clay, firm clay, loose sand,
soft silt, very soft silt)
Building shape: square, linear, offset, courtyard, L-shape, T-shape, cruciform, C-shape
Structure. For example, for an external wall one could choose glass wool insulation
building frame
foundation
external wall
internal wall
floors
external openings
ceilings
roof
cladding
cork board
cellular glass
expanded polystyrene
extruded polystyrene
insulation
inner finishes (1st)
inner finishes (2nd)
internal decoration
glass wool
mineral wool
polyurethane
recycled cellulose
no insulation
Services: types of heating, lighting, water, ventilation, cooling and lifts can be
specified. Values for catering, office equipment and humidification are given based on
the initial building type data
300
Outputs
Created by
Assessor
Methodology
Design stage
Early
Scope
Building type
Offices only
Appendices
301
Notes
Like the LT Method, Envest 2 is an early design tool to help reduce negative environmental impacts. By changing building parameters the designer can reduce the number of
EcoPoints/m2 the design will potentially have.
Two versions of the tools are available: Envest 2 estimator and Envest 2 calculator. The
estimator version uses default environmental and financial data. Envest 2 calculator, too,
uses default environmental data but allows the user to enter their own financial data.
Sources of
information
302
Environmental Profiles
Indicators
Climate change from CO2 and other greenhouse gases (kgCO2 (eq))
Acid deposition (kgSO2 (eq))
Ozone depletion (kgCFC11 (eq))
Pollution to air: human toxicity (kg.tox)
Pollution to air: low level ozone creation (kg.ethene (eq))
Fossil fuel depletion and extraction (tonnes oil (eq))
Pollution to water: human toxicity (kg.tox)
Pollution to water: ecotoxicity (m3tox)
Pollution to water: eutrophication (kgPO4 (eq))
Minerals extraction (tonnes)
Water extraction (litres)
Waste disposal (tonnes)
Transport pollution and congestion: Freight (tonne.km)
Inputs
Outputs
Created by
BRE
Assessor
Methodology
Design stage
Scope
Building type
All
Notes
Sources of
information
Appendices
303
Climate change
Fossil fuel and ozone depletion
Freight transport
Human- and eco-toxicity
Waste disposal
Water use
Acid deposition (acid rain)
Eutrophication (emission of nutrients to water which may cause problems such as
algal blooms)
Summer smog production
Mineral extraction
Inputs
As for indicators; data given for 1m2 of each material/construction element, assuming a
60-year life span; units as for EcoPoints
Outputs
Constructions are ranked from AC, with A having the least environmental impact and
C having the most; breakdown ratings per indicator are also given
Created by
BRE
Assessor
The BRE assesses materials and components these assessments can then inform
design
Methodology
Brief summary looking at procurement, life cycle analysis (LCA) and other environmental issues
Design stage
All
Scope
Building type
All
Notes
The Green Guides allow the comparison of different construction elements (such as
external walls, roofs, landscaping, partitioning and doors) and materials (such as
paints, insulation and floor finishes)
Sources of
information
Anderson, J., Shiers, D.E. and Sinclair, M., The Green Guide to Specification, 3rd Edition,
BRE, Watford, 2002.
Anderson, J. and Howard, N., The Green Guide to Housing Specification, BR390, BRE,
Watford, 2000.
304
Inputs
Outputs
Created by:
Assessor
Designer
Methodology
Design stage
Early
Scope
Whole building
Building type
Notes
The results do not given predicted energy consumption for the finished building, but
allows for comparison of early design options
The energy consumption of the building is given in terms of primary energy, for
example for lighting the energy requirement will include transformation and
transmission losses
Sources of
information
Baker, N. and Steemers, K., Energy and Environment in Architecture - A Technical Design
Guide, Spon, London, 2000.
See also www.carltd.com
Appendices
305
Inputs
As indicators
Outputs
This is similar to Arups SPeAR in that green (best quartile) is at the centre of the
diagram, followed by amber and red (worst quartile)
Created by
306
Assessor
Designer
Methodology
Design stage
Scope
Whole building
Building type
Benchmarks for indicators are given for offices, domestic dwellings, retail premises,
food retail, hospitals and educational buildings.
Notes
While the assessment does not take into account issues such as indoor air quality (IAQ)
it is a relatively quick and easily accessible way of rating a building
The benchmarks were developed from data from existing buildings or from
government guidelines
Sources of
information
Appendices
307
Variable
Inputs
Manufacturers data.
Outputs
Created by
Assessor
Designer
Methodology
Informal
Design stage
Early
Scope
Building type
All
Notes
Sources of
information
308
Inputs
Outputs
Energy cost rating a SAP rating on a scale of 1 (poor energy efficiency) to 100 (zero
energy cost).
Dwelling Carbon Emissions Rate (DCER) in kg/m2 pa
Created by
BRE
Assessor
Informal: designer
Formal certification: accredited assessment method (i.e. approved software)
Methodology
Design stage
Late
Scope
Building type
Notes
The SAP rating is based on the BREs Domestic Energy Model, BREDEM. It has
undergone a number of changes, the main and most recent being:
1998 2001:
Maximum SAP rating increases from 100 to 120
SAP and Carbon Index (CI) become virtually independent from dwelling size
The CI replaces the Carbon Factor (CF)
Appendices
309
Sources of
information
SAP 2001:
http://projects.bre.co.uk/sap2001
SAP 2005:
BRE, SAP2005, http://projects.bre.co.uk/sap2005/ BRE, Watford, Feb 2006.
BRE, The Governments Standard Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of Dwellings,
Draft 2005 edn, BRE, Watford http://projects.bre.co.uk/sap2005/ Jan 2005.
BRE, SAP WORKSHEET (Version - 9.80) draft January 2005, http://projects.bre.co.uk/
sap2005/ BRE (Jan 2005)
BRE, Consultation on SAP 2005 (July - October 2004) - Summary of principal comments
received and amendments to the draft, BRE, Watford, http://projects.bre.co.uk/
sap2005/ Jan 2005.
A full list of BRE-approved SAP software is available on the SAP website.
310
Environment:
Air quality and microclimate
Land use
Water (reducing flood/storm risk and maintaining quality of resource)
Ecology and cultural heritage
Design and operation
Transport
Natural resources:
Materials
Water (minimising use of resources)
Energy
Land utilisation
Waste
Societal:
Health and welfare
User comfort/satisfaction
Form and space
Access
Amenity
Inclusion
Economic:
Social benefits and costs
Transport (reducing financial implications of travel/transport)
Employment/skills
Competition effects
Viability
Inputs
For example, in the Environment quadrant Air quality and microclimate is assessed
using data regarding direct emissions, indirect emissions, background environmental
conditions, dust and particulate matter, refrigeration/ODP (ozone depletion potential)
and BPEO (Best Practicable Environmental Option) for regulated processes
Outputs
Results are shown graphically with results for each indicator being on a scale of:
+3 (best) 0 (good practice) -3 (worst case).
An example is given in Chapter 1, Box 1.4
Created by
Assessor
Accredited assessor
Methodology
Available to assessors
Design stage
All
Scope
Appendices
311
Building type
All
Notes
Sources of
information
312
www.arup.com/environment
Appendix 2
Country
Tools
Building
type/scope
Sources of information*
Australia
LISA (LCA In
Sustainable
Architecture)
Houses, offices,
warehousing,
building materials,
civil engineering
projects etc.
www.lisa.au.com
NatHERS
www.buildingcommission.com.au
and www.seav.vic.gov.au
Athena v.3.0
Industrial,
institutional, office,
and multi-unit
and single family
residential designs
www.athenasmi.ca
Houses
http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca and
http://buildingsgroup.nrcan.gc.ca
EE4
Commercial
buildings
http://buildingsgroup.nrcan.gc.ca
BILDTRADTM
Commercial
buildings and
housing
http://buildingsgroup.nrcan.gc.ca
BSim (Building
Simulation)
www.dbri.dk
Energy Performance
Assessment Method
for Existing Dwellings
(EPA-ED)
Houses
Building
Environmental
Assessment Tool 2000
(BEAT)
www.dbri.dk
Canada
Denmark
Appendices
313
BeCost
www.vtt.fi
BEE 1.0
EcoPro
Offices, schools,
nurseries, housing,
shopping centres,
etc.
http://cic.vtt.fi
Energy certification
for buildings (Finland)
Single family
houses, blocks
of flats and office
buildings.
LCA-House
Houses
www.vtt.fi
TEAM
ESCALE
PAPOOSE
Housing, schools,
offices, etc.
EQUER
Building LCA
Japan
Green Building
Program
www.kankyo.metro.tokyo.jp
Netherlands
Eco-Quantum
Norway
Oekoprofile
IEA-BCS Annex 31
Sweden
EcoEffect
Switzerland
E2000 Oekobau
IEA-BCS Annex 31
FIA0123
IEA-BCS Annex 31
OGIP (Switzerland)
IEA-BCS Annex 31
Finland
France
USA
BEES
Building materials
ENERGY 10
Whole buildings
Green Building
Advisor
Whole buildings
LEEDTM
Whole buildings
(houses,
commercial, etc.)
and developments
* Information on the International Energy Agency Annex 31 (IEA-BCS Annex 31) can be
found at www.uni-weimar.de/scc/PRO/
314
Index
acoustic insulation, 1213
adhesives, formaldehyde, 20
Adnams brewery, 259
affordable housing, 801
air change rates
housing, 46
offices, 158
schools, 200, 203, 218
air conditioning (see also cooling loads; mechanical ventilation)
offices, 145, 146, 15662
schools, 197
supermarkets, 22930, 2379
air infiltration see airtightness
air quality see indoor air quality (IAQ)
airtightness
Building Regulations, 117
factories, 2623
houses (individual), 412, 589
housing, 83, 117
offices, 157
schools, 2034
aluminium-faced composite windows, 21415
aluminium framed curtain walling, 171, 175
aluminium roofing, 252
Arup Fitzrovia, 18693
Arup SPeAR, 1011, 1902, 31112
assessment methods, 115 (see also sustainability indicators;
and under the names of specific tools)
UK, 293312
international, 31314
atria, 156
Australia
assessment tools, 313
building codes, 68
autonomous house, 47
Barclays Bank, Milton Keynes, 2734
Beddington Zero Energy Development (BedZED), 8690,
11112
benchmarks (see also sustainability indicators)
factories, 2612
offices, 1449
schools, 197
biomass fuel, 27
BIPV (building-integrated photovoltaics), 28
BRE see Building Research Establishment (BRE)
BREDEM, 293
BREEAM, xii, 1501, 152, 1623, 197, 294
BREEAM5 for industry, 261
building assessment see assessment methods
building control systems
heating, 219
lighting, 155, 2056, 241, 268, 269
ventilation, 161
building energy management see building control systems
building height, offices, 1534
building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV), 28
building materials see construction materials
building orientation
factories, 2623
housing, 84
offices, 159, 176
Building Regulations
2002 revision, 35, 37, 14950
2006 amendment, 901, 117
housing, 58, 901, 117, 121
lighting, 58
offices, 14950
sound insulation, 121
window openings, 218
Building Research Establishment (BRE)
BREDEM, 293
BREEAM, xii, 1501, 152, 1623, 197, 294
BREEAM5 for industry, 261
EcoHomes, 36, 2956
Ecopoints see Ecopoints
Envest, xi, 3002
Environmental Office building, 156
Environmental Profiles, 303
Green Guide to Specification, 13, 304
Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP), 30910
building waste reclamation, 104
Cambridge Architectural Research (CAR)
Lighting and Thermal (LT) Method, 305
Cambridge University Botanic Garden, 1628
Index
315
316
electricity demand
factories, 259
houses (individual), 43
housing, 121
schools, 1968
supermarkets, 230
electricity supply (see also combined heat and power (CHP))
green tariffs, 27
embodied energy, 1314
aluminium, 171
concrete, 166, 167
factories, 271, 279
glass, 171
houses (individual), 378, 44, 56
housing, 56, 825, 111
insulation, 501
offices, 1434, 152, 166, 175
prefabricated components, 102
refurbishment vs rebuild, 36
schools, 1989, 215
steel frame construction, 175
supermarkets, 246
energy consumption (see also electricity demand; embodied
energy)
factories, 2589
houses (individual), 3743
housing, 35, 76, 826
offices, 1438, 166
schools, 1958, 199
supermarkets, 22930, 2323
Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme, 261, 2735
energy management systems see building control systems
energy supplies
BedZED, 88
green tariffs, 27
housing, 121
Envest tool, xi, 3002
Environmental Performance Indicators for Sustainable
Construction, 3067
Environmental Profiles, 303
EU energy label, 1
fabric losses (see also U-values)
factories, 271
housing, 379, 113
factories, 25791
airtightness, 2623
assessment and benchmarking, 2612
Index
317
glare, 155
glass reinforced plastic (GRP), 278
glazing (see also daylighting; solar utilisation; windows)
curtain walling, 171, 1723
factories, 278
housing, 110, 11719
offices, 155, 160, 171
schools, 214
supermarkets, 245, 246
glulam roofing, 212
Great Binfields Primary School, 21926
Green Guide to Housing Specification, 304
Green Guide to Specification, 13, 304
green tariffs, 27
Hampshire County primary schools, 21617
Hawkes House, 6770
HCFC-blown foam insulation, 49
health issues
air conditioning plant, 2389
houses (individual), 457
offices, 1623
heat losses see fabric losses; ventilation losses
heating see space heating; water heating
Hockerton Housing Project, 934
home ownership, 81
hot water heating see water heating
household types, 7980
houses (individual), 3572
case studies, 6070
construction materials, 434
construction types, 516
earth-sheltered houses, 57
Ecopoints, 56
embodied energy, 378, 44, 56
energy consumption, 3743
health issues, 457
insulation, 389, 4851
lighting, 43, 58
space heating, 60
transport issues, 434
ventilation, 412, 589
water supplies, 445
housing, 73142
affordable, 801
assessment tools, 293, 2956, 304, 30910
BedZED, 8690
Building Regulations, 58, 901, 117, 121
318
houses (individual), 56
housing, 110
offices, 175
schools, 214, 215
supermarkets, 245, 246
international assessment tools, 31314
inverted flat warm roof, 174
ISO14040 series, 15
Japan, assessment tools, 314
key-operated lighting switches, 206
laminated veneer lumber (LVL), 20
LGSF (light gauge steel framing), 83, 106
life cycle analysis (LCA) (see also assessment methods)
construction materials, 1415
Environmental Profiles, 303
steel vs concrete frame construction, 166
Lifetime Homes standards, 126
light gauge steel framing (LGSF), 83, 106
light-level sensors, 155
lighting (see also daylighting)
control systems, 155, 2056
factories, 2669, 270
houses (individual), 43, 58
housing, 11719
offices, 1546, 176
schools, 2046, 215, 217
supermarkets, 23941
Lighting and Thermal (LT) Method, 305
LVL (laminated veneer lumber), 20
manufacturing plant see factories
Martin Centre, Cambridge University, Lighting and Thermal
(LT) Method, 305
masonry, U-values, 83
materials see construction materials
Max Fordham LLP, traffic lights, 308
mechanical ventilation (see also hybrid ventilation)
factories, 2634
offices, 177
schools, 197
supermarkets, 238
vs natural ventilation, 11415, 116, 15662
mechanical ventilation and heat recovery (MVHR) systems, 59,
11415
MFI, 233
Index
319
320
Index
321
322
water heating
houses (individual), 43
housing, 120
offices, 178
schools, 21819
water supplies
BedZED, 87
houses (individual), 445
housing, 120
weather patterns see climate change
White City project, 1316
windows (see also glazing; rooflights)
BedZED, 112
composite aluminium-faced and timber frame, 21415
houses (individual), 54, 56
housing, 56, 83, 110
offices, 158
u-PVC, 110
U-values, 39, 83
wood see timber
wood-burning stoves and boilers, 27, 28, 656
zinc sheet roofing, 212