Workin' 9 To 5: How School Schedules Make Life Harder For Working Parents

AP PHOTO/M.
SPENCER GREEN
Workin 9 to 5
How School Schedules Make Life Harder for Working Parents
By Catherine Brown, Ulrich Boser, and Perpetual Baffour
October 2016
W W W.AMERICANPROGRESS.ORG
Workin 9 to 5
How School Schedules Make Life Harder
for Working Parents
By Catherine Brown, Ulrich Boser, and Perpetual Baffour
October 2016
Contents
1 Introduction and summary

11 Background
15 Findings
36 Discussion: Placing findings in their policy context
53 Recommendations
64 Conclusion
65 About the authors
66 Acknowledgments
67 Appendix 1: Methodology
70 Appendix 2: Sources
79 Endnotes
Introduction and summary

Barack Obama is the commander in chief of the most powerful nation in the
world. He oversees more than 2 million federal workers, attends countless
meetings, and makes numerous public appearances, duties all requiring that his
schedule be mapped out by the minute. But when it comes to parent-teacher conferences, President Obama is just like every other working parent, forced to take
off from work in the middle of the day to travel to his childrens school.1
The presidents visits to his daughters school underscore the unrealistic expectations that schools too often have for working parents and the ways in which
school policies put pressure on already stretched families. By closing at 3:00 p.m.,
shutting down intermittently and frequently, hosting important school events in
the middle of the day, and more, schools make it really hard for parents to balance
their commitments to their children and their jobs.
In fact, when it comes to school schedules, President Obama might actually be
lucky. His job at the White House is flexible enough to allow him to make time
to travel to his daughters parent-teacher conferences and other school events.
Many working parents do not have that autonomy. In fact, nearly half of all workers report not having any form of flexibility in their work schedules.2 Almost 40
percent of all workers do not even have paid vacation time.3
The world has evolved dramatically since the public school schedule first took root.
When the school day first evolved, millions of childrenmany as young as 10 years
oldworked, and most mothers stayed at home.4 Today, child labor for the most
part is outlawed, and 75 percent of women with school-age children work.5
1 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5
But in many ways, schools have not updated their policies to adapt to this changed
world, and this means that large numbers of working parents must split their time
between being a committed parent and being a committed working professional.
This report, then, aims to answer three questions:
How misaligned are school and work schedules?
What can schools do to support parents as they try to meet their obligations to
their employers and to their children?
How can schools and districts pay for this effort? Theres a short answer to this
last query because 9-to-5 school reform is less expensive than most people
believeand does not require teachers to work more for less pay.
To examine these questions, the Center for American Progress analyzed the
calendars, schedules, and policies of the largest school districts in the country,
which serve almost 6 million students.6 CAP researchers also examined data
from the National Center for Education Statistics. The resulting analysis reveals
the multitude of ways that U.S. public schools make life unnecessarily harder for
working parents.
Research findings include:
Throughout the school year, schools are closed for 29 days, more than two
workweeks longer than the average private-sector worker has in paid vacation and
holidays. While the average private-sector worker with paid leave has 16 days off
in paid holidays and vacation,7 the largest school districts shut their doors for an
average of 29 days each school year.8 This 29-day figure excludes summer recess
but includes days off during the school year for staff training, special programs,
and seasonal breaks, as well as major federal and state holidays such as Memorial
Day and Patriots Day in Massachusetts.9
The New York City and Los Angeles school districts have more days off than
most33 and 34, respectively.10 As a consequence, even if full-time workers
devoted all of their paid vacation time and holidays to cover school closings, they
would still need to find an alternative way to care for their children on at least 13
days throughout the school year. Notably, the reasons for some closings have little
to do with a schools core mission. Some districts will close on the opening day of
hunting season, for instance.11
This analysis understates the scope of the problem. First, many working parents do
not have paid leave.12 Part-time workers, for instance, make up 19 percent of the
U.S. workforce13 and are far less likely than full-time workers to receive paid leave.
In fact, only about one-third of these workers receive paid vacation time.14 Whats
more, 21 percent of workers are contract workers or under temporary hiresuch
as agency temps, on-call workers, and independent contractorsand have limited
if any access to paid leave.15 Overall, 39 percent of all workers, and 80 percent of
low-wage workers, lack access to paid vacation time.16 Forty-three percent of all
workers also lack access to paid sick leave.17
If families pay out of pocket for child care to cover the excess school closure days
and hours, it would cost an average of $6,600 per year, or 9 percent of an average
familys income. Even families who have paid leave are forced to find other ways
to take care of their children when school is closed once they have exceeded their
leave benefits. If parents were to pay child care workers their average hourly rate in
the United States$10.7218for every excess day and hour that schools are closed
while they are at work, they would owe $6,600 annually. That amounts to 9 percent
of $70,000, the median income for family households with school-age children.19
Low-income workers obviously would pay a higher percentage of their income.
Families in the lowest income quintile, for instance, earn just $29,000, and for them,
paying $6,600 for child care is simply out of reach.20
The typical school day does not reflect normal work hours, and most schools close
two hours or more before the end of the typical workday. The median school day
ends at 2:50 p.m., and virtually every district in the country is closed by 3:30
p.m.21 Some districts, such as Palm Beach County in Florida, end the school day
as early as 2:05 p.m. in their elementary schools.22 Most districts also hold half
days on the first or last day of student attendance, and many schools close as early
as 1:00 p.m. once per week. Meanwhile, 70 percent of parents report working
between the hours of 8:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m.23
Key school events such as parent-teacher conferences are usually scheduled during
the day. Districts typically conduct parent-teacher conferences during morning
and afternoon hours, when most parents are at work.24 Most districts also close
for a full day or several hours early for parent-teacher conferences, even if these
meetings last less than 10 minutes per family.25 The Dallas Independent School
District in Texas, for instance, closes school at least twice per year for parentteacher conferences. In Cobb County, Georgia, elementary and middle school
students receive an entire week of early dismissals due to these conferences.
Misaligned school schedules cost the U.S. economy $55 billion in lost productivity
annually. School schedules create more than just inconveniencesand additional
costsfor working parents. They also drive down economic productivity. First,
they result in lower levels of full-time employment among women with elementaryschool-age children. According to CAPs analysis, the gap in full-time employment
rates between mothers of elementary-school-age children and mothers of middleand high-school-age children suggests that more than 1 million fewer mothers of
elementary-school-age children are working full time, forfeiting an annual median
wage of $35,000. This lost productivity costs the economy about $35 billion every
year. The authors have dubbed this issue the Stay-at-Home problem.
Second, the economy loses productivity due to school closings. When school is
closed, many parents have to take time off from work in order to care for their
children. To quantify this type of productivity loss, CAP estimated the number
of lost hours due to school closings and multiplied it by the average hourly wage
of women with elementary-school-age children in the United States. The authors
limited the pool of affected workers to households where all residing parents are
employed. The result: lost productivity of $20 billion due to school closings. The
authors call this issue the I Dont Know How She Does It problem.
When the authors added these two different analyses together, the figures
summed to $55 billion in lost productivity each year due to misaligned schedules.
Fewer than half of elementary schools and fewer than one-third of lowincome schools offer before- and after-school care, and when offered it is often
unaffordable. One of the most basic ways that school districts can try to address
the gap between school and work schedules is through before- and after-school
programs. But only around 45 percent of all public elementary schools actually
offer before- and after-school care, according to CAPs analysis of federal data.26
In several states, in fact, only 15 percent of public schools offer before- and afterschool care. In Utah, the figure is as low as 3 percent.27
Low-income schools are actually less likely to offer after-school programs than
other schools. Nationally, only 31 percent of Title I schools offer such programs,
for instance, compared with 40 percent of schools not eligible for Title I funding.28
Even worse, of the districts that do offer after-school care, few ensure that they are
free, discounted, or progressively priced. In this reports survey of the nations largest districts, fewer than one-third make after-school care cheaper or completely
free for low-income families.29
The misalignment of school and work schedules has a disparate impact on black,
Latino, and low-income working parents. While the misalignment between school
and work schedules affects all working parents, this issue disproportionately
affects lower-income families. Lower-income workers are more likely to have
unpredictable or inflexible work schedules, which makes it difficult for them to
arrange child care immediately when needed.30 These parents are also less likely
to have paid time off.31 Just 53 percent of hourly workers have paid vacation days,
compared with 71 percent of salaried workers.32
Lack of paid leave hits many people of color particularly acutely, since they are far
more likely to hold hourly shift jobs that are less flexible.33 Many workers of color
also earn less than their peers, which means that they are less financially able to
cover any sudden cost of additional child care. Among full-time working women,
for instance, African Americans earn only 81 cents on every $1 whites make and
67 cents on every $1 Asians earn. Hispanic women or Latinas earn 75 percent as
much as whites and 62 percent as much as Asians.34
Most low-income schools and districts currently receive funding that can be used to
improve school schedules, with the costs of a 9-to-5 school day within the bounds
of current allotments of federal funding. While most schools will need increased
fundingand flexibilityto expand school schedules, the authors found several
federal funding sources that currently support efforts to redesign the school day,
reform the calendar year, rethink professional development, or improve access to
quality after-school programs. For instance, as part of the Every Student Succeeds
Act, or ESSA, schools receiving grants under Title I, Part A could use these funds
to lengthen the school day. More than 56,000 public schools currently receive
grants through Title I, Part A,35 but few schools are using these funds to improve
school schedules. ESSA also contains other funding streams for longer school days,
including through the 21st Century Community Learning Centers program, Student
Support and Academic Enrichment Grants, and the newly authorized Promise
Neighborhoods and Full-Service Community Schools programs under Title IV.
As part of their research, the authors also found that the cost for a 9-to-5 school
day is somewhere around $4 to $5 per student per hour, though often much
higher, depending on staffing and other factors.36 So if a school has around 500
studentswhich is the average size of an elementary schoolthen the costs
would be around $2,000 to $2,500 per additional hour.37 This is about the size
of Title I grants for many schools, and it means that schools could pay for the
reforms using federal dollars.
Health policies and weather-related closures foist additional, unexpected days off
onto working parents. Every child gets sick unexpectedly. On average, students
miss around three days of school due to illness38 per year, and 15 percent of
students report missing more than a week of class.39 But some districts have a takeno-prisoners approach when a child falls ill at school. In Duval County, Florida,
for instance, parents are expected to pick up their child from school within 60
minutes of when they are notified.40
Many schools also forbid students from attending school if they are found with
nits, which are the eggs that form lice. Yet many organizations have argued that
nits are not contagious enough to require a student to go home.41
Inclement weather is another source of unexpected school closings. While student
safety should always be of top priority, school districts should ensure that their
decisions on weather-related closings and delays are aligned with major employers
in the area and local government offices, which often is not the case.
While these findings may seem obvious to anyone who has attended school or
parented a school-age child, they have been accepted as the normal way that
schools do business by parents, voters, and society. The typical school day and
year comes nowhere close to aligning with the work schedules of most parents.
These shortened, rigid, and unpredictable school schedules not only affect
parents day-to-day workloads, but they also reduce valuable learning time in the
classroom, which negatively affects student achievement.42
To improve the lives of working families and boost student outcomes, CAP
recommends policy changes at the federal, state, and local levels to align school
and work schedules. These policy solutions should extend the length of the school
day, reduce the number of school closures, reform the calendar year, and rethink
engagement strategies.
The federal government should take the following steps:

Foster innovative approaches to aligning school and work schedules and
supporting working parents. The president should use his convening power
to host a White House conference on supporting working families through
improved school schedules, and the convening should bring together diverse
stakeholders to solve these problems. The U.S. Department of Education should

build on this work by creating and supporting a working group of school, district, and major community-based organization leaders who are committed to
working on this issue and sharing best practices.
Through guidanceand future legislationthe federal government should
also send a clear message that districts ought to align the schedules of schools
with the typical work schedule more closely, and they ought to prioritize
schools serving students from disadvantaged backgrounds in ways that
improve student outcomes.
Promote the use of Title I, Part A dollars for expanded school schedules, and
increase other federal funding sources for a 9-to-5 school day. Title I, Part A
funds carry a fair amount of flexibility, as school districts can use the funds for
any activity that supports the needs of students in the school.43 In other words,
high-poverty schools can use funds from Title I, Part A to pay for 9-to-5 schools
as part of a larger effort to boost achievement.
Congress should also appropriate additional funds for the 21st Century
Community Learning Centers program,44 Promise Neighborhoods,45
AmeriCorps46 and the Full-Service Community Schools Program,47 as well as
other federal funds that support schools and communities by providing wraparound services, after-school activities, and longer school days.
Create a pilot program that supports a 9-to-5 approach to schooling. The
federal government plays a key role in promoting innovation, and CAP recommends that a new competitive grant program be included in the Higher
Education Act,48 which is due for reauthorization. This new program would
encourage graduate schools in social work to partner with neighboring public
school districts in developing a 9-to-5 school schedule.
These sorts of university-school partnerships have already shown success within
the community schools space, particularly in the university-assisted community model.49 In this model, undergraduate and graduate students help lead the
expanded-day programs, and faculty members use their expertise to contribute
to strategic planning, fundraising, and curriculum development.
States should take the following steps:

Promote the 9-to-5 school day and compensate teachers who want to work
longer hours. While teachers should not have to work longer hours without
additional compensation, states should support more schools that align with
typical work schedules. Just as states create and support schools specializing in
bilingualism, technology, the health professions, and more, states should also
support the development of a 9-to-5 school, a new theme-based option for
parents. These efforts should be funded at the state level and become part of a
districts portfolio of schooling options.
This should be done through a competitive grant program that is targeted at
low-income schools. In states with statewide salary schedules, states could create
policies that would allow schools to compensate teachers with additional pay for
a 9-to-5 school day.
Rethink their requirements on instructional time. Current state guidelines on
instructional time are outdated. In some states, no requirements on the length of
the school day even exist.50 States should increase the minimum number of hours
that students are required to be in school. If states raised the minimum length of a
school day to eight hours, for instance, this policy change would naturally lead to
school schedules more aligned with the typical workday. This change would also
allow more time for physical education, recess, enrichment, and electives.
Districts and schools should take the following steps, among others:
Offer family-centered schools. Districts should introduce a new school model
of choice called family-centered schools into their portfolios. These schools
would organize themselves explicitly to support working families by limiting
the days when school is closed to only major national holidays; offering an 8:30
a.m. to 5:30 p.m. daily schedule; reinventing parent-teacher communication
to eliminate parent-teacher conferences at school during the day and allow for
more calls, texts, and other one-off, technology-enabled solutions; adopting
more parent-friendly health policies; and more.
Districts should prioritize providing access to these schools to low-income families and where there is great need. In low-income schools, the district can cover
the additional costs through Title I, Part A under the Schoolwide Program.
Conduct a comprehensive parent needs assessment. Districts should consult

parents in the planning and implementation of their family-centered school schedules. Parent consultation and family needs assessments are paramount to ensuring
that new schedules both align with the standard workday and satisfy the needs of
local parents. District administrators should also make sure that their outreach is
inclusive of households with different income levels and family structures.
Createand fundnew schedules in creative ways. While CAP recommends
a systemic approach to redesigning the school day and reforming the calendar
year, districts can consider simpler, less-expensive alternatives for meeting the
needs of working parents. For example, schools could enlarge the size of certain
classes or create experiences for larger groups of students on certain days.
Districts could also solicit AmeriCorps members, college students, and community members to facilitate programs during closings or at the end of the school
day. They could also proactively send out information about teachers, aides, or
other school personnelknown collectively as sub poolswho are willing to
supervise students for compensation on days off.
Leverage community resources and partner with community-based entities. Schools should work with community providers in operating before- and
after-school programs on school grounds rather than at facilities located outside
the school building. Schools need to break down barriers and make it easier
for outside organizations to use the school facilities. In addition, more effective
and seamless communication between schools and after-school programs can
help align after-school programming with the school day. Such measures would
provide better accommodations for low-income families. Under ESSA, Title
I-eligible schools may use Title I funds for these purposes.51
Redefine how professional development is delivered. Districts should stop
the practice of full-day school closures for professional development. Instead,
they should utilize high-quality professional development strategies that can
be embedded throughout the school day, including teacher collaboration and
planning time, individualized coaching, classroom observations, evaluations
from outside experts, and trainings on data analysis. Districts could also run
citywide leadership development events during nonschool hours. They could
also explore the use of online platforms, such as Knowledge Delivery Systems,52
for professional development and professional learning among educators, which
would reduce the need for full-day closures for these purposes.
Better accommodate disadvantaged families and support increased parental

involvement. Schools should better respond to the needs of low-income, singleparent, or otherwise disadvantaged family households. First, schools should
make every effort to accommodate parents work schedules when scheduling
parent-teacher conferences, student work expos, or similar events. For instance,
schools could provide alternative parent outreach options such as virtual conferences or regular emails and phone calls.
Administrators should take the following steps:

Negotiate more efficient bus schedules. Many school districts follow a
multitiered busing schedule system in order to save on transportation costs.53
For example, a single bus can run three routes in one morning instead of three
buses running one route each. As a consequence, however, elementary, middle, and high schools start and end their days at significantly different times.
Administrators should work with transportation companies to identify alternatives to tiered busing schedules, such as dual-route systems, that would enable
all grade levels to follow the same full-time school schedule without significantly
increasing costs.
Leverage technology to communicate with parents and better target days
off. Districts should offer parent-teacher conferences via an online platform such
as Skype or replace formal parent-teacher conferences with regular phone calls and
emails. A number of technologies, such as Edmodo, have made it easier for educators to share information with parents, and while some advocates have expressed
privacy concerns, more schools should take advantage of these potential solutions.54 Districts could also explore the use of online platforms, such as Knowledge
Delivery Systems,55 for professional development and professional learning among
educators, which would reduce the need for full-day closures for these purposes.
Align school year calendars and take cues from major employers about
emergency closings. Schools within an area should closely align their calendars and scheduling policies. Local officials could bring together school
administrators and ask them to work together to devise a unified school
schedule. Alternatively, charter and independent schools could align their calendars with the largest public school system in the area. School administrators
should also take cues on local emergencies and weather-related closings from
major employers in the area.
Background
The modern-day school calendar is operating under the needs of the 19th century,
a time when most children lived on farms and industrialization was only beginning to emerge. In the early 1800s, no standard school schedule existed, and the
rules governing a school calendar year were tied to the economic needs of the
local community.
While there is some disagreement in the literature on the exact origins of the
school calendar, recent research suggests that rural and urban schools operated on
different calendars. In rural areas, children attended school in two brief terms
summer and wintersince these seasons were nonharvesting periods and children were not needed in the fields.56 In urban areas, students received year-round
calendars with a short break during the summer.
During the late 19th century, some stakeholders pushed for a standardization
of the school system. Specifically, they aimed to end the significant variation of
school schedules across different towns and cities. While urban school systems
agreed to shorten their calendar years, rural areas agreed to lengthen them, laying
the foundation of the current 180-day school year.57
In both urban and rural areas, however, children were expected to leave school in
the early afternoon so they could work in order to help support their families.58
After-school programs did not emerge until the turn of the 20th century, when
there was a corresponding rise in state laws restricting child labor and mandating
formal school enrollment.59 As a consequence, many school-age children were left
unsupervised after school, which gave way to a rising concern about the potential
dangers for unsupervised children, so-called latchkey kids.60
Over the next few decades, from the early 1920s to the 1950s, more sophisticated
after-school programs arose. However, local community organizations of varying
types primarily staffed these programs and did not provide any formal system of
services. Starting in the 1960s, a number of organizations placed greater emphasis
on serving low-income students. By the 1990s, school-based after-school programs focused more on providing academic assistance and enrichment, particularly for underachieving and low-income students.61
Although after-school programs have grown much more sophisticated over time,
several challenges remain. For one, many programs are simply unaffordable for
working families. On average, parents spend about $114 per week on after-school
care, which translates to $4,674 annually.62 And among low-income parents, 56
percent report the high cost of after-school programs as the reason for not enrolling their children in such programs.63
In addition to cost, there is the issue of access. Demand exceeds participation in
many after-school programs: Parents of nearly 20 million children report that they
would enroll their child in an after-school program if one were available.64 Moreover,
due to lack of funding and other reasons, program quality remains an issue.65
A nations changing demographics

The Mad Men era of mid-20th century America has been over for decades.
Today, only about 20 percent of U.S. families reflect the 1950s portrait of the
working father and stay-at-home mother.66 In the past 60 years, maternal employment has skyrocketed; today, in nearly 60 percent of married-couple families, both
the husband and wife are in the labor force.67
At the same time, single parents have more than tripled their share of American
households since 1960.68 There are more than 8 million single mothers in the
United States, and more than 6 million of them are employed.69 In fact, 67 percent
of women with children under age 6 are employed.70
In most communities, the desire to work is not just a matter of preference but also
a matter of financial necessity.71 In New York City, for instance, the basic family budget for a two-parent, two-child household can be as much as $94,000 per
year.72 Since the early 2000s, living expenses for middle-class families have risen
steadily, while incomes have been stagnant or declining.73 In other words, few
families are able to afford to live comfortably on one partners income.
For most families, vacation time too is limited. The average American worker
receives just 6 paid holidays and 10 paid vacation days, for a total of 16 paid days
off per year.74
The reality of work for low-income families

While the demands of work and parenting affect all family households, the situation is more dire for single parents and low-wage workers. For instance, about 29
percent of part-time working mothers are also single parents.75 And while a fulltime minimum wage worker earns about $15,000 annually, he or she would need
to make more as a single parent. Specifically, he or she would need to make at least
$35,000 per year to support one child adequately.76
Less-than-full-time school schedulesschedules that do not mirror the 9-to-5
workdayalso place an especially heavy burden on low-income families. Lowincome families are less likely to have flexible jobs and more likely to have jobs with
fewer benefits, which means they have a harder time juggling work-life priorities.77
Many lower-income workers also have little control over their schedules. In
Washington, D.C., for instance, 36 percent of retail and service workers report having unstable work schedules, which means their schedules may change each week
due to changes in shifts or demand.78 This instability in the District of Columbia
and the rest of the nationmakes meeting the competing demands of work and
family even more difficult. Its also difficult to find after-school or daily child care
programs that allow parents to simply drop off their children when needed.
The middle-class squeeze

There is no question that single parents and low-income working parents are burdened disproportionately because of the misalignment between school and work
schedules. But middle-income families are caught in the school vs. work schedule
trap as well. Between 1979 and 2006, for instance, the typical middle-class familys workweek increased by 11 hours.79 This increase in working hours among
middle-income families is partly due to the rise in mothers joining the workforce
and occupying professional and managerial positions.80 Since the Great Recession,
an increasing number of mothers have also become the primary breadwinners in
their families.81
At the same time, middle-income families are facing an increasingly uncertain

future. The cost of maintaining a middle-class lifestyle for married-couple families
has increased by more than $10,000 over the past decade.82 Many middle-income
families also live farther away from close relatives and will have less of a support
system to rely on when the inevitable child care emergency arises.83
Women bear more of the cost of misaligned schedules than men

Finally, it bears mentioning that women disproportionately absorb the cost of
misaligned school schedules. Since women typically earn less money than men,
it often makes economic sense among families for mothersnot fathersto
take part-time jobs to allow them greater flexibility to care for their children
after school. In fact, only about 53 percent of mothers whose youngest child is in
elementary school work full time, compared with 84 percent of fathers who have
children in elementary school and work full time.84
Misaligned schedules hit women with elementary-school-age children particularly hard. These mothers have greater caregiving responsibilities than mothers of
older school-age children and are thus less likely to work full time or participate in
the labor force. Just 53 percent of women whose youngest child is in elementary
school work full time, compared with the 60 percent of women whose youngest
child is in middle school or high school who work full time.85
CAP researchers found no similar trend among fathers. In fact, researchers found
that fathers with younger school-age children were more likely to be working full
time than fathers with older school-age children, but only slightly.86 These findings
suggest that women disproportionately bear the cost of misaligned school schedules, particularly women with elementary-school-age children.
This decisionto work full time or notis personal, of course. Many women
prefer to spend more time with their children. However, the prevalence of women
in part-time jobs exacerbates the gender wage gap. Nonparticipation in the labor
force also limits womens ability to thrive professionally over the long term.87 It
also seems highly likely that far more women would work full time if schools were
to operate on a 9-to-5 schedule that mirrored the typical workday.
Findings
Throughout the school year, schools are closed for 29 days, more than two workweeks
longer than the average private-sector worker has in paid vacation and holidays.
CAPs research shows that the largest districts shut their doors for an average of
29 days each school year.88 Some large school districts are closed even longer.
For example, in the New York City district, schools are closed for 33 days each
school year. Some districts, such as Los Angeles, are closed for more than 34
days during the school year. Note that these figures exclude weekends and
summer vacation.
It is important to note that the authors included federal holidayssuch as

Veterans Day, Thanksgiving, Christmas, and New Years Dayin their final count
of school closings. While all districts close for federal holidays, there is significant
variability in districts responses to these holidays. For instance, Baltimore County
Public Schools in Maryland closes on Thanksgiving Day and the following Friday,
but Cypress-Fairbanks Independent School District in Texas shuts down for the
entire week.89 During Christmas and New Years, some districts will close for 10
consecutive school days, while others will close for eight or fewer. In addition, not
all districts close for certain national and religious holidays, such as Columbus
Day and Rosh Hashanah.
CAP researchers used an average of school closings from the largest school
districts and compared the data against the work schedule of the average privatesector worker with paid leave benefits, who typically receives 10 days in paid vacation time and 6 paid holidays per year.90 When CAP researchers performed this
analysis, they found that schools are closed 80 percent longeror about 13 more
daysthan the typical worker receives in paid holidays and vacation time.
This analysis is conservative because it does not address summer vacation, which
in most districts ranges from 49 days to 60 days off.91 When CAP researchers
include summer vacation days in the analysis, they find that schools are closed for
as many as 67 more days than the typical American worker receives in paid vacation time. In short, working families often have to look for alternative means of
child care for large swaths of the year.
Whats more, many workers do not get paid time off. For instance, nearly onequarter of all part-time workers, or about 7 million workers, have school-age
children, and they too must find a way to care for their children during days when
school is closed.93 Nine percent of full-time workers also have no access to paid
vacation time.94 And 21 percent of workers are contract or temp workers with very
limited access to paid leave.95
If the sheer number of days of school closures were not problematic enough, the
reasons for some school closings are questionable at best. For example, most
school districts in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, close their schools on the
opening day of deer hunting season.96 A victory parade for the Royals, winners of
the 2015 World Series, was the reason that the schools in Kansas City, Missouri,
closed for the day.97 Similarly, the Philadelphia schools closed for Pope Francis
2015 visit to the cityin all, the schools were shut down for four entire days.98
This was not standard across all cities hosting the papal visit, however. When Pope
Francis visited New York City, for instance, public schools remained open.99
In other cases, schools select numerous and consecutive days off at predictably
inconvenient times for working parents. One charter school in Washington, D.C.,
that serves a mostly low-income student population closes for the entire week
of Thanksgiving, as well as the Monday following the holiday. Other District of
Columbia charter schools extend their winter and spring breaks to the Monday
following the break, opening on the following Tuesday.100
Consider one of the common reasons for school closingsprofessional development. In Charlotte, North Carolina, students miss about eight full school days
for staff development.101 The Miami-Dade school district in Florida holds seven
full-day closures throughout the year for this reason. Some districts also regularly
dismiss students earlysome schools as early as 1:00 p.m.in order to provide
additional staff development time. For instance, elementary school students in
Los Angeles receive 26 shortened school days due to the districts banked time
for professional development.102
My son only had

four full weeks of
school from the
beginning of the
school year in
September until
Thanksgiving.
Nancy Vanasek, parent
of two elementary school
students in the greater
New York area92
While high-quality professional development and collaboration are critical for

enabling teachers to improve their practice, no other major professionsuch as
law, medicine, or engineeringshuts its doors for professional development. In
short, schools should build this time into their schedules through differentiated
staffing schedules or other solutions that do not come at the expense of parents
and students.
While hard to quantify, navigating these school closures places an undue amount
of stress on parents. Many parents have to make quick, informal arrangements
with a relative or friend to accommodate school closures. Others try to rearrange
their work schedules. Even those who prefer a caregiverand can afford one
still have to find someone who is readily available for a full dayno easy task.
Closing time
Districts are closed far more often than the typical workplace. CAP collected the
data below directly from the largest school districts. The table displays the number
of closings and early dismissals students received during the 2015-16 school year.
The table is ranked by district size.
The total count of student nonattendance days includes national and religious
holidays, such as Thanksgiving, Christmas, Memorial Day, and Martin Luther
King Jr. Day. The authors recognize the historical and cultural significance of these
holidays and do not mean to suggest that schools should remain open on these
dates. Many of these holidays may also be non-workdays for students parents.
However, as the table below illustrates, districts have different approaches to student holidays, both federal and local.
TABLE 1
Closing time
School closings and early dismissals for students
State
Number of student
nonattendance days
Number of early
releases
New York City
New York
33
Los Angeles Unified
California
32
26*
Chicago
Illinois
29
Not applicable
Miami-Dade County
Florida
31
Clark County
Nevada
27
Not applicable
Broward County
Florida
22
Houston Independent
Texas
23
Hillsborough County
Florida
28
37*
Orange County
Florida
28
Fairfax County
Virginia
28
Palm Beach County
Florida
29
5*
Gwinnett County
Georgia
28
10
Texas
28
North Carolina
29
Maryland
26
Philadelphia
Pennsylvania
27
Charlotte-Mecklenburg
North Carolina
29
California
27
35*
Florida
30
16
Maryland
33
Texas
26
Not applicable
Shelby County
Tennessee
30
Cobb County
Georgia
34
Maryland
28
School district
Dallas
Wake County
Montgomery County
San Diego Unified

Duval County
Prince George's County
Cypress-Fairbanks
Independent
Baltimore County
*Early releases are regularly scheduled dismissals at the elementary school grade level.
Sources: Authors analysis of collected data from the largest U.S. public school districts, personal communication with district office staff, and
materials from the National Council on Teacher Quality. See appendix for full sources list.
If families pay out of pocket for child care to cover the excess school closure days
and hours, it would cost an average of $6,600 per year, or 9 percent of an average
familys income.
When CAP researchers estimated the cost of child care due to misaligned
school and work schedules, they arrived at a cost of $6,600 per year, on average. Since the median income for family households with school-age children is
around $70,000 per year, the estimated out-of-pocket costs are about 9 percent
of a typical familys income.103 But families in the lowest income quintile earn
just $29,000, and for them, paying $6,600 for child care is simply out of reach.
In fact, these out-of-pocket costs would assume more than one-fifth, or nearly
23 percent, of their households income.104
To calculate out-of-pocket costs, CAP researchers made a number of assumptions.

For instance, the authors used the average hourly wage for child care workers of
$10.72 to estimate the cost of child care. The authors also assumed a commute
time of 26 minutes when estimating the length of the workday. The authors also
prorated the amount of a parents paid time off over the length of the school year.
Note, too, that this analysis is providing a hypothetical, and the authors do not
believe that most parents pay out of pocket for all of the additional child care
that is required due to misaligned school and work schedules. Still, as Jenna
Roberts, the mother of two elementary school students in the greater Boston area,
noted: Its like spit and glue trying to hold this all together.105 For additional
details on the assumptionsand for sources of the dataplease see the detailed
Methodology section.
The data vary by both location and family structure. Misaligned schedules may
cost a household headed by a single mother as much as 20 percent of her income,
for instance.106 The costs are also higher for families in certain major urban areas.
For the average family living in Philadelphia, for instance, costs could consume as
much as 14 percent of a familys annual income.107
The typical school day does not reflect normal work hours, and most schools close
two hours or more before the end of the typical workday.
Most school districts in the country are closed by 3:30 p.m., according to CAPs
analysis of a federal data set.108 Most working parents, however, have jobs that end
at 5:00 p.m.109 Consequently, a preponderance of working parents and guardians
must find alternative ways to care for their children every business day. Those
child care options include relying on everything from after-school programs to
paid child care, family members, neighbors, or friends.110
Parents also get short shrift in the morning. Most districts start the day at 8:00
a.m., according to CAPs analysis of a federal survey.111 This finding indicates that
parents typically have to get their children up and out the door earlier to meet
their job demands. Moreover, this early start to the day for students is earlier than
cognitive science suggests is ideal for teenagers.112
But the above averages do not reveal the many districts that have even earlier
opening and closing times. For example, the districts of Gwinnett County in
Georgia and Duval County in Florida see students starting school as early as
7:00 a.m.113 In other districts, such as Montgomery and Baltimore counties in
Maryland, schools end the day as early as 2:10 p.m. And in many districts, schools
routinely close even earlier once per weekas early as 1:00 p.m.in order to
allot teachers additional time for professional development. These findings also
overlook the millions of parents who send their child to half-day kindergarten,
which lasts for only a few hours per day.114
The clear misalignment of school and work schedules hurts working families.
Parents have to figure out alternative means of child care in the late afternoon.
Whats more, after-school programs are often managed separately from the general
school day, as discussed below, which means that there is no systemic approach to
support working parents.
The middle school mismatch

Among the largest school districts, the daily bell schedules of middle school
show more variance than the schedules of other grade levels and underscore the
difficulties faced by working parents who have to get their children to and from
schoolin some districts, as early as 7:05 a.m. for the opening bell and 2:05
p.m. for school dismissal.
TABLE 2
The middle school mismatch

The range of start and end times for middle schools
School district
State
School start time (a.m.)
School end time (p.m.)
New York City
New York
8:00 8:20
2:20 4:00
Los Angeles Unified
California
8:00
3:00
Chicago
Illinois
7:30 9:00
2:30 4:00
Miami-Dade County
Florida
8:35 9:10
3:05 3:50
Clark County
Nevada
7:05 8:20
2:11 3:20
Broward County
Florida
7:15 9:45
2:15 4:30
Houston Independent
Texas
7:30 8:20
3:00 4:00
Hillsborough County
Florida
7:35 9:15
2:50 4:15
Orange County
Florida
9:30
2:50
Fairfax County
Virginia
7:30
2:15
Palm Beach County
Florida
8:45 9:15
3:45 4:15
Gwinnett County
Georgia
9:20
4:00
Dallas
Wake County
Montgomery County
Texas
8:35
3:35
North Carolina
7:30 8:15
2:20 3:15
Maryland
8:15
3:00
Philadelphia
Pennsylvania
7:50 8:30
3:00 3:20
North Carolina
8:15 9:15
3:00 4:15
California
7:15 9:00
2:10 3:45
San Diego Unified

Duval County
Florida
9:30
4:15
Maryland
7:45 9:30
2:25 4:10
Texas
7:30 8:10
2:30 3:10
Shelby County
Tennessee
7:15 8:15
2:15 3:15
Cobb County
Georgia
9:15
4:15
Maryland
7:10 9:00
2:25 3:55

Cypress-Fairbanks
Independent
Baltimore County
Sources: Authors analysis of collected data from the largest U.S. public school districts, personal communication with district office staff, and
materials from the National Council on Teacher Quality. See appendix for full sources list.
The longest summer

Despite the fact that most parents have only a few weeks off each year, a lengthy
summer break is the norm in most districts. The table below displays the length of
the school year and summer recess among the largest school districts. The table is
ranked by school district size.
TABLE 3
The longest summer

Length of school year and summer recess among the largest school districts, 2015-16 school year
State
First day of school*
Last day of
school**
New York City
New York
September 9
June 28
180
49
Los Angeles Unified
California
August 18
June 10
180
47
Chicago
Illinois
September 8
June 21
178
57
Miami-Dade County
Florida
August 24
June 9
180
54
Clark County
Nevada
August 24
June 1
180
57
Broward County
Florida
August 24
June 9
180
54
Houston Independent
Texas
August 24
May 25
175
65
Hillsborough County
Florida
August 25
June 10
181
54
Orange County
Florida
August 24
June 9
180
55
Fairfax County
Virginia
September 8
June 23
180
55
Palm Beach County
Florida
August 17
June 2
180
54
Gwinnett County
Georgia
August 10
May 25
180
55
School district
Dallas
Number of
Length of summer break,
instructional days
by weekdays***
Texas
August 24
June 2
175
59
North Carolina
August 24
June 9
180
54
Maryland
August 31
June 17
184
53
Philadelphia
Pennsylvania
September 8
June 22
180
52
North Carolina
August 24
June 9
180
54
California
September 8
June 21
180
57
Wake County
Montgomery County
San Diego Unified

Duval County
Cypress-Fairbanks
Independent
Shelby County
Cobb County
Baltimore County
Florida
August 24
June 10
180
53
Maryland
August 25
June 14
180
53
Texas
August 24
June 1
176
60
Tennessee
August 10
May 27
180
53
Georgia
August 31
May 25
180
50
Maryland
August 24
June 17
190
48
*The date listed refers to the first instructional day that all grade-level students are in attendance. This does not include staggered start dates for certain grade levels.
**The date listed refers to the last day of student attendance on districts calendars. This does not include staggered end dates for certain grade levels.
***The length of summer recess applies to the number of vacation days before the first instructional day in the 2015-16 school year.
Sources: Authors analysis using collected data from the largest U.S. public school districts, personal communication with district office staff, and materials from the National Council on Teacher Quality.
See appendix for full sources list.
Whats more, when it comes to summer recess in some districts, not all students
start classes or end them on the same day. Certain school districts, such as New
York City and Philadelphia, follow a staggered school start and end schedule.
More specifically, prekindergarten and kindergarten students start and end the
school year on different dates than other grade levels.115 These staggered dates are
also often early release days for younger students. While these staggered starts are
intended to help younger students adjust to the new school environment,116 they
also may create more confusion and inconvenience for working parents. Many
children have already experienced preschool or pre-K by the time they enter kindergarten, begging the question of whether the staggered start is necessary.
It does not have to be this way. Child care centers, for instance, often offer much
more expansive schedules. Many centers open early and stay open as late as 7:00
p.m., provide full meals and snacks for children, and use staggered shift schedules for staff to ensure that the hours are not unmanageable for workers. Child
care centers are also less likely to close for staff development. In short, they are
designed to meet the needs of working parents, unlike most public schools.117
Key school events such as parent-teacher conferences are usually scheduled during
the day.
Many large, urban districts close schools for either a full day or have early dismissals for parent-teacher conferences.118 While these meetings are vital opportunities
for parents to learn from and share with their childs teacherand some working
parents have to take off from work for several hours or a full day in order to attend
many of these face-to-face conferences last only 10 minutes for each individual family.119 For instance, the Dallas Independent School District closes its schools at least
twice annually for parent-teacher conferences. Chicago Public Schools holds two
full-day closings as well. Gwinnett County, Georgia, dismisses its elementary and
middle school students early twice per year to allow for parent-teacher conferences.
In Cobb County, Georgia, elementary and middle school students receive an entire
week of early dismissals to accommodate these conferences.
In other cases, some districts hold no official policy on parent-teacher conferences and defer control to individual schools.120 However, these districts do
not provide explicit guidance on scheduling practices, and they typically do
not discourage school closings for conference purposes. In other words, even if
districts do not require closures for parent-teacher conferences, schools may still
shut down for this purpose.
Most districts also conduct parent-teacher conferences during the hours most
parents are at work. According to the 2014 American Time Use Survey, about 70
percent of parents report working between 8:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m.121 Although
many parents also work night shifts and odd hours, the practice of daytime conferences forces parents to either take time away from their jobs to go to the school,
which is not always nearby, or not attend at all.
To be clear, many schools and districts do hold some parent-teacher conferences during the evening. But the evening slots are limited and not standard
policy among the districts that CAP researchers surveyed. For instance, in Shelby
County, Tennessee, teachers are supposed to arrange parent-teacher conferences
between the hours of 3:00 p.m. and 7:00 p.m. But these limited hours do not provide parents much flexibility in selecting a meeting time that does not fall within
their normal work schedule.
Even more frustrating for working parents, most schools do not provide meaningful accommodations to support parent participation in parent-teacher conferences and other engagement opportunities. Nationally, only 40 percent of schools
help parents attend school events by offering transportation or child care.122 In
Kentucky, this figure drops to 30 percent, and in other states, such as Montana, the
percentage of schools that offer such services is as low as 19 percent.123
This challenge is especially hard for working parents of children who require
an Individualized Education Program, or IEP, under the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act, or IDEA, or who require accommodations under
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.124 In accordance with regulations under
these laws, parents are expected to attend multiple IEP or 504 team meetings
each year. While IDEA requires schools to schedule these meetings at a convenient time for parents, schools may still limit the days and times they are willing
to hold meetings. A disproportionate number of children with disabilities come
from low-income backgrounds, making these constraints particularly harmful
for economically disadvantaged families. Low-income parents have less flexibility to participate in these meetings, since it may increase the risk of losing their
place of employment.125
Some organizations, however, have taken positive steps to help ensure family
engagement. The Washington, D.C.-based Flamboyan Foundation, for instance,
works with educators to encourage more targeted approaches to family engagement.126 The Flamboyan Foundation helped pioneer the practice of parentteacher home visits in the District of Columbia. As part of the practice, teachers
visit students parents in the family home and seek to create meaningful relationships with them.127
Misaligned school and work schedules cost the U.S. economy $55 billion in lost
productivity annually.
Poorly aligned school and work schedules do more than just create daily inconveniences for working parents. They also affect parents productivity.
There are multiple ways to calculate lost productivity due to misaligned school
and work schedules. An analysis could focus, for instance, on workers who have
entered less demanding occupations in order to attend to their childrens needs.
For this report, though, the authors focused on two specific drivers of lost productivity. One is what the authors have called the Stay-at-Home problem. The second
is the I Dont Know How She Does It problem.
The authors examined both areas of lost productivity and will look at them in turn.
First, the authors studied the Stay-at-Home issue, defined as the proportion of workers, largely women, who are working full time at lower rates than others. Specifically,
the analysis looked at the difference between full-time employment rates of women
with elementary-school-age children and those with secondary-school-age children.
Researchers did not find a difference in the rate of women working part time who
have elementary vs. secondary school children. So for the purposes of this calculation, CAP researchers assumed that the entire gap in full-time employment rates
between mothers of elementary-school-age children and mothers of secondaryschool-age children could be attributed to their caregiving responsibilities.
CAP researchers found that mothers whose youngest child was in elementary
school had significantly lower full-time employment rates than mothers whose
youngest child was in middle school or high school53 percent and 60 percent,
respectively. According to CAPs analysis, the gap in full-time employment rates
between mothers of elementary-school-age children and mothers of middle- and
high-school-age children suggests that more than 1 million fewer mothers of
elementary-school-age children are working full time, forfeiting an annual median
wage of $35,000.Mothers whose youngest child is in elementary school also are

less likely to be actively looking for work. In fact, 27 percent of mothers whose
youngest child is in elementary school are not in the labor force, compared with
23 percent of mothers whose youngest child is in middle school or high school.
Researchers then multiplied this gap in full-time employment rates by the total
population of mothers whose youngest child is in elementary school, as well as by
the median annual wage of mothers with children in elementary school, in order
to estimate lost productivity. The resulting figure of $35 billion per year is an estimate of the total productivity loss due to this gap in full-time employment rates.
The second area of lost productivity is what the authors have dubbed the I Dont
Know How She Does It issue. This source of lost productivity comes from parents
either leaving work or not coming to work on the intermittent days throughout the
year when schools are closed. In order to estimate the adverse impact of these closings, CAP researchers multiplied the median hourly wage by the number of hours
in school closings that exceed the average paid time off for full-time, private-sector
workers with access to paid leave. The authors restricted their analysis to households
where all adults are working so as not to include households where one parent is not
working and is therefore available to take care of children when school is closed.
The authors also assumed that many families have child care when school is
closed that does not require them to take time off from work. For instance, among
families with working mothers, 17 percent of school-age children are regularly
cared for by their grandparents, another 15 percent are regularly cared for by other
relatives such as siblings, and another 3 percent are cared for by a nonrelative
living in the home, according to research by Lynda Laughlin for the Bureau of the
Census.128 The authors assume that these options are also available on occasional
days when schools are closed. Therefore, the authors included only 65 percent of
households with employed parents in their analysis.
While the question of how to quantify lost productivity due to intermittent days
off is difficult to answer precisely, the authors have reason to believe that their
assumption may understate the scope of the problem. For one, there is the issue
of paid leave. Because of methodological constraints, the authors assumed that all
workers in their analysis receive the average number of paid leave days nationally.
But the reality is far different, and millions of workersparticularly low-wage
workershave no access to paid leave, which means they face hard choices about
how to care for their children during a closure.
And finally, there are many other instances throughout a school year when parents
are expected to leave work to participate in a school activity: field trips, faculty celebrations, recitals, science fairs, and more.129 These activities are largely voluntary
and none are accounted for in the analysis, yet many parents leave work to attend.
In the end, the authors found that lost productivity costs were around $20 billion
annually for the I Dont Know How She Does It issue.
The authors then added this figure to the estimated $35 billion in lost productivity
due to the Stay-at-Home issue. This results in a total of about $55 billion in lost
productivity.
This $55 billion figure is comparable to what the nations economy loses due to
workplace-related injuries and illnesses, according to the U.S. Department of
Labor.130 Lost productivity due to misaligned school and work schedules also
would assume a sizable percentage of total federal spending on public education,
which isapproximately $600 billion.131
Fewer than half of elementary schools and fewer than one-third of low-income
schools offer before- and after-school care, and when offered it is often unaffordable.
While the authors believe that redesigned school schedules are the best solution for schools looking to implement 9-to-5 reforms, there are alternatives.
Specifically, some schools might use after-school programs to address the gap
between school and work schedules.
Still, only about 45 percent of all public elementary schools actually offer beforeand after-school programs at their school, according to CAPs analysis of federal
data.132 Across the United States, parents of nearly 20 million children are unable
to enroll their child in an after-school program because one is not available to
them.133 In several states, in fact, only 15 percent of public schools offer schoolbased care. In Utah, this figure is as low as 3 percent.134
Of the schools that do manage after-school programs, few ensure that the costs
are progressively priced, and in this reports survey of the nations largest districts,
only seven districts, including Fairfax County in Virginia, made after-school
programs affordable or completely free for low-income families.135 The CypressFairbanks Independent School District in Texas, for example, offers school-based
care with fees based on a familys eligibility for free and reduced-price lunch. The
districts standard cost for before- and after-school programs is $288 per month,
but parents who qualify for free lunch can pay a discounted fee of $188 per
month, and those who qualify for reduced lunch can pay $218 per month. Even
with these discounts, however, these monthly costs still add up to around $2,250
to $2,600 per year.
In sum, only one-third of the largest districts provide affordable care despite the fact
that the costs of after-school programs are clearly out of reach for most low-income
families. In many states, for instance, these costs are more than $10,000 per year.136
Whats more, even the districts that provide after-school programs do not
always make them easy to access, and for the most part, the programs are
disconnected from the school system. In Montgomery County, Maryland, for
instance, the countys parks and recreation department runs many of the afterschool programs.137 The case is similar in Clark County, Nevada, where it is
the countys parks and recreation department that runs most of the programs.
In Chicago, the district makes systemic information on after-school programs
available only via a Freedom of Information Act requestclearly, not a very
parent-friendly approach.138
This hodgepodge of after-school policies presents numerous problems. For one,
the lack of transparency, such as in Chicago, makes it difficult for parents to determine which schools have the best after-school programs. It also makes it harder for
school systems to ensure that after-school programs are supporting students either
sociallyproviding more time for play, for exampleor academicallyproviding more time for learning.
The misalignment of school and work schedules has a disparate impact on black,
Latino, and low-income working parents.
While unpredictable work schedules affect all workers, they disproportionately
affect lower-income workers. For instance, 16 percent of hourly workers have
unstable work schedules due to irregular, on-call, split, or rotating shift times,
compared with 12 percent of salaried workers.139 Blacks and Latinos also are more
likely to work in hourly jobs that are less flexible than the salaried positions typically held by higher-earning workers.140
Most low-income schools and districts currently receive funding that can be used
to offer a 9-to-5 school day, with costs for a 9-to-5 school day within the bounds of
current allotments of federal funding.
The Every Student Succeeds Act includes new changes and funding streams
to support efforts in redesigning the school day, reforming the calendar year,
rethinking professional development, or improving access to quality afterschool programs.
For instance, Title I, Part A currently provides more than $14 billion in funding to
schools and districts with high numbers and concentrations of low-income students,
and even districts with low concentrations of poverty get around at least $1,000
per low-income student, on average.141 Funds from Title I, Part A can be used for
targeted assistance purposes on Title I students alone or as part of a comprehensive
schoolwide reform to raise achievement among the lowest-performing students.142
Title I, Part A funds carry a fair amount of flexibility, and school districts can use
the funds for any activity that supports the needs of students in the school.143
In this regard, high-poverty schools can use funds from Title I, Part A to pay for
9-to-5 schools as part of a larger effort to boost achievement. Some schools participating in expanded learning time, or ELT, programs have already taken advantage
of this provision. States are also now required to set at least 7 percent of their Title
I funding aside for the School Improvement program.
To be clear, there was some confusion about how Title I, Part A funds could be
used, at least until recently. But in 2015, the Department of Education clarified use
of Title I, Part A. The guidance now states: In general, after-school tutoring and
extended-day activities to allow for extended time on tasks are allowable as long as
they are meeting an identified need to improve student academic achievement.144
In addition, many states and districts receive additional resources that can be used
to support a 9-to-5 school day. These funding sources include: the 21st Century
Community Learning Centers program;145 Promise Neighborhoods;146 and the
Full-Service Community Schools Program (see complete list in Table 7 below),147
all of which exist under Title IV of ESSA and support schools and communities
by providing wraparound services, after-school activities, volunteers, and longer
school days.
At the same time, the authors also found that the cost for a 9-to-5 school day is
somewhere around $4 to $5 per student per hour, though often much higher,
depending on staffing and other factors.148 So if a school has around 500 studentswhich is the average size of an elementary schoolthen the costs would
be around $2,000 to $2,500 per additional hour.149
This estimate comes from the ELT literature. Most recently, the National Center
on Time & Learning profiled five ELT schools that were markedly diverse in terms
of size, school demographics, and cost structures. Overall, the study estimated
the costs of implementing ELT to be between $2.20 and $5.23 per pupil per hour
in districts that added between 132 and 540 hours to their school year.150
In an ELT redesign model that pays a schools teachers to work during the
extended hours, the average cost was around $3 per student per hour. If the school
decided to hire extra staff, such as tutors or coordinators, to supplement teaching
personnel, costs would rise to about $4 per student per hour.151
Massachusetts also funded a study in 2011 to look at the issue of ELT costs. The
state caps funding for schoolwide ELT programs at $1,300 per pupil, or about
$4.33 per pupil per hour, and the researchers found that this amount was sufficient
for 80 percent of schools that rolled out ELT initiatives.152
A follow-up to the Massachusetts study, conducted by one of the same researchers, found similar ranges using a more sophisticated costing-out technique that
included marginal costs and adjustments for cost of living. In that analysis of five
schools, costs varied widely, from $981or around $3 per student per hourto
$4,865, or around $17 per student per hour.153 Note that the researchers considered the $4,865 figure to be an outlier; most of the schools clustered around
$2,000 per student, or $6 per student per hour.
Finally, CAP released a report in 2008 that attempted to quantify the costs of ELT
implementation.154 However, the reported figures are pretty conservative and
potentially outdated. Providing proportionately higher salaries to existing teachers
would cost $2 per pupil per hour, according to the study. A flat stipend approach
would cost anywhere from $1.50 to $1.90 per pupil per hour, and hiring new certified teaching staff would cost $3.33 per pupil per hour.
In short, many schools could use their federal dollars to cover the costs of a 9-to-5
school day.
Access to paid leave

As shown in the tables below, lower-income workers are also far less likely to
receive paid vacation or paid leave benefits. For instance, just 48 percent of workers in the lowest 25th income percentile have paid vacation days, compared with
92 percent of workers in the highest 25th income percentile.
TABLE 4
Paid leave by income distribution

Access to paid
vacations
Access to paid
sick leave
Access to paid
personal leave
Access to paid
family leave
Length of summer break,

by weekdays***
Lowest 25 percent
48%
31%
16%
5%
49
Second-lowest 25 percent
84%
66%
39%
10%
47
Second-highest 25 percent
89%
73%
47%
14%
57
Highest 25 percent
92%
84%
58%
23%
54
Income percentile*
*Surveyed occupations are classified into wage categories based on the average wage for the occupation, which may include workers with earnings both above and below the threshold. The categories were formed using percentile estimates generated by wage data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Employment Statistics website for May 2015.
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Table 32. Leave benefits: Access, private industry workers, National Compensation Survey, March 2015, available at http://www.bls.gov/ncs/ebs/benefits/2015/
ownership/private/table32a.pdf (last accessed May 2016).
Black and Latino workers are also less likely to have been with their current
employers for more than four years, and tenure in a job translates into more paid
time off. Fifty-seven percent of Hispanics and 54 percent of African Americans
have been in their current job for four years or fewer, compared with 49 percent of
white workers.155 These workers of color are therefore less likely to be able to take
paid time off for school-related reasons.
While schools that serve predominantly low-income students, black students,
and Latino students are more likely to provide services to support parental
involvement, given the additional barriers these parents face to attend these
events, more could and should be done. Only 46 percent of low-income schools
and 50 percent of majority-minority schools assist working parents in attending
school events, such as parent-teacher conferences, with additional services such
as child care and transportation.156
This fact helps explain why disadvantaged families struggle to attend school-based
events or events held during school hours. According to CAPs analysis of federal
data, only 47 percent of low-income schools reported a high level of attendance at
parent-teacher conferences, compared with 58 percent of nonpoor schools reporting high participation.157 In fact, at nearly 28 percent of all low-income public
schools, fewer than half of students parents attended parent-teacher conferences.
The cost of after-school care

Across the nation, parents report spending about $114 every week for their
childs after-school program, which translates to about $4,674 each school year.158
Although some schools and districts provide free after-school care, parents by and
large still bear the brunt of the costs associated with arranging care for their children during the school week. Tuition and fees make up far and away the greatest
source of funding for after-school programs at 76 percent. Federal grants represent
the next largest funding source at 11 percent.159 Not only is this system of shifting
the cost of after-school care to working parents unfair, but its also highly regressive. In other words, lower-income families share a higher burden of the cost.
Minimum wage and lower-income workers earn significantly lesstens of thousands of dollars lessthan workers in higher-earning positions.160 On average,
workers in clerical, sales, and service positions can earn as much as $50,000 less
annually than workers in business and finance occupations.161
This pay disparity also affects many workers of color. African American and
Latino workers earn only a fraction of every dollar white and Asian workers make.
Among full-time working women, for instance, blacks earn 81 cents to every $1
whites earn and 67 cents to every $1 Asians earn.162 Hispanic women or Latinas
earn 75 percent as much as whites and 62 percent as much as Asians.163 Even
more, low-income schools are less likely to provide before- and after-school programs. Only 31 percent of low-income schools offer after-school care, compared
with 40 percent of higher-income schools.164
As shown in the tables below, the high costs of after-school care place a heavier
burden on lower-income, African American, and Hispanic and Latino households.
TABLE 5
Cost of aftercare by household type

Family income, in U.S. dollars
Estimated share of income

apportioned to aftercare
Bottom 20th percentile
$25,000 to $29,999
16 percent19 percent
40th percentile
$50,000 to $54,999
8 percent9 percent
60th percentile
$80,000 to $84,999
5 percent6 percent
80th percentile
$125,000 to $129,999
4 percent
90th percentile
$195,000 to $199,999
2 percent
Income percentile
Note: CAP researchers also relied on estimates of annual afterschool costs from the Afterschool Alliance. The average weekly cost is $114 per
child per program, which translates to $4,674 each school year.
Sources: Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) Supplement (U.S. Department of Commerce,
2015), available at https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/faminc/finc01_1.xls; Afterschool Alliance, America After 3PM:
Afterschool Programs in Demand (2014), available at http://afterschoolalliance.org/documents/AA3PM-2014/AA3PM_National_Report.pdf.
TABLE 6
Aftercare as a share of income, by household type

Median family income,
in U.S. dollars
Estimated share of income

apportioned to aftercare
All races
$66,632
7%
White
$70,373
7%
Asian
$83,049
6%
Black
$43,364
11%
Hispanic
$45,114
10%
Note: CAP researchers also relied on estimates of annual afterschool costs from the Afterschool Alliance. The average weekly cost is $114 per
child per program, which translates to $4,674 each school year.
Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) Supplement (U.S. Department of Commerce,
2015), available at https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/faminc/finc01_1.xls; Afterschool Alliance, America After 3PM:
Afterschool Programs in Demand (2014), available at http://afterschoolalliance.org/documents/AA3PM-2014/AA3PM_National_Report.pdf.
Research has shown the importance of after-school programs and extracurricular activities for social mobility among low-income youth.165 However, the
families in these communities have less moneyand lower accessto affordable, high-quality care.
Health policies and weather-related closures foist additional, unexpected days off
onto working parents.
Every child gets sick unexpectedly, sometimes for multiple days at a time. On average, students miss approximately three days of school each year due to illness,166
and 15 percent of students report missing more than a week of class.167 But dis-
tricts often have a take-no-prisoners approach when it comes to students falling ill.
Once a child is considered too sick to be at school, many parents have no choice
but to act quickly. In Duval County, Florida, parents are expected to pick up their
sick child from school within 60 minutes of being notified.168
Public schools in Washington, D.C., also have a strict policy prohibiting school
nurses from administering over-the-counter medicine in cases of injury-related
painfor example, a child experiencing discomfort from a recent surgery or
medical procedure, such as a broken bone in a cast.169 Instead, schools require a
physicians signature before they allow a registered nurse to administer Advil or
even Tylenol. Without this completed form, parents must either designate another
individual to administer the medication on their behalf or be forced to leave their
workplace, arrive at the school, and administer the medicine themselves.170
Lice policies are another example of rule rigidity. The so-called no-nit policy
implemented in many schools forbids any student from attending school if they
are found with nits, which are the eggs that form lice. Yet many prominent organizations have released statements that lice and nits are not contagious enough to
require a student to go home.171
There are undoubtedly good reasons for these sorts of policies. Sick children
attending school can lead to the spread of an illness. At the same time, however,
schools should use common sense, and their policies should be more inclusive of
working parents. Moreover, nearly 40 percent of working parents do not have paid
parental leave or paid sick days that would allow them to take care of their children
when they get sick.172
Inclement weather conditions are another source of unexpected school closings.
While student safety should always be of top priority, district officials should
ensure their weather-related closing decisions are aligned with other major
employers and government agencies in the area. It is not uncommon for schools
to shut down during a storm, while parents are still expected to go to work. After
the historic 2016 blizzard in Washington, D.C., for instance, schools were still
closed the day after the storm ended, but many employers expected their staff to
return to work.173
Add to this issue the fact that many families depend on the meals offered by
schools to augment the nutrition of their children. More than 15 million children
in the United States live in a food-insecure household.174 In other words, one out
of every five children does not have consistent, adequate access to meals at home.
Many parents, particularly low-income parents, rely on schools to provide their
children with breakfast, lunches, or snacks throughout the regular school week.
As noted earlier in this report, public schools are closed for nearly 30 percent of
weekdays each year, and as a consequence, many families may experience food
insecurity for days or even weeks at a time.175 Not only do school closings intensify the food insecurity of many working families, but they may also aggravate
instances of child hunger.
Discussion: Placing findings

in their policy context
To any parent who has rushed a teen out of bed in the wee hours of the morning
to make a 7:00 a.m. school start time, these findings come as no surprise. Nor do
these findings shock mothers, fathers, or guardians who have taken their children
with them to work when school was closed for a professional development day.
School schedules rely on the outdated assumption that one parent is immediately
available to attend to their child in case of a school closing, delay, or emergency.
Parents have long struggled with these misaligned school policies and, in some
cases, have even lost jobs because of them. Take Fikirte Atlaw, who was left to
raise a young son when her husband passed away.176 As a working mother, she
was able to make ends meet with her managerial position at a parking management company. But the widowed mother still struggled to find affordable child
care for her son. Atlaw asked the parking management firm if she could shift
her usual schedule and arrive at work an hour later so she could take her son to
school in the morning.
Initially, the company tried to accommodate Atlaws request and moved her work
start time by an hour. Months later, however, she was fired from her position.
She just could not find a way to meet her competing demands as a mother and
manager. The misalignment between school and work schedules left this working
mother out to dry.
Policy origins of misaligned school schedules

At first glance, schools would seem entirely to blame for the tone-deaf scheduling systems and policies that frustrate so many working parents, but schools do
not operate in a vacuum. At the state and local levels, there are significant policy
pressures to maintain the status quo and that keep educators from doing more to
mitigate the issue.
In other words, even if schools wanted to change their opening times to better fit
working families, many would find it hard to do so.
For the most part, states play the biggest policy role when it comes to this issue. As
the unit of government ultimately responsible for education, states typically set a
minimum number of instructional hours and days that students are required to be
in school. Many of these laws have been left unchanged for decades and reflect an
antiquated culture.177
In states that require kindergarten, for example, states typically require only a few
hours of kindergarten each day.178 This is bad policy, particularly since most education experts believe that most children benefit from full-day kindergarten.179 At
the same time, a short school day places additional burdens on families, who often
have to arrange care both before and after the kindergarten program.180
States also set the minimum length of the school year, which is typically 180
days.181 In some states, however, policies on instructional time have not been
updated in decades or do not reflect recent changes in family structure or
todays workplace norms. And other states have simply set low expectations. For
example, Minnesota set no minimum for instructional time until 2009, and its
current 165-day requirement is significantly lower than the traditional 180 days
mandated in other states.182
In some instances, states also seem to establish scheduling policies based on
special interests. For instance, some states prohibit public schools from starting the school year before Labor Day or ending it after Memorial Day because it
ensures that students and their families spend more time and money boosting the
states tourism industry.183 Indeed, state tourism groups have successfully lobbied
in some areas for a longer summer break in order to generate more revenue for
the theme park industry. For example, Kings Dominion, a local amusement park
in Virginia, donated more than $200,000 in campaign funding to political candidates and political action committees, in hopes that a 1986 state law would remain
intact. Known as the Kings Dominion Law, the statute prohibits school districts
from setting the first day of school before Labor Day.184
Fiscal drivers
When it comes to school schedules, money again plays an important role, as the
length of the school day is a key driver of education costs. Schooling is a peopleintensive activity, and more than 80 percent of school budgets are wrapped up in
costs associated with staff.185
As a result, changes in state budgets can have a significant impact on school
schedules. Today, hundreds of school districtsparticularly those located in rural
communitiesnow operate on a four-day school week simply to meet budget
constraints.186 Moreover, many school districts have actually shortened the school
day or year to save money but in the process have made things tougher on parents.
Some districts in Michigan, for instance, have reduced the minimum number of
instructional days from 180 days to 170 days or fewer.187
Likewise, an important fiscal issue is transportation, which is another large cost
area for schools and districts. Time is money, and this is particularly true of
transportation costs, says a 2015 Montgomery County Public Schools analysis of
bell time options.188 Indeed, some school districts cite transportation costs as the
reason for the variation in schedules across grade levels.189 Specifically, districts
will use buses in wavesthat is to say, first transporting students to high schools
and then using the same buses to take students to middle schools and next to
elementary schoolsin order to minimize costs.
In 2014, for instance, the Montgomery County school board considered pushing
back its school start times. But the proposal to push the high school start time
later to 8:15 a.m., while retaining a four-tier bus schedule, would have cost the
district $21 million per year.190
In this context, many districts find it difficult to make school schedules more
accommodating of parents because such reforms are expensive. For instance, it
costs one low-income school in Charleston, South Carolina, more than $300,000
per year to extend the school daya cost that the school largely covers through
external donations and grants.191
Teacher preferences
The shorter school year and day is also a crucial benefit to teachers working in
schools. For instance, the longer summer break allows many educators to participate in professional development and other school-related activities, which
prepare them for the upcoming school year.192 Others prefer to take a second job
during the summer to supplement their income.
Moreover, many teachers are themselves parents. By some estimates, more than
half of teachers either have children or plan on having them someday,193 and they
often take jobs in education in order to attend to the needs of their own children.
It is therefore no surprise that in most collective bargaining agreements among
teachers, the length of the workday is a mandatory subject of negotiation. And
in the midst of recent education budget crises, many teachers unions push for
shorter school weeks to reduce the overall number of teacher layoffs and pay
cuts. In 2009, for example, the Hawaii State Teachers Association agreed to a
163-day school year and a 4-day workweek in order to ensure that each teacher
kept his or her job.194
It is possible, though, to restructure teacher schedules and lengthen the school
day without requiring individual teachers to work longer hours without additional
compensation. However, doing so would require a culture shift and creative thinking on the part of district and school leaders.
Disparate impact of school schedules on disadvantaged families

Misaligned school schedules have a disparate impact on low-income families, and
the reasons are pretty easy to identify. For one, low-wage jobs typically have inflexible and unpredictable schedules. Nearly half of service-sector employees receive
their work schedules less than a week in advance.195 Workers in the retail and
restaurant industries have it even worse, and one-third report not receiving any
notice of a schedule change until the night before they have to work.196
Theres another issue: Lower-income parents receive fewer benefits and often
cannot afford to take paid time off if their child is sick or has an otherwise unexpected day off.197 This lack of flexibility makes it harder on the parent to arrange
adequate child care. It also helps explain why low-income parents are less likely
to attend school activities such as back-to-school nights, parent-teacher conferences, and parent education workshops, since these activities require parents to
take time off.198
Because many low-income families live from paycheck to paycheck, they often
have difficulty covering any sudden additional household costs.199 Indeed, in
most cases, they cannot afford after-school programming. In fact, 60 percent of
low-income parents report not enrolling their children in after-school programs
because of the expense.200
Financial insecurity has only grown worse for low-income families in recent
decades. For example, the earnings gap between low-income families and wealthier households has grown by almost 10 percent in recent years, according to one
recent study.201
Theres another cruel irony here: While low-income schools have the most to gain
in terms of extending school schedules, they often have the least amount of money
to cover these costs. In most areas, low-income schools typically receive less
money to work with than schools in more affluent districts.202
Families with nonstandard work schedules

This report aims to examine a specific problem affecting working familiesthe
misalignment of school scheduling policies. As noted earlier in this report, 70
percent of working adults report working between the hours of 8:00 a.m. and 5:00
p.m. Yet most schools operate on an 8:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. schedule, and they are
closed for 30 percent of weekdays each year.
However, aligning the school day with the typical workday will not accommodate
all parents schedules. Neither will it solve the frustrations of all working families.
Thirty percent of working adults are at work during the early morning or late
evening hours, according to the 2014 American Time Use Survey. In other words,
millions of working parents must find a way to balance their work-family life with
irregular, nonstandard job schedules.
Low-wage workers disproportionately work jobs with odd hours and unpredictable shifts. African Americans, workers with less formal education, and
working single mothers are also more likely to have nonstandard and erratic
work schedules.203 Schools should better address the needs of these families.
If schools and districts determine that parents in their community are more
adversely affected by nonstandard schedules or low levels of employment, they
should respond accordingly.
One school in Forsyth County, North Carolina, for example, is rethinking parent
engagement through what it terms a parental involvement mobile unit. The bus,
completely equipped with high-tech computers, meets families where they are
and provides services that are traditionally based in a school building. Community
volunteers operate the bus before school, after school, and on weekends, offering
parent meetings, GED classes, and even child care.204
Schools and districts may also consider providing additional supports for parents
who may work late-night shifts and are unable to be home when their child returns
from school. Other potential solutions include providing school-based adult
literacy and GED programs, computer lab centers, and a social services center to
help eligible families apply for public benefits.
Hillsborough County, Florida

As part of this report, CAP researchers decided to dig deep into Hillsborough County,
Florida, to understand how much school schedules may vary across schools within a single
district. While these results may not be representative, they echo what was found across
districts: From vacation days to start times, school schedules are a mishmash of poorly
aligned times and dates.
In Hillsborough County, there are at least 12 different school calendars and schedules in
operation. Hillsborough County elementary schools start anywhere from 7:45 a.m. to 8:20
a.m., middle schools start anywhere from 7:35 a.m. to 9:15 a.m., and high schools start at
around 7:30 a.m.205
Meanwhile, there are almost 140 charter and independent schools within 32 miles of each
other that are not required to follow the public school calendar. For example, Winthrop
Charter School is an elementary school that runs classes from 8:30 a.m. to 3:30 p.m., whereas
most traditional public elementary schools start at 8:00 a.m. and end at 2:15 p.m.
These variations are not just limited to start and end times, however. These school systems
also have different closings throughout the year, including days off for professional development and even holidays. Veterans Day, for example, is not a day off in traditional public
schools but is a day off at certain charter schools. Also, more than one charter school has a
different spring break than the district, which can result in families having to take two different weeks off in order to care for their children. Whats more, one charter school ends the
school year a full week before Hillsborough Countys traditional public schools close.
One family with children in both a public school and a charter school such as Excel Academy
would have to take up to 36 days off throughout the year in order to accommodate the
differences between the schools, excluding summer break. When CAP researchers added in
days when schools dismiss students early, they found that a parent would have to take up to
48 days off in order to accommodate these differences.206
A closer look at before- and after-school programs

The percentage of schools offering after-school programs has steadily increased over
the past decade. Part of the reason has been a large boost in federal money. Funding
for after-school programs has increased from $40 million in 1998 to about $1.15 billion today, due in part to the dedicated efforts of the Clinton administration.207
In spite of these efforts, such programs are still inaccessible for many parents. As
noted in the reports findings section, high-poverty and majority-minority schools
are less likely to offer before- and after-school options. But even if programs are
availableeither through schools or private organizationsavailability does not
always indicate high quality. Although there are outstanding examples of highquality programs that are making a big difference for students,208 there remains a
huge shortage of high-quality, federally funded programs.
Many after-school programs, particularly those that serve low-income children,
face challenges in securing adequate staffing, financing, and program facilities.209
Another issue is that a diffuse group of providers runs after-school programs. In
many cases, the after-school program is entirely disconnected from the school in
both its operations and its learning objectives. This means that parents also have
to work harder to enroll their students in the programs due to logistical barriers.210
Parents also need to arrange transportation if care occurs at different locations,
which presents a significant barrier for many.211 Working parents need care for
their children, so in some cases, low-quality programs endure.
Recent reforms
Over the past decade, some schools have tried to do more to support working parents. They have pursued a variety of strategies, from outreach programs to a more
holistic approach to community engagement.
These reforms not only reduce stress among working parents, but they also
provide substantial benefits for students. On average, public school students in
the United States spend less than seven hours per day in the classroom. However,
growing research shows that longer school days can improve student performance; the extended hours increase learning time in the classroom. In fact, one
study found that adding 300 instructional hours to the school year is a stronger
predictor of achievement than other notable reforms.212 The American Institutes
for Research also found that providing additional time for students to learn core
academic subjects during the expanded hours improved students math and reading literacy, and students participating in enrichment activities during these hours
increased their social-emotional learning skills.213
Extended school day and year

Perhaps the most notable development has been schools extending the day or
calendar year. For instance, the District of Columbia Public Schools recently
announced plans to extend the school year by an additional month for 10 traditional public schools in the upcoming 2016-17 school year.214 Other schools
have done the same, and overall, more than 2,000 schools across the country
have added a longer school day or year in the past decade.215 These initiatives
have allowed students, on average, to gain an additional six weeks of school each
year. Across a students entire K-12 schooling career, this would accumulate to an
additional two years of learning time in school, which would certainly support the
needs of working parents.216
Then there is Harlems Thurgood Marshall Academy Lower School, or TMALS,
which primarily serves low-income students and runs from 8:30 a.m. to 5:30 p.m.
each school day.217 During the additional hours, TMALS students can participate
in community service projects and other activities. This reform effort demonstrates that full-time school schedules do not simply mean that students take
additional academic classes but also that these extended days can enable enriching, integrated learning experiences.
In other instances, some districts are rethinking their approach to professional
development. For example, the New York City school district offers numerous
opportunities for teachers and staff to participate in citywide and school-based
events during nonschool hours.218
Finally, there are expanded learning time programs. These initiatives extend the
school day and year and provide many additional benefits for students, as CAP has
long argued.219 ELT programs show particularly high outcomes among underserved student populations, such as English language learners.220 They can also
serve to build community.221
Massachusetts has long been a leader in this area of education reform. The state
has the only statewide, publicly funded initiative on ELT, with almost two dozen
schools enrolled in the program.222 In sum, there are 140 schools in Massachusetts
that are implementing longer schedules using federal, state, and local funds.
Recent research on ELT programs in Massachusetts and elsewhere show that staff
buy-in is critical for these programs to work, and they must be implemented effectively in order to minimize teacher turnover.223
The growth of high-performing charter management organizations

Many of the highest-performing national charter management organizations,
or CMOsincluding the Knowledge Is Power Program, or KIPP; Uncommon
Schools, and Achievement Firstoperate on a longer school day and year as a
core part of their model. These schools have grown substantially over the past
20 years. KIPP alone has expanded from three schools in 1995 to 183 schools
today.224 And while some of these schools are pulling back from offering a longer
school day, their 8:00 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. schedules meet the working needs of parents and offer more time for children to focus on core academic skills.
Reaching out to working parents

Given some of the structural constraints around changing the length of the school
day and year, some schools have taken a different approach to engaging working
families. The New York City district, for example, has placed a new emphasis on
outreach to working parents by increasing the number of parent-teacher conferences
from two to four meetings per year, allowing parents more opportunities to engage
with their childs teacher.225 More importantly, teachers arrange the meeting at a time
that works for the parents by reaching out to them weeks in advance.226
Technology can also play a helpful role, and many schools have been using information technologies to reach parents. Some schools encourage parent-teacher conferences via an online platform such as Skype.227 A number of technologies such as
Edmodo also make it much easier for educators to share information with parents,
and a growing number of schools have been using the sites to help teachers provide
details on homework and other school events.228 In some cases, the websites provide
the information in almost real time. ClassDojo, for instance, informs a parent when
his or her child has misbehaved in class moments after the incident.229
In some districts, home visits are increasingly common.230 In parent-teacher home

visits, teachers meet with parents in their house. Part of the reason is a matter
of trust, as home visits can create a closer relationship between a teacher and a
students family. Home visits also make it easier for working families, particularly
low-income ones, to directly communicate with their childs teacher. A number of
districts such as Denver, Colorado, and Mason County, Kentucky, have recently
taken up the approach.231
This issue is particularly acute when it comes to after-school programs. Unless
there is a coordinating entity for these services, after-school programs are a
privilege for parents who can access them, afford them, or are able to navigate the
complicated process.
Simply put, before- and after-school care should not be an add-on in public
schools. If school systems worked as a whole to support the needs of students and
families, before- and after-school care would be seamlessly integrated and aligned
with the regular school day.
Academic content does not necessarily have to fill those three additional hours
of after-school care, to be sure, nor would it need to be taught by teachers. School
personnel can leverage partnerships and resources in the community to staff these
school-based programs.
Parents are eager for solutions. Launched in 2014, Urban Adventure Squad, a
nonprofit that runs experiential learning programs around Washington, D.C., on
days when schools are closed, began with just six children.232 Fewer than two years
later, the program serves 325 children, its openings fill within 24 hours, and it
maintains a long waiting list. There is palpable relief that we are providing these
high-quality options to families, said Elana Mintz, Urban Adventure Squads
founder and CEO.233
Cost models of a 9-to-5 school day

In many areas, one of the most significant barriers to implementing 9-to-5 schools
is cost. As previously noted, the average cost of expanding the school day to a
9-to-5 schedule is around $4 to $5 per student per additional hour.234 Here are
several models that offer viable funding solutions.
Salary increases. For districts with some flexibility in their budgets, one approach
to consider is salary increases for existing staff. In Elizabeth, New Jersey, for
instance, the school district expanded its school year by 20 days and extended the
school day by 90 minutes through a model focused on additional teacher pay.235
The district increased the base pay among its instructional staff to reflect the
additional hours worked and provided stipends for the facilitation of after-school
programming.
This expanded day model came with an annual cost of $4 million among the districts 20 schools, or approximately $3.18 per student per hour. The school district
covers these costs by blending funding streams from state and local sources as well
as Title I and Title III funds.
Flat stipends. Another cost-effective approach is stipends. This pay structure
keeps teachers onsite during the expanded hours but for a fraction of the price
because annual stipends do not have to provide a rate of compensation that is
proportional to the hours worked.236
For instance, McGlone Elementary School in Denver, Colorado, provides teachers with an annual stipend of $5,000 for the additional 300 hours worked. For
the district, this stipend is considerably less expensive than a proportionate salary
increase, and by some estimates, its about half of the expected amount of a base
pay increase.237
Community partnerships. Schools can also form partnerships with local pro-
viders, which can provide additional staff at minimal cost. For instance, in community schoolswhere schools become the hub of a community by partnering
with local organizationsthe community partners staff supplements the existing
school personnel.
ELT schools in Meriden, Connecticut, for instance, have leveraged their partnership with the local YMCA to bring on additional staff at minimal cost.238 The
school also integrates YMCA services into the regular school day and aligns the
programming with the schools learning objectives.239
Partnerships with national volunteer organizationssuch as AmeriCorpsis
another creative solution to the cost issue. Citizen Schools, for instance, recruits
AmeriCorps volunteers to support middle schools in the implementation of ELT
programs. In this model, AmeriCorps teaching fellows supplement the schools
instructional staff by either providing assistance to teachers in classroom instruction or by leading their own enrichment activities. Citizen Schools currently
serves more than 5,000 students in 32 middle schools and added more than 240
AmeriCorps members to existing school personnel in the 2015-16 school year.240
AmeriCorps members do not just serve Citizen Schools, however. AmeriCorps
VISTA, in particular, recruits more than 8,000 volunteers annually to help support
nonprofits, city and county agencies, public school districts, and communitybased organizations.241 Many of these organizations provide academic interventions, enrichment activities, and additional services to low-income schools during
before- and after-school hours. Local nonprofits seeking to implement 9-to-5
schools can partner with AmeriCorps VISTA and enlist their volunteers to help
build capacity.
Staggered schedules. In this model, districts simply reallocate the time spent by
teachers. In other words, teachers work at varying shift times, but their total work
hours do not increase.
At the ELT schools in Meriden, Connecticut, for example, one half of the instructional team arrives to school at an earlier shift time and leaves about 90 minutes before the end of the school day, and the other half arrives later but works
throughout the rest of the school day. The overall length of the workday remains
unchanged among these instructors. However, the school does bear an opportunity cost due to the fewer number of teachers available at the start and end of the
school day.242 The Goldie Maple Academy, which we feature in this report, takes a
similar approach.
One notable benefit to staggered schedules is that they do not conflict with union
agreements on the length of the teacher workday. For instance, Boston Arts
Academy in Boston, Massachusetts, staggers teacher schedules in order to meet
contracted workday requirements.243 The school follows a split schedule where
academic instructors work an early shift and nonacademic instructors work a later
shift.244 To accommodate the shortage of teachers during the early and late school
hours, the school designates the first period for academic instruction and the last
period for nonacademic instructionor put differently, when these instructors
would be onsite.
Generation Schoolsa next-generation school modelalso practices staggered

teacher time, but its model not only redesigns the school day but also restructures
the entire school year.245 Although students receive an eight-hour school day and
200 school days, Generation Schools staggers teacher schedules so instructors
receive a four-week summer vacation in July and two one-month breaks throughout the calendar yearfor example, August to June.246
Federal funding sources for expanded school schedules under the

Every Student Succeeds Act
There are numerous federal funding sources to provide for the implementation
of a 9-to-5 school day. ESSA authorizes the use of federal funds for many reforms
that lengthen the school day and currently operate on a 9-to-5 schedule, such as
ELT schools, full-service community schools, and Promise Neighborhoods.
ESSA also includes new, important changes to previous federal programs. For
instance, states are now required to set aside at least 7 percent of their Title I funds
for school improvement purposes.
School districts can also use their Title I, Part A funds to improve school schedules as part of a larger effort to boost student achievement. Some schools participating in ELT programs have already taken advantage of this provision.247
States also now have more flexibility to use funds from the 21st Century
Community Learning Centers, or CCLC, program in Title IV, Part B for ELT initiatives. In the past, less than 1 percent of CCLC granteesor 69 out of a possible
10,000used their funds for ELT initiatives.248 The new flexibility under ESSA
changes that, and funds can now be used for ELT-like programs.
Overall, Title I and Title IV under ESSA provide the greatest amount of federal
funding for a 9-to-5 school day. However, Title II, which supports teacher professional development, can also be used in these efforts. We map these sources out in
greater detail below.249
TABLE 7
Federal funding sources for expanded school schedules under ESSA

Funding source
Fiscal year
2017
Distribution
process
Title I, Part A
$14 billion
Schoolwide programs: Provide funding for local educational agencies to

implement comprehensive schoolwide programs in Title I schools,
where at least 40 percent of children
are from low-income backgrounds
Not publicly
available
Formula grants
An eligible school operating a

schoolwide program shall develop
a comprehensive plan that
includes a description of the
strategies that the school will be
implementing to address school
needs, including a description
of how such strategies will
increase the amount and quality of
learning time.
Increase instructional
time by extending the
length of the school day
from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00
p.m. in Title I schools.
Targeted assistance schools: Identify

students who are most at risk of not
meeting state academic standards for
targeted services
Not publicly
available
Formula grants
Each targeted assistance

program under this section shall
... [use] methods and instructional strategies to strengthen
the academic program of the
school through activities, which
may include expanded learning
time, before- and after-school
programs, and summer programs
and opportunities.
Fund ELT programs for

identified students.
School improvement: Aims to

improve student achievement in
Title I schools identified as in need of
improvement
Not publicly
available
State set-aside of Title

I, Part A funding or
the amount a state
reserved for school
improvement previously (no less than 7
percent); rewarded
in subgrants to local
educational agencies
on a formula or competitive basis
Serve schools implementing comprehensive support and improvement activities or targeted support
and improvement activities.
Redesign school days

in low-achieving, Title I
schools identified as in
need of improvement.
$2.25 billion
Formula grants to
states and subgrants
to local educational
agencies
Providing high-quality, personalized professional development

that is evidence-based, to the
extent the State (in consultation
with local educational agencies
in the State) determines that such
evidence is reasonably available,
for teachers, instructional leadership teams, principals, or other
school leaders, that is focused on
improving teaching and student
learning and achievement.
Provide additional time

for teacher planning,
collaboration, and
development in periods
throughout the school
day.
Bill language
Districts or
schools could
Title II, Part A

Supporting Effective Instruction
State Grants: Improve the quality and
effectiveness of teachers, principals,
and school leaders, including through
professional development activities
Funding source
Fiscal year
2017
Distribution
process
Bill language
Districts or
schools could
$100 million
Competitive grants to
institutions of higher
education or national
nonprofit organizations
Providing evidence-based professional development activities

that address literacy, numeracy,
remedial, or other needs of local
educational agencies and the
students the agencies serve.
Provide additional time

for teacher planning,
collaboration, and
development in periods
throughout the regular
school day.
$500 million
Formula grants
Develop and implement

programs and activities that
support access to a well-rounded
education.
Fund additional
time for activities
identified as wellrounded, including in
science, technology,
engineering, and
math; performing arts;
American history; civics;
and other enrichment
activities.
$1 billion
Discretionary and
competitive subgrants
agencies
A state that receives funds under

this part for a fiscal year may use
funds under section 4202(c)(1)
to support those enrichment and
engaging academic activities ...
that are included as part of an
expanded learning program that
provides students at least 300
additional program hours before,
during, or after the traditional
school day.
Increase instructional
time by extending the
length of the school
day from 9:00 a.m. to
5:00 p.m.
$180 million
Competitive grants
to state education agencies; local
educational agencies;
consortia of state
education agencies
and local educational
agencies; nonprofit
organizations; or
in partnership with
business, educational
service agencies, or
education
Create, develop, implement, replicate, or take to scale entrepreneurial, evidence-based, field-initiated

innovations to improve student
achievement and attainment for
high-need students.
Embed the concept of

9-to-5 school day in
early-phase and midphase grant application,
relying on the evidence
base for ELT.
Title II, Part B

Supporting Effective Educator
Development: Provides funding
for evidence-based projects in the
recruitment, selection, and development of teachers, principals, or both
Title IV, Part A
Student Support and Academic
Enrichment Grants: Increase students
access to a well-rounded education
and provide funding for technologybased learning
Title IV, Part B

21st Century Community Learning
Centers: Provide funding for a broad
array of academic and enrichment
activities for children, particularly
students who attend high-poverty
and low-performing schools
Title IV, Part F

Education Innovation and Research:
Expands the investment in and
implementation of innovative,
evidence-based practices proven to
improve student achievement and
reduce achievement disparities
such as high school graduation and
college enrollment
Fiscal year
2017
Distribution
process
Promise Neighborhoods: Provide for

the implementation of a comprehensive, coordinated continuum of
services from preschool through high
school in high-poverty, distressed
communities
$2 million
Competitive grants
agencies; nonprofit
organizations; or
in partnership with
education
Supporting, enhancing, operating, or expanding rigorous, comprehensive, effective educational

improvements, which may include
expanded learning time.
Provide longer school

days that include a
broad array of academic
interventions, enrichment activities, and
social services.
Full-Service Community Schools:

Fund partnerships between local
educational agencies and community-based organizations in providing
additional programming and services
in school settings
$1 million
Competitive grants
agencies; nonprofit
organizations; or
in partnership with
education
Improve the coordination and

integration, accessibility, and
effectiveness of services for children and families, particularly for
children attending high-poverty
schools, including high-poverty
rural schools.
Provide longer school

days by contracting
services from youth
development organizations, institutions of
higher education, and
other community-based
organizations.
Funding source
Bill language
Districts or
schools could
Sources: Every Student Succeeds Act, H. Rept. 114-354, 114 Cong. 1 sess. (2015), available at http://edworkforce.house.gov/uploadedfiles/every_student_succeeds_act_-_conference_report.pdf; U.S.
Department of Education, Fiscal Year 2017 Budget Summary and Background Information (2016), available at http://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/budget/budget17/summary/17summary.pdf.
Recommendations
School systems should provide better options for working parents and be more
aligned with their needs. This reform needs to be more than an add-on program;
it needs to be a clear change in mindset. In many ways, the debate over school
schedules is often set up as school vs. no school. But thats shortsighted, and for
many schools, a more logical day would have kids participate in several extracurricular opportunities throughout the day, whether they are through sports clubs;
performing arts groups; science, technology, engineering, and math education;
adult mentorships; or simply unrestricted play.
In the same way that districts offer magnet schools with a focus on arts, technology, or international education, they should add full-day, family-centered schools
to their portfolio of offerings. Charter schools could also pursue this type of
model, and many already have.250
More broadly, advocates for a better educational system should do more to engage
parents in the school schedule reform debate. In this regard, expanded learning
time reforms offer a helpful lesson. Visit the website of most advocates of ELT, and
people will find little mention of benefits to parents. From a reform perspective,
this approach does not make much immediate sense. Advocates of ELT should be
more intentional in marketing these policies as meaningful solutions to support
working families.
Furthermore, schools should also develop coherent full-day schedules that are
responsive to students developmental needs and biological rhythms: a mix of
physical activity and academic learning in the morning, rest or downtime in the
early afternoon, time to run in the midafternoon, and then additional academic
classes before pickup in the late afternoon.
By creating full-day schedules that are driven by students needs and staffed creatively, schools could ensure that all aspects of the day are aligned toward supporting students social, emotional, and physical development. The staff and faculty
administering the all-day schedule would be part of the same institution, and
there would be more continuity and communication among faculty members who
support students throughout the day. The academic learning would also be more
aligned toward the states learning standards. These redesigned schedules should
also allow teachers to have more time to collaborate with their peers and prepare
for their upcoming classes.
At the federal level, CAP recommends the following:

Foster innovative approaches to aligning school and work schedules and
supporting working parents. The president should use his convening power
to host a White House conference on supporting working families through
improved school schedules, and he should bring together diverse stakeholders to
solve these problems. This summit would unify key leaders on this issuefrom
parent groups to teachers unions to community-based organizations and employersto discuss potential solutions. The event would also highlight best practices,
from ensuring that students will have downtime during a longer school day to
making sure that teachers do not work longer hours for the same pay.
The Department of Education should build on this work by creating and supporting a working group of school and district leaders, and other community
and business partners and leaders, committed to working on this issue and sharing best practices. The working group would help leaders share best practices
and programs and discuss innovative ways to help schools meet the needs of
working parents. The Department of Education could use the national activity
set-asides to fund these efforts.
Through guidanceand future legislationthe federal government should
also send a clear message that districts ought to align the schedules of schools
with the typical work schedule more closely, and they ought to prioritize
schools serving students from disadvantaged backgrounds in ways that
improve student outcomes.
Promote the use of Title I, Part A dollars for expanded school schedules,
and increase other federal funding sources for a 9-to-5 school day. Current
federal law allows schools and districts to spend Title I dollars on extending
the school day, and for its part, the Department of Education recently sent out
a letter encouraging the use of Title I dollars for summer learning programs. 251
Over the years, some districts have also used Title I funds to help promote a
more comprehensive approach to school schedules. 252 In Evansville, Indiana, for
instance, the local school district has used Title I funds to help promote afterschool programs, as well as other initiatives to support parent engagement.253
However, as the authors found in their work, many states and districts are
simply not aware that the largest pot of federal funds can be used for extending
the school day. The department should clarify the use of these funds for these
initiatives and issue new guidance that makes these changes clear and concrete.
For instance, the Every Student Succeeds Act requires districts implementing
comprehensive schoolwide programs in Title I schools to first conduct a schoollevel needs assessment, and the Department of Education should issue guidance
on the assessment of need for improved school schedules.
At the same time, Congress should appropriate additional funds for the programs that support expanded learning time programs, community schools, and
after-school programming under ESSA, including:
The Title IV, Part A block grants to states to provide student support services
The 21st Century Community Learning Centers program, which traditionally
supports after-school programs for low-income students and now includes a
competitive subgrant program for ELT
Promise Neighborhoods, which is a competitive grant program run by the
Department of Education supporting a continuum of family and community
services, from preschool through high school, in high-poverty communities
Full-Service Community Schools, which supports the development of a
coordinated set of academic, social, and health services for children and
families in schools
Again, the department should issue guidance clarifying the use of these
funds for extending the school day as well as meeting the working needs of
parents. Under ESSA, the aforementioned programs already require districts
to conduct a comprehensive needs assessment. The 21st CCLC program, for
instance, stipulates that entities conduct evaluations that include the needs of
working families.254 The department can specify the purpose of these evaluations for strategic planning around innovative school schedules. The federal
government should also expand the definition of community school coordinatorstraditionally a role in the Full-Service Community School modeland
make it easier for schools and districts to fund such positions.255
Create a pilot program that supports a 9-to-5 approach to schooling.

Congress should also launch a new competitive grant program for 9-to-5
schools. For instance, with the impending reauthorization of the Higher
Education Act, Congress could fund initiatives encouraging partnerships
between graduate schools and public school districts. These university-school
partnerships would provide for additional services and programming during the
expanded school days.
These sorts of programs have shown some success within the community
schools space, particularly in the university-assisted community school
model.256 In this model, undergraduate and graduate students help lead the
expanded-day programs, and faculty members use their expertise to contribute
to strategic planning, fundraising, and curriculum development. More than 80
colleges and universities are now partnering with traditional public schools to
create expanded learning opportunitiesranging from project-based learning
to service learningbeyond the traditional school hours.257
States should take the following steps:

Promote the 9-to-5 school day and compensate teachers who want to work
longer hours. Teachers should not have to work longer hours without additional compensation. In states with statewide salary schedules, states could
create policies that would allow schools to compensate teachers with additional
pay. Districts receiving funding from Massachusetts ELT initiative, for instance,
provided additional compensation to their existing teachers in order for them
to remain onsite during the extended hours. This compensation included salary increases, stipends, and contractual hourly rates.258 Alternatively, though,
schools could hire part-time teachers or other adults to cover some of these
extended hours through a state-run program.
States should also create more schools that align with typical work schedules.
This should be done through a competitive grant program that is targeted at
low-income schools. For instance, Massachusetts statewide ELT initiative prioritizes its grants for low-income districts, and in fiscal year 2014, 77 percent of
students in the states ELT schools were low income.259
States should also increase their dedicated amount of funding for school-based
health center initiatives. States should allow schools to use these funds for
medical personnel who could provide sick-child day care if a parent or guardian
is unable to stay home with their child. This flexibility would allow schools to
provide alternative arrangements for sick students at school, and parents who do
not have access to paid parental leave or paid sick leave will not run the risk of
losing their job if the school requires an immediate parent pickup.
Rethink requirements on instructional time. Current state guidelines on
instructional time are outdated. In some states, no requirements on the length
of the school day even exist.260 For instance, more than one-third of states do
not have a requirement on minimum instructional time in the units of hours or
minutes.261 More than a dozen states also have not set a minimum number of
hours to constitute a school day.262
States should increase the minimum number of hours that students are required
to be in school. If states raised the minimum length of a school day to eight
hours, for instance, this policy change would naturally lead to school schedules
that are more aligned with the typical workday. This change would also allow
more time for physical education, recess, enrichment, and electives.
States should also set appropriate restrictions on schoolwide and districtwide
closings. For instance, states should roll back laws that ban districts from starting or ending the school year before specific dates in the fall and spring. As a
standard, CAP believes that throughout the school year, districts should only
close for federal holidays and no more than two additional weeks in order to
align with the average workers paid vacation time. Days off beyond that should
be restricted to emergencies or covered with field trips and school-based care,
excluding summer break.
Districts and schools should take the following steps, among others:
Offer family-centered schools. Districts should introduce a new school model
of choice called family-centered schools into their portfolios. These schools
would organize themselves explicitly to support working families by limiting
the days when school is closed to only major national holidays; offering an 8:30
a.m. to 5:30 p.m. daily schedule; reinventing parent-teacher communication
to eliminate parent-teacher conferences at school during the day and allow for
more calls, texts, and other one-off, technology-enabled solutions; adopting
more parent-friendly health policies; and more.
Districts could solicit proposals for charter schools with this intentional
approach and/or could establish incentives for district-run schools to adopt this
model in the same way that districts encourage and establish magnet schools or
specialty schools focused on bilingualism, technology, Montessori, International
Baccalaureate, design and architecture, health professions, and other specialty
models. Districts should maintain a waiting list or find an alternative way to
assess and track demand in order to project the need for these types of schools.
Districts should prioritize providing access to these schools to low-income families and where there is great need. In low-income schools, the district can cover
the additional costs through Title I, Part A under the Schoolwide Program.
In mixed-income and higher-income communities, districts can offer 9-to-5
schools through some combination of public and private funding sources. School
administrators can prorate program fees by family income, but low-income
students would not have to pay additional fees; Title I, Part A would bear the
cost. Another alternative is a portfolio model. In this approach, schools would
offer a portfolio model of approved providers, such as Urban Adventure Squad
and other local after-care programs. These providers would pick up students from
school or use school facilities. Parents would bear all additional costs.
Districts should consult parents in the planning and implementation of their
family-centered school schedules. Parent consultation and a family needs
assessment are paramount to ensuring that new schedules both align with the
standard workday and satisfy the needs of local parents. District administrators
should also make sure that their outreach is inclusive of households with different income levels and family structures.
Conduct a comprehensive parent needs assessment. A comprehensive parent
needs assessment should occur well before the implementation of 9-to-5 schools.
Without in-depth knowledge of the challenges parents face, school districts may
create well-meaning programs that do not meet the needs of parents. School districts should conduct a thorough needs assessment that surveys working parents
and determines which expanded scheduling policies best serve them. Districts
should prioritize the needs of low-income and struggling families on this issue.
The surveys can reveal important information. For instance, a high-poverty

school in Washington state recently administered a parent needs assessment,
and the school found that local parents had a range of educational, linguistic,
physical, social, and emotional needs that limited their ability to engage in traditionally viewed forms of parental involvement. In response, the school created
a Family Resource Center to serve as an information hub for the parents. The
center also provides social services, including a food and clothing drive.263
Community schools also typically conduct parent needs assessments to determine which community partnersfrom youth development organizations to
faith-based groups and churcheswould interest their families. The surveys
specifically ask parents to identify the additional programs and services they
would like to see at their childs school.264
Schools and districts interested in creating 9-to-5 schools should follow suit by
asking parents which scheduling practices they would like to see implemented
at their childs school. School districts can administer these assessments through
electronic surveys, focus groups, personal interviews, town hall meetings, and
community forums.
Createand fundnew schedules in creative ways. Schools could enlarge
the size of certain classes or create experiences for larger groups of students on
certain days. They should follow the lead of promising, cost-effective models
such as Goldie Maple Academy in Queens, New York, which recently extended
its school day from 8:00 a.m. to 4:35 p.m. with no significant increase in spending.265 At the school, teachers now work eight-hour days, four days per week,
while students attend from 8:30 a.m. to 4:35 p.m. This reform allows students to
have additional time throughout their five-day school week, while the teachers
get an extra day off. Goldie Maple Academy has been able to implement this
model successfully by assigning teachers to specific subjects rather than to a
classroom of students.
At the same time, districts should also proactively send out information about
teachers, aides, or other school personnel willing to watch students or groups of
students on days off. Ideally, school buildings would be open for these informal
school days, but if that is not possible, school personnel could go to another
location to care for children. School districts could also host AmeriCorps
members or other national service programs as a cost-effective approach to
gaining additional staff for the extended hours. National service volunteers can
fill supportive roles as mentors, tutors, and other personnel at a school. Staff
from other community-based organizations, faith-based organizations, libraries,
museums, parks and recreation departments, and local employers, as well as college and older high school students, might serve as staff as well.
Leverage community resources and partner with community-based entities. Schools should work with community providers in operating before- and
after-school programs on school grounds rather than at facilities located outside
the school building. Schools need to break down barriers and make it easier for
outside organizations to use the school facilities. In addition, more effective and
seamless communication between schools and after-school programs can help
align after-school programming with the school day. Such measures would provide
better accommodations for low-income families. Under ESSA, Title I-eligible
schools may use Title I funds for these purposes.266 They could also solicit volunteers from the community to teach occasional or afternoon courses, or they
could establish mentorship programs to allow students to learn from adults in the
community. Ideally, schools should fully manage the operations of an expanded,
family-centered school. However, if there are funding and capacity constraints,
schools should leverage services from external organizations but still serve as a
point of contact and coordination between parents and community providers.
Redefine how professional development is delivered. Districts should stop
the practice of full-day school closures for professional development. Instead,
they should utilize high-quality professional development strategies that can be
embedded throughout the school day, including teacher collaboration and planning time, individualized coaching, classroom observations, evaluations from
outside experts, and trainings on data analysis. Districts can also run citywide
leadership development events during nonschool hours. They can also explore
the use of online platforms, such as Knowledge Delivery Systems,267 for professional development and professional learning among educators, which would
reduce the need for full-day closures for these purposes.
Better accommodate disadvantaged families and support more parental
involvement. Schools should also better respond to the needs of low-income,
single-parent, or otherwise disadvantaged family households. For instance,
many parents and guardians have inflexible work schedules, and districts should
play their part in implementing family-friendly school policies that are flexible
and negotiable, not a mandate.
Schools should make every effort to accommodate parents work schedules
when scheduling parent-teacher conferences, student work expos, or similar
events. For instance, schools can host parent-teacher conferences in the mornings, evenings, or on weekends. Schools could also provide alternative parent
outreach options such as virtual conferences or regular emails and phone calls.
Teacher home visits are another strong alternative to school-based conferences.
As mentioned earlier, many low-income parents find it difficult to attend parentteacher conferences due to the inconvenience in traveling from the workplace to
the school, and their employers may not even offer such flexibility.
Some high-poverty schools, such as Hobgood Elementary School in
Murfreesboro, Tennessee, have looked to teacher home visits as a solution.268 To
encourage participation, schools may offer additional compensation to teachers who visit students and families in their home. These visits both encourage
parental involvement and allow teachers to learn more about their students and
different family backgrounds.269
In addition, many working parents and guardians, including most low-wage
and part-time workers, have no paid leave at all and must work even on federal
holidays, which limits their ability to supervise their child when they are not in
school. Districts can use Title I funds to hire site resource coordinators to manage school-based before- and after-school care, and these coordinators can also
assist families with arranging care during school closings. Schools should also
leverage partnerships with community food banks, emergency food pantries,
and other local nonprofits to ensure that students can still access meals on days
schools are closed, in order to decrease incidences of food insecurity.270
In addition, districts should reform absence policies related to student sickness
and only focus on the illnesses that pose serious harm to students health or
significantly detract from a students ability to learn. Nits, tiredness, and coughing are not reasons to send a child home from school.
Administrators should take the following steps:

Negotiate more efficient bus schedules. Many school districts follow a
multitiered busing schedule system in order to save on transportation costs.
For example, a single bus can run three routes in one morning instead of
three buses running one route each. As a consequence, however, elementary,
middle, and high schools start and end their days at significantly different
times. Administrators should work with transportation companies to identify
alternatives to tiered busing schedules, such as dual-route systems, that would
enable all grade levels to follow a full-time school schedule without significantly
increasing costs.
Another approach is public transportation. School districts can provide transportation passes to high school students in order to save funds and minimize
the need for a tiered busing schedule. Districts should also explore other areas
of their budget in which they can trim costs in order to make room for the
longer schedules.
Leverage technology to communicate with parents and better target days
off. Administrators should offer parent-teacher conferences via an online platform such as Skype or replace formal parent-teacher conferences with regular
phone calls and emails. A number of technologies, such as Edmodo, have made
it easier for educators to share information with parents, and while some advocates have expressed privacy concerns, more schools should take advantage of
these potential solutions.271 Schools can also explore the use of online platforms,
such as Knowledge Delivery Systems,272 for professional development and professional learning among educators, which would reduce the need for full-day
closures for these purposes.
Align school year calendars and take cues from major employers about
emergency closings. Schools within an area should align their school calendar
and scheduling policies closely. Parents with children in multiple grade levels
and school typestraditional public, charter, or independentoften have to
navigate different school schedules and calendars. If these schools significantly
diverge in their daily bell schedules, calendar dates, early dismissals, and closings, parents may have to secure child care arrangements on more than double
the number of occasions.
Local officials should convene school administrators and ask them to work
together to devise a unified school schedule. Alternatively, charter and independent schools should align their calendars with the largest public school system
in the area. While charter schools should retain their autonomy on instructional
time, administrators should ensure that their policies do not create additional
inconveniences for working parents.
Also, school administrators should take their cues on local emergencies and
weather-related closings from local government agencies and major employers,
barring reasonable exceptions.
Conclusion
Schools should be responsive to the needs of both children and parents in their
communities. A true, family-centered school is intentional about providing
extended-day programs that keep children safe, offer opportunities to grow and
thrive, and support working families. Ideally, all schools should be open beyond
traditional school hours. Unfortunately, this is not the case.
School policies must evolve with the changing demographics of the nation and
actively respond to the daily challenges and frustrations experienced by many
working parents. Schools were created for the community, and it is the schools
responsibility to be aware of what does and does not work for students and their
families. Expanded school schedules provide children with enriching opportunities to succeed while also recognizing the needs of the modern American family.
About the authors

Catherine Brown is the Vice President of Education Policy at the Center for
American Progress. Previously, Brown served as the vice president of policy at

Teach for America and as a senior consultant for Leadership for Educational
Equity. Previously, Brown served as senior education policy advisor for the House
Committee on Education and Labor, where she advised Chairman George Miller
(D-CA). In 2008, Brown served as domestic policy director for Democratic presidential candidate Hillary Clinton. Previously, she served in Clintons Senate office
as a legislative assistant.
Ulrich Boser is a Senior Fellow at the Center. Before Boser came to the Center, he
was a contributing editor for U.S. News & World Report. He is a best-selling author,
and his writings have appeared in many publications, including The New York
Times, The Wall Street Journal, and The Washington Post. He is currently working on
a book on learning.
Perpetual Baffour is a Research Assistant for the K-12 Education Policy team at
the Center. Prior to joining the Center, she served as an Emerson Fellow at the
Institute for Educational Leadership. Baffour earned her bachelors degree in philosophy, politics, and economics from the University of Pennsylvania.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge those who offered valuable contributions and
assistance in the development of this report. Diane Whitmore Schanzenbach
and Lauren Bauer of the Brookings Institution conducted the lost productivity
analysis for women leaving the workplace, and both were generous with their time
and provided enormously helpful feedback. Shilpa Phadke and Sarah Jane Glynn
of CAPs Womens Initiative; Melissa Boteach of CAPs Poverty to Prosperity
Program; Andy Green and Kate Bahn of CAPs Economic Policy team; Danyelle
Solomon of Progress 2050; Katie Hamm of CAPs Early Childhood Policy team;
and consultant Meg Benner all contributed helpful feedback. Former CAP
Policy Analyst Chelsea Straus, former CAP Policy Analyst Max Marchitello, and
former CAP intern Melissa Masengale helped collect and fact-check the data.
Michael Petrilli of the Thomas B. Fordham Institute; Tim Daly of EdNavigator;
Jodi Grant of the Afterschool Alliance, Cynthia Miller-Idriss of American
University, Michele McLaughlin of the Knowledge Alliance; Catherine Holahan
of EducationCounsel; and Jennifer Davis of the National Center on Time &
Learning all reviewed the report and strengthened our recommendations. Julie
Kashen of the Make It Work Campaign; Elana Mintz of the Urban Adventure
Squad; and Amanda Ripley, author, helped us better understand the problem.
Appendix 1: Methodology
For this project, CAP researchers conducted a number of different analyses. First,
the researchers conducted a survey of the largest school districts in the country, as
defined by the National Center for Education Statistics. CAP researchers looked
specifically at a number of policies, including instructional time and daily bell
schedules, for each district. For a full list of indicators and sources, please see
Appendix 2.
In some cities, CAP researchers gathered the data on district policies from district
websites. In other areas, they called or emailed repeatedly to gain the information. The researchers conducted the survey during summer and fall 2015. As part
of this project, CAP researchers also analyzed data from the Schools and Staffing
Survey, a federal and nationally representative study of schools. For that analysis,
the researchers relied on data from the 2011-12 school year.
Out-of-pocket costs
To calculate out-of-pocket costs due to misaligned school schedules, CAP
researchers first estimated the number of daysconverted into hoursand
after-school hours that schools are closed when typical workplaces are open.
Researchers relied on 2015-16 school year data collected from the largest school
districts about closings due to holidays, recess breaks, and staff development days,
finding an average of 29 school closings for the year.
Researchers also relied on a 2013 Center for Economic and Policy Research
report that found the number of paid holidays and vacation days for a full-time,
private-sector worker with access to paid leave to be 16. Since CAPs analysis
excludes summer recess from these calculations, researchers prorated the number of paid leave days over the school year. The difference between the number
of school closings and a workers available paid leave days would be the excess
number of days off.
CAP researchers also calculated out-of-pocket costs during after-school hours.

Researchers relied on the Schools and Staffing Survey for data on the length of the
school day and relied on the 2014 American Time Use Survey for data on standard
work hours. According to the 2012 Schools and Staffing Survey, the median school
start time is 8:05 a.m., and the median length of the school day is 405 minutes, or
6.75 hours. CAP researchers assumed that the typical school day ends at 2:50 pm.
According to the 2014 American Time Use Survey, 70 percent of working adults
report working until 5:00 p.m. CAP researchers also included the mean commuting
time between the workplace and home, approximately 26 minutes each way.
After finding the number of excess hours, CAP researchers multiplied the resulting figure by the mean hourly wage for child care workers. CAP researchers used
the wage estimates for child care workers in the Bureau of Labor Statistics 2015
Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates. The authors also used the Bureau
of the Census 2015 Current Population Survey to determine family income.
Lost productivity
The authors estimated two forms of lost productivity due to misaligned school
and work schedules. First, CAP researchers partnered with economists Diane
Schanzenbach and Lauren Bauer at The Hamilton Project at the Brookings
Institution to analyze the proportion of women who have elementary-schoolage children and work full time. They compared that figure with the proportion
of women who have secondary-school-age children and work full time. Because
researchers did not find a difference in part-time employment rates, for the
purposes of this calculation, CAP researchers assumed that the entire gap in
full-time employment rates between mothers of elementary-school-age children and mothers of secondary-school-age children could be attributed to their
caregiving responsibilities.
The researchers assumed that if school schedules were aligned with the typical
workday9:00 a.m. to 5:30 p.m.there would be higher full-time employment
rates among mothers whose youngest child was in elementary school, equivalent
to that of mothers whose youngest child was in secondary school. The present gap
in full-time employment rates between mothers of elementary-school-age children and mothers of secondary-school-age children53 percent and 60 percent,
respectivelyresults in productivity loss.
To create these estimates, the researchers relied on the 2015 Current Population
Survey, which collects data on labor force participation, full-time employment,
wages, and population estimates for working-age mothers. CAP researchers estimated the increase in the workforce if mothers of elementary-school-age children
were to work full time at the same rate as mothers of middle- and high-school-age
children. CAP researchers then multiplied this difference, just more than 1 million
women, by the median annual wage of full-time working women with elementaryschool-age children to estimate the productivity loss.
Secondly, CAP researchers estimated lost productivity due to school closings,
or what the authors call the I Dont Know How She Does It problem. Again,
researchers relied on the number of days that schools are closed throughout the
school year, 29, and the average number of paid holiday and vacation days each
year, 16, and prorated the number of paid leave days over the school year. The
authors excluded from the analysis households with a nonworking adult, focusing
solely on households where all residing adults are employed.
Researchers then estimated the number of working families that are likely to be
affected by the misalignment between school and work schedules. To reach this
estimate, researchers first subtracted the proportion of children who are cared for
by grandparents, siblings or other relatives, or nonrelatives who live in the familys
home. They relied on Lynda Laughlins 2013 report for the Bureau of the Census,
Whos Minding the Kids? Child Care Arrangements. The authors used the data
on percentage of children whose child care was provided by grandparents, siblings, and other relatives for school-age children with working mothers. In 2014,
there were 13 million households in the United States with school-age children
and employed parents.
Finally, the researchers multiplied the number of misaligned hours by the
median hourly wage for women with elementary-school-age children, as
determined by the 2015 Current Population Survey March Annual Social and
Economic Supplement.
Appendix 2: Sources
For this project, CAP researchers did a survey of the largest school districts, as
defined by the National Center for Education Statistics. CAP researchers looked
specifically at the following policies:
Number of instructional days in the school year
Number of instructional hours in the school year
Number of student nonattendance days throughout the school year, categorized
by holidays and in-service staff attendance days
Whether the schools have an early dismissal one day per week
Prevalence of half days and/or staggered school starts at the beginning and end
of semesters and the school year
State legislative requirements on instructional time
School start and end times
Whether the district offers school-based before- and after-school care
Cost of district-provided care at schools
Timing of parent-teacher conferencesthat is to say, do they occur during the
school day?
The authors reviewed these policies with information and materials from the following school districts.
New York City Department of Education, New York:
New York City Department of Education, 2015-16 School Year Calendar
(2015), available at http://schools.nyc.gov/NR/rdonlyres/A3D17228-63C24178-89FC-0BE130C616BE/0/201516SchoolYearCalendar_Revised83115.pdf.
New York City Department of Education, Parent Teacher Conferences 201516, available at http://schools.nyc.gov/NR/rdonlyres/075BB1B9-2F2F-4E9ABA7F-734628FC791D/0/201516ParentTeacherConferencesMemofinal.pdf (last
accessed May 2016).
Los Angeles Unified School District, California:

Los Angeles Unified School District, 2015-16 Instructional Calendars, available
at http://achieve.lausd.net/Page/8077 (last accessed May 2016).
Chicago Public Schools, Illinois:
Chicago Public Schools, 2015-2016 CPS Calendar: Elementary and High
Schools (2016), available at http://cps.edu/SiteCollectionDocuments/
SY15_16Calendar_English.pdf.
Chicago Public Schools, CPS to Preserve $13.5 Million in Classroom Funding

by Streamlining Transportation and Changing School Bell Times, Press
release, July 30, 2015, available at http://cps.edu/News/Press_releases/Pages/
PR1_7_30_2015.aspx.
Miami-Dade County Public Schools, Florida:
Miami-Dade County Public Schools, School Calendar 15-16, available at http://
www.dadeschools.net/calendars/15-16/15-16_el-sec.pdf (last accessed May 2016).
Clark County School District, Nevada:
Clark County School District, Nine-Month School Calendar, available at
http://ccsd.net/district/calendar/pdf/2015-2016-school-calendars/855.7-9month-2015-16.pdf (last accessed May 2016).
Clark County Government, Parks & Recreation: Safekey Program, available

at http://www.clarkcountynv.gov/parks/Pages/safekey.aspx (last accessed May
2016).
Broward County Public Schools, Florida:
Broward County Public Schools, 2015-16 School Calendar, available at http://
browardschools.com/SiteMedia/Docs/Calendars/2015_16_School_Calendar_
color.pdf (last accessed May 2016).
Broward County Public Schools, Department of Pupil Transportation: 20152016 Opening & Closing School Times (Regular Term) (2015), available
at http://browardschools.com/SiteMedia/Docs/web/PIO/2015-2016_
Opening_-_Closing_School_Times_%28Regular-Term%29.pdf.
Broward County Public Schools Department of Before and After School Child
Care, Program Hours, available at http://sbbc-bascc.com/html/program_
hours.php (last accessed May 2016).
Houston Independent School District, Texas:
Houston Independent School District, HISD 2015-2016 Academic Calendar,
available at http://www.houstonisd.org/cms/lib2/TX01001591/Centricity/
Domain/2129/2015-16-Calendar.pdf (last accessed May 2016).
Houston Independent School District, After School Programs, available at

http://www.houstonisd.org/Page/32719 (last accessed May 2016).
Hillsborough County Public Schools, Florida:
Hillsborough County Public Schools, Student Calendar (2016), available at https://www.sdhc.k12.fl.us/calendar/print/1/?start=1435708800&
end=1467244800.
Hillsborough County Public Schools, Proposed Bell Schedule: 2015-2016, available at https://www.sdhc.k12.fl.us/assets/pdf/BellSchedules.pdf (last accessed
May 2016).
Hillsborough County Public Schools, After School Programs Fee-Based
Funding, available at http://www.sdhc.k12.fl.us/doc/list/host-before-and-afterschool-summer-care-programs/about/101-522/ (last accessed May 2016).
Legacy Preparatory Academy, Calendar, available at http://www.legacyprep.org/calendarWeekView.aspx?schools=0&schoolid=0&types=&viewD
ate=3/14/2016 (last accessed June 2016).
Pepin Academies, School Calendar, available at http://pepinacademies.com/
calendar/ (last accessed June 2016).
Winthrop Charter School, 2015-2016 School Calendar (2015), available at
http://www.winthropcharter.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/WIN1.pdf.
Winthrop Charter School, School and Office Hours, available at http://www.
winthropcharter.org/about-winthrop-charter-school/school-and-office-hours/
(last accessed May 2016).
Horizon Charter School of Tampa, 2015-2016 Calendar, available at http://

www.horizoncharter.org/calendar.php (last accessed May 2016).
Orange County Public Schools, Florida:
Orange County Public Schools, 2015-16 School Calendar, available at https://
www.ocps.net/SiteCollectionDocuments/Historical%20Calendars/2015-2016%20
OCPS%20School%20Calendar.pdf (last accessed May 2016).
Orange County Public Schools, 2015-16 School Opening and Closing Times,
available at https://www.ocps.net/op/tran/Documents/RO105%20Bells%20
Times%20Actual.pdf (last accessed May 2016).
Orange County Public Schools, Before and Afterschool Programs, available at
https://www.ocps.net/cs/services/options/schoolchoice/Pages/SchoolCare.
aspx (last accessed May 2016).
Fairfax County Public Schools, Virginia:
Fairfax County Public Schools, Standard Calendar for School Year 2015-2016,
accessed May 2016.
Fairfax County Public Schools, Fairfax County Public Schools Transportation

Services: Bell Schedule Elementary School (2015).
Fairfax County Public Schools, School Age Child Care Program, available at
http://www.fairfaxcounty.gov/ofc/sacc.htm (last accessed May 2016).
The School District of Palm Beach County, Florida:
The School District of Palm Beach County, School Calendar 2015-16, accessed
May 2016.
The School District of Palm Beach County, Afterschool Programming, available

at https://wcms.palmbeachschools.org/afterschoolprogramming/ (last accessed
May 2016).
The School District of Palm Beach County, K-5 Fee Payment Schedule
2015/2016, available at https://wcms.palmbeachschools.org/afterschoolprogramming/wp-content/uploads/sites/19/2015/12/K-5AfterschoolFeeSchedule.
pdf (last accessed May 2016).
Gwinnett County Public Schools, Georgia:

Gwinnett County Public Schools, 2015-16 School Year Calendar, accessed
May 2016.
Gwinnett County Public Schools, 2015-16 School Starting and Ending Times,
available at https://publish.gwinnett.k12.ga.us/gcps/wcm/connect/5a117e424a78-42cf-9b83-e2b68ad2598b/2015-16-School-Start-and-End-Times-FINAL7-15-REV.pdf?MOD=AJPERES (last accessed May 2016).
Dallas Independent School District, Texas:
Dallas Independent School District, 2015-16 Student Calendar, available at http://www.dallasisd.org/cms/lib/TX01001475/Centricity/
Domain/48/2015-2016_student_calendar02_final02.pdf (last accessed May
2016).
Dallas Independent School District, Important Dates for the 2015-16 School
Year, available at https://thehub.dallasisd.org/2015/08/05/important-dates-for2015-16-school-year/ (last accessed May 2016).
Wake County Public School System, North Carolina:
Wake County Public School System, 2015-16 Traditional Calendar,
available at http://www.wcpss.net/cms/lib/NC01911451/Centricity/
Domain/19/15-16%20TRAD%20v3.pdf (last accessed May 2016).
Wake County Public School System, Recommended 2015-16 Bell Schedules

(2015), available at https://eboard.eboardsolutions.com/Meetings/Attachment.
aspx?S=920&AID=37592&MID=1798.
Montgomery County Public Schools, Maryland:
Montgomery County Public Schools, 2015-16 School Calendar, available at
http://www.montgomeryschoolsmd.org/uploadedFiles/0992.15_2015-16_
SchoolCalendar%281%29.pdf (last accessed May 2016).
Montgomery County Public Schools, Board of Education Approves Later School

Start Times, available at http://www.montgomeryschoolsmd.org/info/belltimes/ (last accessed May 2016).
The School District of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania:

The School District of Philadelphia, School Year Calendar: 2015 - 2016, available at http://www.philasd.org/calendar/2015_2016/ (last accessed May 2016).
Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools, North Carolina:
Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools, 2015-16 Calendar, available at http://www.
cms.k12.nc.us/mediaroom/calendars/Documents/2015-2016%20Academic%20
Calendar%20Final.pdf (last accessed May 2016).
Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools, 2015-2016 Bell Schedule, available at http://

www.cms.k12.nc.us/mediaroom/Documents/2015-2016%20Bell%20Schedule.
San Diego Unified School District, California:
San Diego Unified School District, Traditional 2015-2016 School Year Calendar,
available at https://www.sandiegounified.org/sites/default/files_link/district/
files/calendars/1516-calendar-traditional.pdf (last accessed May 2016).
San Diego Unified School District, Transportation Service Bell Times 20152016 (2015), available at https://www.sandiegounified.org/sites/default/files_
link/district/files/transportation/parent%20documents/BELL%20TIMES%20
2015-16%20SIMPLIFIED.pdf.
Duval County Public Schools, Florida:
Duval County Public Schools, 2015-2016 District Calendar, available at http://
www.duvalschools.org/cms/lib07/FL01903657/Centricity/Domain/4172/
DistrictCalendar2015-2016.pdf (last accessed May 2016).
Duval County Public Schools, Hours of Operations, available at http://www.

duvalschools.org/domain/5275 (last accessed May 2016).
Prince Georges County Public Schools, Maryland:
Prince Georges County Public Schools, 2015-16 School Year Calendar, available
at http://www1.pgcps.org/calendar/ (last accessed May 2016).
Prince Georges County Public Schools, Bell Times for the 2015-16 School Year,
available at http://www1.pgcps.org/transportation/index.aspx?id=194524 (last
accessed May 2016).
Cypress-Fairbanks Independent School District, Texas:

Cypress-Fairbanks Independent School District, 2015-16 School District
Calendar, available at http://www.cfisd.net/download_file/view/8024/507/
Cypress-Fairbanks Independent School District, Before & After School

Programs, available at http://www.cfisd.net/en/parents-students/communityprograms/after-school-programs/ (last accessed May 2016).
Cypress-Fairbanks Independent School District, 2015-16 Elementary
Enrollment and Registration Packet, available at http://www.cfisd.net/download_file/view/4756/289/ (last accessed May 2016).
Shelby County Public Schools, Tennessee:
Shelby County Schools, 2015-16 School Calendar, accessed June 2016.
Cobb County School District, Georgia:
Cobb County School District, 2015-16 Staff Use Calendar, available at http://
www.cobbk12.org/generalinfo/calendars/2015-16/2015-16_Staff UseCalendar.
Cobb County School District, 2015-16 School Start/End Times, available at http://www.cobbk12.org/generalinfo/calendars/2015-16/2015-16_
SchoolStartTimes.pdf (last accessed May 2016).
Baltimore County Public Schools, Maryland:
Baltimore County Public Schools, 2015-2016 School Year, available at https://
www.bcps.org/calendars/ (last accessed May 2016).
Baltimore County Public Schools, Opening and Closing Times: School Year
2015-2016 (2015), available at https://www.bcps.org/offices/transportation/
pdf/Bell-Times.pdf.
The authors supplemented this research with personal communication from staff
members from some of the largest school districts central offices:
Personal communication from Mark Zustovich, chief public information officer,
New York City Department of Youth & Community Development, November
16, 2015.
Personal communication from Ellen T. Morgan, public information officer,
Los Angeles Unified School District Office of Communications and Media
Relations, November 16, 2015.
Personal communication from Antonio Cotarelo, county engineer and deputy
director, Miami-Dade County Public Schools, November 10, 2015.
Personal communication from Wanda Robinson, parent engagement specialist,
Broward County Public Schools Office of Parent Engagement, March 21, 2016.
Personal communication from Jonnelle Hollins, manager, After School
Programs Department, Houston Independent School District, October 16,
2015.
Personal communication from Liz Authenreith, chief of staff, Houston
Independent School District, November 9, 2015.
Personal communication from Kathy Burstein, media relations specialist, The
School District of Palm Beach County, November 17, 2015.
Personal communication from Brian Edwards, chief communications officer,
Montgomery County Public Schools, November 3, 2015.
Personal communication from Mark Sherwood, assistant superintendent of
communications, Duval County Schools, November 6, 2015.
The authors also supplemented this research with resources from the National
Council on Teacher Quality. These documents are as follows:
National Council on Teacher Quality, District Policy: Houston Independent
School District, Texas, available at http://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabase/districtReport.do?id=32 (last accessed May 2016).
National Council on Teacher Quality, District Policy: Palm Beach County
School District, Florida, available at http://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabase/districtReport.do?id=9 (last accessed May 2016).
National Council on Teacher Quality, District Policy: Philadelphia School
District, Pennsylvania, available at http://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabase/districtReport.do?id=7 (last accessed May 2016).
National Council on Teacher Quality, District Policy: Cypress-Fairbanks
Independent School District, Texas, available at http://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabase/districtReport.do?id=40 (last accessed May 2016).
Endnotes
1 Renee Montagne, Obamas Attend Daughters ParentTeacher Meetings, Diversions: NPR, October 20, 2009,
available at http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.
php?storyId=113958119.
2 Sarah Jane Glynn, Heather Boushey, and Peter
Berg, Who Gets Time Off? Predicting Access to
Paid Leave and Workplace Flexibility (Washington:
Center for American Progress, 2016), available at
https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/labor/report/2016/04/26/134824/who-gets-time-off/.
3 Ibid.
4 Bureau of Labor Statistics, American Labor in the 20th
Century (U.S. Department of Labor, 2003), available at
http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/cwc/american-labor-inthe-20th-century.pdf.
5 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Latest Annual Data: Women
of Working Age, available at https://www.dol.gov/wb/
stats/latest_annual_data.htm (last accessed June 2016).
6 Based on authors summation of district enrollment
numbers for the largest school districts, excluding
Hawaii. See American School & University, 2014 AS&U
100: Largest school districts in the U.S. by enrollment, 2012-13, available at http://asumag.com/
research/2014-asu-100-largest-school-districts-usenrollment-2012-13 (last accessed May 2016).
7 Rebecca Ray, Milla Sanes, and John Schmitt, NoVacation Nation Revisited (Washington: Center for Economic and Policy Research, 2013), available at http://
cepr.net/documents/no-vacation-update-2014-04.pdf.
8 Based on authors analysis using data collected from
the largest public school districts, personal communication from district office staff, and materials from the
National Council on Teacher Quality. See Appendix 2 for
full source list.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid.
11 P.J. Reilly, PA deer season is steeped in tradition,
Lancaster Online, November 30, 2014, available at
http://lancasteronline.com/news/local/pa-deerseason-is-steeped-in-tradition/article_2e9d2b107827-11e4-8f92-3f3d8a41bda4.html.
12 Sarah Jane Glynn, Working Parents Lack of Access
to Paid Leave and Workplace Flexibility (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2012), available
at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/labor/
report/2012/11/20/45466/working-parents-lack-ofaccess-to-paid-leave-and-workplace-flexibility/.
13 Anne Morrison and Katherine Gallagher Robbins,
Part-Time Workers Are Paid Less, Have Less Access to
Benefitsand Two-Thirds Are Women (Washington:
National Womens Law Center, 2015), available at http://
nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/part-time_
workers_fact_sheet_8.21.1513.pdf.
14 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Table 6. Selected paid leave
benefits: Access, National Compensation Survey, available at http://www.bls.gov/news.release/ebs2.t06.htm
15 Letter from Charles A. Jeszack to Sens. Patty Murray

and Kirsten Gillibrand, Contingent Workforce: Size,
Characteristics, Earnings, and Benefits, April 20, 2015,
available at http://www.gao.gov/assets/670/669899.
pdf.
16 Glynn, Boushey, and Berg, Who Gets Time Off? Predicting Access to Paid Leave and Workplace Flexibility.
17 Ibid.
18 Authors relied on mean hourly wage for child care
workers according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
See Bureau of Labor Statistics, May 2015 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates, available
at http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes_nat.htm (last
accessed May 2016).
19 Authors calculations based on Bureau of the Census,
Current Population Survey 2015 Annual Social and
Economic Supplement: FINC-01. Selected Characteristics of Families by Total Money Income in: 2014,
available at https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/faminc/finc01_000.htm (last accessed
May 2016).
Economic Supplement: Table F-1. Income Limits for
Each Fifth and Top 5 Percent of Families (All Races):
1947 to 2014, available at https://www.census.gov/
hhes/www/cpstables/032015/faminc/finc01_000.htm
21 National Center for Education Statistics, National Center
for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey
(SASS), Public School Principals Data File 2011-12 (U.S.
Department of Education, 20112012), available at
http://nces.ed.gov/datalab/SASS/index.aspx.
22 Ibid.
23 Authors analysis is based on Bureau of Labor Statistics,
Charts from the American Time Use Survey: Time use
on an average work day for employed persons ages 25
to 54 with children and Percent of employed persons
who did selected activities on workdays by hour of the
day, available at http://www.bls.gov/tus/charts/ (last
accessed May 2016); Bureau of Labor Statistics, Percent
of employed persons who did selected activities on
workdays by hour of the day (U.S. Department of Labor,
2014), available at http://www.bls.gov/tus/charts/
chart17.pdf.
24 Ibid.
25 Based on authors analysis using collected data from
full source list.
26 Based on authors retrieval of data from National Center
(SASS), Public School Principals Data File 2011-12.
27 Ibid.
28 Ibid.

full source list.
30 Lonnie Gordon, Irregular Work Scheduling and Its
Consequences (Washington: Economic Policy Institute,
2015), available at http://www.epi.org/publication/
irregular-work-scheduling-and-its-consequences/.
31 Ibid.
32 Glynn, Boushey, and Berg, Who Gets Time Off? Predicting Access to Paid Leave and Workplace Flexibility.
33 Milia Fisher, Women of Color and the Gender Wage
Gap (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2015),
available at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/
women/report/2015/04/14/110962/women-of-colorand-the-gender-wage-gap/.
34 Authors calculations are based on data provided by
the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Table 3. Median usual
weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers
by age, race, Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, and sex, first
quarter 2016 averages, not seasonally adjusted, April
19, 2016, available at http://www.bls.gov/news.release/
wkyeng.t03.htm.
35 National Center for Education Statistics, Fast Facts:
Title I, available at https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.
asp?id=158 (last accessed September 2016).
36 Claire Kaplan and others, Financing Expanded Learning Time in Schools (Boston: National Center on Time &
Learning, 2014), available at http://www.timeandlearning.org/sites/default/files/resources/financingeltinschools.pdf.
37 National Center for Education Statistics, Table 5.
Average student membership size of regular public
elementary and secondary schools with membership,
by instructional level, membership size of largest and
smallest school, and state or jurisdiction: School year
200910, available at https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2011/
pesschools09/tables/table_05.asp (last accessed September 2016).
38 Vicky Lovell, No Time to Be Sick: Why Everyone Suffers
When Workers Dont have Paid Sick Leave (Washington: Institute for Womens Policy Research, 2004),
available at http://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/
no-time-to-be-sick-why-everyone-suffers-when-workers-don2019t-have-paid-sick-leave.
39 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, QuickStats:
Estimated Percentage of Students Who Missed School
During the Preceding 12 Months Because of Illness or
Injury, available at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5637a7.htm (last accessed May
2016); ibid.
40 Kings Trail Elementary, Arrival and Dismissal Procedures, available at http://www.duvalschools.org/
Page/5931 (last accessed May 2016).
41 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Head Lice
Information for Schools, available at http://www.cdc.
gov/parasites/lice/head/schools.html (last accessed
May 2016).
42 Dave E. Marcotte and Benjamin Hansen, Time for
School?, Education Next 10 (1) (2010), available at
http://educationnext.org/time-for-school/.
43 U.S. Department of Education Office of Elementary and

Secondary Education, Letter to Chief State School Officers, July 30, 2015, available at http://www2.ed.gov/
policy/elsec/guid/eseatitleiswguidance.pdf.
44 U.S. Department of Education, 21st Century Community Learning Centers, available at http://www2.
ed.gov/programs/21stcclc/index.html (last accessed
June 2016).
45 U.S. Department of Education, Promise Neighborhoods, available at http://www2.ed.gov/programs/
promiseneighborhoods/index.html (last accessed June
2016).
46 Corporation for National & Community Service, AmeriCorps Programs, available at http://www.nationalservice.gov/programs/americorps/americorps-vista (last
accessed September 2016).
47 U.S. Department of Education, Full Service Community
Schools, available at http://www2.ed.gov/programs/
communityschools/index.html (last accessed June
2016).
48 U.S. Department of Education, Higher Education Opportunity Act 2008, available at http://www2.ed.gov/
policy/highered/leg/hea08/index.html (last accessed
September 2016).
49 Ira Harkavy and others, The Promise of UniversityAssisted Community Schools to Transform American
Schooling: A Report from the Field, 1985-2012,
Peabody Journal of Education 88 (5) (2013): 525540,
available at https://www.nettercenter.upenn.edu/sites/
netter_internal/files/Harkavy_Hartley_Hodges_Weeks_
Peabody_Journal.pdf .
50 Melodye Bush, Molly Ryan, and Stephanie Rose,
Number of Instructional Days/Hours in the School
Year (Denver: Education Commission of the States,
2011), available at http://www.ecs.org/clearinghouse/95/05/9505.pdf.
51 Every Student Succeeds Act, S. 1177, 114 Cong. 1 sess.
(2015).
52 Knowledge Delivery Systems, About Knowledge
Delivery Systems, available at http://marketing.kdsi.
org/?page_id=12 (last accessed September 2016).
full source list.
54 Natasha Singer, Privacy Concerns for ClassDojo and
Other Tracking Apps for Schoolchildren, The New
York Times, November 16, 2014, available at http://
www.nytimes.com/2014/11/17/technology/privacyconcerns-for-classdojo-and-other-tracking-apps-forschoolchildren.html?_r=1.
Delivery Systems.
56 Saskia De Melker and Sam Weber, Agrarian Roots?
Think Again. Debunking the Myth of Summer Vacations
Origins, PBS Newshour, September 7, 2014, available
at http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/debunkingmyth-summer-vacation/.
57 Ibid.
58 Peter Orszag, Get rid of the 3 p.m. school day, The

Washington Post, April 19, 2012, available at https://
www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/get-rid-of-the-3pm-school-day/2012/04/19/gIQAbka3TT_story.html.
59 Robert Halpern, A Different Kind of Child Development
Institution: The History of Afterschool Programs for
Low-Income Children, Teachers College Record 104 (2)
(2002): 178211, available at http://www.temescalassociates.com/documents/resources/general/hxafterschool.pdf.
60 Ibid.
61 Ibid.
62 Afterschool Alliance, America After 3PM: Afterschool
Programs in Demand (2014), available at http://
afterschoolalliance.org/documents/AA3PM-2014/
AA3PM_National_Report.pdf.
63 Ibid.
64 Ibid.
65 Kathryn Baron, Q&A: Quality Still a Challenge in
After-School Programs, Says Top Researcher, Time and
Learning, September 15, 2015, available at http://blogs.
edweek.org/edweek/time_and_learning/2015/09/
when_deborah_vandell_first_started.html.
66 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Table 4. Families with own
children: Employment status of parents by age of
youngest child and family type, 2014-2015 annual averages, available at http://www.bls.gov/news.release/
famee.t04.htm (last accessed May 2016).
67 Ibid.
68 Aparna Mathur, Hao Fu, and Peter Hansen, The
Mysterious and Alarming Rise of Single Parenthood in
America, The Atlantic, September 3, 2013, available at
http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/09/
the-mysterious-and-alarming-rise-of-single-parenthood-in-america/279203/.
69 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Table 4. Families with own
children: Employment status of parents by age of
youngest child and family type, 2014-2015 annual averages.
70 Ibid.
71 Jennifer Erickson, ed., The Middle-Class Squeeze: A
Picture of Stagnant Incomes, Rising Costs, and What We
Can Do to Strengthen Americas Middle Class (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2014), available
at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/economy/
report/2014/09/24/96903/the-middle-class-squeeze/.
72 Elise Gould, What Families Need to Get By: The 2013
Update of EPIs Family Budget Calculator (Washington:
Economic Policy Institute, 2013), available at http://
www.epi.org/files/2013/ib368-basic-family-budgets.
pdf.
73 Erickson, ed., The Middle-Class Squeeze.
74 This figure excludes days provided for other forms of
paid leave. See Ray, Sanes, and Schmitt, No-Vacation
Nation Revisited.
75 Morrison and Robbins, Part-Time Workers Are Paid
Less, Have Less Access to Benefitsand Two-Thirds Are
Women.
76 Gould, What Families Need to Get By.

77 Council of Economic Advisers, The Economics of Paid
and Unpaid Leave (Executive Office of the President,
2014), available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/
default/files/docs/leave_report_final.pdf.
78 Ari Schwartz and others, Unpredictable, Unsustainable:
The Impact of Employers Scheduling Practices in D.C.
(Washington: DC Jobs with Justice, 2016), available at
http://www.dcjwj.org/scheduling-report/.
79 Joan C. Williams and Heather Boushey, The Three Faces
of Work-Family Conflict: The Poor, the Professionals, and
the Missing Middle (Washington: Center for American
Progress, 2010), available at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/labor/report/2010/01/25/7194/
the-three-faces-of-work-family-conflict/.
80 Ibid.
81 Catherine Rampell, U.S. Women on the Rise as Family
Breadwinner, The New York Times, May 29, 2013, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/30/business/
economy/women-as-family-breadwinner-on-the-risestudy-says.html?_r=0.
82 Erickson, ed., The Middle-Class Squeeze.
83 Quoctrung Bui and Claire Cain Miller, The Typical
American Lives Only 18 Miles From Mom, The New York
Times, December 23, 2015, available at http://www.
nytimes.com/interactive/2015/12/24/upshot/24upfamily.html?_r=0.
84 Based on CAP researchers analysis of data on labor
force participation and full-time employment among
working-age parents provided by the Bureau of the
Census. See Bureau of the Census, 2015 Current
Population Survey March Annual Social and Economic
Supplement, Public Use Data File 2012, available at
https://www.census.gov/cps/data/ (last accessed June
2016).
85 Ibid.
86 Ibid.
87 Vicki Smith, The Circular Trap: Women and Part-Time
Work, Berkeley Journal of Sociology, March 3, 2016,
available at http://berkeleyjournal.org/2016/03/fromthe-archives-the-circular-trap-women-and-part-timework/.
full source list.
89 Ibid.
90 Ray, Sanes, and Schmitt, No-Vacation Nation Revisited.
full source list.
92 Nancy Vanasek, interview with authors, Northampton,
Massachusetts, May 14, 2016.
93 Morrison and Robbins, Part-Time Workers Are Paid
Less, Have Less Access to Benefitsand Two-Thirds Are
Women.
94 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Table 6. Selected paid leave

benefits: Access, National Compensation Survey, available at http://www.bls.gov/news.release/ebs2.t06.htm
112 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Most U.S.

Middle and High Schools Start the Day Too Early, Press
release, August 6, 2015, available at http://www.cdc.
gov/media/releases/2015/p0806-school-sleep.html.
95 Government Accountability Office, Contingent

Workforce: Size, Characteristics, Earnings, and Benefits,
GAO-15-168R, April 2015, available at http://www.gao.
gov/products/GAO-15-168R.

full source list.
96 Reilly, PA deer season is steeped in tradition.

97 The Kansas City Star, Many KC area schools are closing for Tuesdays Royals parade, November 2, 2015,
available at http://www.kansascity.com/news/local/
article42270165.html.
98 David Henry, Security Zones, Philly Govt and School
Closures for Papal Visit, 6 ABC Action News, September
22, 2015, available at http://6abc.com/religion/securityzones-philly-govt-and-school-closures-for-papalvisit/927223/.
99 Rob Schmitt, NYC Schools, Parents Brace for Traffic
When Pope Visits, NBC New York, September 23, 2015,
available at http://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/local/
New-York-City-Schools-Open-Pope-Visit-ParentsPrepare-Traffic-328927271.html.
100 Elana Mintz, interview with authors, Washington, D.C.,
April 27, 2016.
full source list.
102 Ibid.
103 Authors calculations based on compilation of data
from school districtssee Appendix 2 for full source
listas well as Bureau of the Census, 2015 Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement
(U.S. Department of Commerce, 2015), available at
https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/
faminc/finc01_000.htm.
114 Michael Alison Chandler, The half-day kindergarten

time crunch, The Washington Post, February 28, 2014,
available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/
education/the-half-day-kindergarten-time-crunch/201
4/03/24/4209fb98-a608-11e3-a5fa-55f0c77bf39c_story.
html.
full source list.
116 Charlie Boss, Schools staggered start dates help
parents adjust, The Columbus Dispatch, August 9, 2015,
available at http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/
local/2015/08/09/schools-staggered-start-dates-helpstudents-adjust.html.
117 Alissa Quart and Alice Proujansky, The Rise of Extreme
Daycare, Pacific Standard, November 10, 2014, available
at https://psmag.com/the-rise-of-extreme-daycare834c87a69fbe#.7qgs7f2xs.
full source list.
119 Sonali Kohli, How to Actually Get Something out
of Parent-Teacher Conferences, Los Angeles Times,
October 23, 2015, available at http://www.latimes.com/
local/education/community/la-me-edu-how-to-actually-get-something-out-of-parent-teacher-conferences20151023-story.html.

Economic Supplement: Table F-1. Income Limits for
Each Fifth and Top 5 Percent of Families (All Races):
1947 to 2014.

full source list.
105 Jenna Roberts, interview with authors, Northampton,

Massachusetts, May 14, 2016.
121 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Charts from the American

Time Use Survey; Bureau of Labor Statistics, Percent of
employed persons who did selected activities on workdays
by hour of the day.
106 Ibid.
107 Ibid.
108 National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and
Staffing Survey (SASS), Public School Principals Data File
2011-12.
109 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Charts from the American
Time Use Survey; Bureau of Labor Statistics, Percent of
employed persons who did selected activities on workdays
by hour of the day.
110 Lynda Laughlin, Whos Minding the Kids? Child Care
Arrangements: Spring 2011 (Washington: Bureau of
the Census, 2013), available at https://www.census.gov/
prod/2013pubs/p70-135.pdf.
2011-12.

2011-12.
123 Ibid.
124 The Understood Team, The Difference Between
IEPs and 504 Plans, Understood, available at https://
www.understood.org/en/school-learning/specialservices/504-plan/the-difference-between-ieps-and504-plans (last accessed September 2016).
125 Public Policy Institute of California, Disabled Children
in Low-Income Familes (2000), available at http://www.
ppic.org/content/pubs/rb/RB_1000MMRB.pdf.
126 Flamboyan Foundation, Improving Family Engagement, available at http://flamboyanfoundation.org/
focus/family-engagement/ (last accessed May 2016).
127 Flamboyan Foundation, Parent-Teacher Home Visits,

available at http://flamboyanfoundation.org/focus/
family-engagement/parent-teacher-home-visits/ (last
accessed May 2016).
128 Laughlin, Whos Minding the Kids? Child Care Arrangements: Spring 2011.
129 Keith Robinson and Angel L. Harris, Parental
Involvement Is Overrated, Opinionator, April 12,
2014, available at http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.
com/2014/04/12/parental-involvement-is-overrated/?_
r=0.
130 U.S. Department of Labor, Safety and Health Add
Value, available at https://www.osha.gov/Publications/
safety-health-addvalue.html (last accessed May 2016).
131 National Center for Education Statistics, Fast Facts: Expenditures, available at https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/
display.asp?id=66 (last accessed May 2016).
2011-12.
133 Afterschool Alliance, America After 3PM.
134 Ibid.
full source list.
136 Andrew Ba Tran, Map: The average cost for child
care by state, The Boston Globe, July 2, 2014, available at https://www.bostonglobe.com/2014/07/02/
map-the-average-cost-for-child-care-state/
LN65rSHXKNjr4eypyxT0WM/story.html.
full source list.
138 Ibid.
139 Golden, Irregular Work Scheduling and Its Consequences.
140 Fisher, Women of Color and the Gender Wage Gap.
141 Lauren Camara and Lindsey Cook, Title I Rich School
Districts Get Millions Meant for Poor Kids, U.S. News
& World Report, June 1, 2016, available at http://www.
usnews.com/news/articles/2016-06-01/title-i-richschool-districts-get-millions-in-federal-money-meantfor-poor-kids.
148 Kaplan and others, Financing Expanded Learning Time

in Schools.
149 National Center for Education Statistics, Table 5.
Average student membership size of regular public
elementary and secondary schools with membership,
by instructional level, membership size of largest and
smallest school, and state or jurisdiction: School year
200910.
150 Kaplan and others, Financing Expanded Learning Time
in Schools.
151 Based on authors analysis of Dr. Orlando Edreira
Academy No. 26 in Elizabeth, New Jersey, and McGlone
Elementary School in Denver, Colorado. See ibid.
152 Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education, Report on the Expanded Learning Time
Grant: Expenses and Recommendations for Sustainability (2015), available at http://www.doe.mass.edu/
research/reports/2015/03ELT-Sustainability.pdf; Fran
OReilly and Tammy Kolbe, Where Does the Money Go?
Expenditures for the Massachusetts Expanded Learning
Time (MA ELT) Initiative (Malden, MA: Massachusetts
Department of Elementary and Secondary Education,
2011), available at http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:Oq7tsQjgiRYJ:www.doe.
mass.edu/research/reports/2011/12ELT-Expenditures.
pdf+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us.
153 Tammy Kolbe and Fran OReilly, More Time in School:
An Analysis of the Costs Associated with Schools Implementing the Massachusetts Expanded Learning Time
Initiative (Malden, MA: Massachusetts Department of
Elementary and Secondary Education, 2012), available
at https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s
&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwi
y9t_JwZHOAhUMID4KHUlOBqUQFggcMAA&url=http%
3A%2F%2Fwww.doe.mass.edu%2Fresearch%2Freports
%2F2012%2F10elt-costanalysis.docx&usg=AFQjCNHO3
tvraqau5qlVY5y_xByqHoAadg&sig2=IaPGoytAcSAmN2
ywrWaS7Q&bvm=bv.127984354,d.dmo.
154 Marguerite Roza and Karen Hawley Miles, Taking
Stock of the Fiscal Costs of Expanded Learning Time,
(Washington: Center for American Progress, 2008),
available at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/
education/report/2008/07/21/4627/taking-stock-ofthe-fiscal-costs-of-expanded-learning-time/.
155 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Table 3. Distribution of
employed wage and salary workers by tenure with
current employer, age, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino
ethnicity, January 2014, available at http://www.bls.
gov/news.release/tenure.t03.htm (last accessed May
2016).
2011-12.
142 Every Student Succeeds Act.
157 Ibid.
143 U.S. Department of Education Office of Elementary

and Secondary Education, Letter to Chief State School
Officers.
158 Afterschool Alliance, America After 3 PM.
144 Ibid.
145 U.S. Department of Education, 21st Century Community Learning Centers.
146 U.S. Department of Education, Promise Neighborhoods.
147 U.S. Department of Education, Full Service Community
Schools.
159 Afterschool Alliance, Roadmap to Afterschool for All:

Examining Current Investments and Mapping Future
Needs (2009), available at http://www.afterschoolalliance.org/documents/roadmap/RoadmapToAfterschoolForAllReport.pdf.
160 Bureau of Labor Statistics, May 2015 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates.
161 Ibid.
162 Authors calculations based on data provided by Bureau

of Labor Statistics, Table 3. Median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers by age, race,
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, and sex, first quarter 2016
averages, not seasonally adjusted.
178 National Center for Education Statistics, Table 5.3.

Types of State and District Requirements for Kindergarten Entrance and Attendance, by State: 2014, available
at https://nces.ed.gov/programs/statereform/tab5_3.
asp (last accessed May 2016).
163 Ibid.
179 CJ Libassi, Best Research Yet on the Effects of Full-Day

Kindergarten, EdCentral, December 5, 2014, available
at http://www.edcentral.org/fullday-k-research/.
164 National Center for Education Statistics, National Center

(SASS), Public School Principals Data File 2011-12.
165 Emily Badger, The terrible loneliness of growing up
poor in Robert Putnams America, The Washington Post,
March 6, 2015, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/03/06/the-terribleloneliness-of-growing-up-poor-in-robert-putnamsamerica/.
166 Lovell, No Time to Be Sick. Kings Trail Elementary, Arrival and Dismissal Procedures.
167 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, QuickStats:
Estimated Percentage of Students Who Missed School
During the Preceding 12 Months Because of Illness or
Injury.
168 Kings Trail Elementary, Arrival and Dismissal Procedures.
169 District of Columbia Public Schools, Medication and
Treatment at School, available at http://dcps.dc.gov/
health (last accessed May 2016); personal communication from Cynthia Miller-Idriss, associate professor of
education and sociology, American University, March
24, 2016.
170 Ibid.
171 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Head Lice
Information for Schools.
172 Glynn, Working Parents Lack of Access to Paid Leave
and Workplace Flexibility.
173 Ashley Halsey III, Paul Duggan, and Michael Laris,
Cleanup in D.C. after historic blizzard could stretch
for days, The Washington Post, January 25, 2016,
available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/
local/government-schools-remain-closed-afterhistoric-blizzard/2016/01/25/32947884-c35a-11e59693-933a4d31bcc8_story.html.
174 Feeding America, Hunger and Poverty Facts and
Statistics, available at http://www.feedingamerica.org/
hunger-in-america/impact-of-hunger/hunger-and-poverty/hunger-and-poverty-fact-sheet.html (last accessed
May 2016).
175 Jessica Glazer, For Lower-Income Students, Snow
Days Can Be Hungry Days, The Salt, February 12,
2014, available at http://www.npr.org/sections/
thesalt/2014/02/10/274899069/for-lower-incomestudents-snow-days-mean-hungry-tummies.
176 Michael Wasser, Unpredictable, Unsustainable: The
Impact of Employers Scheduling Practices in D.C.
(Washington: D.C. Jobs with Justice and others, 2014),
available at http://www.dcjwj.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/DCJWJ_Scheduling_Report_2015.pdf.
177 Bush, Ryan, and Rose, Number of Instructional Days/
Hours in the School Year.
180 Katherin Ross Phillips, State Policies That Affect

Working Families (Washington: Urban Institute, 2004),
available at http://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/
alfresco/publication-pdfs/311048-State-Policies-ThatAffect-Working-Families.PDF.
181 Bush, Ryan, and Rose, Number of Instructional Days/
Hours in the School Year.
182 Michael Diedrich, Minnesota School Year Requirements in 2014, Minnesota 2020, February 25, 2014,
available at http://www.mn2020.org/issues-that-matter/education/minnesota-school-year-requirementsin-2014.
183 Daphne Sashin, Back to school: Why August is the new
September, CNN, August 5, 2015, available at http://
www.cnn.com/2015/08/04/living/school-start-datesaugust-parents-feat/.
184 Benjamin Freed, Kings Dominion Law Still Reigns in
Virginia, Washingtonian, August 25, 2014, available at
http://www.washingtonian.com/2014/08/25/kingsdominion-law-still-reigns-in-virginia/.
185 National Center for Education Statistics, Public School
Expenditures, available at http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cmb.asp (last accessed May 2016).
186 Cindy Long, Four-Day School Weeks More Popular,
But Impact on Students and Educators Unclear, neaToday, January 14, 2016, available at http://neatoday.
org/2016/01/14/four-day-school-week-pro-con/.
187 The Center for Michigan, School Daze: Michigans
Shrinking School Year (2009), available at http://
www.thecenterformichigan.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/School-Daze-Report.pdf.
188 Montgomery County Public Schools, Bell TimesAnalysis of Additional Options (2015), available at http://
www.montgomeryschoolsmd.org/info/pdf/Bell%20
Times%20Analysis%20Addl%20Options%20Jan2015.
pdf.
189 Evie Blad, Teens Need More Sleep, But Districts
Struggle to Shift Start Times, Education Week, September 22, 2015, available at http://www.edweek.org/
ew/articles/2015/09/23/teens-need-more-sleep-butdistricts-struggle.html?cmp=SOC-EDIT-FB.
190 Editorial Board, Later school hours in Montgomery
County are worth the cost, The Washington Post, January 9, 2015, available at https://www.washingtonpost.
com/opinions/later-school-hours-in-montgomerycounty-are-worth-the-cost/2015/01/09/8fea84da9785-11e4-927a-4fa2638cd1b0_story.html.
191 Amanda Kerr, Extended school day expands the
horizons for low-income students, The Post and Courier,
April 27, 2015, available at http://www.postandcourier.
com/article/20150427/PC16/150429523/1177.
192 Liz Riggs, The Myth of a Teachers Summer Vacation,

The Atlantic, July 2, 2015, available at http://www.
theatlantic.com/education/archive/2015/07/myth-ofteacher-summer-vacation/397535/.
193 Based on demographic characteristics among the
teaching workforce from National Center for Education
Statistics, Fast Facts: Teacher trends, available at http://
nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=28 (last accessed
May 2016); national poll data on childbearing attitudes
from Frank Newport and Joy Wilke, Desire for Children
Still a Norm in the U.S., Gallup, September 13, 2013,
available at http://www.gallup.com/poll/164618/
desire-children-norm.aspx.
194 Kristin Thorne, As Obama Advocates Longer School
Year, Teachers Unions Push for Shorter Weeks, Fox
News, October 6, 2009, available at http://www.
foxnews.com/politics/2009/10/06/obama-advocateslonger-school-year-teachers-unions-push-shorterweeks.html.
195 Wasser, Unpredictable, Unsustainable.
196 Ibid.
197 Council of Economic Advisers, The Economics of Paid
and Unpaid Leave.
198 Lisa Dodson and others, How Youth Are Put At Risk
by Parents Low-Wage Jobs (Boston: University of
Massachusetts Boston, 2012), available at https://www.
umb.edu/editor_uploads/images/centers_institutes/
center_social_policy/Youth_at_RiskParents_Low_
Wage_Jobs_Fall_121.pdf.
199 The Working Poor Families Project, Working Hard, Still
Falling Short (2008), available at http://www.workingpoorfamilies.org/pdfs/NatReport08.pdf.
200 Afterschool Alliance, America After 3PM.
201 The Working Poor Families Project, Working Hard Still
Falling Short.
202 Emma Brown, In 23 states, richer school districts get
more local funding than poorer districts, The Washington Post, March 12, 2015, available at https://www.
washingtonpost.com/news/local/wp/2015/03/12/
in-23-states-richer-school-districts-get-more-localfunding-than-poorer-districts/.
203 Leila Morsy and Richard Rothstein, Parents NonStandard Work Schedules Make Adequate Childrearing Difficult (Washington: Economic Policy Institute,
2015), available at http://www.epi.org/publication/
parents-non-standard-work-schedules-make-adequate-childrearing-difficult-reforming-labor-marketpractices-can-improve-childrens-cognitive-and-behavioral-outcomes/.
204 Nathania Johnson, Creative: This NC School Retrofitted
a Used Bus as a Classroom on Wheels to Boost Parent
Engagement, The 74, March 28, 2016, available at
https://www.the74million.org/article/creative-thisnc-school-retrofitted-a-used-bus-as-a-classroom-onwheels-to-boost-parent-engagement.
205 Based on authors compilation of information and materials from the Hillsborough County school district and
select charter schools. See Appendix 2 for full source
list.
206 Ibid.
207 Kathryn Baron, Shaking the Money Tree: Sources for

After-School Funding, Time and Learning, January 26,
2015, available at http://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/
time_and_learning/2015/01/the_growth_in_after_
school.html.
208 Texas Education Agency, 21st Century Community
Learning Centers, available at http://tea.texas.gov/
Texas_Schools/Support_for_At-Risk_Schools_and_
Students/21st_Century_Community_Learning_Centers/ (last accessed June 2016).
209 Ibid.
210 Margo Gardner, Jodie L. Roth, and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn,
Can After-School Programs Help Level the Playing
Field for Disadvantaged Youth? (New York: Equity
Matters, 2009), available at http://www.equitycampaign.org/i/a/document/11242_After-school_report_10-7-09_web.pdf.
211 Ibid.
212 David A Farbman, The Case for Expanding and Improving Time in School: A Review of Key Research and Practice (Boston: National Center on Time and Learning,
2015), available at http://www.timeandlearning.org/
sites/default/files/resources/caseformorelearningtime.
pdf.
213 Yael Kidron and Jim Lindsay, The effects of increased
learning time on student academic and nonacademic
outcomes (Washington: National Center for Education
Statistics, 2014), available at https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/
edlabs/regions/appalachia/pdf/REL_2014015.pdf.
214 Andrew Giambone, Ten D.C. Public Schools Will Get
Extended Academic Years, Washington City Paper,
February 3, 2016, available at http://www.washingtoncitypaper.com/news/city-desk/blog/13070429/10-d-cpublic-schools-will-get-extended-academic-years.
215 National Center on Time and Learning, Expanded
School Movement, available at http://www.timeandlearning.org/why-more-school-time/ELT-movement
216 Ibid.
217 Tiffany D. Miller, New York:Expanding Time, Increasing Opportunities forAchievement (Washington:
Center for American Progress, 2014), available at
https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/education/
report/2014/06/09/90980/new-york-expanding-timeincreasing-opportunities-for-achievement/.
218 New York City Department of Education, 2015-16
School Year Calendars, available at http://schools.nyc.
gov/Calendar/2015-16+Calendars (last accessed May
2016).
219 Tiffany D. Miller, Expanded Learning Time Should Be
Part of the 21st Century Community Learning Center
Program, Center for American Progress, August 6,
2013, available at https://www.americanprogress.org/
issues/education/news/2013/08/06/71564/expandedlearning-time-should-be-part-of-the-21st-centurycommunity-learning-center-program/.
220 Center for American Progress, Expanded Learning
Time by the Numbers (2010), available at https://
www.americanprogress.org/issues/education/
news/2010/04/22/7716/expanded-learning-time-bythe-numbers/.
221 Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education, Report on the Expanded Learning
Time Grant: Costs, Expenses, and Recommendations
for Sustainability (2015), available at http://www.doe.
mass.edu/research/reports/2015/03elt-sustainability.
docx.
222 Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education, School Redesign: MA Expanded Learning Time (ELT) Districts and Schools, available at http://
www.doe.mass.edu/redesign/elt/SchoolList.html (last
accessed May 2016); Kathleen Traphagen and Christine
Johnson-Staub, Expanded Time, Enriching Experiences (Washington: Center for American Progress,
2010), available at https://www.americanprogress.org/
issues/education/report/2010/02/17/7336/expandedtime-enriching-experiences/.
223 American Federation of Teachers, Its About Time:
Lessons from Expanded Learning Time in Meriden, Connecticut (2014), available at http://www.aft.org/sites/
default/files/if_itsabouttime.pdf.
224 Knowledge Is Power Program, Frequently Asked Questions, available at http://www.kipp.org/about-kipp/faq
239 Ibid.
240 Citizen Schools, Growth Strategy, available at http://
www.citizenschools.org/about/growth-strategy/ (last
accessed September 2016).
241 Corporation for National & Community Service, AmeriCorps VISTA, available at http://www.nationalservice.
gov/programs/americorps/americorps-vista (last
accessed September 2016); Corporation for National &
Community Service, School Turnaround AmeriCorps,
available at http://www.nationalservice.gov/special-initiatives/task-force-expanding-national-service/schoolturnaround-americorps (last accessed September
2016).
242 American Federation of Teachers, Its About Time.
243 University of California-Berkeley College and Career
Academy Support Network, Expanded Learning Time/
Extended Learning Time in High Schools, available
at http://casn.berkeley.edu/resource_files/Expanded_Learning_Extended_Learning.pdf (last accessed
September 2016).
244 Ibid.
225 New York City Department of Education, Parent

Teacher Conferences 2015-16, available at http://
schools.nyc.gov/NR/rdonlyres/075BB1B9-2F2F-4E9ABA7F-734628FC791D/0/201516ParentTeacherConferencesMemofinal.pdf (last accessed May 2016).
245 Generation Schools Network, Cost-Effective Strategies for Extending Learning Time and Expanding
Opportunity in K-12 Education (2014), available at
http://generationschools.org/assets/resourcefiles/pdfs/
GENE_ELT_ELO%20Cost-EffectiveSMALL%208.pdf.
226 Patricia Willens, Rethinking a Fall Classic: The

Parent-Teacher Conference, NPR, September 18,
ed/2014/09/18/349234419/rethinking-a-fall-classicthe-parent-teacher-conference.
246 Ibid.
227 Andrew Schmidt, Celebrating Top Ways to Use Skype in

the Classroom, Skype Blogs, August 30, 2013, available
at http://blogs.skype.com/2013/08/30/celebrating-topways-to-use-skype-in-the-classroom/.
248 Government Accountability Office, K-12 Education:

Federal Funding for and Characteristics of Public
Schools with Extended Learning Time, GAO-16-141,
Report to Congressional Committees, November 2015,
available at http://www.gao.gov/assets/680/673904.
pdf.
228 David Raths, From Twitter to Edmodo: Schools Collaborate with Social Media, The Journal, February
5, 2013, available at https://thejournal.com/articles/2013/02/07/social-studies.aspx.
229 Singer, Privacy Concerns for ClassDojo and Other
Tracking Apps for Schoolchildren.
230 Stephen Sawchuk, More Districts Sending Teachers
Into Students Homes, Education Week, December
13, 2011, available at http://www.edweek.org/ew/
articles/2011/12/14/14visit_ep.h31.html.
231 Ibid.; Marla Toncray, Home visit guidelines adjusted for
teachers, The Ledger Independent, July 8, 2013, available
at http://www.maysville-online.com/news/local/homevisit-guidelines-adjusted-for-teachers/article_bfea9c7aeee4-5895-ab54-d65091398c67.html.
232 Mintz, interview with author.
233 Ibid.
234 National Center on Time and Learning, Financing
Expanded Learning Time in Schools.
235 Ibid.
236 Ibid.
237 Ibid.
238 American Federation of Teachers, Its About Time.
247 U.S. Department of Education Office of Elementary

and Secondary Education, Letter to Chief State School
Officers.
249 Roza and Hawley Miles, Taking Stock of the Fiscal Costs
of Expanded Learning Time.
250 Liz Riggs, Kids Who Spend All Day at School, The Atlantic, May 30, 2014, available at http://www.theatlantic.
com/education/archive/2014/05/extended-schooldays/371896/.
251 Email from Adam Honeysett to Chief State School
Officer, Letter from Senior Advisor Whalen re: Using
Federal Funds for Summer Learning, February 26, 2016,
available at https://education.ohio.gov/getattachment/
Topics/School-Improvement/Federal-Programs/Federal-Programs-Communications/Letter-from-SeniorAdvisor-Whalen-re-Using-Federal-Funds.pdf.aspx.
252 National Education Association, Closing the Gap
through Extended Learning Opportunities (2008),
available at http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/HE/
mf_PB04_ExtendedLearning.pdf.
253 Martin J. Blank and others, Financing Community
Schools: Leveraging Resources to Support Student Success (Washington: Coalition for Community Schools,
2010), available at http://www.communityschools.org/
assets/1/AssetManager/finance-paper.pdf.
255 Ibid.
256 Harkavy and others, The Promise of University-Assisted

Community Schools to Transform American Schooling.
257 Ibid.
258 Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education, Report on the Expanded Learning Time
Grant: Costs, Expenses, and Recommendations for
Sustainability.
259 Ibid.
260 Ibid.
261 Ibid.
262 Ibid.
263 Jane Graves Smith, Parental Involvement in Education
Among Low-Income Families: A Case Study, The School
Community Journal 16 (1) (2006): 4356, available at
http://www.adi.org/journal/ss06/SmithSpring2006.pdf.
264 The Federation for Community Schools, Community
Needs Assessment, available at http://www.ilcommunityschools.org/images/files/docs/Community%20
Needs%20Assessment%20-%20ALL.pdf (last accessed
September 2016).
265 Rebora, Four-Day Weeks for Teachers, Anyone?; Bush,

Ryan, and Rose, Number of Instructional Days/Hours in
the School Year.
Delivery Systems.
268 Blake Farmer, Knock Knock, Teachers Here:
The Power of Home Visits, NPR, August 26,
ed/2015/08/26/434358793/knock-knock-teachershere-the-power-of-home-visits.
269 Ibid.
270 Glazer, For Lower-Income Students, Snow Days Can Be
Hungry Days.
271 Singer, Privacy Concerns for ClassDojo and Other
Tracking Apps for Schoolchildren.
Delivery Systems.
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1 Introduction and summary

Introduction and summary

1 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

2 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

3 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

4 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

5 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

The federal government should take the following steps:

6 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

stakeholders to solve these problems. The U.S. Department of Education should

7 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

States should take the following steps:

8 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

Conduct a comprehensive parent needs assessment. Districts should consult

9 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

Better accommodate disadvantaged families and support increased parental

Administrators should take the following steps:

10 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

11 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

A nations changing demographics

12 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

The reality of work for low-income families

The middle-class squeeze

13 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

At the same time, middle-income families are facing an increasingly uncertain

Women bear more of the cost of misaligned schedules than men

14 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

It is important to note that the authors included federal holidayssuch as

15 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

16 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

My son only had

While high-quality professional development and collaboration are critical for

17 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

New York City

Los Angeles Unified

Palm Beach County

San Diego Unified

18 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

To calculate out-of-pocket costs, CAP researchers made a number of assumptions.

19 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

The middle school mismatch

20 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

The middle school mismatch

School start time (a.m.)

School end time (p.m.)

New York City

Los Angeles Unified

Palm Beach County

San Diego Unified

Prince George's County

21 Center for American Progress | Workin 9 to 5

The longest summer

The longest summer

First day of school*

New York City

Los Angeles Unified

Palm Beach County

San Diego Unified