A Brief Summary of India - Part I

India is a large country in southern Asia. It is the

second largest country in the world in population.
The river valleys of northeastern India are among
the most densely populated places in the world.
India ranks seventh in the world in area.
India occupies a strategic position in Asia, looking
across the seas to Arabia and Africa on the west and
Burma , Malaysia and the Indonesian archipelago on
the east. Geographically, the Himalayan range
keeps India apart from the rest of Asia.
India has great varieties and differences in both its land and its people. The land
includes desert, jungles, and one of the world's rainiest areas. India also has broad
plains, mighty rivers, the tallest mountain system in the world, and tropical lowlands.
The people of India belong to many different ethnic groups and religions. They speak 14
major languages and more than 1,000 minor languages and dialects.
Location India lies to the north of the equator between 8 degree 4 minutes and 37
degree 6 minutes north latitude and 68 degree 7 minutes and 97 degree 25 minutes
east longitude. It is bounded on the south-west by the Arabian sea and on the southeast by the Bay of Bengal. On the north, north-east and north-west lie the Himalayan
ranges. Kanyakumari constitutes the southern tip of the Indian peninsula where it gets
narrower and narrower, loses itself into the Indian Ocean.
Extent India measures 3214 Kms from north to south and 2933 Kms from east to west
with a total land area of 3,287,263 sq kms. It has aland frontier of 15,200 kms and a
coast line of 7516.5 kms. Andaman and Nicobar islands in the Bay of Bengal and
Lakshadweep in the Arabian sea are parts of India.
Neighbours India shares its political borders with Pakistan and Afghanistan on the west
and Bangladesh and Burma on the east. The northern boundary is made up of the
Sinkiang province of China, Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan. India is separated from Sri Lanka
by anarrow channel of sea formed by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar.
Physiographic regions The mainland comprises seven regions.
1. Northern mountains including the Himalayas and the north-eastern mountain
ranges,
2. The Indo-Gangetic plain,

3. The desert,
4. Central Highlands and Peninsular plateau,
5. East coast,
6. West coast,
7. Bordering seas and islands.
Mountain ranges They are seven :
1. The Himalayas,
2. The Patkai and other ranges bordering India in the north and north-east,
3. The Vindhyas which separates the Indo-Gangetic plain from the deccan plateau,
4. The Satpura,
5. The Arravali,
6. The Sahyadri which covers the eastern fringe of the west coast plains and
7. The Eastern Ghats, irregularly scattered on the east coast and forming the
boundary on the east coast plain.
Continue...........

A Brief Summary of India - Part II

The Himalayas, the highest mountain ranges in the world, is one of the world's youngest mountain
ranges. It runs practically uninterrupted for a distance of some 2500 km and covers an area of about
500,000 sq km. It contains the world's highest mountain peak, Mt Everest and some ten peaks, rising
above 7,500 m. It appears to have risen as a result of collision between the drifting Indian peninsular plate
and the Tibetan plate of South Asia about 50 million years ago. The Himalayas reached their present
height much later.
Patkai and allied mountain ranges run along the Indo-BangladeshBurma border and may be collectively called Purvanchal or
eastern mountains. These ranges forming an arc must have come
into existence along with the Himalayas.
Aravalli range in north-western India is one of the oldest mountain
systems in the world. The present Aravalli range is only a remnant
of the gigantic system that existed in pre-historic times with several of its summits rising above the snow
line and nourishing glaciers of stupendous magnitude which in turn fed many great rivers.

Vindhyanchal range traverses nearly the whole width of peninsular India - a distance of about 1050 km
with an average elevation of about 300 metres. The Vindhyanchal range is appears to have been formed
by the wastes created by the weathering of the ancient Aravalli ranges.
Satpura range, another ancient mountain system extends for a distance of 900 km with many of its peaks
rising above 1000 metres. It is triangular in shape, with its apex at Ratnapuri and two sides running
parallel to the Narmada and Tapti rivers.
Sahyadri or Western Ghats, with an average height of 1200 metres, is about 1600 km long and runs
along the western border of the Deccan plateau, from the mouth of the river Tapti to Kanyakumari. It
stands overlooking the Arabian Sea.
Eastern Ghats bordering the East Coast of India, is cut up by the powerful rivers into discontinuous block
of mountains. In its northern parts between the Godavari and the Mahanadi rivers it rises to above 1000
metres.
The Desert region can be divided into two parts - the great desert and the little desert. The great desert
extends from the edge of the Rann of Kachchh beyond the Luni river northward. the whole of RajasthanSind frontier runs through this. The little desert extends from the Luni between Jaisalmer and Jodhpur up
to northern wastes.
Continue.........

A Brief Summary of India - Part III

Watersheds There are mainly three watersheds.

1.

Himalayan range with its Karakoram branch in the north,

2.

Vindhyanchal and Satpura ranges in Central India, and

3.

Sahyadri or Western Ghats on the west coast.

Rivers The main rivers of the Himalayan group are the Indus, Ganga and the Bhramputra. These rivers
are both snow-fed and rain-fed and have therefore continuous flow throughout the year. Himalayan rivers
discharge about 70% of their inflow into the sea. This includes about 5% from central Indian rivers. They
join the Ganga and drain into the Bay of Bengal.
The Indus which the Aryans called the Sindhu, has lent its name to India.
Its valleys on both sides have been the seats of civilization. This historic
river has five major tributaries - the Jhelum, the Ravi, the Beas and the
Sutlej. The Indus rises from the Mount Kailash (the abode of Lord Shiva) in
Tibet north of the Himalayas, at an elevation of 5,180 metres and
traverses many miles through the Himalayas before it is joined by its
tributaries in the Punjab. It travels west and southwest for 2,897 kilometres
and empties into the Arabian Sea through several mouths. Thereafter it
passes into Sind (Pakistan) to fall into the Arabian Sea.
The Ganga (also Ganges) famous like in legends and history, is considered the most sacred river by the
Hindus. It covers, what is called the heartland of India, which was the main centre of the ancient Aryan
culture. It is the greatest waterway in India and one of the largest in the world. It is most important to the
Indians for the part it plays in the Hindu religion.

Each year, thousands of Hindu pilgrims visit such holy cities as Varanasi and Allahabad along the banks
of the Ganga to bathe in the river and to take home some of its water. Temples line the riverbank, and
ghats (stairways) lead down to the water. Some pilgrims come to bathe in the water only to cleanse and
purify themselves. The sick and crippled come hoping that the touch of the water will cure their ailments.
Others come to die in the river, for the Hindus believe that those who die in the Ganga will be carried to
Paradise.

The river is an important trade area. Its valley is fertile and densely populated. Some of India's largest
cities, such as Calcutta, Howrah, Patna, Varanasi, and Kanpur, stand on its banks. But the Ganga is less
important commercially than it once was. Irrigation has drained much of its water and steamers can
navigate only in the lower part of the river.
The Ganga has its source in an ice cave 3,139 metres above sea level in the Himalayas of northern India.
The glacier known as Gangotri gives rise to the river and its several tributaries. The river flows toward the
southeast and through Bangladesh for 2,480 kilometres to empty into the Bay of Bengal . Several
tributary rivers, including the Yamuna, Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghra, Son, and Sapt Kosi add to the waters
of the Ganga. They spread like a fan in the plain of India thus forming the largest river basin in India, with
an area, one quarter of the total area of India. The Brahmaputra River joins some of the branches of the
Ganga near its mouth, and together the two rivers form a large delta.
Continue.........

A Brief Summary of India - Part IV

The Brahmaputra is one of the most important waterways of southern Asia. It rises on the northern
slopes of the Himalaya in Tibet. After flowing about 2,700 kilometres through northeastern India and
Bangladesh, it joins the Ganges (Ganga) River, with which it shares the Ganges Delta. The northern part
of the river has many names. It is sometimes called Yarlung Zangbo in Tibet.
Boats can sail up the river about 1,300 kilometres, but cannot go farther because of rapids. A bridge
erected in 1963 crosses the river near Gauhati, India.
The valley of the Brahmaputra, in Assam, has fertile farmland. Large crops of tea, rice, and jute grow
there. In the rainy season, the river floods much of the valley, providing natural irrigation for rice growers.
The principal branches of the Brahmaputra are the Lohit, Dibong, Dihong, and Subansiri rivers.
The Deccan rivers denuding their beds for long geological days have developed flat valleys with low
gradients. The major deccan rivers are the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery, the Pennar, the
Mahanadi, the Damodar, the Sharavati, the Netravati, the Bharataphuza, the Periyar, the Pamba, the
Narmada and the Tapti. They contribute about 30% of the total outflow in India. These rivers are entirely
rain-fed and shrink into rivulets during the hot season.

Continue.......

A Brief Summary of India - Part V

People and Population. About 16 per cent of all the world's people live in India. Only China, which has a

population of more than one billion, has more people than India. India is more densely populated than
most other countries.
Vital statistics:

Population ('99 UN est.) : 998.1 million

Population (2025-projection) : 1,330.2 million

Sex ratio (female/1000 males) : 927

About 73 per cent of India's people live in rural areas. Most of the country's
557,000 farm villages have less than 1,000 people. About 27 per cent of
the people live in urban areas. India has about 4,000 cities and towns.
About 300 cities have populations over 100,000. Six cities have more than 3 million people. These cities,
in order of population size, are Mumbai (Bombay), Delhi, Calcutta, Bangalore, Chennai (Madras), and
Hyderabad. Calcutta, the capital city of West Bengal, has the greatest population density of any city in
India, with an average of about 42,000 people per square kilometre.
Since the early 1900's, India's population has grown by several million a year. During the 1980's and
1990's, the population increased by as much as 18 million per year. The main reason for this "population
explosion" is that improved sanitation and health care have caused the death rate to fall more rapidly than
the birth rate. Population growth has led to serious overcrowding. India's city population grows about
twice as fast as the population of the country as a whole.
Ancestry. India's people belong to a variety of ethnic groups. The two largest groups are the light-skinned
Indo-Aryans and the dark-skinned Dravidians. Most Indo-Aryans live in northern India, and a majority of
the Dravidians live in southern parts of the country.
The Dravidians were among India's earliest known inhabitants. About 2500 B.C., they created an
advanced civilization in the Indus Valley. About 1500 B.C., the Aryans invaded the Indus Valley and drove
the Dravidians south.
Beginning about A.D. 1000, central Asian Islamic peoples, mainly from the area that is now Afghanistan
and Iran, settled in India. Many of their descendants live in the northeast, especially in the states of Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. Mongoloid peoples live in the Himalayan region along India's
northeastern border and in the states that border Burma. Most members of such minority groups as the
Bhils, Gonds, Khasis, Nagas, Oraons, and Santals live in remote hills and forests.
Continue.......

A Brief Summary of India - Part VI

Climate India is so vast that the climatic conditions are much varied. India has mainly three seasons a
year - Winter (mid-October - February), Summer (April-July) and Rainy (June-September : SW Monsoon;
October-November : NE Monsoon).
The Winter season lasts from October to February. The weather then becomes mild, except in the
northern mountains. Snow usually falls in mountainous areas during this season. As the altitude
increases, temperatures drop below freezing point (0 C). No other section of India has temperatures
below freezing point. The northern plains may get some frost during this season. Southern India lacks a
true cool season, but the weather from October to February is usually not quite as hot as during the rest
of the year.

The Summer season lasts from March to the end of June. The northern plains get the greatest heat.
Temperatures often rise to 49 C. Temperatures on the coastal plains stay around 29 C or 32 C.
Cyclones often bring storms to the coastal plains at this time. Parts of the southern plateau remain cool
during the hot season. The northern mountains are cool or cold, depending on altitude.
The Rainy season lasts from the middle of June to September. During this period, monsoons (seasonal
winds) blow across the Indian Ocean, picking up moisture. They reach India from the southeast and
southwest, bringing almost all the rain that falls on India. During the other two seasons, monsoons blow
from the north or northeast.
The southwest monsoons are of great importance to Indian agriculture. If the monsoons bring enough rain
to the country, crops will grow. Sometimes they fail to arrive in time, and crops fail as a result. Some
monsoons drop too much rain, ruining crops and causing destructive floods.
Rain falls most heavily in northeastern India. Some hills and mountain slopes in this region receive an
average of about 1,140 centimetres of rain a year. The world's heaviest recorded rainfall for one year fell
at Cherrapunji. This village in Meghalaya had 2,647 centimetres of rain from August 1860 to July 1861.
The Thar, or Indian, Desert in the northwestern part of the country receives less than 25 centimetres of
rain a year. Some sections of the hot, sandy, and rocky, desert get only about 5 centimetres of rain
annually.
End of the section

States and Union Territories

Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh is the fifth largest state in India. Set in the heart of peninsular India, it lies entirely within
the tropics. It has a longer stretch of coastline than any other Indian state. The Bay of Bengal forms the
eastern boundary of the state. To the northeast is Orissa, and on the north and northwest borders are the
states of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Karnataka forms the western border, with Tamil Nadu to the
south. The state capital is Hyderabad.
Location and description. Andhra Pradesh stretches over 1,200 kilometres along the eastern seaboard
of India, and more than 700 kilometres from the coast at Masulipatnam, to the west of Hyderabad. It is
one of India's tropical states.
The state has three main regions: the coastal strip, the mountains, and the inland plateau. Irrigation in the
flat coastal area has helped to make it the richest agricultural region of the state. The deltas of the
Godavari and Krishna rivers have particularly fertile soil. Rice and sugar cane are the most important
crops.
Immediately inland, a series of mountain ranges, covered with forest or scrub jungle, runs nearly parallel
with the coast. Large gaps in the ranges lead up to the plateau behind. The plateau has some of India's
oldest rocks, which geologists believe are more than 3,000 million years old.
Climate. Temperatures in central Andhra Pradesh range from an average minimum of 13 C in December
to 26 C in May, the hottest month. In the coastal areas, the minimum temperatures do not fall as far. In
the coolest months, December and January, the mean maximum temperatures are 28 C or 29 C. In
May, they go up to 39 C. Once the rainy season starts in late June, mean maximum temperatures fall

back to around 30 C.
The whole state receives most of its rain during the monsoon season, from June to October. However, the
northeast of the state gets more than twice as much rain as the southwest. Hyderabad in the centre
receives a total of 76 centimetres a year on average. 57 centimetres fall between June and September,
while only 3 centimetres fall between December and March. Cyclones cause massive damage in the
deltas.
Tourist Centres: Andhra Pradesh is rich in historical monuments. It possess many number of holy
temples which attract a large number of pilgrims and tourist.
Tirupati in Chittoor district houses one of the most famous temples of India. The presiding deity is known
as Venkateshwara. The main temple is situated on hill top, Tirumalai, and is a masterpiece of south Indian
architecture. The temple of Sri Ramchandra at Bhadrachalam, the Mallikarjunaswamy temple at srisailam,
the Ahobalam temple, Srikummam temple and the Simhachalam temple are among the other famous
temples of Andhra Pradesh.
The main places of interest in the capiatal city Hyderabad is the Char Minar built in 1591, Osmania
University, State museum and art gallery, Salarjung museum, Health museum, Nehru zoological park,
public gardens, Birla Mandir and macca masjid.
Another important centre of tourism is Golconda, about 8 Kms. from Hyderabad. The capital of the Qutb
Shahi Sultans in the 16th century, Golconda is famous for the Golconda Fort. Nagarjuna Sagar dam and
the vicinity attracts a number of visitors. Yadagiri Gutta at Nalgonda, Vemulawada at Karimnagar and
ramappa and thousand pillars temple at Warragal are also centers of attraction. Nagarjuna Srisailam
Sanctuary is the largest tiger reserve in India.
Continue with Andhra's history.....

Andhra Pradesh - History : Early Period

Early Period
The history of the area corresponding to present-day Andhra Pradesh dates from the Maurya Empire.
During the reign of Bindusara (297-272 B.C.), second ruler of the Maurya dynasty, Andhradesa became
part of the Maurya Empire.
The emperor Asoka, his son and successor, refers in his inscriptions to a people called the Andhras. The
first known Andhra dynasty, the Satavahanas, probably held administrative posts under the Mauryas.
They came to power when the Maurya Empire disintegrated, following the death of the emperor Asoka in
232 B.C.
The Satavahanas ruled from about 230 B.C. to A.D. 200. Prathistan (Paithan) was their capital. The
Satavahanas encouraged various religious groups and were patrons of Buddhism and Brahmanism.
Archaeological finds from Amaravati on the east coast show the great skill and artistry of early Andhra
sculptors and builders. Some of the Ajanta cave paintings date from this period. Nagarjunakonda became
a centre of learning in the 100's and 200's A.D.
After the end of the Satavahana Empire, several dynasties emerged in Andhra. The most prominent were
the Pallavas (225-610), the Ishvaku (250-340), and the Vishnu Kundins (440-610). Fragmented political
control continued until the rise of the Kakatiya dynasty (1081-1323). The Kakatiyas ruled the entire
Andhradesa. Warangal, northeast of the present city of Hyderabad, was their capital.
The southward expansion of the Delhi sultanate ended Kakatiya supremacy. Although the Kakatiya ruler
repulsed the initial attempt of Ala-ud-din Khalji to conquer the Deccan, he was defeated in 1309, and

became a tributary of the sultan. The Kakatiyas enjoyed a short-lived independence after the death of Alaud-din Khalji.
However, his successor, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq, annexed the Kakatiya kingdom after a five-month war
ended in the fall of Warangal in 1323. The rise of the Vijayanagar Empire in the mid-1300's prevented
Turkish expansion further south.
Medieval History of Andhra.....

Andhra Pradesh - History : Medieval Period

Medieval period.
Medieval history in the Deccan centres around the struggle for supremacy between the Bahmani and
Vijayanagar kingdoms. The whole of Andhradesa, except the Telangana region, formed part of the
territory of Vijayanagar. Vijayanagar - the City of Victory - was the capital of this great military empire.
One of its most successful rulers, Krishna Deva Raya, was responsible for a period of territorial expansion
and economic prosperity. He was renowned as a great warrior, statesman, scholar, builder, and patron of
the arts. His kingdom did not survive for long after his death in 1529.
Political and territorial realignment in the Deccan followed the Battle of Talikota in 1565 (in which the army
of Vijayanagar was routed) and the earlier disintegration of the Bahmani kingdom in 1538. The Bahmani
kingdom split into five independent principalities.
One, Golconda, under Quli Qutb Shah ruled the Telangana region. On the decline of Vijayanagar power,
the ruler of Golconda extended his territory to the whole of Andhra, bringing the area under one political
authority at last.
Golconda emerged as an independent kingdom when the Mughal Empire was at its greatest. Inevitably,
the Mughals advanced south, intending to extend their territory into the Deccan. Although the rulers of the
Deccan resisted, they were powerless against the Mughals. Golconda was annexed in 1687 and Andhra
became a province of the Mughal Empire.
In 1724, Nizam-ul-mulk Asaf Jah, the Mughal viceroy of Deccan, carved out an independent kingdom,
Hyderabad. Hyderabad, comprising almost the whole of present-day Andhra Pradesh, was the most
important centre of Muslim culture in central and south India during the 1700's and 1800's. A succession
of nizams ruled it from 1724 to 1947. Their court culture was Islamic, but Hindu culture also flourished in
the state.
Colonial and Post Independence History of Andhra.....

Andhra Pradesh - History : Colonial and Post Independence

Colonial period. From the 1500's to the 1700's, the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and English vied with
each other for commercial privileges and political influence in India, especially South India. In the 1600's,
the East India Company of Britain established several important trading centres along the Malabar and
Coramandel coasts, including Nizampatam, Masulipatam, Madapollam, and Vizagapatam.

Through the 1700's, British and French merchants each formed alliances with local powers. At the end of
the 1700's, the British reached an agreement with the nizam of Hyderabad. He accepted British support in
exchange for recognition of British rights to trade. By the beginning of the 1800's, Andhra came under the
political control of the East India Company.
The districts of Anantapur, Cuduppa, Nellor, Chittoor, and Kurnool were annexed by the company, and the
territory of the nizam was brought under its indirect rule. Hyderabad became one of the 550 princely
states which stayed largely independent until 1947. Colonial rule led to the impoverishment of the Indian
people.
Anticolonial feelings were first expressed through peasant and tribal revolts. Later, a national movement
was organized by the educated classes.
Sri Kandukuri Viresalingam Pantulu began a social-religious movement which made possible the
emergence of a democratic movement. The writings of Gujaraja Apparao and Unnava Lakshminarayana
began a literary renaissance.
The anticolonial movement initiated and organized by the Indian National Congress drew popular support
in Andhra. Important leaders in the movement included T. Prakasham, N. Sanjeeva Reddy, and Pattabhi
Sitaramayya. The Communist movement, which grew as part of the national movement also had a large
following across the region. Independence.
Post Independence
At independence in 1947, the present state of Andhra consisted of a part of the British presidency of
Madras and the nizam of Hyderabad's state.
The nizam of Hyderabad might have joined fellow Muslims in the newly created Muslim state of Pakistan.
But, after political disturbances in 1949, the Indian government took direct control and incorporated the
region into the Indian Union.
Movements for the linguistic reorganization of states were organized throughout the country by the
national movement. In Andhra, Potti Sreeramulu, a politician, starved himself to death in 1953 in protest
against the government's refusal to grant the demand for separate statehood.
In October of the same year, the government created Andhra out of the Telugu-speaking districts of the
Madras presidency. The Visalandhra movement demanded inclusion of Telugu-speaking areas belonging
to the former state of Hyderabad. Consequently, the present state of Andhra Pradesh was formed in
1956. Hyderabad became the capital of the new state.

Arunachal Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh is a state in the northeast of India. It stretches from the ridge of the eastern Himalaya
to the foothills bordering the Brahmaputra River. It is one of India's newest states and was granted full
statehood in 1987. Arunachal Pradesh shares a border of more than 800 kilometres with China and is one
of India's most isolated and inaccessible territories. It is not open to foreign visitors because of its
strategic location bordering Bhutan, Burma, and China.
Climate: The climate varies greatly according to altitude. The
high mountain ranges in the north are permanently under snow.
At the edge of the plains, average minimum temperatures are 8
C in January, rising to 19 C for the summer months. Average
maximum temperatures range from 15 C in January to 25 C in
May and August, the two hottest months. The annual rainfall in

Itanagar (the state capital) is more than 260 centimetres, more than 80 per cent of which falls between
May and October.
Tourist centers: In a major policy change in 1992, the Union Home ministry agreed to allow foreign
tourists to visit Arunachal to trek , raft and fish on select natural trails.
Itanagar-Ziro-Daporiji-Paighat and Margherita-Mian-Nampadhapa are two circuits cleared. A new tourism
ministry has also been formed. India's largest buddhist monastery is at Tawang.
History. The early history of Arunachal Pradesh is not known, but the area is mentioned in the body of
Indian writings known as Puranas. The ruins of a palace in the Dibang valley may date from the 1100's,
and Itanagar has a fort that was built in the 1300's. By then, records show that the tribes of Arunachal
Pradesh were trading with the neighbouring state of Assam, and often came into conflict with Assam's
Ahom rulers.
Arunachal Pradesh has many Buddhist monasteries. The Tawang monastery, the largest in India, dates
from the 1600's. In 1826, the East India Company annexed Assam and slowly extended British influence
into the northeast region of India. In 1912, the region now called Arunachal Pradesh became an
administrative unit within Assam, called the North Eastern Frontier Tract.
British missionaries converted many tribal people to Christianity. In 1954, the area became known as the
North East Frontier Agency. In 1967, the region received Indian voting rights for the first time. Arunachal
Pradesh became a Union Territory in 1972, and a state in 1987.

Assam
Assam is a state in northeastern India, in the low-lying Brahmaputra Valley. Assam has international
borders to the north with Bhutan and to the southwest with Bangladesh.
Also to its north and east lies Arunachal Pradesh. Assam shares a border with four hill states-Nagaland
and Manipur to the east, and Mizoram and Tripura to the south. It has a further short stretch of border with
Bangladesh between Tripura and Meghalaya, which borders Assam to its southwest.
Climate:
Assam is the largest and most highly populated state in the region. Assam is famous for its tea. The game
reserves at Kaziranga and Manas are also well known.
Assam occupies the long narrow floor of the Brahmaputra Valley. It is overshadowed by the Himalaya to
the north and the Shillong Plateau to the south. The valley floor, even in the shelter of the Shillong
Plateau, still receives heavy rainfall during the monsoon season of June to October. Rainfall varies
between about 180 centimetres and 250 centimetres.
Temperatures along the valley rarely drop below 10 C, the average minimum temperature for January.
Average minimum temperatures rise to 26 C in July and August. Average maximum temperatures are 23
C in January, rising to 32 C in April and again from June to August. Total rainfall varies from between
180 centimetres to 250 centimetres, but throughout the valley it is heavily concentrated in the summer
monsoon. On average, less than 4 centimetres fall from November to March.
Tourist Centres:
Guwahati-Kaziranga-Sibsagar and Guwahati-Manas are two travel circuits promoted by the Union
Government. The following additional circuits have been proposed by the state.
1. Guwahati-Bhairabkunda-Orang-Bhaluking-Tezpur.
2. Guwahati-Diphu-Haflong-Silchar.

These circuits can be linked with Arunachal, Mizoram and Manipur. Kaziranga National park is world
famous for rhinos and elephants. Manas is another National park. Foreigners visiting the state have to
obtain restricted area permits from the Union Home Ministry.
History of Assam......

Assam History
History:
The ancient kingdom of Kamarupa once covered the present state of Assam. Pragjyaisha, the capital,
was located near Guwahati. Kamarupa is mentioned as a frontier kingdom and tributary of the Gupta
Empire in the Allahabad inscription of Samudra Gupta (A.D. 330-375).
Until the 1200's, the area was ruled by a succession of dynasties, including the Salastamba, the
Brahmapala, and the Bhuyan. The Ahoms, a Thai-Buddhist tribe from the southeast, arrived in the area in
the early 1200's. They deposed the ruler and established a kingdom with its capital in Sibsagar. By 1353,
the Ahoms controlled a major part of the area, which they renamed Assam. The Ahoms adopted the
language and Hindu religion of the conquered people and ruled Assam for about 500 years.
A part of the Ahom territory bordered the Mughal Empire. The attempts of the Mughals to extend their
territory into Assam resulted in conflict for several hundred years. Although the Ahoms temporarily lost
control in 1663, they inflicted a crushing defeat on the Mughals in 1671.
Internal dissension led to the fall of the Ahom kingdom. In 1771, the British East India Company gave
military assistance to the Ahom ruler to quell a revolt. In return, the Company received commercial
privileges.
In 1817, the Burmese took advantage of the rivalry between the Ahom chiefs, invaded Assam, and
established political control. The Burmese presence threatened British commercial interests. In the first
Burmese War (1824-1826), the British drove the Burmese out of Assam. Under the Treaty of Yandabo,
the territory was annexed by the East India Company on 24 Feb., 1826.
During the 1800's, many Muslim settlers moved to Assam from Bengal. The British (United Kingdom)
government administered the state from 1858 until 1947. India achieved independence in 1947 and
Assam became a state of the Indian Union.

Bihar
Bihar is one of India's most densely populated state. In the north, the flat plains of the Ganges (Ganga)
River are an agricultural area. The Chota Nagpur Plateau in the south has rich mineral resources. Coal
and iron ore are mined in this region.

Location and description. Bihar is a landlocked state. Bihar

shares an international border to the north with Nepal. To the east
is West Bengal and to the south, Orissa. Bihar has a short border
with Madhya Pradesh to the southwest, and its western border is
with Uttar Pradesh.
From the Siwalik foothills of the Himalaya, the boundary stretches
600 kilometres south to the forested borders of the Chota Nagpur
Plateau, while its maximum east-to-west width is about 480
kilometres.
Climate. The average minimum temperature on the plains of the north is 11 C, rising to 27 C from June
to August. Average maximum temperatures range from 24 C in January to 39 C in May. Temperatures
then fall slightly after the start of the rainy season. On the Chota Nagpur Plateau, it is several degrees
cooler in both winter and summer.
Most of Bihar receives more than 1,100 millimetres of rain a year. The east receives more than the west.
About 95 per cent of the rain falls between June and September. Only 8 millimetres falls in November and
December, and a further 15 millimetres in March and April.
Tourist centers: Following are brief descriptions of some of Bihar's interesting places to visitBetla, in Palamau district, has a national park and wildlife reserve, which is famous for its tigers.
Hazaribagh is also a wildlife sanctuary. Bodh Gaya is one of the most important pilgrimage centres for
Buddhists. It is the place where the Buddha attained enlightenment.
Gaya is a holy place for Hindus. Pilgrims make offerings for their ancestors at the Vishnupad temple and
the temple of the Sun God. Patna developed on the site of Pataliputra, the capital of the Maurya Empire.
The city contains remnants from that period. Ranchi is a scenic hill resort with a number of waterfalls
nearby.
There are airports at Patna, Ranchi, Jamshedpur and Gaya. Jamshedpur and Bokaro are steel towns.
Nalanda was one of the great seats of learning in ancient India and contains the ruins of many Buddhist
temples and monasteries. Sasaram is famous on account of the magnificent tomb of Sher Shah Suri,
Emperor of Delhi.
Land features. The Ganges River runs from west to east through the heart of the plains which comprise
the state's central region. The plains are almost flat and lie about 75 metres above sea level.
The Chota Nagpur Plateau is not one plateau, but a series of plateaus and valleys. The highest,
Hazaribagh Plateau, has an average height of about 1,100 metres. Its highest point is the granite peak of
Parasnath (1,365 metres).
The next lower plateau, Ranchi Plateau, is composed of granite with undulating topography and averages
600 metres above sea level. The highest of the remaining plateaus has an average elevation of 300
metres. The valleys and plains of the Chota Nagpur region lie between 200 and 300 metres. The most
important of the valleys is the Damodar Valley.
In the late 1960's, one-fifth of the land in Chota Nagpur was still forested. This area has since decreased
dramatically. The Chota Nagpur Plateau, despite being an area of industry, is still extensively cultivated.
However, some large areas of sal forest remain.
Continue with Bihar's history.....

Bihar History
Archaeologists have found agricultural settlements in Bihar from before 2000 B.C. Cities emerged in the
area around the 500's B.C. The ancient Indian state of Magadha dominated the region during this period.

It became the centre of a succession of powerful kingdoms. Some of the kings were outstanding
administrators.
Bimbisara (reigned 544-493 B.C.) unified and strengthened his kingdom and maintained good relations
with neighbouring states and contacts as far afield as Taxila in the northwest. His successor Ajatasatru
(reigned 493-462 B.C.) was another outstanding ruler. These and other Magadha kings expanded the
territories they ruled to form a major Indian empire.
During the period of Magadha rule, the region of Bihar experienced changes in social and economic life.
As towns grew in number and size, trade and commerce developed. There were also changes in religion.
The Magadha rulers supported the emerging religions of Buddhism and Jainism. There are many places
in Bihar that are associated with Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, and Vardamana Mahavira,
the founder of the Jain faith.
Toward the end of the 300's B.C., a new empire emerged in the Bihar region, as Chandragupta Maurya
overthrew the last of the Magadha rulers. Chandragupta Maurya reigned from about 321 B.C. to about
298 B.C. and laid the foundations of the Maurya Empire. This was the first empire to unite most of India
under one ruler.
The early Magadha kings had their capital at Rajagriha, 100 kilometres west of the modern city of Patna.
Stone walls with a perimeter of about 40 kilometres surrounded Rajagriha.
When Chandragupta Maurya came to power, he moved the capital to Pataliputra, the site where Patna
now stands. Pataliputra had the shape that Patna has today - a long, narrow city stretching along the
bank of the Ganges River. Chandragupta's grandson was the great emperor Ashoka, who became ruler of
all India except the south. A pillar bearing one of Ashoka's edicts has a capital with lions facing the four
directions of the compass.
For 600 years after the death of Ashoka in 232 B.C., the Bihar region was ruled by fairly insignificant
clans. Then the Guptas came to power. These kings encouraged a flowering of Hindu culture, known as
the classical period, in the A.D. 300's and 400's. The poet and dramatist Kalidasa and the astronomer
Aryabhata were great intellectuals of this period. The Guptas expanded their territory despite defeat by
the Huns.
Turks and Afghans arrived and defeated the Hindu rulers in 1197. From that time the influence of Muslim
political power in Bihar was very strong. The Delhi sultans and a succession of local Muslim rulers,
independent of Delhi, controlled the region until the 1500's.
Sher Shah Suri, Bihar's ruler, won fame for his defeat of the Mughal emperor Humayun in 1539. Sher
Shah became emperor of northern India. Bihar became Mughal territory during the reign of Akbar (15561605). Muslim place names, such as Aliganj and Hajipur, are evidence of 500 years of Muslim political
dominance.
The Mughals retained Bihar until the British won the Battle of Buxar in 1764. At that time, Bihar was still
part of Bengal, but later the two regions were separated. Bihar became a province under British rule and
declined into poverty.
The British (United Kingdom) government's policy of granting land ownership to local zamindars (tax
collectors) meant hardship for Bihar's peasants. The region became a breeding ground for resistance to
the British and for nationalist movements and rebellions.
Bihar took its present form at India's independence in 1947. It lost two districts, Purnea and Manbhum, to
West Bengal during the 1956 reorganization of India's states.

Goa
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Facts

Goa is the smallest state of the Republic of India. It lies on the country's west coast, about 400
kilometres south of Bombay.
Long, sandy beaches, fringed with coconut palms, make it a tropical paradise for visitors. Other
tourist attractions are the colonial buildings from the 1500's, built when Goa was the headquarters
of Portugal's Asian empire. India regained control of Goa from the
Portuguese in 1961.
Three main cities developed in Goa - Old Goa, Panaji (New Goa),
and Margao. Today, Old Goa is half-hidden in jungle. Its population
was severely affected by plague in the 1600's, and the new city was
set up at Panaji. Panaji, the capital, contains the main government
buildings.
Margoa is Goa's biggest commercial centre. Mormugao, Goa's
major port, has a fine harbour-one of the best on the west coast of
India. The harbour is the focus of economic activity in Goa.
Climate: Goa faces the full strength of the monsoon, with four-fifths of its annual rainfall between
June and September. Average minimum temperatures are 19 C in January, the coolest month,
rising to 25 C in June. Maximum temperatures hover between 29 C and 33 C. The coolest
months are July to September, because heavy cloud cover blocks out the sun.
Tourist Centres : Tourism is a major industry in Goa. On an average a million people visit Goa.
The Industrial status accorded to the Goan tourism has been revoked. Therefore, the Government
plans to go for selective tourism.
Dabolim airport, near the port town of Vasco-da-Gama, is equipped to receive chartered flights.
The territory is known for its numerous beaches such as Calangute, Colva and Vagator. Old Goa
has the basilica of Bom Jesus, where the casket containing the incorruptible body of St. Francis
Xavier, the Apostle of Goa is housed.
Other famous shrines are the St Cathedral and the Assissi Church. A few Km away is Ponda,
where the Mangueshi Siva temple, the Santha Durga temple and the Nagueshi temple are
situated. Dona Paula, overlooking the confluence of the Mandovi river, the Aravelam waterfalls,
the Mayem lake, the Dudsagar waterfalls, the Bondla sanctuary, the Mormugao harbour and the
Aguada Fort are some of the other tourist attractions.
Continue with Goa's history.....

Goa History
Little is known of the early history of Goa, although there are references to it in the epic poems Ramayana
and Mahabharata. Its political history can be traced back to the 200's B.C. when Goa formed a part of the

Maurya Empire.
After the Maurya period (about 321 to 185 B.C.), a succession of small kingdoms ruled the area. They
were the Satavahana, the Rashtrakuta, the Chalukya, the Shilahara, and the Kadamba. The Kadambas
ruled for more than three hundred years until they were defeated by the Yadavas of Devagiri in A.D. 1237.
The Yadava rule lasted until 1347 when Goa was annexed to the Bahmani.
For about 150 years, Goa was influenced by the conflict between the Vijayanagar and Bahmani
kingdoms; the political control over Goa often changed from one kingdom to another. After the
disintegration of the Bahmani kingdom, Goa came under the rule of the sultan of Bijapur in 1482.
By the end of the 1400's, when the Portuguese reached India, Goa had become an important centre of
trade. It had trade relations with almost all trading nations in the East. The modern history and culture of
Goa is dominated by Portuguese trading interests and political ambitions in India. In 1510, a seaborne
expeditionary force commanded by the Portuguese military leader Afonso de Albuquerque captured Goa
and it became the capital of the Portuguese empire in Asia. The city enjoyed the same privileges as
Lisbon, the capital of Portugal.
Goa also became an important headquarters for Catholic Christian missionaries. The Franciscans arrived
in 1517 and a member of their order was appointed as the city's bishop in 1538. In 1542, St. Francis
Xavier, the Spanish-born missionary known as the Apostle of the Indies, took over the College of Holy
Faith.
He renamed it in honour of Saint Paul, because it was to become a centre for training local converts as
missionaries. From that time onward, Jesuits in Asian countries were known as Paulistas. In 1557, Goa
was made an archbishopric with authority over all India. By the early 1600's, it controlled bishoprics as far
apart as Mozambique and Japan. But by then the city was past the peak of its development.
The Dutch blockaded the city in 1603 and 1639 but did not take it. Maratha raiders almost captured the
city in 1683, but were thwarted by the arrival of a Mughal army. Goa was again saved from Marathas in
1739 by the arrival, by sea, of the new viceroy and his men. In 1759, the seat of government shifted to
Panaji. Cholera caused many deaths and many survivors left Old Goa and moved to other parts of Goa.
The population of Old Goa fell from 20,000 in 1695 to about 1,600 by 1775.
Portuguese rule actively supported the conversion of the local inhabitants to Christianity. That they were
intolerant toward the followers of other religions is evident from the inquisitions they conducted.
Portuguese rule was so oppressive and exploitative that during 450 years of Portuguese rule, there were
40 armed revolts in Goa. Although these revolts were put down with a heavy hand, the urge for freedom
could not be suppressed for ever.
A movement for the liberation of Goa gained momentum in the 1900's. The main leaders of the movement
were Tristao Bragansa Cunha, Purushottam Kakodkar, Laxmi Kant Bhembre, Divakar Kakodkar, and
Dayanand Bandodkar. The liberation movement became stronger after Indian independence in 1947.
India's new government claimed Goa in 1948.
In 1955, nonviolent protesters attempted a peaceful annexation. The resulting casualties led to a
breakdown of relations between India and Portugal. Indian troops invaded Goa in December 1961.
At this time, many Portuguese left Goa, taking with them gold and jewellery pledged in Goan banks. Goa
was made an Indian territory in 1962. It became a state in 1987. Indo-Portuguese relations improved in
1992 when riches taken out of the country in 1961 were returned to the Goan banks.

Gujarat

Gujarat is a state in northwestern India, on the border with Pakistan. The state takes its name from the
Gujara, who ruled the area during the 700's and 800's. Agriculture is the principal economic activity but
there is substantial industry, particularly around the textile city of Ahmedabad. The state is rich in minerals
and, along with Assam, is the country's major petroleum producer.
Location and description. Gujarat has boundaries with Rajasthan to the
north, Madhya Pradesh to the east, Maharashtra to the south, the Arabian
Sea to the west, and Pakistan to the northwest. It has nearly 1,600
kilometres of coastline. No part of the state is more than about 200
kilometres from the sea.
Climate. The rainfall in the north and west is very low. The whole of
Saurashtra receives less than 50 centimetres a year. At Ahmedabad,
rainfall averages 70 centimetres per year, 88 per cent of this falling during
the monsoon months of June to September. The daily winter maximum
temperature is 27 C, and the minimum 12 C (although sub-zero cold snaps have been recorded). In
summer, the daily maximum temperature can reach 48 C, though 42 to 43 C is more common. The
summer minimum temperature is 25 C. Rainfall is higher in the central region, and the range of
temperature is narrower. The highlands in the south receive about 200
Tourist Centres: Following are brief descriptions of some of Gujarat's interesting places to visit:
Ahmedabad - The old city is divided into small, self-contained units called pols. Narrow lanes separate the
houses which are decorated with beautifully carved wooden doors and screens. Each craft had its own
pol-weavers, metalworkers, jewellers.The modern city has buildings designed by Le Corbusier, Louis
Kahn, and Charles Correa.The citadel is the original centre of Ahmad Shah's city.
The Jami Masjid (Friday Mosque) is particularly striking. Bhuj, a walled city, is the main town of Kutch.
The Rao Pragmalji's Palace is beautifully decorated with wood and ivory inlay.Champaner has a Rajput
fortress, captured by the Muslims in 1484. The Jami Masjid is ornamented in the Gujarati style.
Dabhoi Fort is called the birthplace of Hindu Gujarati architecture. It has four gates, a reservoir fed by an
aqueduct, and farms to grow food in times of siege. It was built by the Solanki kings and dates from 1100.
Inside the fort is the Mother Kali Temple, dating from 1225.
Dwarka: Rukmini Temple, built in the 1100's, and Dwarkanath Temple, dating from the 1500's, are visited
by thousands of Hindu pilgrims every year.
Lothal is one of the most important sites of the Indus Valley civilization. There are substantial remains,
including a dry dock, 214 metres long by 36 metres wide. The grid plan of the city can be clearly seen,
with its underground drainage system, wells, and brick houses with baths and fireplaces.Rajkot was the
childhood home of Mohandas Gandhi. His home has been converted into the Gandhi Museum.
Sasan Gir National Park is the last home of the Asiatic lion. In 1990, there were nearly 300 lions in Sasan
Gir. The National Park also has several varieties of deer, leopards, and wild pig.Somnath is a major Hindu
pilgrimage site. The temple is said to have been built out of gold by the Moon God. Surat, known as the
British factory site of the East India Company settlement, is now in ruins. There are two Parsee fire
temples, as well as several mosques.Vadodara (Baroda) contains an excellent example of British Indian
architecture, the Laxmi Vilas Palace (1890). Seven kilometres south of the city is the Italianate Makarpura
Palace.

Continue with Gujarat's history.....

Gujarat History
Early Period
Archaeologists have found Stone Age settlements around the Sabarmati and Mahi rivers in the south and
east of the state. The settlements probably date from the time of the Indus Valley civilization. There were
also Harappan centres at Lothal, Rampur, Amri, Lakhabaval, and Rozdi.
Rock inscriptions in the Girnar Hills show that the Maurya Emperor Asoka extended his domain into
Gujarat in about 250 B.C. After the fall of the Maurya Empire, the Sakas or Scythians controlled the region
from A.D. 130 to 390. Under Rudradaman, their empire contained Malwa (in Madhya Pradesh),
Saurashtra, Kutch, and Rajasthan.
During the 300's and 400's, the area formed part of the Gupta Empire, which was succeeded by the
Maitraka dynasty. During the 900's, the Solanki dynasty came to power. Under the Solanki, Gujarat
reached its greatest extent. There then followed a long period of Muslim rule. Ahmad Shah, the first
independent Muslim ruler of Gujarat, founded Ahmedabad in 1411.
The Mughal Emperor Akbar conquered Malwa and Gujarat in the 1570's. The region remained under
Mughal rule for nearly 200 years, until the Marathas overran the state in the mid-1700's.
European Invasion.
The Dutch, English, French, and Portuguese all established bases along the coast of the region in the
1600's. The British East India Company set up its first headquarters in India at Surat in 1612. It later
moved to Bombay. As British maritime supremacy developed, all but the British and the Portuguese at
Daman and Diu withdrew.
The state came under the control of the British East India Company in 1818. After the Indian Revolt of
1857, the British government ruled directly, dividing the area into a number of princely states. Until
independence, the region of Kathiawad was divided into 86 states, many of them tiny. Even the largest,
Junagadh, only had an area of 9,000 square kilometres.
Independence and partition. On Indian independence in 1947, all of Gujarat except Saurashtra and
Kutch became part of Bombay state. On May 1, 1960, the government split Bombay state into the states
of Maharashtra and Gujarat. All Gujarati-speaking areas were brought together as the present state of
Gujarat.
Since partition, India and Pakistan have disputed possession of parts of the Rann of Kutch. In 1965, the
dispute became an armed conflict. In 1968, an international tribunal decided that 90 per cent of the state
should remain with India and 10 per cent should pass to Pakistan.

Haryana

Haryana is a state in northern India. In the past, the area has been the site of several crucial battles. The

great battle between the Kauravas and Pandavas, recorded in the ancient Hindu epic the Mahabharata,
occurred at Kurukshetra. Haryana is now an important agricultural region close to Delhi, the capital city of
India.
Climate: The average daily minimum temperature is 7 C in
January and 26 C in June. The maximum is 20 C in January and
39 C in June. Annual rainfall in Chandigarh is 106 centimetres, 90
per cent of which falls between June and October.
Tourist centres: Raj Hans, Badkal lake, Surajkund, Dabchik,
Sultanpur, Barbet, Sohna and Pinjore. Haryana has a network of
43 tourist complexes.
Haryana girdles delhi from all three sides with all the National highways to these tourist centers running
through it. Hotel Raj Hans stands above Surajkund and overlooks the Peacock lake and bestows its
comforts to foreign and domestic tourits
History. The earliest settlements that archaeologists have found in Haryana date to the late Harappan
period (around 1700 B.C.). These are followed by settlements where archaeologists found ochre colour
pottery. The sites are thus known as part of the Ochre Colour Culture.
A later important group to live in the region herded cattle and other animals and were farmers.
Archaeologists know their settlements from a particular kind of pottery they used known as Painted Grey
Ware.
The region was on the receiving end of many invasions from the northwest-the Greeks, the Scythians, the
Kushanas, the Huns, the Turks and Afghans, and eventually the Mughals. Some of these ruled the area,
particularly the Mughals. In 1857, Haryana leaders played a large part in the revolt against British rule.
The state of Haryana was formed in 1966 from Hindi-speaking parts of the Indian state of Punjab. It
shares Chandiharh as its capital along with Punjab.

Himachal Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh is a wholly mountainous state in the Himalaya in the far north of India. Its name means
Province in the lap of snow. The territory was formed in 1948 by bringing together 31 small princely
states.
Himachal Pradesh is a popular trekking region and has a flourishing orchard industry. Himachal Pradesh
is bordered by Jammu and Kashmir in the north, by Punjab in the west, by Haryana and Uttar Pradesh in
the south, and by Tibet (part of China) in the east.
Climate: The average daily minimum temperature is 2 C in January and
16 C in June. The maximum is 9 C in January and 24 C in June. Shimla
receives 150 centimetres of rain a year, of which nearly 80 per cent falls
between June and September. The monsoon arrives in the middle of June
and lasts until the middle of September. Snow is common in winter.
Tourist centers: Himachal Pradesh is studded with a number of hill station
which are refreshingly cool in summer. They offer to the tourist a quick
holiday amidst breath taking scenery. Shimla, Dalhousie, Dharamshala

(Dalai Lama lives here), Kullu, Kasauli, Solan, Chail and Kufri are some of the famous hill stations.
Kharjiar in Chamba district has earned the name 'mini Switzerland' because of the striking similarity in
landscape. The Vaidyanath temple is a place of religious interest.
The state abounds in wildlife among which are some rare species like musk deer, ibex, thar, Himalayan
brown bear and snow leopard among animals and monal, tragopan, kokiash and snowcocks among birds.
The rivers offer ideal fishing grounds for trout in Katrain, Rohru and Barot and for masher in Maryoga,
Karganuand and Dedahu.
History. The early inhabitants of Himachal Pradesh were nomadic tribes, including the Dahsas, Kinners,
Kirates, and Kharasas. The Maurya, Kushana, and Gupta rulers, in turn, forced the region to accept their
rule.
After the decline of the Gupta Empire, 31 independent kingdoms re-emerged. The state of Chamba was
the most important. They eventually became tributaries of the Mughal empire under Akbar.
During the 1600's and 1700's, Basohli, Kangra, and Guler developed as major centres of painting.
Afghans, Sikhs, and Gurkhas invaded Himachal Pradesh after the fall of the Mughal Empire.
Maharajah Ranjit Singh brought the area under his control in the 1800's. The British took over the princely
states following the Anglo-Nepal War of 1815.
The British founded Shimla in 1819 as their summer headquarters. After India became independent in
1947, Shimla served as the temporary capital of East Punjab. Since 1966, it has been the state capital of
Himachal Pradesh. Dharamsala has been the home of the Dalai Lama since the Chinese takeover of
Tibet in 1956.

Jammu and Kashmir

Jammu and Kashmir is a state in the far north of the Republic of India. The state is made up of three
territories-Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh. The state is a mountainous area in the northwest Himalaya.
Both India and Pakistan claim ownership over parts of the state and, in 1965, the dispute led to war
between the two countries. Jammu and Kashmir's boundaries remain in dispute. The winter capital is
Jammu, and the summer capital is Srinagar.
Location and description. A 30-kilometre-long boundary with
Punjab and a 300-kilometre boundary with Himachal Pradesh join
the state of Jammu and Kashmir to the rest of India. The state has
international boundaries with Pakistan to the west, and with Tibet
and China to the north and northeast.
Climate. The monsoon system affects Kashmir, but not where the
Himalaya blocks out the rain-bearing clouds from the Arabian Sea. Even in the Vale of Kashmir, the
rainfall is lower because of the influence of the Pir Panjal. Srinagar receives nearly 70 centimetres of rain
a year, but Leh has less than 10 centimetres. In Srinagar, 30 per cent of the annual rainfall comes during
the monsoon (June to September) and 50 per cent comes between January and April.
In Srinagar, the average maximum temperature is 31 C in July and 4 C in January. The minimum is 18
C in July and 2 C in January. Temperatures can reach as high as 37 C in summer and as low as -11 C
in winter.
In Ladakh, daily and seasonal temperature variations are even wider. In the thin atmosphere, the air heats
and cools rapidly. In summer, many streams only flow for a few hours each day when the ice in their beds
melts.

Transportation. Kashmir and Ladakh have air connections with other cities in India. There are airports at
Jammu, Srinagar, and Leh. Bad winter weather often closes Srinagar and Leh. The railhead for Kashmir
is Jammu which connects with other north Indian cities. The Indian government has invested heavily in
communications in the state.
The Jawahar Tunnel, which links Jammu with the Vale of Kashmir, is one of the longest in Asia. Kashmir
has over 11,000 kilometres of road. The journey from Srinagar to Leh takes two days and includes an
overnight halt at Kargil.
Tourism. The Valley of Kashmir has been popular with travellers since Mughal times. Gulmarg and
Pahalgam attract large numbers of visitors. Skiing is popular in Kashmir, and trekking is an important
source of income in both Kashmir and Ladakh.
Tourist Centres: Kashmir is the paradise for tourist, both international and domestic. Main centres of
attraction are Srinagar, Pahalgam, Gulmarg, Sonamarg etc. Among places of pilgrim interest are
Amarnath and Vaisno Devi.
The tourist industry in the state has registered phenomenal growth during the past decades. Tourists
arrivals rose to the record million of 1 million by the end of the 1980's. Because of the disturbed
conditions, tourism is in disarray since 1990. The Jammu and Kashmir government has declared tourism
as an industry.
Ladakh, the meeting point of Indo-Tibetan and Central Asian cultures has the potential to be developed as
a tourist destination. Leh has an airport but there are no facilities in the 348 stretch between Keylong in
Himachal Pradesh and Karu in Leh district. However, Manali in Himachal is linked to Leh by road.
Tourism has largely suffered in the recent years due to Pakistan sponsored terrorism. The terrorist
movement thus launched has affected the lives of millions of Kashmiris.
Continue with Jammu and Kashmir's history.....

Jammu and Kashmir - History : Part I

The region of northern India now occupied by Jammu and Kashmir has been inhabited for thousands of
years. Rock carvings found in Ladakh indicate that nomadic tribes (tribes that wandered about from place
to place) were present in the area over a very long period.
Such tribes included the Mons of northern India, who introduced Buddhism to Ladakh and established
settlements in the valleys, and the Dards of Dardistan, now in Pakistan, who introduced irrigation. Other
tribes included the Mongols and Champa shepherds of Tibet. Kashmir and Ladakh lay on a branch of the
great silk road that ran from China to the Mediterranean at the time of the Roman Empire.
The Vale of Kashmir formed a part of several Indian empires, including that of Asoka in the 200's B.C. An
independent kingdom of Kashmir arose in the A.D. 600's. It was founded by Durlabhavardhana, the first
king of the Karkota dynasty, a royal family of local origin.
The Karkota kings raised the political status of Kashmir and extended its territorial control. In 855, the
Utpala dynasty replaced the rule of the Karkotas. The Utpala kings undertook large-scale irrigation works
in the Vale of Kashmir, enabling them to take large areas of land into cultivation.
During the 900's, several small kingdoms and hill states emerged in the foothills of the Himalaya. Among
them was Durgara, the future Jammu. By the end of the 900's, the Thi dynasty ruled Ladakh. This dynasty
founded a capital at Shey and built many forts throughout their domain.

Tibetan Buddhism became established in Ladakh during the 900's. More than 100 gompas (Buddhist
monasteries) were built in the region.
From the 900's to the 1300's, the rule of the Utpala dynasty in the Vale of Kashmir was dominated by the
rivalry of two military factions, the Tantrins and the Ekangas. Feudal landowners called damaras finally
put an end to the power struggle.
Two Utpala queens conducted the affairs of state with distinction - Queen Sugandhra and Queen Didda.
The period was also famous for a history of Kashmir entitled Rajatarangini, which was composed in the
1100's by a writer named Kalhana. It is hailed as the first major historical text of ancient India.
Arab invaders had first been drawn to Kashmir in the 700's and had afterward made repeated
unsuccessful invasions. However, in the 1200's and 1300's, Afghan and Turkic people whose religion was
Islam moved into the Vale of Kashmir. In 1339, one of their leaders, Shah Mirza, finally seized the throne
and ruled Kashmir under the name Shams-ud-Din.
His dynasty, which retained power until the 1500's, spread Islam throughout the region. One monarch,
however, Sultan Zain-ud-Abidin (1420-1470), sought good relations with the Hindus and fostered
education, scholarship, and the arts.
Continue......

Jammu and Kashmir - History : Part II

About 1553, Bhagan Namgyal founded a dynasty in Ladakh with Leh as its capital. Among the dynasty's
most outstanding rulers was Sengge Namgyal (reigned 1616-1642), who enlarged the kingdom to its
greatest extent and repaired many of the monasteries which had by that time fallen into decay. He also
built new monasteries and the great palace that can still be seen at Leh.
In Kashmir, the Mughal emperor Akbar established his rule by 1588 and built a fort in Srinagar. His son
and successor Jahangir, who ruled from 1605 to 1627, increased the beauty of the Vale of Kashmir by
planting chenar trees and constructing pleasure gardens.
In the 1600's, Ladakh repulsed invading Baltis from the south and west but was overrun by Tibetan
Mongols. The Mughal governor of Kashmir helped the king of Leh regain his throne. But in return the king
had to send regular tribute (payment) to the Mughal emperor and also had to build a mosque. Mughal
power in Kashmir was, however, beginning to decline. The region went through a period of unstable
government in the 1700's.
After 1780, the small state of Jammu, controlled by a Rajput clan (a clan whose members belonged to the
warrior caste of ancient India, became an ally of the Sikhs and paid them tribute. Gulab Singh, a member
of the princely house of Jammu, won favour with the Sikhs.
In Kashmir, meanwhile, Afghan chiefs controlled the state and oppressed its people. In 1819, the Sikh
leader Maharajah Ranjit Singh annexed Kashmir to his kingdom and put an end to the oppression. In
1820, Gulab Singh was made maharajah of Jammu. The dynasty that Gulab Singh founded was called
the Dogra Dynasty.
In 1834, Dogra forces invaded Ladakh and placed it under various governors appointed by Gulab Singh.
In 1845-1846, the British defeated the Sikhs in the First Anglo-Sikh War. Gulab Singh, who had kept out of
the war, acted as a mediator between the two sides.
The British, who now had control of Kashmir, ceded it to Gulab Singh. Gulab Singh and his successors, a
Hindu dynasty, ruled the new state of Jammu and Kashmir, subject to British supervision, until 1947. The

state included Kashmir, Baltistan, and Gilgit, which were largely Muslim, and Ladakh, which had many
Buddhists.
In the period before independence, the Muslim League Party in Kashmir favoured joining the proposed
new Muslim nation of Pakistan. But the Congress Party wished the area to remain within the country of
India. Meanwhile, Gilgit and Baltistan rebelled. In southwest Kashmir, Muslim rebels allied themselves
with the Pakistani states.
Following independence and the partition of India in 1947, Kashmir suffered a brief invasion from
Pakistan, and its ruler Hari Singh chose to enter union with India. Indian troops opposed the Pakistani
invading forces, and hostilities between India and Pakistan continued until December 30, 1948. On that
date, both sides agreed a ceasefire.
The ceasefire line became the frontier separating the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir from the
Pakistani-held Azad Kashmir. Neither country recognizes the jurisdiction of the other. Pakistan has always
tried to create a political instability in the state by sponsoring terrorism across the border. The Kashmir
Assembly declared the state to be part of India in 1957.

Karnataka
Karnataka is a state on the west coast of southern India. It includes the region of Kanara, and the state's
people are called Kanarese. Karnataka is famous for its goldfields and for the sandalwood from its
forests.
Location and description. Karnataka is located in southwestern India. On its western flank is a 320kilometre coastline fringing the Arabian Sea. To its north and northwest are Goa and Maharashtra. Andhra
Pradesh forms its eastern border, while in the extreme southeast it has a common border with Tamil
Nadu. The state's southwestern border is with Kerala. Karnataka measures more than 700 kilometres
from north to south and 500 kilometres from east to west.
Climate. The whole of Karnataka has a monsoon season. Most of
the rain comes within the five-month period from June to October.
But in some areas, especially the west, there are two peaks of
rainfall. Early rains come in May and are essential to the flowering
of the coffee plants.
After these rains there is a drier period in June and July, with a
second wet spell in September and October. The altitude helps
reduce temperatures over much of the state. Average temperature ranges from 20 C in December to 27
C in May, the hottest month. This comparative coolness makes cities such as Bangalore and Mysore
particularly attractive.
Tourist Centres: The garden city of Bangalore has been adjudged the cleanest city in India more than
once. A trip from Banglore to Mysore, the capital of Wodeyars via Srirangapatnam, the capital of Tipu
Sultan, is quite rewarding.

Mysore city is famous for the Dusshera festival during Sept-Oct. The famous Krishnaraja Sagar dam and
Vrindavan gardens are nearby. Among the natural parks is Nadipur Wildlife sanctuary, 80 Kms. south of
Mysore.
Belur, on the bank of river Yagachi, was once the flourishing capital of the Hoysala empire. The famous
Hoysaleshwara temple is popular worldwide for its exquisite carvings. Shravanbelagola where the 18
metres statue of Gomateshwar stands is a Jain pilgrim centre. Gersoppa (Jog falls) is world famous.
Continue with Karnataka's history.....

Karnataka History
For most of its long history, the area of India now called Karnataka was not a single integrated state. At
various times, different parts of it came under the authority of different dynasties. The dry upland border
area between the densely forested ridge of the Western Ghats and the arid interior of the region provided
the route for both commercial traders and invading armies.
The earliest known rulers of this area of southern India were the Monds. The Maurya, India's first imperial
dynasty, conquered the Monds in the late 300's B.C. as they expanded their territories southward.
According to tradition, Chandragupta Maurya, the first emperor of all India, embraced the Jain religion,
renounced all worldly possessions, and withdrew to Sravanabelagola in the Karnataka region.
Archaeologists have located the urban centres that developed during the period of Maurya rule at
Chandravalli and Brahmagiri. After the Maurya, a succession of Hindu dynasties ruled the Karnataka
region until the 1500's. From A.D. 200 to 1000, the Gangas ruled southern Karnataka but were often
under pressure from other southern groups, such as the Pallavas.
The reign of the Chalukya of Badami in central Karnataka from 535 to 757 saw major architectural
developments in the region, as well as a flowering of fine arts and literature. The temples of Badami,
Patadakal, and Aihole show the unique architectural style of the period.
The Rashtrakutas overthrew the Chalukyas in about 753. The Rashtrakutas tried to unite the plateau and
the coastal areas as a means of capturing the north-south trade route. But they faced constant pressure
from the Cholas in the south.
The Hoysala dynasty (1006-1345) also produced excellent art and architecture. The Hoysalas built about
50 temples throughout Karnataka. The finest are at Belur, Halebid, and Somnathpur. The temples have
panels carved with rows of elephants and depict stories from the Indian epics.
The Vijayanagar Empire controlled the Karnataka region from the 1300's until well into the 1500's. For a
long time, the Vijayanagar Empire held back the expanding power of the Muslims. But in 1565, the
Muslims defeated the forces of the Vijayanagar Empire at the Battle of Talikota and extinguished its
power. Petty chieftains arose. Muslims held sway in the north. In the south, the Wadiyar dynasty, a Hindu
royal family, ruled Mysore until the 1700's.
By the mid-1700's, the power of the Wadiyar dynasty was declining, and military commanders controlled
the Mysore area of the Karnataka region. One of these was Hyder Ali, an able army officer who made his
bid for power in 1761. He defeated rival chiefs and expanded his territory to nearby areas of southwestern
India. Hyder Ali and his son and successor Tipu Sultan led fierce opposition to the British East India
Company between 1761 and 1799. They fought four wars against the British.

After the defeat and death of Tipu Sultan in 1799, the British restored part of his kingdom of Mysore to the
Wadiyar dynasty and annexed the remainder. The Wadiyar dynasty ruled the state of Mysore until 1947.
Under its administration, Mysore developed as a liberal and progressive state. In 1881, it became the first
Indian state to set up an elected legislative assembly. In 1916, it became the first state in India to set up a
university. It also introduced economic planning, family planning, and vocational education.
During the early 1900's, a democratic political movement opposed both traditional rule by native
monarchs and the control of the area by British administrators. The movement was influenced by the
nationalist movement that led to India's independence in 1947.
At the time of independence, Kannada-speaking peoples occupied parts of Mysore, Hyderabad, Bombay,
and Madras. In 1956, these linguistic areas were brought together into one state, which took the name of
Mysore. In 1973, the state was renamed Karnataka.

Kerala
Kerala is a small, densely populated state in India. It occupies a long strip of land along the southwest
coast of India. Kerala is relatively poor in natural resources but rich in scenic beauty. It has a long literary
and artistic tradition.
Kerala is famous for its poets and musicians, its traditional dance forms, and its distinctive architecture.
Craftworkers in Kerala continue the ancient arts of woodcarving and wall-painting.
Location and description. Kerala occupies a 570-kilometre-long strip of coast on
the western side of the Indian peninsula. It lies along the Malabar coast, with the
Arabian Sea to the west. It is bounded by the states of Karnataka in the north and
Tamil Nadu in the east and south. Kerala varies in width from west to east. It is about
120 kilometres at its maximum and just 30 kilometres at its minimum.
Climate. Kerala enjoys a pleasant climate, with hardly any temperature changes
throughout the seasons. The average temperature ranges from 21 C in the upland
areas of the interior to 32 C in the coastal regions.
The annual rainfall produced by the monsoons is nearly 300 centimetres. This rainfall helps to account for
Kerala's lush agricultural fertility. Most of the rain falls in the northern region of the state. In the drier
southern region, farmers have to use irrigation to supplement the annual rainfall.
Tourism. Kerala's lively cultural activities and great scenic beauty attract many visitors. Most tourists
come from other Indian states. Visitors are drawn by Kerala's comfortable climate. They also come to see
the animal life of Kerala.
The crowded coastlands support such birds as gulls and cranes. The forests of the interior are inhabited
by bison, cobras, elephants, panthers, and tigers.
Tourist Centres: Under the aegis of the department of tourism and Kerala tourism development
corporation, many places in Kerala have been developed into tourist centers. Kerala is a state which has
notified tourism as an industry.
In November 1995, the Government said that fifteen selected places in the state would be developed as
tourist centers. Government encourages joint and private ventures in the tourism industry along with the
Government sponsored schemes.
Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) the capital city is an abode of temples, mosques and churches.
Kovalam beach resort is just 12 Km away. Veli (8 Km), Neyyar Dam(19 Km), and Ponmudi (61 Km) are
other places of interest.

Periyar Wildlife sanctuary at Thekkady in Idukki district is another attraction. Sabarimala, abode of Lord
Ayyappan is a famoius pilgrimage centre in Pathanamthitta district.
Kochi (Kochin) - a major port of Kerala is known as the 'Queen of the Arabian Sea'. The beautiful
Willingdon island with the adjoining port is a great attraction. Kaladi in Eranakulam district is the birth
place of Sri Shankaracharya.
Gruver in Thrissur district has the famous Lord Krishna shrine. Kalamandalam, the renowned Kathakali
centre is in the Thissur district. Kozhikode (Calicut) is historically important as the capital of the
Zamorians.
Edakal cave in Wyanad district is centuries old. The panto-mime dance drama Kathakali is performed by
men, 'the dance of the enchantress' Mohiniyattam is performed by women, and Thulal, then solo dance
are among the classical dance forms of Kerala.
Continue with Kerala's history.....

Kerala History
A rock inscription dating from the reign of Emperor Ashoka, who ruled India in the 200's B.C., refers to the
Chera people. It is probably the first historical mention of Kerala as a distinct region of India. The region
was ruled by the Chera dynasty until the A.D. 400's.
Traders from as far away as Rome brought gold coins and took away pepper. During this period,
Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism were introduced to South India by monks and migrants.
St. Thomas, the Christian apostle, is traditionally said to have founded the "Syrian" Church at Muziris
(Cranganore) before A.D. 100. Jewish migrants established a settlement in Cochin in the 900's. After the
decline of the Chera dynasty, 200 years of confusion followed.
During this time, Islam was introduced into Kerala by Arab merchants, whose descendants are locally
known as Moplahs. In 825, the Kulasekhara dynasty began a new calendar, founded the city of Quilon,
and set Kerala on a new path to greatness. Over the next 200 years, Malayalam developed as a separate
language, which was close to, but distinct from, Tamil. Arts and learning flourished.
A hundred years of conflict with the Chola dynasty of what is now Tamil Nadu destroyed Kerala's
prosperity and split it into small, warring states. Ravi Varma Kulasekhara, a local ruler, established a
short-lived empire, uniting Kerala. His sudden death in 1314 caused Kerala to fall apart once more into
small, mutually hostile areas.
In 1498, the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut, and on Dec. 25, 1500, the
Portuguese navigator Pedro Alvares Cabral arrived and began the Portuguese dominance of trade on the
Malabar coast. The Dutch pushed out the Portuguese in the 1600's but were themselves decisively
crushed in 1741 by King Martanda Varma of Travancore. Martanda Varma unified Travancore under his
control. Between 1766 and 1790, the region was devastated by invasions from Mysore led by Hyder Ali
and Tipu Sultan.
After the death of Tipu Sultan in 1792, the East India Company of Britain annexed Malabar. A series of
treaties brought the states of Travancore and Cochin also under their control. British control of Kerala was
punctuated by rebellions. Pazhassi Raja of Malabar led a five-year revolt against British rule which ended
with his death in 1805. Another uprising, under Velu Thampi of Travancore, also ended with the death of
its leader in 1809. The Moplahs rose in rebellion from 1849 to 1855, and again in 1921.
The positive aspects of British rule included the establishment of an education system and the extension
of plantation agriculture, especially tea. They improved Cochin as a major port and set up a network of

communications, including better links with the rest of India. These links became the basis of
development after India gained its independence in 1947.
The move toward democracy in Kerala was first expressed through social reforms. The most influential
reformer was Narayana Guru, whose slogan was "One caste, one religion, one God for mankind." The
Communists played an important part in the anticolonial movement in Kerala. Prominent among them
were K. P. Kesava Menon, A. K. Pillai, E. M. S. Namboodiripad, K. Kesavan, T. M. Varghese, P. Krishna
Pillai, and A. K. Gopalan.
In 1947, the Communists organized armed insurrections against the state of Travancore in the villages of
Vayalar and Punnapra.
In 1949, the two separate states of Travancore and Cochin were united. In 1956, the boundaries of the
newly united states were revised to include neighbouring Malayalam-speaking areas, and the whole
territory was officially named Kerala.

Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh is a state in central India. Its name means middle province. It is the country's largest
state in area. Madhya Pradesh has extensive forests which cover 30 per cent of the total area. It is
predominantly an agricultural region, with a relatively small
population. The Capital city is Bhopal.
Location and description. Madhya Pradesh shares boundaries
with the following states: Uttar Pradesh to the north, Bihar to the
northeast, Orissa to the east, Andhra Pradesh to the south,
Maharashtra to the south and southwest, Gujarat to the west, and
Rajasthan to the northwest.
Climate: The monsoon dominates the climate, with most of the
yearly rain falling between June and September. Bhopal, for
example, receives 120 centimetres a year, of which 90 per cent is in the rainy season. The season
preceding the rains (March to May) is hot and dry, with temperatures exceeding 33 C everywhere and
often reaching 44 C.
The average maximum during the monsoon is 30 C, and the minimum 19 C. Humidity levels are much
higher than at other times of the year. The monsoon causes luxuriant plant growth. The winters are dry
and pleasant. The average maximum temperature from November to February is 27 C, and the minimum
10 C. Annual rainfall tends to decrease from south to north and from east to west.
Tourist Centres: Khajuraho, once the capital of the Chandella rulers is 595 kms from Delhi. The
embodiment of the great artistic activity of the 9th to 12th centuries. Onlu 22 temples out of 85 have
survived.
Ujjain, where Kumbh mela is held after every 12 years, Sanchi with ancient Buddhist monuments, Bhopal
the lake-side capital city, Jabalpur famous for marble rocks and Gwalior with beautiful forts, Indore, the
largest city in the state, Panchmarhi, the hill station, Mandav the historical town and Amarkantak, the
source of the Son and the Narmada river are other places of interest.
Kanha National Park near Jabalpur is one of the most beautiful wildlife parks in India. M.P. which has onesixth of the total world's tiger population has been declared a 'Tiger State' to give protection to tigers.

Continue with Madhya Pradesh's history.....

Madhya Pradesh History

Some of the earliest inhabitants of what is now Madhya Pradesh were groups such as the Bhils and
Gonds. Descendants of an ancient race, they were once wide-ranging hunters and gatherers, or nomadic
farmers, who moved from place to place.
The simple tribal people were no match for the later waves of aggressive invaders, who gradually pushed
them into the hill forest parts of the region. Among these invaders were Rajputs, Muslims, and Marathas.
One of the earliest states that existed in Madhya Pradesh was Avanti, of which Ujjain was the capital. It
lay in the western part of the region. Avanti was a centre of Buddhism and of Pali, the language of early
Buddhist literature.
Avanti formed part of the Mauryan Empire of 300-200 B.C.. Several pillars and stupas of this period stand
in Sanchi and Ujjain. The stupas of Sanchi are famous.
From about 100 B.C. to the A.D. 1500's, various dynasties ruled part or most of the state. They included
the Sunga dynasty (185-73 B.C.), the Ksaptrapas and the Nagas (A.D. 100-300), and the Guptas (300400). The Hunas (Huns) struggled to seize control of Malwa during this period.
Malwa was in western Madhya Pradesh and had developed out of the earlier state of Avanti. In the 600's,
it became part of Harsha's northern Indian empire. After Harsha's time, different parts of Madhya Pradesh
were again ruled by different dynasties. These dynasties include the Pratiharas, the Paramaras, the
Chandellas, and the Chedis.
Up to the 1200's, there were also a number of Gond tribal kingdoms in Madhya Pradesh. The Paramara
king Bhoja was an enlightened monarch, a poet, and a patron of both art and literature. The Chandella
king Dhanga, who reigned from 954 to 1002, commissioned the building of the magnificent temples of
Khajuraho.
The Turks conquered Gwalior, in northern Madhya Pradesh, in the 1000's. The Delhi Sultanate
incorporated Gwalior in 1231. Malwa emerged as an independent kingdom under the Islam Khalji dynasty
in 1401. Its magnificent capital was Mandu. Mahmud Khan Khalji (reigned 1436-1469) was the most
powerful king of Malwa. He fought against Gujarat, Delhi, and Mewar. Baz Bahadur reigned in the 1500's
as the last ruler of an independent Malwa. He was a great patron of art and music. Akbar annexed Malwa
to the Mughal Empire in the mid-1500's.
A large part of Madhya Pradesh, including Malwa, came under Maratha rule with the decline of the
Mughal Empire in the 1700's. The chief Maratha kingdoms in Madhya Pradesh were Dhar, Dewas,
Gwalior, and Indore.
In 1817-1818, territories in Madhya Pradesh known as the "Saugor-Nerbudda" came under the control of
the British following their victory over the Marathas in the Anglo-Maratha wars. The British extended their
influence into the area by making treaties with the native rulers and annexing part of the territory. The
area under direct British administration in time became known as the Central Provinces and consisted of
Malwa, Bundelkhand, and Baghelkhand.
The anti-colonial movement in Madhya Pradesh was relatively weak. When India gained independence in
1947, the Central Provinces and Berar became Madhya Pradesh. Adjoining territories were added to the
new state. In 1956, the government detached eight Marathi-speaking districts and added them to Bombay
state (now Maharashtra). Bhopal also became part of Madhya Pradesh. Feudal influences still persist in
the politics of Madhya Pradesh.

Maharashtra
Maharashtra is a state on the northern part of India's western coast. Its main centre is Mumbai (also
known as Bombay), the commercial capital of India. Maharashtra is mainly agricultural with a well
developed industrial sector.
Location. Maharashtra is the third largest state of India, in area as
well as in population. In shape it is four sided with the western side on
the Arabian Sea. The smallest side is the eastern side which borders
Madhya Pradesh.
Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat are to the north, and Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, and Goa are to the south.
Climate. The monsoon dominates the state's climate. The southwest
monsoon breaks on the coast in the first week of June and finishes in September. Four-fifths of the annual
rainfall is received during this period.
The Western Ghats influence rainfall distribution. The coastal Konkan strip is wet. But the interior upland
area behind them is much drier.
Mumbai receives 270 centimetres a year on average, 95 per cent of which is from June to September.
Nagpur on the other hand receives 113 centimetres a year, 87 per cent of which falls during the
monsoon.
On the coastal strip of Maharashtra, daily maximum temperatures are fairly uniform throughout the year at
an average of 32 C. The daily minimum temperature is 16 C in January and 26 C in June.
In Aurangabad, the average daily maximum temperature in May is 40 C, and 29 C in January. The
minimum is 14 C in January and 25 C in May.
Film industry. The centre of India's film industry is Mumbai. The city produces more than 300 films each
year. The first International Film Festival of India was held in early 1952 at Mumbai had great impact on
Indian Cinema. The city being the hub of all the popular Indian filmstars attracts a lot of visitors.
Tourism. There is a large number of sites in Maharashtra which attract visitors. Mumbai has many places
of interest and there are also other attractions in the state.
Some of the important tourist centers are Ajanta, Ellora, Elephanta, Kanheri and Karle; the hill stations:
Mahabaleshwar, Matheran and Panchgamni; religious places; Pandharpur, Nasik, Shirdi,
Audhangamnath, Nanded and Ganapatipule.
Continue with Maharashtra's History.....

Maharashtra - History : Part I

Early dynasties.
The origin of the name Maharashtra is unclear. It may come from the word rathi (chariot) whose drivers
formed an army (maharathis). They probably migrated south and settled in the upland area in the 600's.
There they mingled with aboriginal tribes.
The territories making up present-day Maharashtra formed part of several Indian empires. The earliest
empire to control the region was the Mauryan. Its most famous ruler was the emperor Asoka, who lived
during the 200's B.C.

Between the 700's and the 1300's there were a number of Hindu kingdoms. These included the
Satavahana, the Kalacuri, the Rastrakuta, the Chalukya, and the Yadavas. The first Muslim dynasty was
founded in 1307 and was followed by a string of others. The Muslims used Persian as the language of the
court and this had a marked influence on the development of the Marathi language.
Rise of the Marathas. In the 1400's and 1500's, the Maharashtra region went through a religious revival
influenced by the "Sants" of bhakti a devotional Hindu religion. By the middle of the 1500's, Maharashtra
consisted of several small kingdoms ruled by Maratha chieftains who spent much of their time fighting
each other.
In a reign that lasted from 1627 to 1680, the Marathan prince Shivaji welded these various Marathan
kingdoms into a powerful state. The power of the new Marathan state was based on a strong, wellorganized army. It threatened the Mughal empire in the north, weakened it through constant military
campaigns, and contributed to its downfall.
The last Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb, spent nearly the whole of the second half of his reign fighting the
Marathas in the Deccan Plateau. Aurangabad is named after him. The Mughal Empire could not withstand
this sustained onslaught and gradually withdrew. During the 1700's, nearly all western and central India
and large portions of northern and eastern India came under the control of a Marathan confederacy.
The imperial ambitions of the Marathas were shattered by the Afghans, who defeated them in the third
Battle of Panipat in 1761, and later by the British, who fought them in three wars and eventually overcame
them in 1817. The British administration annexed a large portion of Maratha territory to form a colonial
administrative unit called the Bombay Presidency.
Continue...

Maharashtra - History : Part II

British rule.
Under the British, the Bombay Presidency administered western India. Bombay (now Mumbai) developed
from seven small islands inhabited by Koli fishermen and their families. The East India Company had
leased all of the islands from the British government, which in its turn had received them from Portugal in
the late 1600's.
To begin with, Bombay's fortunes rested on shipbuilding, which used the local Malabar teak. Later, the city
took over from Surat in Gujarat as the company's main centre on the western coast of India. From this
time onward it grew rapidly. The land between the islands was reclaimed, new streets were laid out, and
impressive buildings were erected. Much of this progress was due to the energy and business acumen of
the town's Parsees. Soon Bombay became the commercial capital of India and the place where the
majority of Europeans arrived in India.
Independence.
Indian opposition to British colonial rule found considerable support in Maharashtra. Several prominent
nationalist and revolutionary leaders who were born in the region became actively involved in the struggle
for independence. They included Dadabhoy Nauoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
When India gained independence in 1947, the Bombay Presidency became Bombay state. In the
following year, the government merged the former princely state of Baroda and some others with Bombay.
With further reorganization in 1956, large areas of the former Hyderabad princely state and Madhya
Pradesh became part of the large state.

It had a Gujarati-speaking population in the north and a Marathi-speaking population in the south. As a
result of demands from these two groups for separate states, the Indian government divided Bombay
along linguistic lines into present-day Gujarat and Maharashtra, in 1960.

Manipur
Manipur is a state in the northeast of India. It shares an international boundary with Burma. Most of
Manipur's people are tribal farmers.
Manipur lies about 700 kilometres northeast of Calcutta. It has an international border on its east side with
Burma and state borders with Nagaland to the north, Assam to the west, and Mizoram to the south. Much
of Manipur is above 200 metres, but the heart of the populated area is a low-lying basin. Imphal is the
state capital.
In its centre is the reedy Lake Loktak, into which several river valleys drain. There are several large lakes
in the central area where the rivers drain southward. They are used for fishing and duck shooting, as well
as for boat races.
Climate: Winter temperatures at Imphal fall to a
minimum of 4 C at night. Daytime temperatures, even
in January, reach over 21 C. The average summer
maximum, experienced from April to September, is 29
C. The annual rainfall at Imphal is about 40
centimetres, but is more elsewhere in the state.
Tourist Centres: Called the Jewel of India by Jawahar lal Nehru, Manipur lies in the shadows of hills. The
picturesque Manipur valley dotted with gleaming lakes is famous for a variety of orchids. Manipuri dance
is world famous. So also her exquisite handicrafts.
The important tourist centers in the state are Imphal, the capital and center of all cultural and commercial
activities adorned with two war Cemeteries maintained by the Commonwealth war graves commission,
Govindajee temple, women bazaar, etc. Besides, the Bishnu temple at Bishnupur built in 1467 A.D., the
Loktak lake, the biggest fresh water lake in eastern India, Keibul Lamjao, the only floating national park in
the world, the Orchid yard at Khongampat, etc are also quite attractive.
Accomodation facilities at important centers such as Waichou, Kaina, Phubala, Sendra and tourist lodge
at Imphal are remarkable. Transport facilities are provided with Deluxe and Mini Buses and Taxi services
at moderate charges.
History. Some historians believe Imphal was founded about 2,000 years ago. Imphal derives its name
from Yumpham meaning homestead and is one of the oldest state capitals in India. Manipur has always
been independent of its neighbouring tribal areas. There are few major historical landmarks.
The most notable is the Bishnupur Temple, nearly 30 kilometres from Imphal, which was built in 1467
during the reign of King Kiyamba. The narrow bricks used in its construction reflect the influence of the
Chinese on the Manipuri culture.
Seven clans ruled different parts of the state until the 1700's, when Rajarshi Bhagya Chandra unified
Manipur. The Burmese often invaded, but Manipur enjoyed long periods of stable government. In 1762,
Britain (now the United Kingdom) agreed to support Manipur against the Burmese. The UK took control of

Manipur in 1891 and maintained it as an autonomous state until Indian independence in 1947, when
Manipur became a union territory. In 1972, Manipur became a state of India.

Meghalaya
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Facts

Meghalaya is a small state in northern India. Meghalaya means abode of the clouds. The southfacing slopes overlooking Bangladesh have had more rainfall in one year than any other place on
earth.
Meghalaya is a compact and isolated state, bordered to the north by Assam and to the south by
Bangladesh. Shillong is the state capital. The landscape is mostly rolling plateau. The state lies in
a severe earthquake belt. An earthquake destroyed the entire town
of Shillong in 1896.
Climate: The altitude and heavy cloud keep maximum
temperatures in summer down to 23 C, with minimum
temperatures falling to 15 C. In winter, the maximum temperature
is 16 C and the minimum, 4 C. The annual rainfall is more than
200 centimetres in Shillong, most of it falling between June and
September.
The south-facing slopes of Meghalaya are famous for their rain.
Cherrapunji has been known to have more than 25 metres of rain
in one year, while Mawsynram has an annual average of more than 10 metres.
Tourist centers: Meghalaya is a dream come true for the tourist. The charms of this land are
many splendoured and unique. It is a happy land of magnificent beauty, undulating hills, roling
grass lands, cascading waterfalls, snaking rivers, terraced slopes and thrilling wildlife.
Some of the important tourist spots are:
1. Uniam Lake by the side of the Shillong - Guwahati road provides a very fascinating view.
Fishing is a great sport over here.
2. Kylland Rock, about 55 kilometers west of Shillong, is an interesting tourist spot. Rising
out of the rolling grassy downs, it is an important dome of granite more than seven
hundred feet in height.
3. Nohsngithiang falls at Mawsmai near Cherrapunji, over looking the hazy blue plains of
Bangladesh, has an appeal unparalleled in the whole of India. And the Mawsmai caves
are full of wonders to the eyes.
4. Nartiang, about ninety kilometers from Shillong, has a number of monoliths, the tallest
being twenty seven feet high and 2.5 foot thick erected by the villagers of Nartiang
between 1500 and 1835 A.D.
History. The Khasi, Garo, and Jaintia tribes of present-day Meghalaya have lived in this isolated
region for thousands of years. Each tribe has handed down a different account of the early history

of the area.
In the 1200's, the Ahom peoples moved into Assam and recorded in their chronicles the often
hostile contacts they had with the tribal population of Meghalaya. The Meghalayans frequently
raided Assam and Bengal. Later, the Meghalayans clashed with the Mughals but were not
conquered by them. The British also were unable to conquer Meghalaya, despite sending military
expeditions against it to stop continuing raids on Bengal.
Eventually, the British incorporated Meghalaya into Assam in 1835. The Meghalayans accepted
overall British control in return for the freedom to pursue their own goals. However, the
introduction of Western education caused major changes in the Meghalayans' way of life, and
many of them also became converted to Christianity.
After Indian independence in 1947, Meghalaya remained part of Assam. In 1969, the Indian
government made Meghalaya an autonomous (independent) region within Assam. Meghalaya
was granted full statehood in 1972.

Mizoram
Mizoram is a state in the far northeast of India. It is the southernmost of the hill states, and lies between
Burma in the east and Bangladesh in the west.Mizoram has a long eastern border with Burma.
It has state borders with Manipur, Assam, and Tripura to the north, and a western border with the
Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh. The state has a population density of only 23 people per square
kilometre.
Climate: Mizoram lies in the monsoon belt between South and
Southeast Asia. The hills are high enough to give cooler summers
than on the plains of Bangladesh or Burma. Even so, in summer,
average maximum temperatures are 29 C and average minimum
temperatures are 20 C.
In winter, maximum temperatures are 21 C and minimum
temperatures are 11 C. The state has a heavy annual rainfall of
about 300 centimetres. But there is also a dry season from late
October to April.
Tourist Centres: Known as the land of the enchanting hills, Mizoram is famous for its vast expanse of
jagged mountain ranges shrouded mystically in reddish blue haze. Blue mountains and deep narrow
valleys with swift flowing rivers, forest with an array of flora and fauna, quaint relics of a glorious past,
quite hamlets and bustling towns make Mizoram a perfect tourist's choice.
History. Mizoram has long been an area of tribal movement. The different groups
of tribal people originally came from northwest China, and gradually moved
southward toward Tibet and Burma in the A.D. 600's. They reached Mizoram in
the 1700's.
The Mizos often raided British tea plantations in neighbouring areas during the 1800's. The disruption
continued until 1891, when the territory was annexed to British India and organized into two districts North Lushai Hills under Assam, and South Lushai Hills under Bengal.
In 1898, it was formed into the Lushai Hills District and became part of Assam. Under colonial rule,
Christian missionaries entered the area freely. They not only carried out their religious duties by

converting the tribals into Christanity (often forcibly) but also introduced literacy, which is exceptionally
high in this state. The written language uses the Roman script.
The Indian parliament renamed the territory the Mizo Hills District in 1954. The territory was called
Mizoram when it became a union territory on Jan. 21, 1972. It became a state on Feb. 20, 1987.

Nagaland
Nagaland is a state in northeastern India. It is a remote and hilly territory, lying to the south of the
Brahmaputra River, with Burma to the east. The state is best known for its once warlike tribal population,
which took part in the practice of headhunting until the early 1900's.
Nagaland is bordered on its south, west, and north by the Indian states of Manipur, Assam, and Arunachal
Pradesh. It shares an international border with Burma to its east.
Parallel ranges of mountains run from north to south. They have some of the richest forest cover left in
India. Evergreen forests are most common below 1,200 metres.
Climate: Nagaland has a pleasant, temperate climate. But it has
very heavy rainfall in the summer monsoon months. Winter
temperatures range from an average minimum of 8 C to an
average maximum of 15 C in January.
These rise to an average maximum of 25 C in May and again in
August, with average minimum temperatures through the summer
of about 19 C. The whole area has relatively dry winters,
receiving less than 10 centimetres of rain between December and
March. However, rainfall in the summer is very heavy, giving an annual total of over 180 centimetres in
Kohima.
Tourist Centres: This remote hilly area is covered with luxuriant vegetation, the climate is cool and
bracing, the people are friendly and hospitable. In season, the landscape is a riot of colors-wild flowers,
thick forests, huge trees, tall grass, a wide variety of wild animals and brilliantly coloured birds.
History. The various tribes and tribal groups making up the people of Nagaland came from various
regions including Burma and Tibet. They settled in the remote hill country of Nagaland long ago, but
experts do not know precisely when. The Nagas have rich and colourful collections of poetry, folk songs,
and tales that preserve many ancient legends. This folklore has been passed down from generation to
generation. But there is no written account of the early history of Nagaland.
The earliest written references to the Nagas date from the 1200's. At this time, a people called the Ahoms
settled in Assam and came into contact with the Naga tribes. According to Ahom chronicles, there were
occasional conflicts, but Ahom and Naga chiefs generally had friendly relations. However, raids by one
Naga village against another were a feature of life in the hilly areas, and the Nagas decorated their
morungs with the skulls of enemies slain in battle.
Until the 1800's, the Nagas led a fairly isolated existence, untouched by the great historical development
that affected most other parts of the Indian subcontinent. Then, in 1819, the Burmese invaded Assam and
occupied it for seven years. In 1826, the British extended their rule to Assam. They sent out the first of
several expeditions to the northeast region in 1832. Although fiercely resisted by the Nagas, the British
eventually annexed the area, known as Naga Hills, in 1881.

The British occupation brought about many deep-rooted changes in the life of the Naga peoples. The
British administrators put a stop to headhunting and raids between villages. They also encouraged
Christian missionaries to enter the region. The missionaries successfully converted most Nagas to
Christianity, although largely by force and set up educational centres.
With education came the growth of political awareness among the Nagas which created political
insurgency in the region. Many Nagas sought political independence for their highland territory. In 1946,
the people formed the Naga National Council with the aim of uniting the whole region in its fight for
political rights. In 1947, some sections of the Naga people demanded full political sovereignty as a state
separate from India. The government of a newly independent India refused to accept such a demand, and
some Nagas took to armed rebellion in an effort to gain independence. The area remained in a rebellious
political condition for much of the 1950's.
Eventually, negotiations between the Indian government and the Nagas led to the integration of the region
into the Indian republic. Nagaland became a full state of the Indian Union in 1963. Some rebel forces
continued to press for full independence, carrying out guerrilla warfare and bandit raids. But their political
influence gradually declined.

Orissa
Orissa is a state on the northeastern coast of India. It receives few visitors despite the fame of the Sun
Temple at Konarak and the Jagannath Temple in Puri. The capital of the state of Orissa, Bhubaneswar,
has some of the finest temples in India, dating from the
600's.
Location and description. Orissa is bounded by West
Bengal and Bihar to the north, Madhya Pradesh to the
west, and Andhra Pradesh to the south. To the southeast
lies the Bay of Bengal. The whole of the state is south of
the Tropic of Cancer, and midway between the
semitropical, wet deltas of Bengal and the much drier
tropical interior of the Peninsula.
Climate. Temperatures vary according to altitude. On the
plains around Bhubaneswar, just south of the Tropic of Cancer, the average maximum temperature in
December, the coldest month, is 28 C, and minimum temperatures do not fall below 16 C. In April and
May, the hottest months, maximum temperatures soar to 38 C. The average minimum temperature from
April to September is between 25 C and 27 C.
Annual rainfall along the coast decreases southward from nearly 160 centimetres at Balasore to just over
110 centimetres at Chatrapur. But the inland hills in the far southwest receive much more rain than the
nearby coastal strip. The major part of Orissa has one of the shortest dry seasons in India with only
January and February being rainless.
Tourist centers: Bhubaneshwar, the present capital of Orissa is known as the Cathedral city of India on
account of its numerous temples. A complete study of the Kalinga style of architecture from its every
inception to maturity spread over a period of about 2000 years is epitomized in the monuments of
Bhubaneshwar.
Places of interest are : Lingaraj Temple, Mukheswar Temple, Anantvasudev Temple and Raj Rani Temple,
the Jain and Buddhist rock-cut caves at Khandagiri, Udaigiri and Dhauli together with Ashoka's rock edict.
Odissi, the dance form of Orissa evolved in the shadow of the magnificent temples of the state.

Bhubaneshwar is connected to Calcutta, Vizag and New Delhi by air. Also there are express trains to
Delhi, Calcutta, Madras and Sikandarabad and buses to Calcutta, Vizag, Ranchi, Raipur, and Tatanagar.
Puri (Jagganath Puri) is a coastal town and beach resort in Orissa. It is 62 Kms. from Bhubaneshwar and
it is among the four Dhams (holy Hindu places of pilgrimage) in India. The presiding deities in the temple
are Jagganath, Balbhadra and Subhadra. Every year in June-July (Asadha Sukla Dwitiya), thousands of
devotees from all over India and abroad to participate in the car festival.
Konark is about 65 Kms. from Bhubaneshwar and 85 Km from Puri. It is famous for the great temple of
the Sun God, conceived as a giant celestial chariot with 24 exquisitly carved wheels drawn by seven
impetuous horses. The temple is profusely sculptured with exquisite figures and figurines, fixed by an
astonishing energy, trapped in stone. Hirakud dam, the fourth largestin the world, on Mahanadi, 328 Km.
Bhubaneshwar is another tourist attraction.
Continue with Orissa's history.....

Orissa History
Orissa was part of the ancient kingdom of Kalinga. It first grew prosperous through trade. Kalinganagar
port developed as early as 300 B.C. Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and Bali all established relations with the
kings of Kalinga. The Maurya king Asoka conquered and annexed the Kalingan kingdom in about 260
B.C..
Orissa regained its independence in about 100 B.C. under the local king Kharavela. He was a Jain, and
perhaps the greatest of the Kalinga kings. His achievements in extending his empire and descriptions of
his capital are recorded in an inscription in the Udayagiri caves near Bhubaneswar.
His exploits included military expeditions in which he defeated the king of the Deccan. After Kharavela,
two separate areas in the north and centre of the Orissa region developed. Their names were Utkal (a
land where the arts excelled) and Toshali. During this time, sea trade flourished, and Buddhism once
again became a popular religion.
Two dynasties had a major effect upon the history of Orissa. The rule of the Kesaris (A.D. 600-1076) and
the Gangas (1076-1435) saw the development of a style of temple architecture often referred to as IndoAryan. The temples in and around Bhubaneswar were built by the kings of the Kesari dynasty.
The founder of the Ganga dynasty, Choda Ganga (ruled 1076-1148), was a devout Hindu and a patron of
art and literature. He built the great temple of Jagannath at Puri. The most famous ruler of the Ganga
dynasty was Narasimha I (ruled 1238-1264). He was responsible for the construction of the temple of the
Sun God at Konarak.
The Gangas became rich through trade and commerce and used their wealth to finance their templebuilding. By the early 1400's, their power was already starting to decline. The Surya dynasty took control
in 1435 and ruled Orissa until 1542.
During medieval times, Orissa had been powerful enough and remote enough to resist the Muslim
invasions from the north in the 1200's. But for a time the Afghans held Orissa in the 1500's, and the
powerful Mughals arrived as conquerors in 1592. The Mughal emperor Akbar annexed it in that year. With
the decline of the Mughals in the 1700's, the Marathas occupied Orissa for a time until the British took it
over.

In 1765, after the victory of the British military leader Robert Clive at Plassey, the East India Company
acquired parts of Orissa. Cuttack and Puri came under British control in 1803. Many interior areas
remained under princely rule, subject to the paramount authority of Britain (the United Kingdom), until
India gained its independence in 1947.

Punjab
Punjab is a state in northern India. It is the home of more than 80 per cent of India's 14 million
Sikhs . Punjab is one of the most prosperous state in India. The soil is fertile and well watered. At the time
of India's independence in 1947, the Punjab region was divided between India and Pakistan.
Punjab is the leading wheat-growing region of India. Crop yields are consistently much higher than
anywhere else in the country, giving India a regular surplus of wheat. Punjab is also a major rice-growing
state.
Location and description. Punjab shares an international border
with Pakistan to the west. Rajasthan and Haryana lie to the south,
and Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir are to the north.
Climate. Punjab has a continental climate. Between November
and February, daytime minimum temperatures range between 5
C and 9 C. Nighttime temperatures occasionally drop to freezing
point. Daily maximum winter temperatures range between 19 C and 27 C. Humidity in winter is very low.
The summers are very hot, with an average daily temperature in May and June of 40 C. Temperatures
occasionally reach 45C. Annual rainfall ranges from about 125 centimetres in the Siwalik Hills to about
35 centimetres in the southwest of the Punjab. Amritsar receives about 65 centimetres of rain per year, of
which 70 per cent falls during the monsoons of July to September (see MONSOON). About 15 per cent of
annual rainfall is brought by cyclones between December and March.
Tourism. There is only a little tourism in the state. Punjab has comparatively few historical sites and its
scenery is not spectacular. Political troubles in the state also deter visitors. However, tourists do visit
Chandigarh, Jallianwalla Bagh, the Bhakra Dam, and the Golden Temple at Amritsar.
Tourist Centres: Following are brief descriptions of some of the interesting places to visit in Punjab:
Amritsar is the site of The Golden Temple, the holiest shrine of the Sikh religion. The site has been sacred
to Sikhs since the time of the fourth Guru in 1577. Guru Ram Das heard that a cripple had been cured by
a miracle at a small pool on the site. He enlarged the pool, which eventually became the focus for the new
temple and town.
The Sikh ruler Ranjit Singh (1799-1839) had the temple rebuilt in marble with a gilded dome. The four
doors of the temple are always open. The holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib, is kept on the ground floor.
Chandigarh was designed to be the new capital of Punjab after Lahore, the previous capital of the region,
had been allocated to Pakistan in 1947. Notable public buildings include the Secretariat, the High Court,
and the Legislative Assembly.
Ludhiana is a major market town and a rapidly growing centre for small industry. The tomb of the Muslim
saint Pir i Dastgir is visited by Muslim pilgrims. Patiala has the Bahadurgarh, an impressive fort built in the
1700's. It has two huge, concentric walls, surrounded by a moat.
Continue with Punjab's history.....

Punjab History
Early Period Before the rise of the Indus Valley civilization nearly 5,000 years ago, there were fortified
towns in what is now Punjab. The area was brought into the Harappan civilization until about 1700 B.C.
The Aryans, advancing from the northwest around 1500 B.C., completely overran the area. Successive
invaders were assimilated with the Aryans and formed the ethnic stock of the Punjabis, Jats, and Rajputs.
The area played an important part in the development of Hindu beliefs, for there the ideas of the Vedas,
the most sacred of Hindu religious books, took shape. In the 200's B.C., it was brought into the Maurya
Empire. About 1,500 years later, it became a vital region for the Muslim kings of the Delhi Sultanate. It
became a central region for the Mughal emperors.
The word Punjab is derived from the Persian words panj (five) and ab (water) and was the name applied
to the region of the five rivers-Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej.
Rise of Sikhism. During the early 1500's, the preaching of the religious teacher Guru Nanak in the
Punjab region inspired the development of the Sikh religion. Nanak became the Sikh's first guru or leader.
In 1577, the fourth guru Ram Das founded the city of Amritsar. Guru Arjan built the Golden Temple at the
end of the 1500's.
Banda Singh laid the foundations of the Punjab when he organized a band of Sikhs and won shortlived
independence from the Mughals in 1709-1710. The Mughals executed Banda Singh in 1716. After 50
years of struggle against the Afghans and Mughals, the Sikhs established their own rule over the region in
1765. Ranjit Singh (1780-1839) welded the separate parts of the Punjab into a powerful state.
British rule. On the death of Ranjit Singh, there was disunity among the Punjabis, and they came into
conflict with the British. After two wars, the Sikhs accepted British rule. Reluctantly, the Sikhs
endeavoured to work in harmony with the British rulers. In the Indian Revolt of 1857, the Sikhs fought in
support of the British. During World War I (1914-1918), the Punjab supplied 60 per cent of the Indian
troops.
After the war, in 1919, the Punjab economy worsened and relations between the Sikhs and the British
suffered. Strikes took place frequently and the brutality of the British in quelling demonstrations worsened
matters. A massacre at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, in 1919, was the climax of this period.
Independence. Indian and British leaders agreed to partition (divide) India into separate countries. The
western part of the Punjab and eastern Bengal became the independent country of Pakistan on Aug. 14,
1947.
At that time, 5 million of India's 6 million Sikhs lived in the newly divided state of Punjab. They constituted
55 per cent of the population. Tens of thousands were killed in the fighting between Sikhs and the
Muslims that accompanied partition.

Rajasthan
Rajasthan is a state in the northwest of India. It is the second largest state in the country. Rajasthan
means "the land of the rajahs (or kings)". It was also called Rajputana, "the country of the Rajputs" (a
group of clans). The state has a long border with Pakistan, and contains a large area of desert.

Location and description. Rajasthan shares an international border on the west

and northwest with Pakistan. Punjab and Haryana border it to the north, Uttar
Pradesh to the east, Madhya Pradesh to the east and southeast, and Gujarat to the
south and southwest. South of Banswara, Rajasthan lies within the Tropic of
Cancer.
Climate: The climate varies widely in Rajasthan. Except in the hills, the summer
temperatures are extremely high, with a maximum of 46 C and an average from
May to August of 38 C. The daily summer minimum is 25 C. In winter, the daily
maximum in most low-lying areas is between 22 and 28 C, and the minimum
between 8 and 14 C.
Rainfall varies over the state. Parts of the western desert receive only 10
centimetres a year. Jaisalmer has an annual rainfall of 21 centimetres, 90 per cent of which falls during
the monsoon, between July and September. Jaipur receives 65 centimetres of rain annually, 80 per cent
of which falls during the monsoon. Jodhpur, midway between these two places has 38 centimetres of
rainfall a year. The Aravalli Range receives a higher rainfall and experiences lower temperatures
throughout the year. To the southwest there is a higher rainfall and high humidity.
Tourism. Rajasthan is one of India's most popular tourist destinations. Its attractions include temples,
forts, palaces, and nature reserves. There are camel safaris from Jaisalmer. Visitors can also travel on
the Palace on Wheels luxury train, which was once the property of various princes.
Following are brief descriptions of some of Rajasthan's interesting places to visit:
Ajmer is a city located on a lake. The city is the site of a palace built by the Mughal emperor Akbar in
1570.Bharatpur is a small town which is best known for its nearby bird sanctuary. More than 300 different
kinds of birds including 80 different types of ducks, have been recorded in this low-lying marshy
sanctuary.
Jaipur has the Amber Palace, a hill-top fort which dates from the 1700's. Jaipur City Palace was built in
the early 1700's by King Jai Singh II, who was known as an architect and town planner, scientist, and
historian as well as a soldier and a ruler. The city also has an open-air astronomical observatory and an
elegant five-storey building known as the Hawa Mahal (palace of winds) from which the ladies of the
Maharajah's haram were able to peek out at the world through its 593 windows and peepholes.
Jaisalmer has a fort built in the 1100's by the Bhatti chieftain Jaisal.Jodhpur is dominated by the
Meherangarh (Majestic) Fort on a 125-metre high hill in the centre of the city. The gates of the fort include
those built by Maharaja Man Singh in 1806 following his victory over the armies of Jaipur and Bikaner.
Mount Abu is a hill station in a 1,200-metre high plateau in the south of Rajasthan. The main attractions of
Mount Abu are the three Dilwara Jain temples about 5 kilometres from the town. The oldest temple dates
from 1031.Ranakpur has one of the largest and most important Jain temples in India. The main temple
was built in 1439.
Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary is located about 100 kilometres from Jaipur. It has blue bulls, sambhar (brown
deer), spotted deer, wild boars, and tigers.Udaipur has a palace built by Maharana Jagat Singh II in 1754.
It covers the entire island of Jagniwas and is now used as the Lake Palace Hotel. The huge City Palace
beside the lake was originally commenced by Maharana Udai Singh, who founded the city in 1657. It is
now used as a museum.
Continue with Rajasthan's history.....

Rajasthan History

Prehistoric human groups lived along the Banas River 100,000 years ago. Archaeologists have found
evidence of the Harappan and post-Harappan cultures, which flourished around 2500 B.C. Some of the
pottery at Kali Banga dates from 2700 B.C.
Rock inscriptions discovered near Bairat reveal that the Maurya emperor Asoka controlled part of the
state in about 250 B.C.. The Mauryas were followed by the Bactrian Greeks, the Scythians, the Guptas,
and the Huns.
Rajput dynasties rose to political supremacy between the 600's and the 1200's. The Rajputs were a
heroic warrior caste who lived by a strict code of chivalry and ritual. Upon the arrival of Islam in India, the
Rajasthan region became a Hindu stronghold. Rajput strength reached its peak in the early 1500's before
the Mughal Babur defeated armies of Rajputana.
Akbar, in a move to make peace with the Rajasthanis, married a Rajput princess and enlisted the services
of Rajput nobles in his imperial service. Those kings who did not serve Akbar were conquered. In the
1700's, Marathas, Pathans, and Pindaries all threatened Rajasthan.
The Rajput rulers appealed for aid to the British East India Company. In the 1800's, British influence
gradually extended into the state. The British allowed the princes of the independent states to run the
internal affairs of their territories as they wished. But a British representative controlled external matters.
He was responsible to the political officer for the whole province, who in turn answered to the governor.
British troops helped the native rulers put down peasant rebellions during the period. Ajmer became one
of the centres of nationalist activity.
When India gained independence in 1947, Rajasthan was an important part of the newly independent
country. The princes gradually surrendered their powers to the central government and became ordinary
citizens in 1971.

Sikkim
Sikkim is a state in northeast India. It lies in the eastern Himalaya, and contains Kanchenjunga, the
highest mountain in India, and the third highest mountain in the world.
Sikkim is the second smallest state in India. Sikkim lies in the eastern Himalaya between Nepal, to the
west, and Bhutan, to the east. To the north are Tibet and China. The Indian state of West Bengal is to the
south. The capital city is Gangtok.
Climate: The climate varies considerably. In the lower valleys it is
subtropical. Above 1,000 metres, the climate is temperate. The tops of the
higher mountains are permanently under snow. Sikkim is one of the most
humid regions of the Himalaya.
In Gangtok, at an altitude of 1,500 metres, the coldest month is January,
when the average minimum temperature is 4 C and the maximum is 14
C. From April to October, the maximum temperature varies little and is
about 22 C. In May, the minimum temperature is 14 C. Annual rainfall is about 350 centimetres.
Tourist Centres: Some of the important tourist centers are: Gangtok, Bakkhim-a natural garden, YoksumMeeting of three great Lamas, Dhubdi monastery, Tashing monastery, Rumtek monastery, etc. There are
two hundred monasteries in Sikkim. Khangchendzonga national park is one of the highest national parks
in the world and includes the world's third highest mountain-Kanchenjunga.

The centers decision in February 1990 to relax the inner line permit for foreigners has given a new thrust
to tourism in the state. A 78 bed tourist hotel at Gangtok, a 50 bed tourist lodge at Pemayangtse in west
Sikkim and a guest house at Rongpo have been constructed.
With the opening of a tourist information center at Silliguri (West Bengal), tourist are no longer forced to
go to Darjeeling for getting permits for visiting Sikkim. There is no airport in Sikkim. Bagdogra airport in
West Bengal caters to the need.
Continue with Sikkim's history.....

Sikkim : History
The original inhabitants of Sikkim were the Lepchas, which means "ravine folk." They came to the area
from the direction of Assam and Burma. From the 1200's, the Bhutia, a Tibetan people, moved into the
area. They included the Namgyal clan, who arrived in the 1400's and gradually won political control over
Sikkim. In 1642, Phuntsog Namgyal (1604-1670) became the chogyal (king). He presided over a social
system based on Tibetan Lamaistic Buddhism. His descendants ruled Sikkim for more than 330 years.
During the 1700's, Sikkim suffered invasions from Nepal and Bhutan, and lost much territory as a result.
Nepalese also migrated to Sikkim and settled there as farmers. By the 1800's, Sikkim's population was
ethnically very mixed, and internal conflict resulted. In 1814-1815, Sikkim assisted the British in a
successful war against Nepal, and won back some of its lands.
In 1835, the British East India Company purchased the health resort of Darjeeling from Sikkim. During the
mid-1800's, Sikkim violently resisted attempts to bring it under British rule, but in 1861 it finally became a
British protectorate. The British had access through Sikkim to Tibet, and Sikkim's independent status was
recognized.
In 1890, Britain and China signed a convention recognizing the border between Sikkim and Tibet. Later,
the British installed a political official to help the chogyal of Sikkim run the internal and external affairs of
the kingdom.
The Indian government took over responsibility for Sikkim's external affairs, defence, and communication
in 1950. The struggle that had brought Indian independence in 1947 promoted a democratic upsurge in
Sikkim. The chogyals lost their power as a result of the gradual introduction of a new democratic
constitution. In 1973, India took Sikkim into the union as an associate member. In 1975, Sikkim became
India's 22nd state.

Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu is a state in southeast India. One of the four Dravidian states of India, it has had more than
2,000 years of continuous cultural history. Tamil is one of the oldest literary languages in India.
Tamil Nadu has some of the most remarkable temple architecture in India, and a living tradition of music
and dance. People who live in the state are called Tamils. Chennai, formerly called Madras, is the capital
city.

Location and description. Tamil Nadu is located in southeastern India.

To the east and south is the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean.
Across the Palk Strait in the southeast lies the island country of Sri
Lanka. To the north and west are the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, and Kerala.
Climate.
On the plains, temperatures are always quite high. In Chennai, the
average January temperature is about 25 C. The difference between
winter and summer is not as great as in north India, and the average
temperature in May, the hottest month, is about 33 C. However,
temperatures are greatly affected by altitude. Kodaikanal, for example,
at a height of over 2,500 metres, is about 15 degrees cooler than Chennai, and occasionally has night
frosts in winter.
Because most of Tamil Nadu lies to the east of the Western Ghats, the climate is much drier than that on
the west coast. The plains to the east lie in the rainshadow of the mountains.
Strong winds blow across the plains in the early monsoon season, but as they come down the eastern
slopes of the hills they warm up and become drier . The districts around Madurai receive less than 75
centimetres of rain per year. The extreme southeast experiences almost desert conditions with less than
60 centimetres per year.
The change of landscape between Trivandrum and Madurai around India's southern tip illustrates the
dramatic effects on vegetation and agriculture of this sudden decrease in rainfall. Tamil Nadu, and
particularly the area around Chennai, has an exceptional rainfall pattern. It has about 120 centimetres of
rain each year, most of which falls in what is sometimes called the retreating monsoon.
From October to December, weather depressions move across the east coast around Chennai from the
Bay of Bengal. They bring heavy rains, often accompanied by storms, to the coastal belt, which decrease
inland and southward from Chennai.
It is a season when cyclonic storms, from the east and southeast over Malaysia, also strike parts of the
south Indian coast as they move first west and then north up the Bay of Bengal. Such cyclones can cause
enormous disruption, damage, and loss of life, particularly when they strike densely populated parts of the
country.
Continue with Tamil Nadu's Tourist Centres.....

Tamil Nadu - Tourist Centres

Tourist Centers:
Chidambaram is famous for its Nataraja temple, dedicated to the god Shiva. Kanyakumari is at the
southern tip of India, where the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Bay of Bengal meet. It is an
important place of pilgrimage for Hindus.
Madurai is the centre of Tamil culture. Its most famous building is the Meenakshi Temple. In addition to its
magnificent gopurams (gateways), it has a spectacular hall of a thousand pillars. Each pillar is individually
carved.
Rameshwaram is remembered by Hindus as the place from which Rama went to Sri Lanka to find his wife
Sita, who had been abducted by the demon god Ravana. The massive Ramalingeshwara Temple dates
mainly from the 1500's and 1600's.Thanjavur was the great capital of the Chola emperors from the 800's
to the 1000's.

The Brihadeshwara Temple, built by King Rajaraja I, is a World Heritage Monument. Built between 9851012, it has a 14-storey tower, and superb stone sculptures.Tiruchirappalli, known as Trichy, has both
famous temples and a fort perched on a rocky crag overlooking the town.
The temple town of Srirangam, 3 kilometres north of Trichy, is on an island in the middle of the Kaveri
River. It has magnificent gateways and several shrines.Vellore is famous today for its Christian Medical
College Hospital, regarded as one of the best in Asia.
A superb small temple in the fort is one of the best examples of building by the Hindu kings of the
Vijayanagar Empire.
Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram), Poompuhar, Pichawaram, Point Calimere, Courtallam, Hogenakkal,
Anamalai Sanctuary, Mudumalai sanctuary, Vedanthangal bird sanctary, Kalakkad and Vandaloor Zoo and
Mundanthurai sanctary are other tourist centers.
At Madras:
Fort Saint George, San Thome, fort museum, mariana beach, snake park, Guindy park, Guindy deer
sanctuary and children's park, Egmore museum, Valluvarkottam park, crocodile and Vandaloor Zoo,
Muthukkadu Boat house.
Continue with Tamil Nadu's history.....

Tamil Nadu - History : Part I

Evidence from various sites in southern India shows that there were Stone Age settlers in what is now
Tamil Nadu about 200,000 years ago. Stonebuilt burial sites are common in several parts of the region.
Dravidians moved into the south of India in about 3000 B.C. They now make up the great majority of its
people.
The people of Tamil Nadu had developed an Iron Age culture by about 1000 B.C. By about 300 B.C.,
Tamil Nadu was under the rule of three dynasties. The Cholas occupied the coastal area east of
Thanjavur and inland to the head of the Kaveri Delta at Tiruchi. At various times, they were a strong
military power. One of their princes, Elara, conquered the island of Sri Lanka in about 100 B.C.
The central area-Madurai, Tirunelveli and a part of south Kerala-was ruled by the Pandyas. The Pandyas
were a great maritime trading power who had connections with the Roman Empire up to about A.D. 500.
The Cheras controlled much of what is now Kerala on the west coast of the peninsula, but they also
penetrated southern Tamil Nadu.
From around A.D. 100, a poets' academy known as the Sangam flourished in Madurai. According to
legend, poets at the academy put Tamil literature through an extraordinary test. They threw books into the
sacred tank of the Meenakshi Temple, and those that floated would be deemed worthy, while those that
sank were considered useless. The writings of that period show that life in Tamil society was very different
from that in the north of India.
In Tamil Nadu, the wise men were at the top of society, followed by peasants, hunters, artisans, soldiers,
fishermen, and scavengers. This contrasted with the caste system that existed in the rest of the
subcontinent.
The Pallavas became powerful in the 300's and ruled northern Tamil Nadu from 550 to 869. They were
also great builders and adventurers. Mahabalipuram became an important port and naval base in the
600's. The Pallavas were mainly Shivaites (followers of Shiva, the Hindu god), and during the 700's they
built the Mahabalipuram shore temples.

Their king, Narasinhavarman II, also built the great Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram, about 70
kilometres from modern Chennai. For 150 years, this was not only the administrative centre but also the
literary and artistic capital where scholars studied Sanskrit and the Vedas.
Continue with Tamil Nadu's history....

Tamil Nadu - History : Part II

The Cholas returned to power in 850 and remained a dominant political force until 1173. Within a hundred
years, during the reign of Rajaraja, they defeated the Pandyas and the Cheras.
Their great empire expanded to cover the whole Tamil area, Sri Lanka, the region of the Andhras,
southern Karnataka, and the Laccadive and Maldive islands. At his capital, Thanjavur, Rajaraja I built the
Brihadishwara Temple, one of the finest examples of Dravidian architecture.
There was further expansion in the 1000's during the reign of Rajendra Chola (1014-1044). He conquered
Kerala and the Pandyan lands in the south, and led raids to the north and northeast. On his return he
founded the city of Gangakondacholapuram (the city of the Chola who brought the Ganges) in the Kaveri
delta.
His naval expeditions to the Malayan Peninsula resulted in Chola domination over the trade routes in that
area of the Indian Ocean and control of the sea routes to Java, Sumatra, and China. One other major
result was the Hindu influence on the art of Java and Bali.
Chola control over this vast area continued for nearly a hundred years until the Pandyas became powerful
again and ruled from about 1175 to 1300. In Karnataka, the Hoysalas came to power in 1022 and
emerged as a strong force.
Tamil Nadu also came under the influence of the Vijayanagar Empire, the last Hindu empire in India,
which superseded the Pandyas. After the disintegration of the Vijayanagar Empire, the Tamil region came
under the control of several petty chiefs.
The arrival of the British in the area in the 1600's brought far-reaching changes. Under British rule, the
region became united under a single administration.
During the 1600's and 1700's, the British East India Company established its power in southern India. In
1639, the Company set up its factory at Fort St. George, the trading post that developed into the presentday city of Chennai. From this centre, the company directed its political and trading activities.
Through wars, annexations, and treaties with Indian rulers such as the nawab of Carnatic, the nizam of
Hyderabad, and the sultan of Mysore, the East India Company acquired the territory covering present-day
Tamil Nadu. British rule caused considerable opposition and resistance, particularly from local Indian
rulers who had lost their lands to the Company.
Continue with Tamil Nadu's history.....

Tamil Nadu - History : Part III

Veera Pandya Kattaboman of Tirunelveli, was one of many leaders in the Tamil region who fought against
the British. The nationalist movement of the late 1800's and early 1900's aroused considerable
enthusiasm in Tamil Nadu. The Non-cooperation, Civil Disobedience, and Quit India movements all
received popular support there.

V. O. Chidambaram Pillai helped in the restoration of national honour and self-respect by starting the
Indian Steam Navigation Company. Subramanya Bharati woke national feelings in Tamil Nadu through his
poems.
A non-Brahmin movement arose in the early 1900's. Its early political organization was the Justice Party,
led by Theagaraya Chetty and T. M. Nair. The Self-respect Movement initiated in 1925 by E. V.
Ramaswami Naicker (called Periyar) gave a social and cultural dimension to the non-Brahmin
movement.
In 1944, Periyar founded Dravida Kazhagam, a social organization dedicated to the ideal of establishing a
separate Dravidian country. Annadurai, one of Periyar's close disciples, formed a political party, the
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, with the same objective. The Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam later gave up
its idea of breaking away from India.
At the time of Indian independence in 1947, Tamil Nadu was a part of a British (United Kingdom)
administrative unit called the Madras presidency. In 1956, according to the recommendations of the
States Reorganization Committee, Tamil-speaking areas were formed into a separate state. The new
state was called Madras, after its capital. In 1968, Madras state was renamed Tamil Nadu.

Tripura
Tripura is a small, mainly agricultural state in northern India. It is partly mountainous with several deep
river valleys. It is located in the monsoon belt. The moist, mountainous areas of the state have a rich
cover of evergreen forest. The south is more open and densely populated. The capital of Tripura,
Agartala, is in the south of the state.
Tripura is a hill state in northeastern India. Bangladesh
surrounds it on the north, west, and south. The Indian states
of Mizoram and Assam border it on the east and northeast.
The north of the state consists of four valleys, separated by
ranges of hills.
Climate. During the monsoon season, June to September, most of Tripura receives more than 200
centimetres of rain. Annual totals can reach more than 250 centimetres. Temperatures in the mountains
do not rise as high as they do in the valleys.
Tourist Centres: Important tourist centers are Nir Mahal, SipahiJala, Dumboor lake, Kamalasagar,
Jumpui hill, Unakoti and Matabari.
History. The early history of the Tripura region is lost in legend. The name Tripura appears on pillars of
the emperor Asoka, who ruled India in the 200's B.C.
In the 1300's, Tripura came under the control of the Manikya dynasty, a family of Indo-Mongolian origin.
Under the Manikyas, the political influence of Tripura extended over Assam, Bengal, and Burma. In the
1600's, the Mughal emperors came to rule much of Tripura. But the local Manikya kings, or maharajahs,
still retained some of their power.
In the late 1700's, the parts of Tripura that had been ruled by the Mughals came under British control. As
part of the province of eastern Bengal and Assam, Tripura was known as Hill Tippera.

During the 1800's and 1900's, two Manikya maharajahs stood out as fine rulers of Tripura. Birchandra
Manikya Bahadur (ruled 1862-1896), an accomplished poet and musician as well as a politician, sought to
modernize the state by reorganizing its administration and abolishing slavery and suttee. Bir Bikram
Kishore Manikya Bahadur (ruled 1923-1947) set up a project to improve educational development in the
arts and sciences, agriculture, medicine, and technology. Maharajah Bir Bikram also opened the airport at
Agartala and established a college in the eastern part of the city. The college still bears its founder's
name.
Following the death of Bir Bikram in 1947, Tripura prepared to become part of an independent India. It
entered the Indian Union in October 1949 and became a union territory in 1956. Tripura became a state of
the republic of India in 1972.

Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh is a state in northern India. Its name means "Northern Provinces." Although Uttar Pradesh
is only India's fourth largest state in area, it is the largest state in population.
About 75 per cent of Uttar Pradesh consists of plains, the rest being the Siwalik Hills and the Himalaya in
the north and the Vindhya Hills and central plateau in the south. The great plain lies between two upland
areas.
Uttar Pradesh is a land of many rivers and the alluvial soils found
over two-thirds of the state are extremely fertile. There are few
areas where the salt content in the soil is too high for successful
cropping. Soils in the hills tend to be thin, stony, easily drained,
and with much lower fertility.
Uttar Pradesh is one of the great historical and religious centres of
India. The sacred Ganges (Ganga) River is the physical and spiritual life source of the region. Varanasi
(Kashi or Benares), the holiest city in India, is where every devout Hindu hopes to die and be cremated.
Mathura, south of Delhi, is regarded as the birthplace of the Hindu god Krishna.
Location and description. Uttar Pradesh is one of India's border states, sharing one-third of its northern
boundary with Tibet and China and two-thirds with Nepal. The state shares internal borders with Himachal
Pradesh in the northwest, and Haryana, the union territory of Delhi, and Rajasthan to the west. Madhya
Pradesh lies to the south, and Bihar to the east.
Climate. Except for the mountain region, the whole state has a tropical monsoon climate. Winter
(December to February) temperatures range from 7 C minimum to 27 C maximum. Summer (April to
June) temperatures range from 22 C minimum to 42 C maximum, with occasional extremes of 45 C. A
hot, dry wind often blows from the west.
The monsoon lasts from mid-June to mid-September, during which time the maximum temperature drops
a few degrees, humidity increases, and 80 per cent of the annual rain falls. The eastern parts of the state
receive between 100 and 200 centimetres of rain per year. Rainfall in the west is less, with some places
receiving under 50 centimetres per year.
In the mountainous region of the north, the high peaks are permanently under snow. The daily and
seasonal temperatures in this region are lower than the rest of the state.
Continue with Uttar Pradesh's Tourist Centres.....

Uttar Pradesh Tourism

Tourism.
Uttar Pradesh contains many famous tourist sites. They include ancient monuments, such as the Taj
Mahal at Agra. Taj Mahal is one of the most beautiful and costly tombs in the world. The Indian ruler Shah
Jahan ordered it built in memory of his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who died in 1629. The tomb stands
near the city of Agra, in northern India, on the south bank of the
Yamuna River.
Tourists also visit monuments of Mughal culture at Lucknow, hill resorts
at Mussorie and Naini Tal, religious centres at Kedarnath, Badrinath,
and Kushinagar (Buddhist centre), and Corbett National Park.
Tourists also enjoy skiing, trekking, rock climbing, and river rafting
through the state's magnificent scenery. Thousands of pilgrims visit
Allahabad and Varanasi to bathe in the waters of the Ganges River,
which Hindus consider to be sacred.
Tourist Centres:
Following are brief descriptions of interesting places to visit in Uttar Pradesh:
Agra has magnificent Mughal monuments, including the Taj Mahal, Moti Masjid, and the vast palace
fort.Allahabad. The massive red sandstone palace fort overlooks the sacred confluence of the Ganges
and Yamuna rivers.
Corbett National Park is home to elephants, deer, panthers, wild boar, crocodiles, jackals, and teeming
bird life.Fatehpur Sikri. Now deserted, the emperor Akbar's capital is a perfectly preserved example of a
splendid Mughal city.
Lucknow, the capital city has many beautiful parks and gardens, including the National Botanical
Gardens. The Imambara, Residency and other remanats of the Nawabi architecture are worth visiting. It
is famous for embroidery work.
Mathura is, according to legend, the birthplace of Lord Krishna. It has a number of Hindu, Buddhist, and
Jain temples.
Rishikesh is the starting point for treks to Hindu pilgrimage centres such as Badrinath, Kedarnath, and
Gangotri.Sarnath, where Buddha once preached, is a major Buddhist centre.
The museum has an Ashokan pillar and lion capital.Varanasi is one of the most important pilgrimage and
tourist centres in India. It has more than 100 ghats from which Hindu pilgrims bathe in the Ganges. The
Golden Temple of Kashi Vishvanath has more than 750 kilograms of gold plate on its towers. The Great
Mosque of Aurangzeb is famous for its towering minarets.
Continue with Uttar Pradesh's History.....

Uttar Pradesh History

Hindus believe that Uttar Pradesh is the birthplace of Rama and Krishna, the heroes of India's two great
epic poems, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The region is associated with all the religions of India,
and it contains important places of worship for Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, and Muslims.
Buddha preached his first sermon at Sarnath, near Varanasi, and achieved parinirvana (spiritual release
from the body) at Kusinagara. Varanasi was one of Uttar Pradesh's most ancient centres. As a great

centre of culture, education, commerce and craftwork, the city was already about 1,000 years old when
Buddha arrived there in 500 B.C.
From the 200's B.C., Uttar Pradesh was part of the Mauryan Empire. Later, various Hindu dynasties
controlled the region. In the late A.D. 1100's, invading Turks established a Muslim empire called the Delhi
Sultanate. It extended its influence over Uttar Pradesh.
From the mid-1500's, the Uttar Pradesh area became the political and cultural heart of the Mughal
Empire. Varanasi, which had declined during Muslim rule from Delhi, underwent a cultural and religious
revival under the emperor Akbar. Agra was for some time an imperial capital. In the 1600's, the emperor
Shah Jahan ordered the building of the Taj Mahal there.
In the 1700's, with the decline of Mughal power, several independent kingdoms arose in Uttar Pradesh.
Among the most important were Oudh and Varanasi. Lucknow, the capital of Oudh, became an important
cultural centre.
From 1765, British rule was extended into both Bengal and Uttar Pradesh. In 1836, the East India
Company combined its possessions in Uttar Pradesh with Delhi and renamed the resulting area the
Northwestern Province. In 1856, the British annexed the province of Oudh, thereby completing their
takeover of Uttar Pradesh.
Resentment of British rule flared into violence in the Indian Revolt of 1857. Uttar Pradesh was the centre
of this revolt, which began in Meerut and quickly spread to Lucknow, Kanpur, Agra, Allahabad, and
Jhansi, but did not go far beyond the borders of the state. The British put down this uprising.
After the revolt, control of East India Company territories passed to the British government. In 1877, the
British combined the northwestern provinces and Oudh to form what eventually became known as the
United Provinces of Agra and Oudh.
During the 1900's, Uttar Pradesh was in the vanguard of the national movement for independence. All the
nationalist movements-the Non-Cooperation movement, the Civil Disobedience campaign, and the Quit
India movement-found enthusiastic support in the region. However, the burning of a police station by a
mob in the village of Chauri Chaura, in which several policemen died, led to the suspension of the NonCooperation movement.
Prominent nationalist leaders who were active in Uttar Pradesh included Mohandas Gandhi, Motilal
Nehru, Madan Mohan Malaviya, and Purushottamdas Tandon.
Following Indian independence in 1947, Uttar Pradesh emerged in 1950 as the most populous and
politically most influential state of the Indian union.

West Bengal
West Bengal is a state in northern India on the western border of Bangladesh. It stretches 600 kilometres
from the Bay of Bengal in the south, to the borders of Sikkim in the north. It is bounded on the east by the
states of Assam, and on the west and southwest by the states of Bihar and Orissa. Apart from the foothills
of the Himalaya in the north, most of West Bengal consists of marshland, with some jungle on the
Himalayan slopes and in the far south. The state is home to the Royal Bengal tiger.
Bengal was an important area during British rule in India, becoming an economic, cultural, an political
centre. West Bengal came into being in 1905, when Bengal was partitioned by Lord Curzon, British
viceroy of India, into East Bengal (Assam) and West Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. In 1947, East Bengal was
separated from India and became part of Pakistan.
Then, in 1971, East Bengal broke away from Pakistan and became the independent country of
Bangladesh. Both events aroused conflict between West Bengal's Hindu and Muslim communities.

Location and description. Most of West Bengal lies on the flat

western delta of the distributaries (river channels) of the Ganges.
The state shares an international boundary with Bangladesh to
the east, Bhutan to the north, and Nepal to the northwest. It is
bounded by the states of Sikkim to the north, Assam to the east,
the Bay of Bengal to the south, Orissa to the southwest, and
Bihar to the west.
Climate. West Bengal has three seasons; hot and dry (March to
mid-June), hot and wet (June to September), and cool and dry (October to February). During the hot and
dry season the temperature averages from 24 to 29 C. The northern plains get the highest temperatures,
rising to as much as 49 C. The coastal plains are generally cooler. Thunderstorms are frequent during
this time of the year.
During the hot and wet season, monsoons blow from the southwest, bringing heavy rainfall and often
flooding. The annual rainfall may exceed 300 centimetres in the north. During the cool and dry season,
the January temperature averages from 13 to 18 C in the north and from 18 to 24 C in the south. There
is frost and snow in the northern plains and in mountainous areas.
Tourist Centres: Following are brief descriptions of some of West Bengal's interesting places to
visit:Calcutta is a major cultural, industrial, and political centre. The city has many fine buildings dating
from the time of British rule in India, including the Victoria Memorial, an important museum. A large statue
of Queen Victoria stands outside the museum.
Darjeeling, in the foothills of the Himalaya near the border with Nepal, is the summer capital of West
Bengal. The "toy train," a famous narrow-gauge steam train, winds its way up the mountainside to the
city.Shantiniketan is an educational and cultural centre established by the celebrated poet Rabindranath
Tagore. It is now a university.
Sundarbans, a tidal forest at the Ganges delta, straddles West Bengal and Bangladesh. Indian tigers and
many other wild animals live in the forest. Tiger Hill, near Darjeeling, offers magnificent views of Mount
Kanchenjunga and other Himalayan peaks. Mount Everest, the highest mountain in the world, can also be
seen.
Continue with West Bengal's history.....

West Bengal History

Early Period: West Bengal once formed a part of a wider region of India called Bengal. In prehistoric
times, Dravidian and other tribes lived in Bengal. They were small communities of hunter-gatherers and
left behind a number of stone implements.
After about 1000 B.C., peoples from central Asia spread east and reached Bengal. They introduced the
Sanskrit language, and knowledge of agriculture, weaving, and pottery.
In about 200 B.C., Bengal was part of the Maurya Empire, but it remained densely forested and sparsely
populated. In about A.D. 300, the Guptas conquered Bengal. Trade with the Mediterranean, and
particularly with Rome, expanded over the next 200 years. However, with the fall of the Roman Empire in
the 400's, the economy declined. Several dynasties succeeded the Guptas. Sasanka, a ruler of the
Gauda dynasty, tried to stem the rising tide of Buddhism in the region.
It was only with the founding of the Pala dynasty in 750 that Bengal became united once again. In the
next 450 years, many cities emerged along the Ganges River. Bengal became a centre of Buddhism, and
art and learning flourished.

Turkish invasions across northwest India brought Islam to Bengal at the beginning of the 1200's. Pathan
kings, who came originally from Afghanistan, followed them. The most notable was Sher Shah Suri, who
took advantage of the death of the first Mughal emperor, Babur, to extend his territory from Bihar into
Bengal.
However, during the period 1575 to 1576, Akbar returned the region to Mughal rule. He wanted the rich
resources of rice, silk, and saltpetre (the chemical used to make gunpowder).
European invasion. The increasing power of the Muslims drew the Portuguese toward the subcontinent.
Before long, they faced competition for trade from the Dutch and the British. In 1632, the Emperor Shah
Jahan attacked the Portuguese port in Bengal and reduced the merchant power of the Portuguese.
Meanwhile, the British strengthened their trading links with Bengal. In 1609, the British acquired three
villages around which Calcutta later developed. They built a fort, known as Fort William, and thereby
consolidated their position. In 1700, Bengal became an independent presidency under the jurisdiction of
the British East India Company.
On the death of the emperor Aurangzeb in 1707, the Mughal territories in Bengal were absorbed into the
independent kingdom. The British soon gained a monopoly over internal trade. The Company merchants
abused their trade privileges, however, and thus came into conflict with the native ruler, the nawab of
Bengal. The conflict came to a head at the Battle of Plassey (1757) in which the nawab was defeated. In
1764, the East India Company took over the right to collect the revenues of Bengal and virtually annexed
the region for the British.
During the 1800's, Bengal became the economic and political centre of British India. Agricultural raw
materials, such as indigo, opium, and later jute, became staples of trade. Engineering industries grew as
Calcutta expanded into a major port and an important railway junction.
Bengal was enlarged by the addition in 1863 of the town and surrounding district of Darjeeling, bought by
the British from the rajah of Sikkim in 1835. Religious movements such as the Brahmo Samaj grew out of
the meeting of traditional Hinduism with Christian missionary activity in the 1830's. Bengal also became
the major centre of cultural and political activity in modern India.
Partition and independence. Until 1905, Bengal included much of modern Bihar and Orissa, as well as
the whole of Bengal. Lord Curzon's partition of Bengal in 1905 created two new states, East Bengal and
Assam, and West Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The partition roused fierce political opposition among
Bengalis, who played prominent roles in the national movement for independence.
It also encouraged the split between Muslims and Hindus which resulted in Bengali Muslim support for the
creation of Pakistan and national partition in 1947. The division into the two new countries caused the
migration of more than 5 million people and appalling massacres as Hindus and Muslims fled.

Union

Territories

Andaman and Nicobar

Andaman and Nicobar Islands are two island groups in the eastern Bay of Bengal. They form a Union
Territory of India and cover an area of 8,249 square kilometres. The capital, Port Blair, is the only town. It
is in the Andaman Islands. Most of the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands are uninhabited.
The Andaman group consists of 204 islands and lies 120
kilometres north of the Nicobar group. The Andaman
Islands are hilly, and most of them are covered with dense

forests. The inhabitants obtain matchwood, plywood, hardwood, cane, resins, gums, coconuts, and
rubber from the trees. They grow rice in irrigated fields.
There are 19 islands in the Nicobar group. Palm trees abound and, as a result, coconuts and arecanuts,
and their derivatives, are important products. Planters also cultivate sugar cane.
Some of the Andaman tribes have little contact with the outside world. Most islanders follow their own
religious and tribal customs, although many Nicobarese have been converted to Christianity.
Tourist Centres: Anthropological museum, Marine Museum, Catham Saw Mill, WIMCO factory,
Andaman Timber Industries, Zoological garden, Mount Harriet, Chidiya Tapu (bird island), Wandoor
Beach, Viper island, Cellular jail and Nilthaman tank, sound and light show at National Memorial. In 1992,
the Government decided to open up the island for the foreign tourists.
There are regular air and sea services between the mainland and the islands. Indian Airlines flies from
Delhi, Calcutta and Chennai to Port Blair, Ships ply between Calcutta, Madras, Vishakapatnam and Port
Blair.

Chandigarh
Chandigarh is a union territory situated in northern India. It shares its northern and western borders with
the state of Punjab, and its eastern and southern borders with the state of Haryana.
The territory consists of the capital, Chandigarh city, and 22 villages in the area surrounding it. It covers
an area of 114 square kilometres. The territory has a population of 640,725. The two main languages
spoken by its people are Hindi and Punjabi.
Chandigarh has about 3,000 hectares of land under cultivation.
Maize, wheat, potatoes, and rice are the main crops. Forests cover
about one-fourth of the area. There are about 15 large- and
medium-scale industries in Chandigarh producing hosiery and
knitting machine needles, electric meters, antibiotics, soft drinks,
and cardboard. There are also over 2,000 small-scale industries
which manufacture such items as door fittings, radios, insecticides,
furniture, textiles, car parts, and paints. Chandigarh is connected to other parts of northern India by road,
rail, and air.
Tourist Centres: Rose Garden, Rock Garden, Shanti Kunj Lake, Museum, Art Gallery, Gandhi Bhavan,
Capital Complex and National Gallery of Potraits.

Dadra and Nagar Haveli

Dadra and Nagar Haveli is one of the union territories of India. It lies near the west coast and consists of
two separate parts.
Dadra is surrounded by the state of Gujarat, and Nagar Haveli lies on the borders of Maharashtra and
Gujarat. The capital is Silvassa.

The Union Territory covers 491 square kilometres. Most of the

people are Adivasis. The Adivasis are divided into tribal groups
such as Varlis, Dublas, Dhodias, and Koknans. The languages
spoken in the territory are Bhili, Bhilodi, Gujarati and Hindi.
The northeast and southeast areas of this territory are steeply
hilly, whereas the central areas consist of plains. The soil is
moist and fertile. Nagar Haveli has large areas of teak forests.
Agriculture is the main occupation of the Adivasis, and they produce rice, ragi, pulses, and fruits. In recent
years, plantation schemes and afforestation have increased the amount of timber under construction,
creating job opportunities for landless labourers and forest dwellers. There is no large-scale industry.
Dadra and Nagar Haveli became part of the Portuguese-controlled region of India during the 1780's. In
1954, Goan nationalists took over the area, and in 1961, the territory was integrated into the Indian Union.
Dadra and Nagar Haveli is run by an Indian government-appointed administrator, and village affairs are
looked after by democratically elected panchayats (village assemblies).
Tourist Centres: There are beautiful gardens on the banks of the river at Silvasa and Khanvel. A tourist
complex at Khanvel named 'Van Vihar' has been set up. Van Ganga and the Vandhara Garden on the
Damanganga river, Bai Udyan, Tadkeshwara temple on Sakartod river at brindaban are other picnic
spots.

Daman and Diuc

Daman and Diu are two districts that form one of the Union Territories of India. These two districts are 792
kilometres apart.
Daman (an area of 74 square kilometres) lies on the Gujarat coast. Diu is an island with an area of 38
square kilometres. It lies on the southern coast of the Kathiawar peninsula in the Gulf of Cambay (or
Khambhat). Daman is the territory's capital.
Daman has a mild and humid climate, but the climate on Diu is
sultry. The population of Daman and Diu speak Gujarati and
Marathi. The religion of most of them is Hinduism.
The economy of Daman is based on agriculture and marine
products. Trade forms a major economic activity. In Diu, fishing
and saltmaking are important occupations. Plantations of
casuarina trees are found in both districts. In Diu, such
plantations have been remarkably successful in preventing shifting sand dunes from encroaching on
nearby farmland.
Diu was a part of the kingdom of Gujarat, which was ruled by Sultan Bahadur Shah. It became an
extension of the Portuguese empire in the 1600's when the Mughal army invaded Gujarat. Bahadur Shah
sought the help of the Portuguese, and in return he gave them Bassein and the surrounding areas.
He also allowed them to build a fort at Diu. The Portuguese captured Daman from Saif-ul-Mulk Miftah, a
Gujarati nobleman, in 1559. Goa, Daman, and Diu remained in Portuguese hands even after India gained
independence from Britain in 1947. They gained independence from Portugal in 1961. In 1962 Daman
and Diu became an independent Union Territory.

Tourist Centres: Apart from historical monuments, Devka beach in Daman and Nagoa beach in Diu
attract visitors. The rebuilt airport was opened in 1992. The nearest railhead is just 8 Km away.

Delhi - Part I
Sometimes called Dilli is a Union Territory of India .It was formerly a Union Territory. It is made up of three
main census areas-Old Delhi, New Delhi, and Delhi Cantonment, including 214 villages in the surrounding
countryside. New Delhi is the capital of the Republic of India.
The Union Territory of Delhi has an area of 1,483 square kilometres. Old Delhi covers 932 square
kilometres. It has a population of nearly 10 lakh. New Delhi is the official capital of India. It covers 439
square kilometres and has a population of nearly 4 lakh.
New Delhi was built by the British 5 kilometres to the south of
Old Delhi in the early 1900's. But the two cities have since
merged to form a single metropolis with a population of
approximately one crore. This figure is used to indicate a
central city area and the developed areas surrounding it. Delhi
lies on the Yamuna River, a tributary of the Ganges (or Ganga),
in north central India. It is about 150 kilometres south of the
Himalayas.
The City: Delhi, including both Old and New Delhi, lies within a roughly three-sided area of land known as
the Delhi Triangle, bounded on two sides by hills of the Aravalli range and on the third side by the
Yamuna. The contrast between Old and New Delhi is striking.
Old Delhi consists of a twisted maze of narrow winding streets cut through by a few broad roads. Living
conditions in Old Delhi are overcrowded and cramped. Many industries are in these heavily populated
residential parts of the city.
The busiest and most colourful street is Chandni Chowk. The name literally means "silver street." But
Chandni Chowk is in fact a wide boulevard measuring 21 metres across and packed with shops and stalls
and multicoloured temples. It was laid out in 1650 on the orders of the Mughal princess, Jahan Ara.
New Delhi was designed by the British architect Sir Edwin Lutyens, assisted by Sir Herbert Baker. It was
laid out 5 kilometres south of Old Delhi on a well-drained site standing slightly above the level of the
surrounding plain. The builders used explosives to blast away the top layer of the land to flatten it and
provide earth to fill in the nearby valleys. The resulting complex is a spacious, attractive, and carefully
planned city, with broad, tree lined avenues and many open areas, parks, gardens, and fountains.
Continue.....

Delhi - Part II
Many of New Delhi's best-known landmarks lie on a line running east to west through the city. The line
starts at the National Stadium. Then it passes through the Children's Park and the War Memorial Arch
along the impressive Raj Path, through Central Vista Park, to Rashtrapati Bhavan (the residence of the
president of India).
A similar line running north-south, known as "Janpath," goes from the main shopping centre, Connaught
Place, to residential suburbs. Several districts retain their own character. The Civil Lines, originally laid out
to house British colonial officials, is now a residential area for well-off Indian government officials. A large
industrial area, Okhla, is on Mathura Marg in the south.

Kotla Mubarakpur has the appearance of a sprawling country village. Chanakyapuri is an area set aside
for foreign embassies. The vast sports complex, built for the 1982 Asian Games, contains a stadium that
seats 30,000 people. Delhi also has India's finest zoo, with rare white tigers.
Delhi contains what are probably the finest monuments in any city in India.
The Qutab Minar, one of the city's most famous sights, is a 5-storey, 72metre tower of red sandstone. It was begun in 1199 as a symbol of Muslim
victory and power and used for hundreds of years by muezzins (mosque
officials) calling the faithful to prayer.
Near the Qutab is one of Delhi's most remarkable sights, a simple pillar, set
up about A.D. 400. It weighs over 6 metric tons, stands more than 7 metres
high and has never rusted. The citadel of Tughluqabad was a major centre
of power for about ten years in the 1300's and has been a wasteland of
ruins ever since. In the beautiful Lodi Gardens is the cemetery of the Lodi kings, who ruled India from
Delhi during the 1400's and were overthrown by the Mughals in 1526.
Shah Jahan's Lal Qila (Red Fort) dates from the 1600's. Its walls of red sandstone enclose elegant halls
and pavilions where the Mughal emperors held lavish ceremonies and gave audience to subjects and
ambassadors. The Jama Masjid is the biggest mosque in all India and was also built by Shah Jahan.

Continue with Delhi's History.....

Delhi History
There is a reference to a settlement called Indraprastha in the great epic poem Mahabharata.
Archaeologists believe that this settlement was located in the Delhi area at the village of Indapat.
Excavations in the Old Fort have revealed that a settlement existed there before 2000 B.C. and that
people lived there continuously until about A.D. 1000. In the 1100's, Prithviraja III of the Chauhan dynasty
made Delhi his capital, only to be displaced by the Muslim conqueror Qutb-ud-Din Aibak. The city was the
first of at least seven to be built in the Delhi Triangle.
Successive Turkish and Afghan dynasties built cities on different sites in the Delhi area between 1193 and
1354. The devastating invasion of Tamerlane in 1389-1398 caused the capital to be shifted to Agra. But
Babur, founder of the Mughal dynasty and empire, shifted the capital back to Delhi in 1526. His son,
Humayun, built another city, which was destroyed in 1540 by the invader Sher Shah.
The Mughal emperor Akbar kept court at Fatehpur Sikri. His successor, Jahangir, was based in Agra. But
in 1638 Shah Jahan commenced the building of the seventh city-Shahjahanabad-now known as Old
Delhi. The city once more became the capital. Later, as Mughal power weakened, Delhi was repeatedly
raided and robbed of its treasures.
The most terrible attack was the invasion of the Persian Nadir Shah in 1739. The British took possession
of the city in 1803 but did not immediately make it their capital. Calcutta, the gateway to the earliest British
conquests, remained the capital of British India.
During the Indian Revolt of 1857, Indian soldiers held Delhi for five months. The British recapture of the
city involved fierce fighting and much destruction. In 1877, the British authorities announced at Delhi the
proclamation of Queen Victoria as empress of India.
In 1911, Delhi was the setting for a glittering spectacle called a durbar, or royal gathering, at which the
562 princes of India met to pay their respects to George V, the only king-emperor ever to visit the country.

The royal visitor chose the occasion to announce that the capital was to move from Calcutta to Delhi. The
formal move took place in 1912. In the same year, work began on planning and building New Delhi to
house the new seat of government.
New Delhi was intended to be the British imperial equivalent of Rome, imposing, and capable of
expanding to something even greater. About 30,000 labourers were needed just to put up the official
buildings and plant 10,000 trees. When India became independent in 1947, New Delhi became its capital.

Lakshadweep
Lakshadweep is the smallest Union Territory of India. It is made up of a group of tiny coral islands, only 10
of which are inhabited. The islands occupy about 32 square kilometres in the Arabian Sea, off the coast of
Kerala, and were formerly known as Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindivi Islands
Territory.
Most of the people rely on agriculture for their living. The women make an elastic
fibre called coir from coconut husks. Coir is used in the manufacture of matting. The
men build and sail boats, and trade on the mainland. They exchange copra and coir
mainly for rice, their principal food.
Most of the islanders belong to various Arabian tribes. The main
language is Malayalam. Some of the original inhabitants were
Muslims, others were Hindus. The people of the island of Androth were perhaps the first
in the area to be converted to Islam. Androth has long been regarded as the religious
centre of the group. Preachers travelled from there to the other islands, spreading the
teachings of Islam.
Lakshadweep was known to Arab explorers and geographers as long ago as A.D. 45. In
the 1500's, Portuguese traders and settlers from the Indian mainland fought over the
islands. In the 1800's, the islands were administered by the British East India Company.
In 1956, the Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindivi groups of islands became a Union Territory of India, and in
1973 the territory was renamed Lakshadweep. The construction of the islands' first airport, on Agatti in
1988, has encouraged tourism.
Tourist Centres: Cheliyam, Suheli, Valiyakara and Tinakara have been identified for International
tourism. There are family huts, beach resorts, bathing huts, honeymoon huts and one youth hostel for
tourists.
Agati near Bangaram was put on the air map in April, 1988 when Vayudut service from the mainland was
inaugurated. An aquarium-cum-museum was opened in Kavaratti by the then President R. Venkatraman
in 1989. Society for promotion of recreational tourism was established for the development of tourism.
On Nov 26, 1990 Lakshadweep Islands Division Post Office was inaugurated. Information and Publicity
departments are working in all the inhabited islands except Bitra. The Government publishes a daily
newspaper in Mahal and a weekly in Malayalam and English.

Pondicherry

Pondicherry is a union territory of southeastern India.The territory consists of four districts that cover 492
square kilometres. The district of Pondicherry includes the port of
Pondicherry, the capital of the territory.
The district of Yanam is on the Coromandel Coast. The district of
Mahe is on the Kerala coast. The fourth district is Karikal. The
French were defeated by the British in the struggle for an Indian
Empire in the early 1800's, but the four districts remained under
French rule. This fact accounts for the scattered nature of the four
districts.
Pondicherry is a well-cultivated, prosperous region, with good links to other parts of southern India.
Visitors enjoy glimpses of French administrative, cultural, and judicial ways of life that have survived from
the period of colonial rule. Alongside its ancient temples and monuments, Pondicherry is renowned for its
Sri Aurobindo Ashram, and Auroville, the international township of humanity.
Most of the people are Hindus. The next largest group is formed by Muslims, except in the district of
Pondicherry, where Christians rank next to Hindus. More than 55 languages are spoken in the territory,
but only five are official. These languages are Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, English, and French.
All the regions enjoy a coastal climate, with hot summers and cool winters. The rainy season lasts from
July to September. Almost half of the people of Pondicherry are engaged in agriculture. The main crops
are cotton, peanuts, rice, and sugar cane. In the district of Mahe, coconuts are abundant.
Tourist Centres: Pondicherry is a living monument of French culture in India. There are over 14,000
French nationals in Pondicherry.
Among the places of interest are the Sri Aorobindo Ashram, Government museum, Bharathi and
Bharathidasn Memorial museum., Government square, Botanical garden, French Institute, Sacred Heart
of Jesus church, Joan of Arc, Manakula Vinayagar temple, Ananda Rangapillai mansion, Auroville and
Boat Club at Chunnambar river. Pondicherry tourism has introduced a package of holiday and adventure
sports.
The part of the Pondicherry Union territory called Karaikal lying in an enclave of Tamil Nadu about 130
Kms south, has got important places such as the Arasalar boat club, Thrunallar Sanishwar temple, and
Karaikal Ammaiyar temple.
Continue with Pondicherry's history.....

Pondicherry History
Near Pondicherry are the remains of a Roman settlement, Arikamedu, which was a centre of trade
between India and Rome in the A.D. 100's and 200's. Pondicherry later became a seat of traditional
learning and Vedic culture.
Its earlier name was Vedapuri, after the worship of Vadapuriswara, the local name of the Hindu god,
Shiva. A temple to the god was built and rebuilt many times. The earliest remains date back to the A.D.
900's. In the 900's and 1000's, the Chola kings built temples round Pondicherry.
In 1673, the French set up a trading centre at Pondicherry. This centre eventually became the chief
French settlement in India. Dutch and British trading companies also wanted trade with India. Wars raged
between these European countries and spilled over into the Indian subcontinent.

The Dutch captured Pondicherry in 1693 but returned it to France by the Treaty of Ryswick in 1699. The
French acquired Mahe in the 1720's, Yanam in 1731, and Karaikal in 1738. During the Anglo-French wars
(1742-1763), Pondicherry changed hands frequently. The British finally returned it to the French in 1814.
When the British gained control of the whole of India in the late 1850's, they allowed the French to retain
their few settlements in the country, including Pondicherry.
By 1946, the people of Pondicherry were demanding independence from France, and several political
parties emerged. When it became known that the British would grant India independence in 1947, the
people of Pondicherry demanded to join free India. After independence, India began negotiations with
France over the Pondicherry merger issue. Finally, on Nov. 1, 1954, a popular government took over the
administration of Pondicherry, making it a union territory of India.

National Insignia
The State Emblem :
The State emblem of India is an adaptation from the Sarnath Lion capital of Ashoka as preserved in the
Sarnath museum. The Indian Government adopted the emblem on 26th January, 1950, the day when
India became a Republic.
In the original of Sarnath Capital, there are four lions, standing back to back, mounted on an abacus with
a frieze carrying sculpture in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull and a lion separated by
intervening wheels (charkas) over a bell shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone,
the capital is crowned by the wheel of the law (dharma chakra).
In the state emblem adopted by the Government, only three lions are visible, fourth
being hidden from view. The wheel appears in relief in the center of the abacus, with
the bull on the right and a horse on the ;left and the outlines of the other wheels on
the extreme right and left. The bell shaped lotus has been omitted. The words,
Satyameva Jayate from the Mundak Upanishads meaning Truth Alone Triumphs, are
inscribed below the abacus in the Devanagari script.
The National Anthem:
Rabindranath Tagore's song Jana Gana Mana was adopted by the Constituent
Assembly as the national anthem of India on the 24th January, 1950. The first stanza
(out of five stanzas) of the song forms the national Anthem. Following is Tagore's
English rendering of the stanza:
Thou art the ruler of the minds of all people,
Dispenser of India's destiny.
Thy name arouses the hearts of the Punjab, Sind, Gujarat and Maratha,
Of the Dravid and Orissa and Bengal.
It echoes in the hills of the Vindhyas and Himalayas, mingles in the music of the Yamuna and the Ganges
and is chanted by the waves of the Indian sea.
They pray for the blessings and sing thy praise.
The saving of all people waits in thy hand,
Thou dispenser of India's destiny,
Victory, victory, victory to thee.
Continue........

National Insignia Continued

National Song:
The song Vande Mataram composed by Bankim Chandra Chatterji has an equal status with Jana Mana
Gana. The song was taken from Bankim's famous novel 'Anand Math'. The phrase "Vande Mataram'
meaning 'I salute thee, O Mother!' became a source of immense inspiration for all Indians during their
fight for Independence from the Imperial British Government.
The National Flag:
The National Flag is of horizontal tri-colour of deep saffron (kesaria) at the top, white in the middle and
dark green at the bottom in equal proportion.
The ratio of the width of the flag to its length is 2:3. In the center of the white band is a wheel, in navy
blue. Its design is that of the wheel (chakra) which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath lion capital of
Ashoka. Its diameter approximate the width of the white band. It has 24 spokes.
The design of the National Flag was adopted by the constituent assembly of India on 22nd July, 1947. Its
use and display are regulated by a code.
National Calendar:
At the time of Independence, the Government of India followed the Gregorian
calendar based on the Christian era. The National Government adopted the
recommendation of the Calendra reform committee that the Saka era be
adopted as the basis of the National Calendar.
The Saka era has the normal 365 days and begins with the Chaitra as its first
month. The days of the Saka calendar has permanent correspondence with
the dates of the Gregorian calendar. Chaitra 1 falling on March 22 in a normal year and on March 21st on
a leap year.
The National Calendar commenced on Chaitra 1 Saka, 1879 corresponding to March 22, 1957 A.D.
The months of the National Calendar, with their days and dates of the Gregorian Calendar corresponding
to the first day of the Saka month are given below
Saka & Gregorian Calendars
1 Chaitra 30/31 days
1 Vaisakha 31
1 Jyaistha 31
1 Asasha 31
1 Sravana 31
1 Bhadra 31
1 Asvina 30
1 Kartika 30
1 Agrahayana 30
1 Pausa 30
1 Magha 30
1 Phalguna 30

National Animal: Tiger.

National Flower: Lotus.
National Bird: Peacock.

Hindu Festivals

March 22/21
April 21
May 22
June 22
July 23
August 23
September 23
October 23
November 22
December 22
January 21
February 20

Hindus hold festivals to honour each of the thousands of Hindu gods and goddesses.
Most of these festivals are local celebrations at the temples and honour specific
divinities. A few festivals are observed by all Hindus, chiefly in their homes and villages.
These festivals, which include Holi and Diwali, combine religious ceremonies with
feasts, fireworks, parades, and other traditional amusements. Holi, the spring festival, is
a boisterous celebration in which people throw coloured water at one another. During
the festival of Diwali, which honours the goddess of wealth and beauty, Hindus decorate
their houses and streets with lights. Hindu festivals are colourful, joyous occasions.
They are celebrated either as private worship at a household shrine or as public
neighbourhood festivals.
Everyone in the neighbourhood takes part in the public festival, but the celebrations at
home are restricted to each family and close friends. Some festivals such as RakshaBandhan, Diwali, Navaratri, Dusserah, and Holi attract large crowds all over India.
Other festivals such as Durga-Puja, Saraswati-Puja, Naga-Panchami, and Ganesha
Puja are more regional in their popularity. Every large temple celebrates the annual
festival of the deity to which it is dedicated. At this time a replica of the main image is
taken in a chariot procession, called ratha-yatra, through the town. The processions at
Jagannath Puri and Udipi are famous for their colourful pageantry.
Navaratri is the Nine Nights festival dedicated to the goddess Shakti. On the eighth
night, Durga-Puja is celebrated as a public festival in Bengal. On the day after Navaratri
is Dusserah, the climax of the Rama-Leela festival in north India. It commemorates the
exploits of Lord Rama, as described in the epic Ramayana. Twenty days after
Dusserah, usually in October or November, comes the festival of Diwali, dedicated to
Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi.
On the Raksha-Bandhan day, in August, women tie a silk thread round the wrists of their
brothers to renew ties of affection. Holi is celebrated towards the end of the Hindu
calendar year, with a bonfire and merry-making. People worship Saraswati in a public
festival in Bengal. In August in western India, Hindus in rural areas worship live snakes
on the day of Naga-Panchami.
In Maharashtra in western India, the Ganesha (or Ganapati) festival is celebrated for ten
days in many towns and cities. A large clay image of the deity is installed in a temporary
pavilion, and puja is offered morning and evening. Recitals of Indian classical music,
folk song contests, and plays are arranged as entertainment. On the last day, images
from the different localities are taken in procession to the local river, and immersed in
the water.
Continue with Holi.....

Holi - the festival of colours

Holi is a festival of colours . Celebrated during the month of March, it is celebrated
round the country with extreme joy and vigor. Like all other festivals of India, it is also
associated with a legend.
The story dates back to the time when the powerful demon king Hiranyakashyap, after
months of worship, got the blessing from Lord Brahma that no man, god, animal would
be able to kill him on the earth or sky; neither during day or night; nor inside or outside
any place and nor with any weapon or hand. Having attained such supernatural power,
Hiranyakashyap began inflicting sufferings on others. People were terrified and they ran
to Lord Vishnu for help.
Meanwhile, Hiranyakashyap's younger wife Kayadhu gave birth to his
son Prahlad who became an ardent Vishnu devotee. Hiranyakashyap
was enraged by his sons activities for he considered Vishnu his cutthroat enemy. Thus, in order to kill Prahlad he took help of his sister
Holika. Holika had a magical piece of cloth which protected the person
wearing it from fire.
Holika forcefully abducted Prahlad and tying the cloth on her head she
walked into the fire along with Prahlad. But suddenly a strong wind
blew and the cloth flew from Holika's head and fell upon Prahlad's . Holika died and
Prahlad was saved. Thus, on the Holi night, Hindus commemorate this event as Holika
Dahan and light bonfire in various places.
People sprinkle coloured water on each other. They visit each others houses and
embrace each other to wish 'Happy holi'. Special Holi songs based mostly on the
legendary Brij Holi between Lord Krishna and Radha are sung. A special sweet dish
known as the 'Gujia' is also quite popular during this occasion. Holi is a festival of unity ,
love and brotherhood. People from all caste, creed and class intermingle with each
other and celebrate this joyous festival together.
Continue with Diwali.....

Diwali - the festival of light

Diwali or Deepawali is a festival of light celebrated during the month of Kartik (October).
It is celebrated to commemorate the return of Lord Rama to his kingdom of Ayodhya,
after an exile of fourteen years, along with Mother Sita, Lord Lakshmana and Lord
Hanuman.
Rama, was the eldest son and heir of the king of Ayodhya, King Dashratha. King
Dashratha had three wives Kaushalya (mother of Rama), Sumitra (mother of

Lakshmana) and Kaikayi (mother of Bharat and Shatrughan). When Rama was about to
be crowned the king of Ayodhya, Rama's stepmother Kaikayi plotted against him and,
as a result, he was exiled. Sita and Lakshmana, Rama's half-brother, went with him.
They all lived together in the forest. After facing series of misadventures and dreadful
events, Rama returned back to his kingdom after fourteen years. The people of Ayodhya
were delighted to have their beloved prince back and they rejoiced this event by lighting
lamps and earthen pots in their houses.
Diwali celebrations are also a mark of honour to Mother Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth
and Lord Ganesha, the god of wisdom and knowledge. It is said that Goddess Lakshmi
pays visit to the houses of people this day. She visits only those places which are clean
and pure. Therefore, people keep their houses absolutely clean and spotless.
With changing times the mode of celebration has changed a bit but the basic essence
has remained the same. On this day, people worship Goddess Laksmi and Lord
Ganesha. They offer sweets and other offerings before them in their houses and
temples. Children burn crackers and enjoy fireworks. The houses are all lit up with
lamps and electric bulbs. Everybody is dressed up in their new clothing and visit each
others places to wish 'Happy Diwali'.
Diwali, like most other Indian festivals is a communal festival. People from all walks of
life join together to celebrate the festival. Though it is primarily considered as a festival
of the Vaishyas (the business class) but it is celebrated by all other communities with
the same vitality. The festival of Diwali also signifies that people should shun down all
the evil feelings from their hearts and light their soul with knowledge and wisdom.
Continue with Dusserah.....

Dusserah - truth alone triumphs

Dusserah is observed round the country to celebrate the victory of Lord Rama over
Ravana, the demon king of Lanka. This festival marks the triumph of truth over
falsehood and self conceit.

Rama was on a fourteen years exile along with his wife Sita and
brother Lakshmana. One day Ravana, in the absence of both
Rama and Lakshamna , disguised as a hermit deceived Sita and
abducted her. When Rama and Lakshmana returned and found
Sita gone, they were determined to rescue her.
During their preparations they made an alliance with Sugriva, the
monkey king. The monkey general, Hanuman (also the 11th
incarnation of Lord Shiva), helped Rama to find Sita and attack
Lanka. In the ensuing battle, Ravana was killed and Sita was
rescued. Dusserah is ever since celebrated to commemorate
Rama's victory over Ravana.
On this day a month while depiction of Rama-lila (a stage show
portraying the story of Ramayana) comes to an end with the climax showing the defeat
and subsequent death of Ravana. People worship Lord Rama, Sita and Lakshamana.
During the evening, effigies of Ravana, his son Meghanath and his brother
Kumbhakarana are burned at public places and people dance about to celebrate the
occasion.
Continue with Other Hindu festivals.....

Navaratri, Raksha Bandhan and Kumbh Mela

Raksha Bandhan
This festival is one of the most pious festivals of the Hindus. This day is devoted to the
devout love between brothers and sisters. On this day sisters tie a silken thread around
their brothers wrist and brothers pledge to protect their sisters from all evils. Then
sisters offer sweets to their brothers, who in turn give them some present.
The Kumbh Mela
Hindus believe that at Allahabad, the Jumna and Ganges meet an invisible river called
the Saraswati. The meeting point is called Triveni, and is especially sacred to the
Hindus. In the mingled waters of these rivers, devout Hindus
come to purify themselves.
Many pilgrims come to Allahabad in the bathing season, the
Hindu month of Magh (mid-January to mid-February). During this
month, a great gathering and fair called Magh Mela takes place
on the sands. Every 12th year, when the waters are felt to be
especially purifying, Allahabad holds a much greater festival
called Kumbh Mela. Many millions of pilgrims attend this festival, coming from all over
India.

Continue with Buddha Purnima.....

Buddha Purnima
Buddhists believe in rebirth, and many tales are told about Gautama's previous births.
There are over 500 of these jataka tales. The tales describe how, through human and
animal forms, Gautama attained the moral perfections needed for a final birth. These
moral perfections are qualities such as generosity, patience,
and loving kindness.
The stories are part of the folklore of India. The birth of
Buddha is celebrated round the country as Buddha Purnima.
This day is marked by a full moon night and Buddhist visit
their temples and lay offerings on Buddhas feet to gain
blessings.
The accounts of Gautama's last birth are set in the upper
Ganges Valley of northern India, in the foothills of the Himalaya. Siddhartha Gautama
was born near the town of Kapilavastu, in what is now Nepal. Gautama was from the
warrior caste in Indian society. His father was Suddhodhana, a local ruler and prince of
the Shakya people. His mother's name was Maya. She is often referred to as
Mahamaya, or Great Maya.
As the stories go, Maya dreamed that a white elephant entered her womb when
Gautama was conceived. White elephants are very rare, so Buddhists take this as a
sign of the child's future greatness. When the time came for her child to be born, Maya
was on her way to her parent's home.
She stopped near Kapilavastu in a grove of trees called the Lumbini grove. This site
now attracts many Buddhist pilgrims. The story describes how Gautama was born,
without pain, from Maya's side. This may have been a way of describing an early
Caesarian section, or an emphasis on the miraculous. Maya died quite soon afterward
and the future Buddha was brought up by his aunt, Prajapati.
Continue with Paryusani and Id........

Paryasuni and Id
Paryusana. The greatest Jain festival, Paryusana, takes place over an 8-10 day period
about the end of August or the beginning of September. It is a time of fasting,
repentance, and universal goodwill. On the last day, Samvatsari, Jains visit friends and
relatives, to seek forgiveness for any harm or injury committed during the previous year.

The other important modern festival for Jains is Mahavira Jayanti, which falls in March
or April and is marked by meetings and processions celebrating Mahavira's birthday.
Id Ramadan, is an Islamic holy month when Muslims may not eat or drink from morning
until night. Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic year. Because the Islamic
calendar is lunar, Ramadan falls at different times of the year. Muslims celebrate
Ramadan as the month during which the prophet Muhammad received the first of the
revelations that make up the Quran, the holy book of Islam.
Fasting during Ramadan is the fourth of the five Pillars of Faith, the chief
religious duties of a Muslim. Muslims fast in obedience to God's command
in the Quran, and to atone for their sins. All Muslims must fast if they have
reached puberty and are of sound mind. Exceptions are made for some
groups, such as the sick, the elderly, pregnant women, and travellers.
Those who are able, however, must make up for the missed fast days at a
later time. A Muslim who deliberately breaks the fast must atone by fasting
for two continuous months or feeding the poor.
Fasting begins at dawn and lasts until sunset. During this time, Muslims cannot take
food or drink, inhale tobacco smoke or perfume, or engage in sexual activity. Believers
may not even swallow their own saliva. The daily fast is broken by a light meal called
the iftar, followed by the evening prayer. The preferred food for the iftar is dates and
water.
Ramadan is also a time for other religious activities. The nights are often devoted to
special prayers and to recitations from the Quran. During the last ten days, some
Muslims seclude themselves in a mosque to give full time to religious contemplation.
The end of Ramadan is celebrated by a three-day Festival of the Breaking of the Fast,
Id al-Fitr.

Religions that evolved in India

About 85 per cent of the Indian people are Hindus, and about 11 per cent are Muslims.
The next largest religious groups, in order of size, are Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, and
Jains. Religion plays a vital role in the Indian way of life. Religious laws of the various
religions govern the people's clothing, food, and marriage. They also strongly influence
the type of occupation among people who strictly follow the laws.
Hinduism is the world's oldest major religion. It has no single founder or head. Hindus
believe that the soul never dies. After the body dies, the soul is reborn in another life
form. This process is repeated until the soul reaches spiritual perfection, or salvation.
Then, the soul enters a higher state of existence from which it never returns. Hindus

follow the principle of ahimsa, noninjury to living creatures. This principle especially
applies to cows, which Hindus believe are sacred animals. As a result, hardly any Hindu
eats beef, and many do not eat any kind of meat.
Hindus worship many divinities (gods and goddesses). The three most important ones
are Brahma, the creator of the universe; Vishnu, its preserver; and Shiva, its destroyer.
Hinduism has a number of sacred writings, such as the Vedas, Upanishads, and
Puranas. They outline how its followers should conduct their lives.
Hindus are divided into thousands of social groups called castes. The castes are
grouped into four main categories. These categories, from the highest to the lowest, are
Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. Each caste has a traditional occupation,
such as priest, artist, or farmer. A Hindu is born into a caste and finds it impossible or
extremely difficult to become a member of a higher caste. Within a community, a
person's social status usually depends on his or her caste.
Education and modern industrial life have weakened many caste barriers. Today,
Hindus of various castes mix freely in factories, offices, and public places. Many Indians
want the caste system to die out. But many castes provide welfare and educational
benefits to their needy members. Castes also help to pass on skills in arts and crafts
from generation to generation.
Sikhism began in about 1500 as a bhakti movement. But it later developed into a
military campaign to combat Islam and preserve Hinduism. Sikhs make up about 2 per
cent of India's population. Most live in the north. They are the country's leading wheat
farmers. Sikhs also form one of the largest groups in the army.
Buddhism ranked as India's chief religion in ancient times. Today, less than 1 per cent
of the people practise Buddhism.
Jainism developed during the 500's B.C. Jains consider all life sacred and eat no meat.
Some Jain priests wear cloths over their mouths to keep from breathing in an insect and
killing it. About half of 1 per cent of all Indians practise Jainism. Most Jains live on the
western coast. Many hold high positions in business and industry.
Continue with Hinduism.....

Hinduism
Hinduism was not founded by a historical personage as a result of some revelation but
grew and evolved from a variety of cults & beliefs, of which some had their foundations
in Vedic religion, and others were popular cults, which became associated with the more
sophisticated religion.
The successful attack of few sects on Vedic sacrifices and beliefs strengthened the
trend of monotheistic thinking in Vedic teaching, which trend had originated in the

philosophy of the Upanishads with its concept of the Absolute or the universal Soul. This
concept also resulted in the idea of the trinity of gods at this time, with Brahma as the
Creator, Vishnu as the Preserver, and Shiva as the god who eventually destroys the
universe when it is evil-ridden.
This concept was associated with the cyclical conception of nature where creation,
preservation, and destruction were seen as the natural order of things. Of the three
gods, Vishnu and Shiva gained a vast following and through ensuing centuries the
Vaishnavas and the Shaivas two main sects of Hinduism, each believing that its God
represented the Absolute.
Brahma created the world, upon which Vishnu, who been sleeping in the Sheer Sagar
(ocean) on the coils of the thousand headed snake (Shesh Naag), awoke. Vishnu took
up residence in the highest of the heavens from where he observes the universe, and at
times when the evil is rampant, he assumes various forms or incarnations and enters
the world of men in order to save them from evil.
He is believed to have manifested himself in nine incarnations so far, the last being that
of the Buddha. The tenth and final incarnation has yet to come and on this occasion he
will come in the form of Kalkin Avataar riding a white horse, which suggests a
connection with the idea of the coming of the Maitreya Buddha in Mahayana Buddhism.
Continue.....

Hinduism : Continued
Shiva evolved from the Vedic god Rudra and the Tamil god Murugan. The worship of Shiva incorporated a
number of fertility cults, such as those of the phallic emblem (lingam), the bull (nandi), etc., and was also
associated with a number of fertility goddesses. The most important form of Shaivite worship, the worship
of the lingam, became current about the beginning of the Christian era.
The belief in a variety of cults at the popular level continued simultaneously with the emergence of these
gods. Animals, trees, mountains, and rivers were held sacred. The cow was regularly worshipped. The
bull and the snake were centres of fertility rites, as were a number of commonly found trees. The two
mountains, Vaikuntha and Kailasha, were sacred being the abodes of Vishnu and Shiva respectively. The
waters of the Ganges, having descended from heaven, were believed to have a purifying effect. Together
with these cults were included myriads of semi-gods and celestial beings of various ranks.
Another characteristic of Hinduism was a gradual shift in emphasis from ritual alone to the view that a
completely personal relationship between God and the devotee was possible. The monotheistic concept
of God, with either Vishnu or Shiva as its manifestation, was gaining strength. The relationship was one
where God could bestow his grace (prasada) on the devotee, and the degree of devotion (bhakti) varied
from person to person.

This idea of personal devotion or bhakti, as it was commonly called, was to become the dynamic force of
later Hinduism. Vedic sacrifices were not entirely rejected : they still provided the ceremonial content of
occasions such as the coronation of kings, but people lost touch with Vedic tradition. The brahmans
appropriated the Vedic texts and in their place people accepted the Epics, the Dharmashastras, and the
Puranas as their religious literature.
Continue with Buddhism.....

Buddhism
Buddhism is one of the major religious and philosophical traditions in the world. It began over 2,000 years
ago in northeast India, with the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha (the founder).
Buddhism spread all over India, and then northward through the Himalaya mountain passes into China,
Tibet, Korea, and Japan.
Southward, it reached Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, and Vietnam. During the 1900's, it spread
to Europe, the United States of America, and Australia. Buddhism has always adapted well to other
cultures, and has developed distinctive forms in different countries. The number of Buddhists in the world
is estimated at well over 300 million.
The three jewels of Buddhism
People become or are counted as Buddhists if they "take refuge" in the Buddha, the dharma (the
teaching), and the sangha (the community). These three refuges are also called the three jewels or
precious things of Buddhism. In the Sanskrit language the word for the three jewels is triratna. At the
beginning of most Buddhist gatherings and on special occasions, people say three times: "I go to the
Buddha for refuge, I go to the dharma for refuge, I go to the sangha for refuge."
The Buddha was the founder of Buddhism. He was a religious teacher who lived in northeast India. Most
scholars think he lived from about 563 to 483 B.C. However, some scholars claim he lived from about 448
to 368 B.C. By his own effort he attained enlightenment (a state of understanding truth) and then taught
others how to do the same. The title Buddha means Enlightened One.
Buddhists follow Buddha by following this path to enlightenment in one of its forms. But Buddhists believe
that taking refuge in the Buddha means more than just following him. It also means that a person has
confidence in the nature of enlightenment, whether it is manifest in one's own life or in other beings.
Continue.....

Buddhism : Continue
Dharma means teaching, especially the teaching of the Buddha and his followers. Dharma also involves
the wider idea of truth, especially the truth about the way things are. This idea is taught in various
summaries, such as the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, the Three Marks of Existence, and
the Twelve-Linked Chain of Dependent Origination.
The sangha is the Buddhist religious community. It consists of four groups of people: laymen, laywomen,
bhikkhus (monks), and bhikkhunis (nuns). These people are called the sons and daughters of the

Buddha. The laypeople support monks and nuns with gifts of food, shelter, and clothing. In return the
monks and nuns give to the laypeople the example of lives lived close to the example of the Buddha.
Monks and nuns also have a special task to preserve and pass on the dharma.
Often the word sangha is used to mean just the monastic community. In most Buddhist countries, monks
are expected to live a life of poverty, meditation, and study. Some Buddhists become monks for life.
Others serve in the sangha for short periods of time. The monks wear special orange or red robes, and
are a common sight in Buddhist countries.
The Four Noble Truths.
The starting point for Buddhists is dukkha, the realization that life is unsatisfactory. This is summarized in
the first of the Four Noble Truths--that all is suffering. Gautama's encounter with old age, sickness, and
death started his quest for enlightenment. He then discovered the teaching that is expressed in the
second Noble Truth - that suffering originates in people's desire, greed, or attachment to things. Greed,
hatred, and ignorance are like three fires which must be blown out.
Buddhism is not, however, pessimistic. Having stated the problem of suffering and its cause, the third
Noble Truth says that suffering can be stopped. The Buddhist greeting "May all beings be happy" is
optimistic. Happiness, in this sense, is a permanent state of peace and calm, which Buddhists say is too
profound to be described. It is usually called nirvana, a Sanskrit word that conveys the image of stopping,
or "blowing out."
What needs to be blown out in this case are the flames of greed, hatred, and ignorance. A Buddhist
believes that trying to describe this state to anyone is as difficult as describing to a fish what it is like to
live on dry land, or describing the colours of the rainbow to someone who is colour-blind.
The fourth Noble Truth is that there is a path to the happiness of nirvana. This path involves morality,
meditation, and wisdom. The eight stages on the path are spelled out in more detail in the Noble Eightfold
Path, which starts with two stages of wisdom, goes on to four essential types of morality, and ends with
two stages of meditation.
Continue.....

Buddhism : Continued
The Noble Eightfold Path.
A person can start anywhere on the Noble Eightfold Path, and progress to different stages at different
times.
The eight stages of the Noble Eightfold Path are:
1. right knowledge and understanding, seeing the world and life as it really is;
2. right intention and thoughts, resisting evil, thinking with kindness and compassion;
3. right speech, saying nothing to hurt others;
4. right action, not harming living things, not taking what is not given, not having harmful sexual
relationships, not taking drugs or drink which cloud the mind;

5. right livelihood, earning a living in a fair and honest way that does not injure others;
6. right effort, using what energy you have in the right way;
7. right mindfulness, being attentive to what is going on inside you and around you;
8. right concentration, applying the mind to meditation and concentrating on what you are doing.
The word right means what is appropriate to help a person progress toward enlightenment.
For a Buddhist, this analysis of the way the world is starts from the experience of dukkha. It develops into
a practical path for leaving dukkha behind. Another possible starting point for Buddhists is also based on
the experience of the Buddha. This is the truth that everything is changing all the time, that all that we
experience here in the world is impermanent (anitya in Sanskrit).
The Buddha saw old age, illness, and death. This experience made him realize that nothing in the world is
permanent. Buddhists believe that a person is a chain of life, a continuity from baby to child, to young
adult, to old adult. Every part of each individual changes physically and mentally in one lifetime. This
realization led the Buddha to teach anatman (not-self). This is the belief that there is no ultimate,
unchanging essence in anyone or anything.
According to anatman, human beings are part of an ever-changing pattern that runs through all life. When
a person no longer grasps after a sense of self, there is no feeling of separateness from others, no fear
for the self, no fear of dying. People become selfless persons. They experience a mental state of loving
kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity (calmness of mind).
Continue.....

Buddhism : Continued
The wheel of life. The Three Marks of Existence are suffering, impermanence and not-self. They are the
distinctive features of what Buddhists call samsara. Samsara is the endless round of birth, change, death,
and rebirth. The changes that occur in one lifetime continue through many lives, in human and animal
forms. These truths are often represented in Buddhist art by a wheel of life. This wheel has at its centre
symbols of greed, hatred, and ignorance.
Next come representations of the different realms in which beings live. On the outside is the TwelveLinked Chain of Dependent Origination. This shows how one thing leads to another, or how one state
comes into existence as result of another. For example, bad habits may depend on ignorance, or desire
may lead to clinging. Two points where the chain can be broken most effectively are at the links that
concern desire and ignorance. Then samsara is transformed into nirvana and the endless round of
suffering is changed into happiness.
The middle way.
The Buddhist way of life is one of moderation. Buddhists believe in the middle way. This is based on the
Buddha's discovery that happiness is found neither in self-indulgence nor extreme self-denial. There is a
strong belief in karma. Karma means deeds, but the teaching of karma is a law of cause and effect.
Karma influences how people behave.

However unfair life seems at any given moment, nothing is ever wasted. The present is the fruit of the
past, and the seed of the future. Thoughts and actions bear fruit in our lives, according to the intentions
behind them, though this is not always obvious to other people.
The five precepts.
The basis of all Buddhist practice is morality. The Buddha recommended certain ways of living as helpful
on the path toward nirvana. Buddhists undertake these as rules of training, and follow five precepts as a
part of their daily lives. These are listed under right speech and right action in the Eightfold Path.
At many Buddhist ceremonies and meetings, people recite the three refuges and five precepts. Members
of the monastic sangha undertake a further five precepts, making ten in all. They undertake rules of
training to refrain from:

1.

harming any living thing;

2.

taking what is not given;

3.

misuse of the senses, such as unchastity;

4.

wrong speech;

5.

taking drugs or drink which cloud the mind;

6.

taking food at unseasonable times, such as after midday;

7.

dancing, music, singing, and unseemly shows;

8.

the use of garlands, perfumes, unguents, and things that tend to beautify and adorn the person;

9.

using high and luxurious seats and beds;

10.

accepting gold or silver.

Members of the monastic sangha add to these ten rules another 227 rules of life. These rules are
intended to make their community life work as it should.
Continue.....

Buddhism : Continued
Buddhist images.
Buddhists have images of Gautama and other Buddhas in their homes and temples, as a reminder of
these teachers' lives and teachings. They show their respect by making offerings such as flowers,
incense, and light in front of the image. These offerings remind Buddhists of impermanence (the delicacy
and fragility of flowers), the way in which the dharma can penetrate the whole world (like incense
pervading the air), and the illumination of the Buddha's life and teaching in the world (a lighted candle).

Meditation.
Buddhists meditate in ways that are appropriate to their character and stage along the path. The aim of
Buddhist meditation is to understand the truth about the way things are. Different Buddhist groups use
slightly different methods, but all emphasize that it is important for a person to have a meditation teacher.
One important kind of meditation is samatha, or calming, which relaxes and calms the mind. It may also
depend on the body being relaxed, which is why Buddhists often meditate sitting in a lotus posture.
Another kind of meditation, which is possible once the mind is calm, develops clear insight into inner
thoughts and emotions. This is called vipassana, which means insight or clarity. There is also an
emphasis on mindfulness, a total awareness of the present moment, with no distractions. The aim is to be
totally alert at all times and in all activities, not just in a quiet room during a meditation session. Another
meditation emphasizes loving kindness, or metta, first of all in a person's own heart, and then flowing
outward toward the whole world.
Pilgrimage.
Buddhists go on pilgrimages to sites associated with Gautama Buddha, such as Bodh Gaya in Bihar,
India, the place where he became enlightened. They also visit living Buddhist teachers such as the Dalai
Lama.
Festivals.
Buddhists celebrate festivals linked with the Buddha's life, or with some great event in Buddhist history.
Perhaps the most famous Buddhist festival is Wesak, or Vesakha-puja. In Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand
this is an important annual festival during April and May. It celebrates the birth, enlightenment, and death
of Gautama Buddha. Its name is taken from the name of the Sri Lankan month in which it takes place.
Continue.....

Buddhism : Continued
Buddhist schools of philosophy
There are two main schools of Buddhism, the Theravada and the Mahayana. Theravada Buddhism. The
word Theravada in the Pali language means the way or vehicle (vada) of the elders (thera). It is the only
surviving school of pre-Mahayana, or old Buddhism. Theravada is sometimes called southern Buddhism,
because it was traditionally found in southern Asian countries such as Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Burma.
It is also known as Pali Buddhism, because its scriptures, or holy writings, are in the Pali language. These
sacred writing are called the Pali Canon or Tripitaka. Tri means three and pitaka means baskets. There
are three parts to the scriptures. The scriptures were written sometime between 100 B.C. and 1 B.C. They
were written on palm leaves and stored in baskets.
The Tripitaka.
The first part of the Tripitaka is the Vinaya Pitaka, or Basket of Discipline. This a collection of the rules of
discipline for monks and nuns. The second part is the Sutra Pitaka, or Basket of Discourses, the
collection of the sayings of Gautama Buddha. The third part is the Abhidharma Pitaka, or Basket of the
Higher Dharma, the collection of further, more systematic, teachings.
Theravada Buddhists believe that the material in these scriptures originated with Gautama himself, and
was preserved very accurately in an oral (spoken) form for many years before it was written in the Pali
language. They believe that Pali is the language most like that which the Buddha himself spoke. In fact,
they often say that it was the language of the Buddha. Theravada Buddhists believe that Gautama

Buddha was only a human being, whose example and teachings help his followers become enlightened.
They emphasize his teaching that: "You yourself must make the effort. The Buddhas are only teachers."
Theravada society.
There are two main groups in traditional Theravada society. These are the monks and the laypeople.
There were once Theravada nuns, but they died out and are now being reestablished in Western
countries. These monks and the laypeople are religiously dependent on one another. The laypeople earn
merits, which will help them toward a better rebirth, by offering food, shelter, and clothes to the monks,
listening to the dharma, and trying to follow the five precepts.
The most important virtue for lay Buddhists is generosity. The great example for lay Buddhists is the
Indian emperor Asoka, who allowed the dharma to be taught and followed throughout his Indian empire in
the 200's B.C.. Although Theravada Buddhists are taught that laypeople can become enlightened, they
think that it is unlikely. Monks and nuns are much closer to nirvana because they are free from the
practical responsibilities of lay life, and can spend their time meditating, studying religious texts, and
teaching others.
Continue.....

Buddhism : Continued
Mahayana Buddhism.
Mahayana means great vehicle. Mahayana Buddhism is sometimes called northern Buddhism because it
was traditionally found in northern Asia, in countries such as Tibet, China, Korea, and Japan. It is also
called Sanskrit Buddhism because its key texts were originally in the Sanskrit language. These writings
are now usually in local languages, such as Tibetan or Japanese.
The key texts that Mahayana Buddhists use, in addition to their own versions of the Tripitaka, are the
Prajnaparamita (perfection of wisdom); the Lotus Sutra (true doctrine); the Vimalakirti (the name of a
person); and the Sukhavati (land of purity or happiness). These texts date from between 100 B.C. and
A.D. 200. Mahayana Buddhists believe these are the Buddha's teachings regardless of whether or not
they originated during the lifetime of the historical Buddha.
Scholars have argued about the origins of the Mahayana traditions. In the centuries after Gautama's
death, some monks claimed they could offer more possibility of enlightenment than others, whom they
called the Hinayana (little vehicle). This was the term they used for those who followed the way modern
Buddhists call Theravada. These monks saw themselves as representing Mahayana. They emphasize
certain important ideas, which they think are also taught in the Pali Canon.
Cosmic Buddhas and bodhisattvas.
Accordingly to Mahayana Buddhists, people do not have to rely on their own efforts to become
enlightened. Nor do they have to become monks and nuns. They can be helped toward nirvana by cosmic
Buddhas (Buddhas from other worlds), and bodhisattvas. A bodhisattva is a person who strives to
become a Buddha by leading a life of virtue and wisdom.
A bodhisattva vows that he or she will take all beings to nirvana with them. He or she may even postpone
attaining nirvana in order to relieve suffering through acts of love and compassion. The bodhisattva
Avalokiteshvara is particularly compassionate toward all beings. The ideal in Mahayana Buddhism is to
be a bodhisattva, and care more about the enlightenment of others than about your own. Faith in a
cosmic Buddha like Amitabha can help people to become reborn in the cosmic Buddha's pure land. From
there, the cosmic Buddha will assist them to nirvana.

Bodhisattvas and cosmic Buddhas teach in many different contexts and to people of all levels of ability.
Mahayana Buddhists use many kinds of practices, from the use of mantras (sacred formulas repeated
frequently) to koans (puzzling sayings or riddles which startle people into reflection).
Continue.....

Buddhism : Continued
Other schools of Buddhism.
There are many different schools in the Mahayana tradition. One of the best-known is Zen. Zen is the
Japanese form of ch'an, a Chinese word meaning meditation. The Zen schools of Buddhism originated in
China, but are now very strong in Japan and in Western countries.
Zen Buddhists believe that everyday activities are right material for meditation. This is seen particularly in
the Zen emphasis on the religious use of gardens, flower arrangements, calligraphy, and archery.
Zen also emphasizes a close relationship between a teacher, or master, and his followers. Followers of
the Pure Land school repeat the name of Amitabha (Amida in Japanese) with faith. They believe that their
subsequent rebirth in his pure land will enable them to attain nirvana because his teaching is so good.
Tibetan Buddhism developed alongside many of the north Indian religious traditions known as the tantra.
The tantra is a secret set of teachings linked closely to a guru, a spiritual leader or teacher. In the Tibetan
tradition, there are three types, or levels, of Buddhist practice.
The Hinayana is based on morality and self-sufficiency. The Mahayana emphasizes the bodhisattva vow
to help all other beings to attain enlightenment out of compassion. The Vajrayana, like the tantra, puts
great emphasis in a living lama, or guru, a teacher who can lead a person through the quickest way to
enlightenment.
Continue with Jainism........

Jainism
Jainism is an ancient religious and philosophical tradition of India. Jains are the sixth largest religious
community of India. There are more than three million Indian Jains. As a wealthy religious community,
Jains have had a powerful influence on the life and history of the Indian subcontinent. There are also
communities of Jains in East Africa (mainly Kenya), Europe (mainly England), and the United States and
Canada.
The Jain religion takes its name from the Jina (meaning victor or conqueror), a title given to 24 great
teachers called Tirthankaras (ford-makers). These teachers demonstrated and taught the Jain path of
purity and peace which leads to the highest spiritual liberation. Jainism may have begun in the Indus
Valley civilization around 3000 B.C. Little is known about the first 22 teachers. The last two, Parsva (about
877-777 B.C.) and Mahavira (about 599-527 B.C.), lived and taught in northeastern India. They gained
considerable followings.
Mahavira ("Great Hero"), the last of these great teachers, lived at the same time as the Buddha. Like
Buddha, Mahavira rejected the two Hindu notions of the social system of caste (divisions in the Hindu
social system) and the rituals of sacrifice. He was a prince, but left his home at the age of 30 to become

an ascetic (a religious person who practises self-denial). He plucked out his hair, discarded his clothes,
and wandered for 12.5 years, fasting and practising severe penances in his search for truth.
At the age of 42 he attained enlightenment (a state of divine experience, or understanding ultimate truth).
For the next 30 years he travelled across northern India, teaching an austerely ascetic path to purity and
peace. The Kalpa Sultra, a Jain book that records the lives of the teachers, records that he died at Pava
(modern Bihar) at the age of 72. He left more than 500,000 followers, including 50,000 monks and nuns.
Continue........

Jainism : Continued
Sects and teaching.
Two major sects, or groups, developed within Jainism after the death of Mahavira. The Digambara
(atmosphere-clad, or naked) and the Svetambara (white-clad) split about 360 B.C. A severe famine
caused one group of Jain ascetics to migrate south. When these naked southern Jains returned north, the
northern monks had begun to wear a piece of cloth over their genitals. A dispute followed, and the division
was fixed by A.D. 79 or 82. Today most Jains in southern India follow the Digambara sects, while most in
the north follow Svetambara sects.
Jains believe that all human beings, animals, insects, plants, and even earth, stones, fire, water, and air
have living souls (jiva). Jains believe that the soul in its pure state is omniscient (all-knowing). Through
contact with matter (ajiva) in this world, the soul becomes polluted and weighed down. Jains think of
karma as fine "atomic particles" which cling to the soul (see KARMA). Deeds of violence, greed,
selfishness, dishonesty, sexual misconduct, and covetousness obscure the soul. Acts of gentleness and
penance lighten and liberate it.
Monks and nuns represent the ideal of Jainism. Monks own no property except a broom, simple robes,
bowls for food, and walking sticks. They may not live in buildings except for brief periods, and they must
beg for all their food. They perform severe penances to "burn out" the karmic matter weighing down the
soul. They believe this lightens and frees the soul, so that it can rise to a state of perfect peace and purity.
To attain this state, Jains must pursue the "three jewels" of Right Faith, Right Knowledge, and Right
Conduct. At the heart of Right Conduct for all Jains lie five vows. These are ahimsa, non-violence or noninjury; satya, speaking the truth; asteya, not taking anything which has not been given; brahmacharya,
chastity; and aparigraha, nonpossession or detachment from people, places, and things.
Continue........

Jainism : Continued
Other members of the Jain community are the laity (people who are not monks or nuns). They assist the
monks and nuns to live out their vows perfectly. Lay Jains can undertake business and other activities,
while attempting to fulfil their religious vows as best they can.
Jains vow not to kill any living creature. Monks and nuns carry brooms to sweep all surfaces to avoid
crushing insects accidentally. The vow of ahimsa, or non-violence, has always been important to Jains.
They keep to a vegetarian diet, and only do work which avoids any form of killing. Ahimsa for Jains
requires positive acts of kindness, compassion, and charity. In India Jains use their wealth to set up and
run hospitals and clinics for both humans and animals. They also establish schools and colleges,
resthouses, and almshouses for people of all castes and creeds.

Wealthy Jains have made major contributions to education and the arts in India. Jain temples are among
some of the most beautiful in India. These temples are often the focus of pilgrimages, particularly in the
states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka in western India.
Fasting until death.
Jains have an unusual attitude to death. A devout Jain who feels ready for death takes the vow of
sallekhana. Supervised by monks and nuns, he or she meets death through a controlled process of
fasting.
Continue with Sikhism.........

Sikhism
Sikhism is one of the religions of India. Its believers call themselves Sikhs, which means
disciples. Sikhs follow the teachings of 10 gurus (spiritual teachers). The Sikh holy
book, the Guru Granth Sahib (Revered Book), or Adi Granth (First Book), includes the
teachings of the first five gurus and the ninth guru and other non-Sikh holymen. About
16 million Sikhs live in India, the majority of them in the northern state of Punjab.
Communities of Sikhs also live in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada,
Malaysia, Singapore, and East Africa.
The first Sikh guru, Nanak, was born into a Hindu family in 1469 and came into contact
with Muslims in his early life. When he was 30 years old, Nanak had a vision of God,
who gave him nectar to drink, told him he was blessed, and instructed him to teach
others to rejoice in God's name. Nanak preached that there is one God who is the
invisible creator and present everywhere. God does not have physical attributes, is
beyond human comprehension, and has never been incarnated on earth.
Nanak criticized Hindu and Muslim religious practices that he said emphasized outer
forms of prayer and ritual over inner spiritual awakening. He also challenged the Hindu
caste system. Nanak did not, however, entirely dismiss other religions, and writings by
Hindus and Muslims are included in the Guru Granth Sahib.
Nanak taught that while rituals are unnecessary, right conduct is essential. He instructed
his followers to be aware of God's presence by rising early, bathing, meditating on the
divine name, and directing each day's activities to God. By doing this, and by living a
good and simple life, people could free themselves from the cycle of reincarnation.
According to the Sikh belief in karma, a person's actions determine whether the soul will
enter the next life as a plant, animal, or human being. Only someone who reaches a
higher state of spiritual development by conquering the idea of separateness from God,
ceasing to be worldly-minded, and becoming aware of the inner presence of God, can
be free from experiencing further earthly lives.
Continue.....

Sikhism : Continued
In 1526, Muslims from what is now Afghanistan conquered northern India. The Muslims
founded the Mughal Empire. By the time of the 10th guru, Gobind Singh, the Sikhs had
to defend themselves from Muslim persecution. In 1699, Gobind Singh organized his
followers into a military order called the Khalsa (Pure).
Sikh men and women were initiated into the Khalsa by sharing a drink of sweetened
water called amrit (nectar), a symbol of loyalty to the guru and hope for a higher spiritual
existence. Men took the name Singh (lion) and women the name Kaur (princess).
Initiates wore the "five K's"--kesh (uncut hair), kangha (comb), kirpan (dagger or short
sword), kara (steel wrist band), and kachh (breeches worn by soldiers). The ideal of the
true Sikh became the "saint-soldier" of the Khalsa who combines the virtues taught by
Nanak and Gobind Singh.
Before the 10th guru died, he indicated that the holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib, was
to become his successor. Consequently, the Guru Granth Sahib is revered by Sikhs and
readings from it form a central part of acts of worship in the gurdwara (temple or home
of the guru). Devout Sikhs read or listen to hymns from the Guru Granth Sahib and
other scriptures at home or at the gurdwara every morning and evening.
Sikhs do not have a weekly holy day. A gurdwara may be ornate or plain and includes a
hostel and a place for serving meals to the community and guests. Sikhism forbids
representation of God in pictures and the worship of idols. There should be no
distinction between social class or caste in the gurdwara and Sikhism has no priesthood
or ordained ministry. Many gurdwaras pay a salary to a granthi to carry out such
activities as reading from the scriptures and performing marriage ceremonies, but the
role is purely functional.
Music plays an important part in worship at the gurdwara, where musicians sing hymns
accompanied by a drum, a harmonium, and other instruments. The Sikh religion forbids
alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs. Men wear a distinctive turban, to keep their long hair
clean and tidy, and as a symbol of Sikh identity.
In the early 1800's, the Sikh ruler Ranjit Singh established a Sikh kingdom in northern
India. In 1849, the kingdom was conquered by the British, who controlled much of India.
When India and Pakistan became independent nations in 1947, almost half the Sikhs
lived in the area that became Pakistan. Many Sikhs emigrated to India.
By the 1960's, the Sikh community was playing a leading role in India's agriculture,
business and professional work, and military life. In 1966, India made the state of
Punjab smaller, leaving the Sikhs in the majority. Anandpur, where the Khalsa was
founded, and the holy city of Amritsar lie in Punjab.

Personalities

Brazen Facts about Personalitie

Ajatshatru's guilt
Ajatashatru, was filled with immense talent and ambition yet was unable to fulfill them as he was not able
to succeed his father. Impatient Ajatashatru decided to murder his father Bimbisara. He bribed the
housekeeper to put some poison in his fathers meal.
His father died as a result of the poison, but as fate had it the same day Ajatashatru was blessed with a
son. On seeing his son Ajatashatru realized what a big mistake he has committed by murdering his father.
His guilt is supposed to have guided him through his whole reign in making him fulfill his father's wishes of
seeing a powerful Magadha.

Ashoka's name
In 1837, James Princep deciphered an inscription written in the earliest known Indian script, Brahmi. This
inscription referred to a king called Devanamapiya Piyadassi (the beloved of gods, Piyadassi). The
mysterious king Piyadassi remained a puzzle, since the name did not tally with any mentioned in the
sources.
Some years later the Buddhist chronicles of Ceylon were examined and were found to refer to a great and
benevolent Mauryan king as Piyadassi. Slowly the clues were put together and seemed to make sense,
but the final confirmation came in 1915 with the discovery of another inscription in which the author calls
himself King Ashoka, Piyadassi. It was evident that Piyadassi was a second name used by Ashoka.
Continue.....

Ashoka's empire
Tradition asserts that Kashmir was included in the Mauryan empire and that Ashoka built the city of
Shrinagar. Khotan in Central Asia was also supposed to have come under Mauryan sway.
The Mauryans had close connections with the area of modern Nepal, since the foothills were within the
empire. One of Ashoka's daughters is said to have married a nobleman from Nepal. On the east was the
province of Vanga (part of modern Bengal), the Ganges delta region.
The main port on the delta, Tamralipti, gave Vanga its importance, since ships heading for the Burma
coast and south India began the voyage at Tamralipti. Tamralipti is supposed to have existed somewhere
near the modern day Diamond Harbour.
The extent and influence of Mauryan power in south India can be gauged from the location of Ashoka's
inscriptions in the south, which are not found beyond Mysore. Ashoka mentions the people of the south
with whom he was on friendly terms - the Cholas, Pandyas, Satiyaputras and Keralaputras.
Continue.......

Ashoka's empire

Tradition asserts that Kashmir was included in the Mauryan empire and that Ashoka built the city of
Shrinagar. Khotan in Central Asia was also supposed to have come under Mauryan sway.
The Mauryans had close connections with the area of modern Nepal, since the foothills were within the
empire. One of Ashoka's daughters is said to have married a nobleman from Nepal. On the east was the
province of Vanga (part of modern Bengal), the Ganges delta region.
The main port on the delta, Tamralipti, gave Vanga its importance, since ships heading for the Burma
coast and south India began the voyage at Tamralipti. Tamralpti is supposed to have existed somewhere
near the modern day Diamond Harbour.
The extent and influence of Mauryan power in south India can be gauged from the location of Ashoka's
inscriptions in the south, which are not found beyond Mysore. Ashoka mentions the people of the south
with whom he was on friendly terms - the Cholas, Pandyas, Satiyaputras and Keralaputras.
Continue.......

Relations with Ceylon

Mauryan relations with Ceylon were extremely close and the Chronicles of Ceylon have much to say
about the Mauryas. Not only did Ashoka's son Mahinda go as a Buddhist missionary to Ceylon, but the
then king of Ceylon, Tissa, appears to have modelled himself on Ashoka.
There were frequent exchanges of gifts and envoys. The Indian emperor sent a branch of the original
Pipal tree under which Buddha had received enlightenment, which it is claimed still survives in Ceylon,
although the parent tree in India was cut down in later centuries by an anti-Buddhist fanatic

Illtutmish's adventure
During the reign of Illtutmish over the Delhi Sultanate his son went on a mission to capture the Awadh
region. The mission proved to be very devastating for the Muslim rulers of Delhi.
More than 1 Lakh or 0.1 Million Muslims were massacred by the tribes of Awadh. This massacre of
Muslims was more than that in Tarain where in the first battle Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Mohammed
Ghori of Afghanistan.
Jawaharlal Nehru
According to Pamela, daughter of Lady Edwina Mountbatten and Lord Mountbatten, Edwina could do
anything for Nehru and all her sympathies lay with him and his people.
Pamela further says that her mother's involvement with Nehru sometimes made life difficult for her father
as she would often ask him to do something for the Indians which he knew he could not do without
upsetting the other side. This resulted in fearfull rows between them.
On the other hand, because Edwina identified so closely with the Indians, she was able to tell her
husband what their true feelings were about specific subjects and this proved invaluable to Mountbatten
in his negotiation.

Jesus's visit to India

Some historians believe that Jesus had visited India in his lifetime. They point out to the fact that many of
the teachings which Jesus preached was already prevalent in India. They also point out that the art of
healing the blind giving life to the dead was a well practiced fraternity in the Indian medical arena.
This theory is entirely not impossible as during the time of Jesus's birth good trading relationship existed
between India and the Hellenic world as such exchanges of intellectuals and artisans between the two
cultures were quite common.
The theory further states that Jesus visited India and lived here as a disciple of a Brahman for few years.
Here he learned various art forms including those of medicine's as well as the Sanjeevani Vidya, which is
the art of giving back life to the dead, which was known in the Indian medical arena.
Later on he used his knowledge, which he had gained from India, to preach his sermons in the Hellenic
world. The theory further states that Jesus again came back to India and settled down in Kashmir where
he breathed his last.
They point out to a grave in Jammu & Kashmir few kilometers from Srinagar, which is highly revered by
the locals and has inscriptions in Hebrew.

Kautilya's Honesty
There is a interesting account in Megasthenes Indica about Chanakya (Kautilya). One day when
Megasthenes visited Chanakya in his home he found him sitting besides a earthen lamp in a, otherwise,
dark room and doing some work. As he approached, Chanakya asked him to sit down in the couch near
him. After sometime when Chanakya had completed his job he blew off the lamp and lit another one
which was more dimmer than the previous one.
Puzzled Megasthenes asked Chanakya why he did so, to which he replied that since at the time of his
entry into the room he was doing some official work under the lamp whose oil was being financed by the
state. But now he is talking to him which is not a official work as such he blew off the lamp and lit his own
personal one.
Well I hope our leaders too could follow his footsteps and give us an honest administration.
Continue.........

Kautilya's Search
There are many interesting stories about how Kautilya found Chandragupta Maurya. One of them is that
one day while roaming the streets of Pataliputra's suburbs, Kautilya saw few boys playing in a nearby
park.
These boys were trying to enact a royal court room environment. One of them was adamant on playing
the role of the king. Kautilya stood there watching those boys play. After sometime the boy sitting as the
king delivered strange decisions regarding various mock court room cases.
Kautilya was highly impressed he immediately went to his house and impressed upon his poverty stricken
mother to send the boy with him to Taxila to study further. Later on the boy grew up to become
Chandragupta Maurya, the first emperor of India.

Election of King Gopala

Little is known of the early Palas of Bengal until the reign of Gopala in the eighth century. Gopala attained
renown from the fact that he was not the hereditary king but was elected. The details of the election are
unfortunately not known, it being merely said that Gopala was chosen king to avoid a state of anarchy in
the land.
There is some reference about Gopala in Buddhist monk Taranatha's book. Taranatha, writing a history of
Tibet in the sixteenth century, has referred to this event. He states that Bengal was without a king and
suffered accordingly. The local leaders gathered together and elected a king, but on each occasion a
demoness killed him on the night following his election.
Finally, Gopala was elected and he was given a club by the goddess Chandi (one of the names of the
consort of Shiva) with which to protect himself, and he killed the demoness with this club and survived.
The story suggests that Gopala was elected because of his ability as a leader and protector, and in all
likelihood he was a follower of a Chandi cult.

Mother Awadh
After the takeover of Awadh by the British India Administration, the mother of Vajid Ali Shah, the deposed
Nawab of Awadh, along with the cohorts went straight to London, in order to plead her son's case before
Queen Victoria of Britain.
Inspite of the fact that how hazardous were the journey's to Britain in those days she undertook one and
reached Britain. She also went to the court of Queen Victoria and presented her case. But did not receive
any thing from her except her cold assurance.
Later on, on her way back she died and was buried at Paris, France. Where till date exists her memorial.
Raja Rammohan Roy - an ideal femininst?
Rammohan Roy's (1772-1833) name is usually listed first among those of nineteenth century reformers
concerned with improving women's status. Historians have called him "Champion of Women's right" and a
feminist. But his personal relationships with women was far from ideal.
He was married three times, at age nine, ten, and twenty-one years. His first wife died soon after the
marriage, another died in 1826 and one outlived him. There is no evidence that he looked to his wife for
companionship; in fact, there were rumors that his adopted son, Rajaram, was the child of his Muslim
mistress.
After death of his father he argued with his mother and left home with his wife & children. His mother
Tarini devi encouraged a nephew to challenge Rammohan's right to ancestral property, the matter went to
the court. The suit began in 1817. Among the court records is an unused document showing that
Rammohan was prepared to argue that his mother hated him, desired his worldly ruin, and would even
"Welcome his death".
Rammohan had developed a set of questions to be asked of his mother if she were called as a witness.
He planned to ask if she was so angry at him for refusing to worship her idols that she would lie under
oath to destroy him. Rammohan admitted that he admired his mother's strength & independence yet was
publicly willing to humiliate her. Examined from this perspective Rammohan Roy seems less than a ideal
champion of women rights.
Unfortunately Tarini Devi left no record of her side of the story. Was her quarrel with her son over religion?
Or property? Or was she simply a cantankerous old woman who would not tolerate her son's
disobedience? She died in 1822.

Rassundari Devi
Rassundari Devi (c 1809-?), a Bengali Woman, wrote a story of her life, Amar Jiban ("My Life"), that was
published in 1876. This detailed memoir revolves around her day to day experiences as a housewife and
mother. Obsessed with a desire to read, she stole a page from a book and a sheet of paper from her son
and kept them hidden in the kitchen where she furtively pursued her education.
This is the first autobiography written in Bengali and it is rich in details of the period when reformers were
attempting to change the lives of woman. When Rassundari Devi was finally able to write about her own
struggle to master simple reading, she commented!". These days parents of a single girl take so much
care to educate her. But we had to struggle so much just for that".

Samudra Gupta
Samudra Gupta who is often referred to as the Napolean of India, was a well built and a strong man. His
strength was such that while carrying two persons of normal built over his shoulders at a time he could
climb up the walls of forts.
Not only that, he was a highly skillful sword fighter and regarded as the best of his time. Apart from his
skills on muscle power and sword fighting he was a fine Veena (lute) player, he is highly regarded for his
mastery of Veena. Although, due to his Napoleanic image he is often seen as a conqueror yet he was
highly appreciative of art & culture.
Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose
Soon after the sudden disappearance of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose - in a plane crash in Taihoku,
Japan - a mysterious woman claiming her name to be Emily Schenkel appeared. She claimed to be a
citizen of Switzerland and said that she was married to Bose and had a daughter from him, whom she
named as Anita.
The whole nation was shocked nobody had imagined such a thing, a blatant character assassination of a
leader who was revered as a God by many. Nobody was ready to accept the words of a foreigner. Almost
everybody dismissed the incident as a fraud. But the real shock was still to come.
Soon, Netaji's own paternal family accepted the claim of the lady and accepted her as their 'Bahu'. They
produced some letters from Bose himself, written from Europe, which saw Bose mentioning about the
above marriage. The whole nation was shocked. Some of Subhash's ardent followers were not ready to
accept the claim, and protested against the Bose family's decision, claiming the authenticity of those
letters. No solution came out of the imbroglio.
Still a cloud of mystery hovers over the whole incident. Eyebrows are raised and questions are put up. If
Bose married the lady during his European then why did he not mention it to others? Why was she hiding
for so long? Why did she had to appear after the disappearance of Subhash, why not before it?
Still these questions keep on haunting Bose's ardent followers. They feel the whole incident had been
cooked up by anti-Bose forces working in India to defame Bose. Whatever may be the truth behind the
whole incident. One thing is clear enough, Bose still continues to be one of the most mysterious person in
modern Indian history.

Surya Devi and Parmal Devi

An interesting story followed after the Qasim's victory over Dahir, which resulted in the death of Qasim. It
is said that when the Caliph Walid sent for Suryadevi and Parmaldevi, he selected the elder for sharing
his bed but the damsel protested that she was unworthy as Mohammed bin Qasim had dishonored both
her and her sister before sending them to his master.
Walid, thus enraged, wrote with his own hands and ordered directing that the offender, wherever he might
be when the message reached him, should suffer himself to be sewn up in a raw hide and thus
dispatched to the capital. When the order reached Qasim, he obeyed it at once. He caused himself to be
sewn up in the hide, the contraction of which as it dried would crush him to death, enclosed in a box and
sent to Damascus.
The box was opened in the presence of the Caliph and Suryadevi, and Walid pointed to the corpse as
evidence of the obedience which he was able to extract from his servants. Suryadevi having achieved her
ends confessed that her accusation was false and she was merely avenging her fathers death. Walid
condemned both sisters to a horrible death. They were dragged through the streets of Damascus until
they expired.

Wealthy Merchant of the Gupta era (Saddalaputta)

Artisans of no matter what craft constituted a guild and most crafts had their guild as they offered great
advantages. Leading guilds were those of potters, metal workers and carpenters. Their size can be
gauged by the fact that even at an earlier period one wealthy potter named Saddalaputta had owned five
hundred potters workshops. In addition, he had organized his own distribution and owned a large number
of boats which took the pottery from the workshops to the various ports on the Ganges.

Exciting Facts
Bodhi Tree
Bo tree is the sacred tree of India. It is also called the Bodhi tree. Bodhi is a Sanskrit word meaning
enlightenment, and the tree is called the tree of enlightenment or wisdom. Buddhists believe Buddha was
under a Bo tree when heavenly light gave him the ideas for his religion. The Bo tree is one of the fig trees.
It grows 30 metres high, with great spreading branches and large leaves. Scientific Classification. The Bo
tree is in the mulberry family, Moraceae. It is Ficus religiosa.

Coins
Coins have preserved the names and titles of kings who have left no other record; and by their aid it is
sometimes possible to reconstruct the dynastic lists and to determine the chronology and the
geographical extent of the ruling powers.
But it is only when coin legends appear as the result of Greek-influence in the north-west India that this
source of history becomes available. The earliest indigenous coinage was little more than a system of
weights of silver or copper stamped with the weight of monetary authorities.
The first Indian king whose name occurs on a coin is Saubhuti (Sophytes in Greek), a contemporary of
Alexander the Great. The legend of his coins is in Greek. After his date no inscribed coins are found for
more than a hundred years.

Cultural impact of India

Owing to the trade between India and western Asia, there was much cultural contact with Afghanistan was
regarded politically and culturally as a part of north-western India.
Central Asia had also been opened to trade with roads traversing the oases and valleys of central Asia,
one of these routes was later to become famous as the old silk route.
Indian traders were establishing trading centers and merchant colonies in places such as Kashgar,
Yarkand, Khotan, Miran, Kuchi, Qara-shahr and Turfan, remote regions which were soon to become
opened up not only by Indian merchants but also by Buddhist missionaries.
As a result of this activity in Central Asia communication with China improved. The Kushana were in a
sense a link between India and China and Buddhist missionary activities made the connections even
closer.

Devadasis
Devadasis (female slaves of the God) commonly found in the most temples in Chola times. They were in
origin a special and venerated group of women attendants some of whom, like the Vestal virgins of Rome,
were dedicated to the temple at birth or when quiet young.
The more talented among them were selected for the extremely difficult training of becoming a
Bharatnatyam dancer. But the system was abused, eventually in many temples the Devadasis
degenerated into shamefully exploited prostitutes, their earnings being collected by the temple
authorities.

Did You Know?

1. Who was the first to prove that the earth is round? Probably Galileo or Magellan. No! The
Hindus had long before recognized that the earth is round. The Indian word for Geography is
'Bhugol' which means 'Earth is round' (bhu- earth gol-round) and this word has been in use for
more than 5000 years in India.
Thus, it is quite evident that it was the Indians who discovered first that the earth is round. The
knowledge acquired by the early Hindus can be gauged from the fact that it is said that what
Einstein has discovered now was known to the Hindus years ago.
2. Calcutta received electric supply in 1899, although earlier that year the Maharaja of Bikaner had
apparently been the first Indian to switch on an electric bulb light.
3. It is worthy to note that the game Taekwando which is said to have been born in Korea has its
initial roots in India. The origin of Taekwando can be traced to the north-east Indian state of
Manipur. In Hindi Taekwando is refered to as Pair-Paitra.
4. India's first Cricket Club was established at Eden Gardens, Calcutta in the year 1792.
5. The only Indian museum dedicated wholly to women is the Sashwati Museum, Banglore.
6. India's first skyscraper was Usha Kiran, Mumbai. It was a 26 floor building built between 1964
to 1967.
7. India's oldest Church is St. Francis church in Fort Cochin, Kerala. It was built in 1503.

8. India's longest river is Ganga which is 2,640 kilometres long. Although, Brahmaputra river has a
total length of 2,688, its one-third part flows through India.
9. India's first Paging Service Provider Company was R.P.G. Paging Company. It started its
paging service on July, 1995 from Delhi with four transmitters initially installed.

10.Earliest Human activity in India

11. The earliest traces of human activity in India, so far discovered , go back to the second Interglacial period between 400,000 and 200,000 B.C. and these show evidence of the use of stone
implements. There followed a long period of slow evolution, which gathered momentum towards
the end and resulted in the spectacular Indus Valley Civilization (or the Harappa culture as it has
been more recently named) in c. 2300 B.C.
12. Further east in the Ganges valley there is evidence of small settlements of people in the transition
stage between hunting and agriculture, using a variety of stone and copper implements and an
inferior quality of ochre-colored pottery. These were presumably the people whom the IndoAryans met when they moved into the Ganges valley, since the Painted-Grey Ware associated
(tentatively) with the Indo-Aryans has been found at some sites superimposed on levels
containing the earlier ochre-colored ware.
13. The Deccan shows evidence of a microlithic industry - the making of tiny flint tools - in association
later with chalcolithic culture where bronze and copper were used together with stone. This gave
way in the first half of the first millennium B.C. to the superior technology of the Ganges Valley, as
is apparent from the introduction of iron and a special type of pottery.- the north black polished
ware - both of which are associated with the Aryan culture of the Ganges valley.
14. Megalithic culture prevailed in extreme south of India (Madras, Kerala and Mysore). This culture
has close similarities with the Megalithic cultures of the Mediterranean and may have arrived in
south India from western Asia, the earliest contact in what was to become a close relationship
between the two areas which lasted till well into recent times.
15. The ethnic composition of the people involved in these various cultures was not identical. Their
were six main races in the Indian sub-continent. The earliest was apparently the Negrito and this
was followed by the Proto-Australoid, the Mogoloid, the Mediterranean, and later those
associated with Aryan culture. There is evidence of Proto-Australoid, the Mediterranean, Alpine
and Mongoloid in the skeletal remains at Harappan sites.
16. The proto-Australoid were the basic element in the Indian population and their speech was of
Austric linguistic group, a specimen of which survives in the Munda speech of certain primitive
tribes. The Mediterranean race is generally associated with the Dravidian culture. The
concentration of the Mongoloid people was in the north-eastern and northern fringes of the subcontinent and their speech conforms to the Sino-Tibetan group. The last to come were people
commonly referred to as Aryans.

17.Golden ants
18. During the 3rd and 4th century, it is said that there used to be large size ants which were just
shorter than a dog but larger than a jackal, in the desert of Thar. They used to dig deep into the
desert land to build their colonies and thus bring out the gold particles embedded in the sand
beneath.
19. These ants were really deadly and could even kill a human being. They used to come out of their
place only during evening and night. Thus, the warrior clans which inhabited these desert used to
venture there to fetch the gold only during mid-day.

20.

Gigantic Lizards

21. During the reign of Aurangzeb (17th century), the deccan was inhabited by massive sized lizards
which were so big that a human adult could easily ride them. These lizards were thus tamed and
even Shivaji is said to have used an army of such lizards to climb the high walls of the enemy
forts.

22.Grand Trunk Road

23. During the time of Mauryas overland trade with western Asia and the Hellenic world went through
the cities of the north-west, primarily Taxila. As a result the city of Taxila was well connected by

roads with other parts of the Mauryan empire. The Mauryans had built a Royal Highway from
Taxila to Pataliputra, a road which was rebuilt throughout the centuries and which today survives
as the Grand Trunk Road. Thus Sher Shah Shuri in the 16th century did not lay the foundation
stone for a new road but had merely reconstructed what existed for centuries.

24.Hindu Greek
There is an interesting inscription at Besnagar in western India on a pillar erected by a certain Heliodorus,
who was the envoy of king Antialkidas of Taxila to the king of Besnagar, perhaps one of the later
Shungas, in which he (Heliodorus) pro- fesses to be a follower of Vasudeva, associated with the god
Vishnu, and obviously, though Greek, he had become a convert to Hinduism. But the Bactrian kings did
not hold Taxila for very long. Hindu Mythology
You must all have heard about Adam and Eve and how they started the human race and also about
Noah's Arc. These stories are part of Christian mythology but do you know Hindu mythology has its own
independent story about how the human race originated.
It was once the tradition that the first king of India was Manu Svayambhu (the self born Manu). Manu was
born directly of the God Brahma, and was a hermaphrodite. From the female half of his body he bore two
sons and three daughters, from whom descended a series of Manus. One of them, called Prithu, became
the first consecrated king of earth, and gave to the earth her name, Prithvi. He cleared the forests,
cultivated the land, and introduced cattle breeding, commerce and other activities associated with a
settled life.
But the tenth Manu was the most famous of them all. It was when he ruled over the earth that the great
flood occurred, when everything was submerged and only Manu survived. The God Vishnu warned Manu
of the flood, and Manu built a boat to carry his family and the seven saints of antiquity. Vishnu took the
form of a large fish, to which the boat was fastened, swam through the flood, and lodged the boat on a
mountain peak.
Here Manu, his family, and the seven sages remained. Until the water had subside and they could safely
return. The human race sprang from Manu and his family, the survivors of the great flood. Manu had nine
sons, the eldest of whom was hermaphrodite - hence known by a dual name Ila and Il. From this son
arose the two main lines of royal descent, the Solar dynasty (Suryavamsha) from Ila and the Lunar
dynasty (Chandravamsha) from Il.

Indian Sepoys in British army

Before the mutiny of 1857 Indian soldiers working in British army had to face a lot of religious
discrimination which resulted in unhappiness against the British administration.
The unhappiness of the soldiers first surfaced in 1824 when the 47th Regiment at Barrackpur was
ordered to go to Burma. To the religious Hindu, crossing the sea meant loss of caste. The soldiers,
therefore, refused to comply. The regiment was disbanded and those who led the opposition were
hanged.
The religious sensibilities of the soldiers who participated in Afghan War were more seriously affected.
During the arduous and disastrous campaign, the fleeing soldiers were forced to eat and drink whatever
came their way. When they returned to India, those at home correctly sensed that they could not have
followed caste stipulations correctly and therefore were hesitant to welcome them back into society.

Case of Sitaram who had gone to Afghanistan found himself an outcaste not only in his village but also in
his barracks. The prestige of being in the pay of the company was not enough to hold his position in
society; religion and caste proved to be more powerful.

Lord Indra's salute

The first public flag salutation ceremony was held in the afternoon of auguat 15th . Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru
unfurled the national flag at Prince's park (near India gate) against a clear warm summer sky. To the
amazement of all present a rainbow appeared on the horizon from nowhere.
People interpreted the occurrence as the salute of Lord Indra to the Tiranga. Lord Mountbatten who
watched the ceremony from a distance mentioned this strange phenomena in his 17th report dated Aug.
16th ,1947 submitted to the crown. He wrote that the 3 colors i.e. saffron, white and green in the flag of
the new dominion resmbeled the hues of the rainbow.

Lanka Dahan
Dada Saheb Falke's movie 'Lanka Dahan' became so popular that from 7:00 in the morning to 12'o'clock
night, its show was hosted after every one hour. In Chennai, the total revenue generated from the movie
had to be transported in a bullock-cart.

Nalanda - sea of knowledge

The longest running university of India was the Nalanda University in Nalanda, Bihar. It was built in the
6th century B.C. by Narsimha Deva and was active up till the 13th century. Thus, the University ran
without any hindrance for 700 years. It was a world wide acclaimed university of that time and students
from far off countries used to come and gain knowledge here.
The admission was secured on the basis of a very tough entrance exam. Knowledge was imparted on
virtually all subjects including science, philosophy, medicine, warfare etc. Its fame ran not only in India but
also in south-east and central Asia. Its Mathematical as well as the Astronomical department was quite
renowned.
In fact Nalanda was the first university in the world to have given Astronomy a separate status from
Mathematics. When Hsuen Tsang visited Nalanda he was astonished to see the collection of books in the
library. The books contained in the library belonged to a wide range of topics, which he had never seen
before in his life.
Hsuen Tsang also refers to his interaction with the gatekeeper of the library. Who he says knew far lot
more than him in almost all the subjects including Medicine and Astronomy. Unfortunately many of the
works of Hsuan Tsang got lost in Brahmaputra river during his return journey to China, as such our
knowledge about Nalanda and its students are very limited.
In 1200 A.D. Islamic zealots led by Bhaktiyar Khilji destroyed the Nalanda university completely. It is said
that the library containing invaluable books, kept on burning for nearly six months. With the library all the
knowledge mankind had gained in years went into the flame.
What Newton discovered many centuries later (Gravity) had already been discovered by the students and
teachers of Nalanda university. The books were thrown into the flames by persons who thought that there
is no truth other than that written in Quran. And thus pushed the India into the dark age through which she
is still groping to pass through.

Bewildering Facts
Oldest Fort
The oldest fort in India is in Kalinjar, Madhya Pradesh. Situated among the Vindhyanchal hills at a height
of 800 metres, this fort is supposed to belong to the Vedic Period. It is said that this fort was built by
Kalinjar, the son of the Great Maharaja Bharat on whose name India is known as 'Bharat' in the native
tongue
Record Number of Votes
The Indian National Congress (I) holds the record for receiving the world's largest number of votes during
the elections of 1984. It stood victorious on 412 out of total 513 parliamentary seats when it achieved
Eleven Crore Fifty Two Lakh Twenty One Thousand Seventy Eight votes i.e. 78% of the total votes cast.
Highest Tank war in the world
On 1st November 1948, the 7th cavalry of the Indian army (Stuart Tank) started an operation to escalate
Pakistani soldiers and infiltrators who had trespassed the border and crossed over to the Indian side. This
war was fought at the Zozila Pass in the Himalayas and is popular for being the 'Highest Tank war in the
World'. No other army of any country has posed a challenge to this daring feat of the Indian army.

The Pawar Dynasty

Although the earlier tradition of the Pawars relates them with the Rashtrakutas, later tradition tells an
interesting story as to how they acquired their name, a story which recalls the Chauhan version of the fire
sacrifice.
The sage Vasishtha had a cow called Kamadhenu (a cow which grants all one's wishes) and this was
stolen by another sage, Vishvamitra. Vasishtha therefore made an offering to the sacrificial fire at Mt Abu,
whereupon a hero sprang out of the fire, brought the cow back, and returned it to Vasishtha, who
bestowed the name Paramara (slayer of the enemy) on the hero, from whom the Paramara clan was
descended.

Population of India throughout the ages

Tentative calculations have been made of the population of the sub-continent during various periods, but
these remain largely conjectural. An estimate suggested for the sub-continent at the end of the fourth
century B.C. is 181 million. This estimate is based partly on the size of the Indian army as described in
Greek sources when referring to the campaign of Alexander of Macedonia in northern India.
It is possible of course that Greek writers exaggerated the figures to demonstrate to their readers the
formidable military strength which Alexander would have had to face had he pursued his campaign into
the Ganges valley. The estimate of 181 million appears to be rather high: a figure of about 100 million or
less for the early period might be more credible. An estimate for the early seventeenth century is 100
million.
The first census of the British Indian administration covering the entire sub-continent carried out in 1881
put the population at a little over 253 million.

Actual date of the Ramayana

According to some historians, the actual time when the events of the Ramayana took place could be
traced to thousands of years ago, when the whole of the earth was divided into main two landmasses
namely the Gondwanaland and the Angaraland.
This was the time when Indian subcontinent formed the part of Gondwanaland and south to it was the
modern mainland of Africa. This view is supported by the fact that Lanka, the capital of Ravana the
demon king is described as 'Swarna Nagari' or the land of Gold.
Now since Africa was a place where gold is found in abundance and also the physical features of the
Lankans described in the Ramayana as being tall, dark and sturdy matches with those of the Africans.

Sanskrit in Mesopotamia
In north-west Mesopotamia Sanskrit inscriptions were found containing references of the names of the
local princes of that time. The names of princes which bear on it are like Artatama, Tusratta, Suttarna
which seems unmistakably Aryan in form.
For five hundred years a mountain tribe the Kassites - from the neighborhood of Media ruled over the
whole of Babylonia and amongst these also the names of the princes and deities seem Aryan. Names like
Shurias (Sun) and Marytas seem identical with Sanskrit Surya (Sun) & Maruta (Wind God). While Simalia
'Queen of Snow Mountains' can hardly be separated by the name Himalaya & the Iranian word of snow
Zima.

Introduction of Sarree
Sarree was introduced in India by the Greek princess and daughter of Selucus, Helen. Married to
Chandragupta Maurya, she took a while to get accustomed with the Indian culture & tradition.
In India women used to wear skin tight clothes containing tight blouse covering the chest, somewhat
similar to the modern day blouses, and a tight petticoat starting just below the waist. Where as the Greek
women dress code was a dangling single cloth covering the whole body.
The mixture of Helen's Greek culture and Indian culture resulted in the inception of Sarree.

Mutiny of 1857
Apart from some honorable exceptions like the Rani of Jhansi, Kunwar Singh, Maulvi Ahmadullah, Nana
Sahib and Tantya Tope, the rebels were poorly served by their leaders.
Most of them failed to realize the significance of the Revolt and simply did not do enough. Bahadur Shah
Zafar and Zeenat Mahal had no faith in the sepoys and negotiated with the British to secure their safety.
Most of the taluqdars tried only to protect their own interests. Some of them, like Man singh, changed
sides several times depending on which side had the upper hand.
When British reached Delhi Bahadur Shah took refuge in the Humayun's tomb, was captured, tried and
deported to Burma by them. So to term Bahadur Shah as a hero of the mutiny of 1857 is quite
questionable. As a matter of fact when the sepoys (rebel soldiers) arrived from Meerut, Bahadur Shah
seems to have been taken by surprise and promptly conveyed the news to the Lt. Governor at Agra.

Sinhasan Battisi

This story dates back to a period long after the demise of the Gupta empire. It is said that once a group of
young shepherds living in the villages near the ancient city of Ujjain had gone to the grazing fields with
their sheep. They had a row over some issue.
One of the shepherds, bored by this sudden quarrel, climbed up a high cliff situated nearby. As soon as
he sat on the top, he felt a strong power gripping him. "I'll do justice to you all", aloud he shouted. Then,
he listened over the whole matter and resolved it with great skill. The other boys were astonished. Slowly,
his fame spread to the other villages too and people from far off came to him to get their issues solved.
Consequently, his reputation of a common boy showing exquisite power of justice, reached the King.
He met the boy and was himself bewildered. Then, he ordered his men to excavate the rock on which the
boy sat. When the job was done, a big throne was found unearthed in the rock. The throne was
recognized to be the famous Sinhasan Battisi throne of Raja Chandragupta Vikramaditya of the Gupta
dynasty who was famous for his justice.
Thus, it was proclaimed that the throne had mystical powers and anyone sitting on it was empowered with
immense ability to do justice. Later, before the advent of the Muslim invaders, the throne disappeared
suddenly and was never seen again.

Slavery in the Mauryan era

Megasthenes, the Seleucid ambassador at the Mauryan court, has commented on the absence of slaves
in India, but this is contradicted by Indian sources. Domestic slaves were a regular feature in prosperous
households, where the slaves were of low caste status but not outcastes.
Slave labour was also used in the mines and by the guilds. The Arthashastra states that a man could be a
slave either by birth, by voluntarily selling himself, by being captured in war, or as a result of a judicial
punishment. Slavery was a recognized institution and the legal relationship between master and slave
was clearly defined e.g. if a female slave bore her master a son, not only was she legally free but the child
was entitled to legal status of the master's son.
Megasthenes may have been confused by the caste status cutting across the economic stratification.
Technically, there was no large scale slavery for production. Greek society made a sharp distinction
between the freeman and the slave, which distinction was not apparent in Indian society.
A slave in India could buy back his freedom or be voluntarily released by his master : and, if he was an
Aryan, he could return to his Aryan status, a system which did not prevail in Greece.

How Somnath was sacked

A thirteenth century Arab source refers to the Somnath sacking :Somnath - a celebrated city of India situated on the shore of the sea, and washed by its waves. Among
the wonders of that place was the temple in which was placed the idol called Somnath. This idol was in
the middle of the temple without anything to support it from below, or to suspend it from above.
It was held in the highest honour among the Hindus, and whoever beheld it floating in the air was struck
with amazement, whether he was a Musulman or an infidel. The Hindus used to go on pilgrimage to it
whenever there was an eclipse of the moon and would then assemble there to the number of more than a
hundred thousand. They believed that the souls of men used to meet there after separation from the body
and that the idol used to incorporate them at its pleasure in other bodies in accordance with their doctrine
of transmigration.

The ebb and flow of the tide was considered to be the worship paid to the idol by the sea. Everything of
the most precious was brought there as offerings, and the temple was endowed with more than ten
thousand villages. There is a river (the Ganges) which is held sacred, between which and Somnath the
distance is two hundred parasangs. They used to bring the water of the river to Somnath every day and
wash the temple with it. A thousand Brahmans were employed in worshipping the idol and attending on
the visitors, and five hundred damsels sung and danced at the door - all these were maintained upon the
endowments of the temple.
The edifice was built upon fifty-six pillars of teak covered with lead. The shrine of the idol was dark but
was lighted by jewelled chandeliers of great value. Near it was a chain of gold weighing two hundred man.
When a portion (watch) of the night closed, this chain used to be shaken like bells to rouse a fresh lot of
Brahmans to perform worship.
Continue........

How Somnath was sacked : Continued

When the Sultan went to wage religious war against India, he made great efforts to capture and destroy
Somnath, in the hope that the Hindus would become Mohammedans. He arrived there in the middle
of . . . December A.D. 1025. The Indians made a desperate resistance. They would go weeping and
crying for help into the temple and then issue forth to battle and fight till all were killed. The number of
slain exceeded 50,000. The king looked upon the idol with wonder and gave orders for the seizing of the
spoil and the appropriation of the treasures.
There were many idols of gold and silver and vessels set with jewels, all of which had been sent there by
the greatest personages in India. The value of the things found in the temple and of the idols exceeded
twenty thousand dinars. When the king asked his companions what they had to say about the marvel of
the idol, and of its staying in the air without prop or support, several maintained that it was upheld by
some hidden support. The king directed a person to go and feel all around and above and below it with a
spear, which he did but met with no obstacle. One of the attendants then stated his opinion that the
canopy was made of loadstone, and the idol of iron, and that the ingenious builder had skilfully contrived
that the magnet should not exercise a greater force on any one side - hence the idol was suspended in
the middle. Some coincided, others differed.
Permission was obtained from the Sultan to remove some stones from the top of the canopy to settle the
point. When two stones were removed from the summit the idol swerved on one side, when more were
taken away it inclined still further, until at last it rested on the ground.

Hindu Time cycle

Hindu thinkers have evolved a cyclic theory of time. The cycle was called a kalpa and was equivalent to
4,320 million earthly years. The kalpa is divided into 14 periods and at the end of each of these the
universe is recreated and once again Manu gives birth to the human race.
At the moment we are in the seventh of these 14 periods of the present kalpa. Each of these is divided
into 71 great intervals and each of these is divided into 4 yugas or periods of time. The yugas contain
respectively 4,800, 3,600, 2,400 and 1,200 god-years (one god-year being 360 human years), and there
is a progressive decline in the quality of civilization.
We are now in the fourth of these yugas, the kaliyuga when the world is full of evil and wickedness, and
thus the end of the world is by comparison imminent, though there are several millennia before the end.
The kaliyuga is also associated with the coming of Kalkin, the tenth incarnation of Vishnu.

The Koli Family

Most of the members of the Koli family living in Rajkot, Gujarat have six fingers in each of their hands.
Doctors claim that this is due to a hereditary feature called 'Polydectaili' which means 'more fingers'. The

Making of the Taj Mahal

Arjuman Banu, the niece of Jahangir's wife Nur Jahan, supposedly captured the heart of the young Shah
Jahan the minute he saw her. In 1612, at the age of 21, she married him and became his Mumtaz Mahal
(the Exalted of the Palace) and the Mumtazul-Zamani (the distinguished of the Age).
She bore him 14 children, and it was in childbirth that she died in 1630 while accompanying her husband
on a military campaign. On her death bed, it is said, she begged the king to built a monument so beautiful
that the world would never forget their love.
Thus, began the construction of the exquisite Taj Mahal. Shah Jahan put an army of 20,000 laborers to
work, building a new village (Taj Ganj, which still stands)to house them as they spent 17 years creating
the wonder in white Marble. On the banks of the Jamuna river, visible from the Agra fort, the Taj was
completed on the exact anniversary of Mumtaz Mahal's death.

Tiranga Unfurled
The Tiranga was hoisted for the first time on the ramparts of the Red Fort on the morning of Aug. 16th by
Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru (It was a Saturday at 8:30 am and not on Aug. 15th 1947 as is commonly believed).
It was from 1948 onwards that the flag hoisting ceremony was started at the Red fort on Aug. 15th .
Interestingly, the incharge of the light house at Minicoy in the Lakshadeep and Minicoy islands was
ignorant of the transfer of power from British to Indian hands and kept on flying the Union Jack till 195354. Once the inadvertent lapse was discovered it was immediately rectified. These days a bright 9' x 6'
Tiranga flies over the light house.

Trade during Aryan Times

Barter was the common practice in trade, the cow being the unit of value in large scale transactions,
which limited the geographical reach of a particular trader. The nishka is also mentioned as a measure of
value. Later it came to be known by the name of Gold coin, but at this stage it may have been merely a
measure of gold. Weapons used by Ajatashatru
A description of the war between Ajatashatru's Magadha and Vriji confederacy reveals a set of
weaponries which could quite easily be related to our modern day weapons. The description mentions the
use of two weapons which appear to have been new to Magadhan military technology.
These were the mahashilakuntaka, a large sized catapult used for hurling heavy pieces of stone, and the
rathamushala, a chariot with knives and cutting edges fixed on to it and a place under cover for the
charioteer for driving through the opposing ranks and literally mowing them down.

Weapons used by Ajatashatru

A description of the war between Ajatashatru's Magadha and Vriji confederacy reveals a set of
weaponries which could quite easily be related to our modern day weapons. The description mentions the
use of two weapons which appear to have been new to Magadhan military technology.

These were the mahashilakuntaka, a large sized catapult used for hurling heavy pieces of stone, and the
rathamushala, a chariot with knives and cutting edges fixed on to it and a place under cover for the
charioteer for driving through the opposing ranks and literally mowing them down.