COMPLETE REVISION

April 2013

Process Industry Practices

Machinery

PIP REEC001
Compressor Selection Guidelines

PURPOSE AND USE OF PROCESS INDUSTRY PRACTICES

In an effort to minimize the cost of process industry facilities, this Practice has
been prepared from the technical requirements in the existing standards of major
industrial users, contractors, or standards organizations. By harmonizing these technical
requirements into a single set of Practices, administrative, application, and engineering
costs to both the purchaser and the manufacturer should be reduced. While this Practice
is expected to incorporate the majority of requirements of most users, individual
applications may involve requirements that will be appended to and take precedence
over this Practice. Determinations concerning fitness for purpose and particular matters
or application of the Practice to particular project or engineering situations should not
be made solely on information contained in these materials. The use of trade names
from time to time should not be viewed as an expression of preference but rather
recognized as normal usage in the trade. Other brands having the same specifications
are equally correct and may be substituted for those named. All Practices or guidelines
are intended to be consistent with applicable laws and regulations including OSHA
requirements. To the extent these Practices or guidelines should conflict with OSHA or
other applicable laws or regulations, such laws or regulations must be followed.
Consult an appropriate professional before applying or acting on any material
contained in or suggested by the Practice.
This Practice is subject to revision at any time.
Process Industry Practices (PIP), Construction Industry Institute, The University of
Texas at Austin, 3925 West Braker Lane (R4500), Austin, Texas 78759. PIP Member
Companies and Subscribers may copy this Practice for their internal use. Changes or
modifications of any kind are not permitted within any PIP Practice without the express
written authorization of PIP. Authorized Users may attach addenda or overlays to
clearly indicate modifications or exceptions to specific sections of PIP Practices.
Authorized Users may provide their clients, suppliers and contractors with copies of the
Practice solely for Authorized Users purposes. These purposes include but are not
limited to the procurement process (e.g., as attachments to requests for quotation /
purchase orders or requests for proposals / contracts) and preparation and issue of
design engineering deliverables for use on a specific project by Authorized Users
client. PIPs copyright notices must be clearly indicated and unequivocally
incorporated in documents where an Authorized User desires to provide any third party
with copies of the Practice.

PUBLISHING HISTORY
March 1999
Issued
February 2007
Complete Revision
April 2013
Complete Revision

Not printed with State funds

COMPLETE REVISION
April 2013

Process Industry Practices

Machinery

PIP REEC001
Compressor Selection Guidelines
Table of Contents
1. Introduction.................................................................................................... 3
1.1
1.2

Purpose ............................................................................................................................ 3
Scope ............................................................................................................................... 3

2. References ..................................................................................................... 3
2.1
2.2
2.3

Process Industry Practices ............................................................................................... 3

Industry Codes and Standards ......................................................................................... 3
Other References ............................................................................................................. 4

3. Nomenclature and Definitions ...................................................................... 4

4. General ........................................................................................................... 6
5. Types of Compressors .................................................................................. 6
5.1
5.2
5.3

General ............................................................................................................................. 6
Dynamic Compressors ...................................................................................................22
Positive Displacement Compressors .............................................................................25

6. Basic Principles of Compression............................................................... 29

6.1
6.2
6.3

General ...........................................................................................................................29
Centrifugal Compressors................................................................................................29
Reciprocating Compressors ...........................................................................................34

7. Selection Considerations ........................................................................... 36

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

Safety .............................................................................................................................36
Process...........................................................................................................................36
Economics ......................................................................................................................37
Site and Location ............................................................................................................37

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8. Lubrication Systems ....................................................................................37

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4

General .......................................................................................................................... 37
Centrifugal Compressors ............................................................................................... 38
Reciprocating Compressors .......................................................................................... 38
Rotary Compressors ...................................................................................................... 39

9. Seal Systems ................................................................................................39

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4

General .......................................................................................................................... 39
Dry Shaft Seals .............................................................................................................. 40
Liquid Film Seal (Oil Film Seal) ..................................................................................... 40
Packing Glands .............................................................................................................. 41

10. Ancillary Equipment ....................................................................................41

Tables
1a.
1b.
2.

Figures
1.
2a.
2b.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

Summary of Typical Operating Characteristics of Compressors (Metric) ....................... 8

Summary of Typical Operating Characteristics of Compressors (US Units) ................... 9
Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Compressors ........................................... 20
Types of Compressors ..................................................................................................... 7
Typical Operating Envelopes of Compressors (Metric) ................................................. 10
Typical Operating Envelopes of Compressors (US Units)............................................. 15
Typical Single-Stage Compressor ................................................................................. 23
Typical Integrally Geared Centrifugal Compressor........................................................ 23
Typical Multi-Stage Compressor.................................................................................... 24
Typical Axial Compressor .............................................................................................. 25
Typical Piston-Type Reciprocating Positive Displacement Compressor ....................... 26
Typical Diaphragm-Type Reciprocating Positive Displacement Compressor ............... 27
Typical Flooded Screw-Type Rotary Compressor ......................................................... 28
Pressure-Volume Diagram for Compression Processes ............................................... 30
Typical Performance Map of a Centrifugal Compressor................................................ 33
Pressure-Volume Diagram for Reciprocating Compressor ........................................... 34
Ancillary and Supporting Systems for Compressor Applications .................................. 42

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Compressor Selection Guidelines

1.

COMPLETE REVISION
April 2013

Introduction
1.1

Purpose
This Practice provides guidelines for the selection of compressors.

1.2

Scope
This Practice describes the overall guidelines for selecting an appropriate type of
compressor for a specific process service. Guidelines are also provided for
lubrication and seal systems.

2.

References
Applicable parts of the following Practices and references should be considered an integral
part of this Practice. The edition in effect on the date of contract award should be used, except
as otherwise noted. Short titles are used herein where appropriate.
2.1

Process Industry Practices (PIP)

PIP REIE686/API RP686 - Recommended Practices for Machinery Installation
and Installation Design
PIP REIE686A - Recommended Practice for Machinery Installation and
Installation Design (Supplement to PIP REIE686/API RP686)
PIP RESE003 - Application of General Purpose Non-Lubricated Flexible
Couplings

2.2

Industry Codes and Standards

American Petroleum Institute (API)

API 611 - General-Purpose Steam Turbines for Petroleum, Chemical, and
Gas Industry Services
API 612 - Special-Purpose Steam Turbines for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas
Industry Services
API 613 - Special-Purpose Gear Units for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas
Industry Services
API 614 - Lubrication, Shaft-Sealing, and Control-Oil Systems for SpecialPurpose Applications
API 617 - Centrifugal Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas
Service Industries
API 618 - Reciprocating Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas
Industry Services
API 619 - Rotary-Type Positive Displacement for Petroleum, Chemical, and
Gas Industry Services
API 670 - Vibration, Axial-Position, and Bearing-Temperature Monitoring
Systems
API 671 - Special-Purpose Couplings for Refinery Service

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Compressor Selection Guidelines

COMPLETE REVISION
April 2013

API 672 - Packaged, Integrally Geared Centrifugal Air Compressors for

Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services
API 677 - General-Purpose Gear Units for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas
Industry Services

American Society of Mechanical Engineering (ASME)

ASME B19.3 - Safety Standard for Compressors for Process Industries
ASME PTC-10 - Performance Test Codes - Compressors and Exhausters

Association of German Engineers (VDI)

VDI 2045 - Acceptance and Performance Test of Dynamic and Positive
Displacement Compressors

Gas Processors Suppliers Association

Engineering Data Book

2.3

Other References
Compressor Application Engineering, Volume 1, Compression Equipment,
Gulf Publishing Co., Pierre Pichot
Compressor Application Engineering, Volume 2, Drivers for Rotating
Equipment, Gulf Publishing Co., Pierre Pichot
Compressors: Selection and Sizing, 2nd ed., Gulf Publishing Co., Royce N.
Brown
Leak-Free Pumps & Compressors, Elsevier Advanced Technology, Gerhard
Vetter

3.

Nomenclature and Definitions

absolute pressure: Pressure measured from absolute zero (i.e., from an absolute vacuum).
Absolute pressure is equal to the algebraic sum of the atmospheric pressure and the gauge
pressure.
absolute temperature: Temperature above absolute zero
actual volumetric flow rate, also actual cubic meters per hour (acmh) or actual cubic feet per
minute (acfm): The volume throughput per unit time at the compressor inlet
adiabatic compression: Compression process where no heat transfer takes place (process may
be irreversible)
capacity: Volume rate of flow of gas compressed and delivered, expressed at inlet conditions
density: Mass of the gas per unit volume
discharge pressure: Pressure at the discharge flange of the compressor
discharge temperature: Gas temperature at the discharge flange of the compressor
displacement: Average volume displaced per unit time by the piston of reciprocating
compressors or by vanes, screws and lobes of rotary compressors. If used to indicate size or

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Compressor Selection Guidelines

COMPLETE REVISION
April 2013

rating, displacement must be related to a specified speed. For multistage machines, it refers to
the first stage cylinder(s) only.
inlet (suction) pressure: Pressure at or near the inlet flange of the compressor. In an air
compressor without inlet pipe or duct, absolute inlet pressure is equal to the atmospheric
pressure which is determined by the altitude.
intercooling: Removal of heat from the gas between compressor sections
kinetic energy (of a mass): Total work which must be done to bring a mass from a state of
rest to a velocity, v. For rectilinear motion, the kinetic energy equals mv2.
molecular weight: Relative weight of a molecule of a substance referred to that of an atom of
Carbon-12 as 12.000
polytropic compression: Reversible compression process which follows a path such that
between any two points on the path, the ratio of the reversible work input to the enthalpy rise
is constant
polytropic efficiency: Ratio of the polytropic work to the actual work required for the
compression process
polytropic head: Reversible work required to compress a unit mass of the gas in a polytropic
compression process
pressure (compression) ratio: Ratio of absolute discharge pressure to the absolute inlet
pressure
section (of a centrifugal compressor): Group of stages (impellers and associated stationary
parts) in series. The term section defines all the compression components between inlet and
discharge flanges. A compressor case (body) may contain multiple sections if the gas is
removed for cooling and returned for further compression.
shaft power: Measured power input to the compressor. The term shaft power is expected to
replace the more commonly used term brake horsepower.
specific volume: Volume occupied by one unit of mass of the gas
stage of compression (in centrifugal compressors): A single impeller with the associated
stationary parts. For axial machines, each set of blades (one rotating row followed by one
stationary row) represents a stage of compression. In reciprocating compressors, a cylinder,
piston, and associated valves and parts comprise a stage. Compressor stages for other types of
compressors can be defined in a similar manner.
stonewall (choke) point: Condition at which flow in a centrifugal compressor cannot be
increased further. In this condition, sonic flow is reached in some part of the gas path within
the compressor.
surge point: Minimum flow point in a centrifugal or axial compressor. If flow is reduced
below this point, cyclic variation (and even reversal) of gas flow and discharge pressure
occurs.
volumetric efficiency: Ratio of the capacity of the compressor cylinder to the displacement of
the cylinder in a reciprocating compressor

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4.

COMPLETE REVISION
April 2013

General
4.1

Compressors are the prime movers of gas and air in process industries.

4.2

Compressors are used to increase the static, or inlet, pressure of the gas and deliver it
at the specified discharge pressure and flow rate in a process application. Part of the
increase in static pressure is required to overcome frictional resistance in the process.

4.3

Compressors are available in a variety of types, models and sizes, each of which
fulfills a given need. The selection should represent the best available configuration
to meet specified requirements.

4.4

Mechanical integrity and process safety should be important considerations.

4.5

The process requirements should be established before selecting a compressor

system. Selection requires matching compressor capabilities to process requirements.

4.6

A compressor system generally includes:

a. Compressors
b. Lubrication systems
c. Seal systems
d. Drivers
e. Couplings
f.

Gearboxes

g. Control systems
h. Baseplate/skid

5.

4.7

All components of a compressor system determine its capacity, reliability and lifecycle costs. Life-cycle costs include initial capital, operating and maintenance costs.

4.8

Field-proven equipment should be selected. However, if justifiable, newly developed

equipment may be selected with appropriate technical scrutiny and follow-up.

4.9

If more than one type or size of compressor initially appears suitable for a given
application, then a more detailed analysis may be justified to make a final,
appropriate selection.

Types of Compressors
5.1

General
5.1.1

The two basic categories of compressors are:

a. Dynamic (centrifugal and axial)
b. Positive displacement (reciprocating and rotary types).

5.1.2

Figure 1 shows the various types of compressors related to the two

categories.

5.1.3

Tables 1a and 1b and Figures 2a and 2b show typical operating

characteristics of the different types of compressors.

5.1.4

Table 2 shows the general advantages and disadvantages of the different

types of compressors.

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Compressor Selection Guidelines

April 2013

Compressors

Positive Displacement

Dynamic
Centrifugal
Axial
Thermal/Jet

Reciprocating

Rotary

Piston

Screw (Wet/Dry)

Diaphragm

Lobe (Straight/Helical)
Liquid Ring
Sliding Vane

Figure 1. Types of Compressors

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Compressor Selection Guidelines

April 2013

Table 1a. Summary of Typical Operating Characteristics of Compressors (Metric)

Inlet Capacity
3
(acmh, m /h)

Maximum
Discharge
Pressure
(bar)

Adiabatic
Efficiency
(%)

Operating
Speed
(rpm)

Maximum
Power
(MW)

Centrifugal

170 - 850,000

690

70 87

1,800 - 50,000

38

Process gas & air

Integrally Geared
Centrifugal
Compressors

500 - 500,000

350

80

7,000 50,000

60

Process gas & air

50,000 850,000

17

87 - 90+

1,500 10,000

75

Mainly air

20 - 34,000

4,150

80 - 90

200 - 900

15

Air & process gas

0 250

1,400

60 - 70

300 - 500

1.5

Corrosive & hazardous process

gas

Rotary Screw (Wet)

100 - 12,000

24

65 - 70

1,500 - 3,600

1.5

Air, refrigeration & process gas

Rotary Screw (Dry)

200
100,000

1 50

55 70

1,000
20,000

Air & dirty process gas

Rotary Lobe

25 - 50,000

0.3 - 1.7

55 - 65

300 - 4,000

0.4

Pneumatic conveying, process

gas & vacuum

Sliding Vane

15 - 5,000

10

40 - 70

400 - 1,800

0.35

Vacuum service & process gas

Liquid Ring

10 - 17,000

5.5 10.5

25 - 50

200 - 3,600

0.3

Vacuum service & corrosive

process gas

Application

Dynamic
Compressors

Axial
Positive
Displacement
Compressors
Reciprocating (Piston)
Diaphragm

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Table 1b. Summary of Typical Operating Characteristics of Compressors (US Units)

Inlet
Capacity
(acfm)

Maximum
Discharge
Pressure
(psig)

Efficiency
(%)

100 200,000

10,000

300 - 30,000

Operating
Speed
(rpm)

Maximum
Power
(HP)

70 87

1,800 50,000

50,000+

Process gas & air

4,000

80

7,000 50,000

80,000

Process gas & air

30,000 500,000

250

87 - 90+

1,500 10,000

100,000

Mainly air

10 - 20,000

60,000

80 95

200 - 900

20,000

Air & process gas

Diaphragm

0.5 150

20,000

60 70

300 - 500

2,000

Corrosive & hazardous process

gas

Rotary Screw (Wet)

50 - 7,000

350

65 70

1,500 - 3,600

2000

Air, refrigeration & process gas

15 700

55 70

1,000 -

8,000

Air & dirty process gas

Application

Dynamic
Compressors
Centrifugal
Integrally Geared
Centrifugal
Compressor
Axial
Positive
Displacement
Compressors
Reciprocating (Piston)

Rotary Screw (Dry)

120
58,000

20,000

Rotary Lobe

15 - 30,000

5 - 25

55 65

300 - 4,000

500

Pneumatic conveying, process

gas & vacuum

Sliding Vane

10 - 3,000

150

40 70

400 - 1,800

450

Vacuum service & process gas

Liquid Ring

5 - 10,000

80 - 150

25 50

200 - 3,600

400

Vacuum service & corrosive

process gas

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Compressor Selection Guidelines

April 2013

Reciprocating

Centrifugal
IGCC

Rotary Screw (Dry)

Axial

Rotary Screw
(Wet)
liquid
Ring

Rotary Lobe

Figure 2a. Typical Operating Envelopes of Compressors (Metric)

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Compressor Selection Guidelines

April 2013

Typical Operating Envelope of Centrifugal and Axial Compressors (Metric)

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April 2013

Typical Operating Envelope of Reciprocating, Rotary Screw (Dry), and Rotary Lobe (Metric)

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April 2013

Typical Operating Envelop of Rotary Screw (Wet), Sliding vane, and Liquid Ring Compressors (Metric)

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Compressor Selection Guidelines

April 2013

Typical Operating Envelope for Diaphragm Compressors (Metric)

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Compressor Selection Guidelines

April 2013

Reciprocating
Centrifugal
IGCC
Rotary Screw (Dry)
Axial

Liquid Ring
Rotary Screw (Wet)

Rotary Lobe

Figure 2b. Typical Operating Envelopes of Compressors (U.S. Units)

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Compressor Selection Guidelines

April 2013

Typical Operating Envelope of Centrifugal and Axial Compressors (US Units)

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COMPLETE REVISION
April 2013

Typical Operating Envelope of Reciprocating, Rotary Screw (Dry), and Rotary Lobe Compressors (US Units)

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COMPLETE REVISION
April 2013

Typical Operating Envelop of Rotary Screw (Wet), Sliding Vane, and Liquid Ring Compressors (US Units)

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Compressor Selection Guidelines

April 2013

Typical Operating Envelope of Diaphragm Compressors (US Units)

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Compressor Selection Guidelines

April 2013

Table 2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Compressors

Advantages
Dynamic
Compressors
Centrifugal

Integrally
Geared
Centrifugal
Axial
Thermal/Jet
Positive
Displacement
Compressors
Reciprocating
(Piston)

Diaphragm

Screw

Wide operating range

High reliability and low maintenance

Relatively inexpensive method of obtaining a high

compression ration
High efficiency at best efficiency point

High capacity for a given size and high efficiency

Heavy duty and low maintenance
No moving parts and low maintenance
High pressure ratio
More tolerant of changes in gas composition than
dynamic compressors.

Wide pressure ratios

High efficiency

Process Industry Practices

Very high pressure

Available in special materials
No moving seals
Low flow
Wide range of applications
Wet screw has high efficiency and high pressure
ratio
Dry screw insensitive to changes in gas composition
and can handle dirty gases

Disadvantages

Instability at reduced flow

Sensitive to changes in gas composition
Susceptible to rotor-dynamics problems
Sensitive to liquids in the gas stream
Limited operating flow range
High efficiency is limited to flow rates near the best
efficiency point
Sensitive to liquids in the gas stream
Low compression ratios
Limited turndown
Very low efficiency
Narrow range of application

Heavy foundations required due to unbalanced forces

Flow pulsation can cause vibration and structural
problems
High maintenance compared to dynamic compressors
Sensitive to liquids in the gas stream
Limited capacity range
Periodic replacement of diaphragms required
Flow pulsation problems

Noisy
Wet screw not suitable for corrosive or dirty gases

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Table 2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Compressors (Continued)

Advantages
Positive
Displacement
Compressors
Lobe
Sliding Vane

Liquid Ring

Process Industry Practices

Simple in design and construction

Low cost
Simple in design
High single-stage pressure ratio
Able to tolerate small quantities of liquids in the
process gas
High vacuum capability
Able to tolerate small quantities of liquids in the
process gas
High single-stage pressure ratio
High reliability

Disadvantages

Limited operating range and pressure ratio

Capacity control limited to suction throttling
Generally unsuitable for process gases
Low reliability

Sealing liquid/process gas compatibility required

Sealing liquid separation equipment required
Limited suction pressure

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5.2

April 2013

Dynamic Compressors
5.2.1

General
5.2.1.1 Dynamic compressors function by imparting velocity to a gas, and
subsequently converting the kinetic energy of the moving gas to an
increase in static pressure.
5.2.1.2 Two primary types of dynamic compressors are centrifugal and
axial. A combination of the two types may be used to satisfy a given
set of process requirements.

5.2.2

Centrifugal Compressors
5.2.2.1 Centrifugal compressors impart velocity to the gas through rotating
impellers.
5.2.2.2 The gas is introduced at the eye of the impeller and discharged
radially at the outer circumference (impeller tip) at a higher velocity
and kinetic energy.
5.2.2.3 The gas then passes through a stationary diffuser where its velocity is
reduced, and its kinetic energy is converted to static pressure. Part of
the static pressure rise occurs in the impeller and part in the diffuser.
5.2.2.4 Impeller diameter and width, rotational speed and the angle of the
vanes that make up the impeller are important parameters in the
design of centrifugal compressors.
5.2.2.5 One or more impellers (stages) may be required to obtain the desired
discharge pressure.
5.2.2.6 The temperature of the gas increases as it is being compressed.
5.2.2.7 If the discharge temperature is likely to increase beyond the
maximum allowable temperature before the desired discharge
pressure is achieved, the gas must be cooled before it can be
compressed further.
5.2.2.8 Heat exchangers, called intercoolers, may be required to cool the gas.
Typically, these intercoolers are installed between compressor
sections (one or more stages typically make up a compressor
section).
5.2.2.9 Maximum allowable temperature should be determined by:
a. Design or materials of the compressor
b. Avoiding excessive temperatures in the process
c. Fouling
d. Polymerization of the process
5.2.2.10 A seal system contains the process gas within the compressor as well
as prevents any contamination of the gas by bearing lubricants.
5.2.2.11 These compressors can be designed to be non-lubricating if the
process gas is required to be oil-free.

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5.2.2.12 Cross-sectional views of a typical single-stage compressor, an

integrally geared centrifugal compressor, and a typical multi-stage
compressor are shown in Figures 3, 4, and 5 respectively.

Figure 3. Typical Single-Stage Compressor

Figure 4. Typical Integrally Geared Centrifugal Compressor

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Figure 5. Typical Multi-Stage Compressor

5.2.3

Axial Compressors
5.2.3.1 Gas moves axially along the compressor shaft (parallel to the
machine axis) through alternating rows of rotating and stationary
blades. Each set of blades (one rotating row followed by one
stationary row) represents a stage of compression.
5.2.3.2 The rotating blades impart velocity to the gas; the stationary blades
slow the gas and direct it into the next row of rotating blades.
5.2.3.3 As the gas passes through each stage, its pressure and temperature
are further increased until it finally exits the compressor at the
required pressure and associated temperature.
5.2.3.4 Axial compressors require more stages to develop the same pressure
rise as centrifugal compressors, but can handle very high flows at
very high efficiency.
5.2.3.5 Axial compressor design does not lend itself to intercooling, and
attainable discharge pressures are generally limited by temperature
and bearing span (which limits the number of blade rows).
5.2.3.6 A typical axial compressor cross-sectional view is shown in Figure 6.

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Figure 6. Typical Axial Compressor

5.3

Positive Displacement Compressors

5.3.1

General
5.3.1.1 Positive displacement compressors include reciprocating (piston and
diaphragm) and rotary (screw, lobe, sliding vane and liquid ring)
compressors.
5.3.1.2 Positive displacement compressors function by enclosing an initial
volume of gas and reducing that volume mechanically thereby
increasing its pressure.
5.3.1.3 Volume reduction is accomplished by one of the following:
a. Piston reciprocating in a cylinder
b. Reciprocating flexing of a diaphragm
c. Eccentric rotation of a volume sealed by sliding vanes
d. Matched rotating lobes in a volume cavity
e. Matched male and female helical screws
f.

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Rotor operating in a sealing liquid in an eccentric casing

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5.3.2

April 2013

Reciprocating Positive Displacement

5.3.2.1 Reciprocating positive displacement compressors have a piston in a
cylinder or a diaphragm operating in a shaped cavity to compress the
gas.
5.3.2.2 Reciprocating positive displacement compressors have suction and
discharge valves that control the gas flow.
5.3.2.3 Reciprocating positive displacement compressors require special
process and piping design considerations because of the pulsating nature
of the flow.
5.3.2.4 Other considerations may include:
a. Foundation design
b. Compressor valve speed
c. Piston rod loads
d. Intercooling and safety relief valves.
5.3.2.5 Figure 7 shows a piston-type compressor and Figure 8 shows a
diaphragm-type compressor.

Figure 7. Typical Piston-Type Reciprocating Positive Displacement Compressor

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COMPLETE REVISION
April 2013

Figure 8. Typical Diaphragm-Type Reciprocating Positive Displacement Compressor

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5.3.3

COMPLETE REVISION
April 2013

Rotary
5.3.3.1 Rotary compressors generally have no suction or discharge valves,
and use suction and discharge ports that are alternately exposed and
covered by the rotating elements or sliding elements.
5.3.3.2 Screw, rotary lobe, liquid-ring and sliding vane-type compressors
fall into this category.
5.3.3.3 Most of the rotary machines are specialized with limited
applications.
5.3.3.4 A typical flooded screw-type rotary compressor, cross-sectional view
is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Typical Flooded Screw-Type Rotary Compressor

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6.

April 2013

Basic Principles of Compression

6.1

General
6.1.1

The basic principles underlying the compression of gases in centrifugal and

reciprocating compressors are discussed briefly below. These two types
cover the majority of compressors currently in operation. Discussion about
other types of compressors can be found in the references listed in Section 2.

6.1.2

Typically, the compression of gases is based upon the following:

a. Boyles Law
b. Charles Law
c. Avagadros Law
d. Ideal Gas Law
e. Bernoullis Equation

6.2

6.1.3

The thermodynamics of gas compression is derived from these laws above.

6.1.4

Few gases used in the process industry, such as air, follow ideal gas
relationships. Therefore, real gas equations of state should be used to
characterize the behavior of most process gases.

Centrifugal Compressors
6.2.1

In a centrifugal compressor, gas compression is most accurately modeled by

a polytropic path defined by the relationship:
n
PV = constant
Where:

6.2.2

Process Industry Practices

= Absolute Pressure

= Specific Volume

= Polytropic Exponent

The above relationship is depicted on a pressure-volume diagram shown in

Figure 10. An adiabatic process is also shown.

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Figure 10. Pressure-Volume Diagram for Compression Processes

6.2.3

The compression of gas from suction to discharge conditions may be

accomplished using a single impeller or multiple impellers depending upon
the pressure rise required, the need to improve efficiency, and to limit
pressure and temperature differentials. In either case, the polytropic curve in
the figure represents the pressure-volume path that the gas follows as it flows
through the compressor.

6.2.4

A section of a compressor may consist of multiple impellers. As the gas is

compressed, its temperature increases. The gas may have to be cooled (using
gas intercoolers) between compressor stages or compressor sections to keep
its final discharge temperature below the maximum allowable temperature.

6.2.5

The efficiency of compression depends on the aerodynamic design and

operating condition of the impellers and the stationary gas passages and
elements. This efficiency can be defined as follows:
Polytropic Efficiency, p =

Reversible Work Input

Enthalpy Rise

6.2.6

The enthalpy rise of a gas may be obtained from a Mollier chart of the gas
being compressed if it is a single component. Frequently, however, process
gases are a mixture of several hydrocarbon gas elements. Computer programs
are available to calculate required thermodynamic properties of gas mixtures.

6.2.7

The polytropic exponent is not a constant during the compression cycle.

However, for most practical applications, it can be assumed to be a constant.
Therefore, along a polytropic path, the ratio of the reversible work input to
the enthalpy rise is constant.

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6.2.8

April 2013

The exponent n is related to the ratio k of specific heats Cp/Cv and the
polytropic efficiency p approximately as follows:
n -1
n

6.2.9

k -1
k

The work input per unit mass is typically referred to as polytropic head and
can be evaluated as follows:

Polytropic Head, H p

n 1

Pd n

- 1

MW(n - 1) / n Ps

Z avg R Ts

Where:
Zavg = Average Compressibility Factor of the gas
R = Universal Gas Constant(8314 J/kg-K) = (1545 ft-lbf/lbm-R)
MW = Gas Molecular Weight
T = Absolute Temperature of the Gas
P = Absolute Gas Pressure
s, d = Subscripts that refer to suction/inlet and discharge conditions,
respectively
6.2.10 The gas power can be calculated using the following relationship:
wH p
Gas Power = C

Where:
C = a constant depending on units used = 1/3600 for SI units
(1/33,000 for U.S. Customary Units)
w = Mass Flow Rate
6.2.11 The shaft power is the sum of the gas power and frictional losses in bearings,
seals and gearing (if present).
6.2.12 Typically, the adiabatic process should be suitable to define the compression
of gases such as air that exhibit ideal gas behavior. In all other cases, the
polytropic process should be used. The following should be noted:
a. Adiabatic Head is less than Polytropic Head
b. Adiabatic Efficiency is less than Polytropic Efficiency

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6.2.13 The performance of centrifugal compressors is typically represented by headflow curves and efficiency-flow curves. A typical example of these curves is
shown in Figure 11.
6.2.13.1 Some manufacturers may also provide curves of pressure ratio and
shaft power versus volumetric flow rate.
6.2.13.2 The end points of the curves represent two important limits of
centrifugal compressors: surge and stonewall or choke point,
defined as follows:
a. Surge is characterized by cyclic variation (and even reversal)
of gas flow and discharge pressure, and it occurs if the flow
is reduced below the surge point. It is typically accompanied
by abnormal noise and vibration and it can lead to significant
damage if the compressors operating condition is not
changed quickly to increase the flow.
b. A stonewall or choke point condition is encountered if the
gas flow reaches sonic conditions somewhere in the
compressor passages. In this condition, flow through the
compressor cannot be increased further.
6.2.13.3 These performance curves vary typically with operating speed and
gas composition (density, molecular weight, etc.).
6.2.14 A gas being compressed in a centrifugal compressor approximately follows
the Fan Law which states that:
a. Volumetric flow rate is approximately proportional to the impeller
rotating speed
b. Head is approximately proportional to speed squared
c. Shaft power is approximately proportional to speed cubed
6.2.15 The Fan Law relationships govern the behavior of centrifugal compressors as
operating parameters change. However, deviation from the Fan Law
increases as the number of stages increases.

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Figure 11. Typical Performance Map of a Centrifugal Compressor

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6.3

April 2013

Reciprocating Compressors
6.3.1

Compression in a reciprocating compressor can be depicted on a pressure

volume diagram as shown in Figure 11.

6.3.2

For the most part, the process can be represented as an adiabatic process
using the adiabatic exponent k as defined in the following relationship:
k
PV = constant

6.3.3

The adiabatic process was also depicted in the pressure-volume diagram

shown in Figure 12.

6.3.4

Typically, reciprocating compressors do not have a performance curve like

the one for centrifugal units. These compressors can deliver whatever
pressure is required to overcome the discharge back pressure unless some
material or design limit is reached. Therefore, reciprocating compressors
should be provided with discharge relief valves to protect against exceeding
safety parameters.

6.3.5

Compression stage ratios should typically be 3:1.

6.3.6

Reciprocating compressors do not have surge and choke limitations which

are associated with centrifugal compressors.

Clearance Volume

Cylinder Pressure, P

Pd

Ps

Actual Capacity
Piston Displacement

Cylinder Volume, V

Figure 12. Pressure-Volume Diagram for Reciprocating Compressor

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6.3.7

April 2013

The work required for adiabatic compression is obtained in a manner similar

to the polytropic process. However, the exponent n is replaced with the ratio
of specific heats, k.
Therefore:

Adiabatic Head, H ad =

6.3.8

Pd

MW k 1 k Ps

Z avg R Ts

k-1
k

- 1

The volumetric efficiency Ev is defined as the ratio of the gas handled at inlet
conditions to the theoretical volume displaced by the compressor expressed
as a percent.

Ev

Actual Capacity
Piston Displacement

100 - {(Zs/Zd)rp1/k - 1}c - L

Where: rp = Pressure Ratio based on absolute pressures

c = Clearance Volume (see Figure 11)
L = Effects from internal leakage, gas friction, pressure drop through
valves, etc. (approximately 5% for lubricated compressors)
6.3.9

The volumetric efficiency defines the volume flow capability of a cylinder in

terms of inlet volume flow rate under a specific set of operating conditions.

6.3.10 It is important to recognize that the volumetric efficiency of a given cylinder

configuration (fixed diameter, stroke, speed, internal clearance volume) is
not a constant parameter.
a. Volumetric efficiency decreases with increasing pressure ratio across the
cylinder.
b. Volumetric efficiency decreases with increasing internal cylinder
clearance volume.
6.3.11 The volumetric efficiency (hence, capacity) of a given cylinder configuration
can be altered by varying the internal clearance within the cylinder control
volume.
6.3.12 The internal clearance within the cylinder control volume can be varied
through the use of fixed or variable volume clearance pockets which add
internal clearance volume to the cylinder if manually or automatically
actuated for capacity control.

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6.3.13 The theoretical discharge temperature is given by:

k - 1

P
Td = Ts d k
Ps

k is the ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv)

6.3.14 Where temperatures and pressures are in absolute units. The compressor
equipment manufacturers should be able to provide estimates of predicted
discharge temperature and shaft power for given operating conditions. K is
the ratio of specific heats.

7.

Selection Considerations
7.1

Safety
Safety attributes that should be considered in the selection of compressor systems
include:
a. Limiting gas properties (e.g., decomposition, flammability, toxicity). Normal
compressor operation should not violate these limiting gas properties.
b. Compatibility of process gas with materials of construction (e.g., H2S with
copper, ethylene oxide with brass, oxygen)
c. Containment, collection and disposal of seal and vent gases
d. Over-pressure protection
e. Process and economic issues listed below should also be evaluated for safety
implications

7.2

Process
7.2.1

Key process variables which should be considered in the selection of

compressor systems include:
a. Mass flow rate
b. Absolute suction pressure and absolute temperature
c. Absolute discharge pressure and absolute temperature
d. Gas physical properties (e.g., composition, molecular weight, ratio of
specific heats, compressibility)
e. Effects of process gas on the compressor system (e.g., corrosion, erosion,
fouling, chemical reaction, coking, polymerization, temperature,
condensation and liquid removal)
f.

Machinery interaction with the process gas (e.g., lubricants, buffer fluids,
seal media)

g. Solubility of the compressed gas in the lubricant in flooded screw

applications.

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h. Startup and shutdown process/mechanical conditions. These conditions

can be very different than normal operating conditions and may
significantly influence the selection process.
i.
7.2.2

7.3

Preferred and acceptable methods of capacity controls

Typically, a normal operating point is specified in the selection process. This

is the point at which the process is expected to operate. However, it is
common to expect variations in operating conditions. It is, therefore,
important to establish an expected range of the above variables during
normal operating, startup and shutdown conditions.

Economics
Economic issues which should be considered in the selection of compressor systems
include:
a. Life-cycle cost (trade-off between capital, operating cost and maintenance costs
over life of equipment)
b. User and vendor capabilities and facilities for maintaining the equipment. This
affects availability, maintainability, and mean time between failures. All of these
combine to determine the expected equipment reliability
c. Level of sparing dictated by production needs (e.g., warehoused or installed)
d. Standardization of equipment and lubricants
e. Project life expectancy

7.4

Site and Location

7.4.1

The most common, but important location, attributes that should be

considered in the selection of compressor systems include:
a. Available utilities
b. Accessibility to services and support
c. Environmental conditions

8.

7.4.2

Depending on the application, other location variables may have to be

considered as well.

7.4.3

The relative importance of the location variables should also be established

to ensure that the best type and size of compressor is selected.

Lubrication Systems
8.1

General
8.1.1

Compressors typically require oil for bearing lubrication and bearing cooling.
Oil is supplied by the lubrication system.

8.1.2

Components in a lubrication system should include:

a. Oil reservoir or tank
b. Lube oil pump or pumps

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c. Oil filters
d. Oil coolers
e. Associated piping and instrumentation
8.1.3

The cleanliness of the lubrication system is critical to long term reliability of

the compressor system.

8.1.4

Lubrication systems downstream of the filter should be constructed of

stainless steel.
Note: Lubrication systems constructed completely of stainless steel
eliminate many potential contamination issues caused by corrosion of
non-stainless steel components.

8.2

8.3

8.1.5

If carbon steel components are used, provision for cleaning and passivating,
such as a flushing jumper, should be included.

8.1.6

Flushing and cleaning of the lubrication system constitute major

commissioning activities.

Centrifugal Compressors
8.2.1

Lubrication oil is required for fluid film and rolling element journal and
thrust bearings.

8.2.2

Lubrication oil is supplied from a reservoir by a lube oil pump.

8.2.3

The pump may be compressor shaft-driven or independent. An independent

main oil pump and an auxiliary oil pump should be preferred for centrifugal
compressors.

8.2.4

Magnetic compressor bearings do not require oil lubrication.

Reciprocating Compressors
8.3.1

Reciprocating compressor cylinders may be lubricated or non-lubricated

(with limits).

8.3.2

Lubricated reciprocating compressor cylinders utilize forced feed mechanical

lubricators.

8.3.3

Cylinders of lubricated compressors should be pre-lubricated before starting

the compressor.

8.3.4

If contamination of compressed gas by lubrication cannot be tolerated, nonlubricated cylinder designs are available for some applications that use piston
rings and rod packing which do not require cylinder lubrication. Nonlubricated cylinder designs are not suitable for all applications.

8.3.5

To prevent carry-over of oil from frame crankcase to cylinder, a distance piece

should be used between the frame and cylinder. The compressor crankcase also
contains the oil for the frame lubrication. A wiper packing is installed between
the crankcase and the distance piece to wipe excess crankcase oil from the
piston rod.

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8.4

COMPLETE REVISION
April 2013

Rotary Compressors
8.4.1

Rotary compressors may be lubricated or non-lubricated.

8.4.2

Flooded Screw Compressors

8.4.2.1 Flooded screw compressors use common oil systems for lubricating
the rotors, sealing clearances, removing heat of compression and
lubricating bearings.
8.4.2.2 A large amount of oil is circulated through the compressor. This oil
is in contact with process gas and in addition to providing
lubrication; it assists in removing the heat of compression from the
process gas. After passing through the compressor, it is separated
from the gas and returned to the lubricating points as well as to the
compressor inlet.
8.4.2.3 Large flooded screw compressors may have timing gears to maintain
rotor to rotor relationship.

8.4.3

Vane compressors should have a minimum amount of oil injected to lubricate

the sliding vanes in the cylinder.

8.4.4

Straight Lobe and Dry Screw Compressors

8.4.4.1 Straight lobe and dry screw compressors do not use liquid for sealing
the rotor clearances and driving the non-coupled rotor.
8.4.4.2 Lubrication is required for bearings and gears.
8.4.4.3 The compressors are provided with seals which separate the
lubrication from the process.
8.4.4.4 The size and complexity of the lubrication and seal oil systems will
vary considerably with compressor size, type and application.
8.4.4.5 The rotor-to-rotor relationship is maintained by timing gears on each
rotor.

9.

Seal Systems
9.1

General
9.1.1

Compressor seals restrict or prevent process gas leaks to the atmosphere or

seal fluid leaks into the process stream over a specified operating range,
including start-up and shut-down conditions.

9.1.2

Depending on the application, the seals may be of a dry or liquid lubricated

type.

9.1.3

In applications where leakage can be tolerated, a labyrinth seal may be used.

9.1.4

Seals may require a buffer gas, seal oil, or both.

9.1.5

Manufacturers provide a variety of seals and sealing systems to meet the

intended service.

9.1.6

If seals require higher pressure oil than required by bearings, seal oil
requirements may be met by booster pumps or a separate system.

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9.2

April 2013

9.1.7

Seal selection also depends on whether the shaft is rotating or a reciprocating

(piston rod).

9.1.8

If completely separate seal oil and lubrication systems are required, major
items such as coolers, filters, reservoirs and pumps should be provided for
each of the seal oil and lubrication systems.

9.1.9

If gas handled by a compressor causes contamination, chemical reaction or

any other deterioration of oil, sealing systems should completely isolate gas
from lubrication.

Dry Shaft Seals

9.2.1

Dry shaft seals are available in five general types:

a. Labyrinth
b. Bushing (Carbon Ring)
c. Film-Riding Face Seal
d. Contacting Face Seal
e. Circumferential Seal

9.3

9.2.2

A combination of two or more types can be used to achieve the required

result.

9.2.3

Labyrinth seals should be used where high leakage rate can be managed or
tolerated. Labyrinth seals have no pressure or speed limits and may
incorporate buffer gas.

9.2.4

Bushing seals function by inhibiting flow through a close clearance around

the shaft. The leakage rate can be relatively high. Bushing seals may be used
as a single bushing or a series of bushings and may incorporate buffer gas
and vents.

9.2.5

Film-riding face seals (also known as mechanical seals) can seal high
pressures and allow high shaft speeds. They are used in single, tandem, or
double arrangement and require clean process, flush, or buffer gas. Double
seals with buffer gas pressure higher than process gas pressure prevent any
leakage of process gas past the seal.

9.2.6

Contacting face seals and circumferential seals are less commonly used in
compressors. They have limited shaft speed capability and shorter life.

Liquid Film Seal (Oil Film Seal)

9.3.1

Liquid film seals should be available in eight general types:

a. Labyrinth
b. Bushing (Carbon Ring)
c. Windback (Reversed Helical Groove Bushing)
d. Restricted Bushing (Trapped Bushing)
e. Film-Riding Face Seal
f.

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g. Circumferential Seal
h. Lip Seal

9.4

10.

9.3.2

The liquid film seal or oil film seal is particularly applicable to high speed
machines.

9.3.3

The actual seal is accomplished by a thin oil film supplied by the seal oil
pump to a space between the rotating and stationary seal elements.

9.3.4

This oil contacts process gas and is degassed before returning to the oil
reservoir.

9.3.5

Contaminated oil should be reconditioned or discarded.

9.3.6

If handling hazardous, toxic, or emission-regulated gases, the seal also

should prevent gas leakage to the atmosphere after the compressor has
tripped due to seal oil system failure.

9.3.7

Various devices within the seal support system are available to assure that
the compressor seal contains the gas at a standstill, even if no seal oil is being
pumped to the seal.

9.3.8

Elevated seal oil tanks can provide for the necessary static differential
pressure of the fluid above the sealing pressure for a sufficient time to allow
the compressor to be depressurized before the elevated tank oil supply is
depleted.

Packing Glands
9.4.1

Packing glands are another type of sealing system and should be used in
reciprocating compressors to control gas leakage from the cylinders.

9.4.2

The packing gland contains a series of segmented packing rings around the
piston rod.

9.4.3

A purge gas, such as nitrogen, may be used to provide a positive seal from
the atmosphere and improve the venting of the process gas from the sealing
area.

9.4.4

The leakage is typically vented to a low pressure vent system or to a low

pressure flare header.

9.4.5

Care should be exercised to ensure that the packing gland pressure is

compatible with the flare header pressure.

Ancillary Equipment
10.1

Ancillary equipment and supporting systems that should be part of the selection and
operation of compressors include the following:
a. Drivers
b. Couplings
c. Gearboxes
d. Cooling Systems (inter- and aftercoolers)
e. Pulsation Suppressors

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f.

April 2013

Separators (process gas, seal and lube oil)

g. Control Systems including Anti-Surge Systems

h. Monitoring Systems (performance and vibration)
i.

Piping Systems including Safety Valves

j.

Foundation, Grouting and Mounting Plates

k. Suction Strainers and Filters

l.

Silencers

10.2

Discussion of the above topics is beyond the intended scope of this Practice.
However, all of them play a very important role in the selection, design, installation
and reliable operation of compression systems.

10.3

Figure 13 summarizes the important sub-elements of some of th ancillary equipment

items.

Gear Box

Driver
Turbine
Motor
Engine

Coupling

Coupling

Reducing/Increasing
Transmission
Clutch

Shaft
Shaft Bearings
Bearings
(Journal,
(Journal, Pressure
Pressure Dam,
Dam,

Monitoring System
Vibration Condition
Process Control
Driver Load

Seal
Seal System
System

Seal
Seal
Sealing
Sealing Fluid
Fluid Supply
Supply System
System
Seal
Seal Leakage
Leakage Control
Control System
System
Atmospheric
Atmospheric Drain
Drain System
System

Pulsation
Pulsation Suppressors
Suppressors
Acoustical
Acoustical Control
Control

(For
(For Positive
Positive Displacement
Displacement
Compressors
Compressors only)
only)

Dynamic
Positive Displacement

Bearings
Bearings

Lubrication
Lubrication System
System

Bearing
Bearing Lubrication/Cooling
Lubrication/Cooling
Oil
Oil Reservoir/Filtration
Reservoir/Filtration
Lube
Oil
Lube Oil Pumps
Pumps
Piping/Instrumentation
Piping/Instrumentation

Compressor

(If Required)

Operational
Operational and
and Control
Control Systems
Systems

Operating
Operating Limits
Limits (Surge,
(Surge, Choke)
Choke)
Capacity
Capacity Variance
Variance (Variable
(Variable Speed,
Speed, Inlet
Inlet Guide
Guide Vanes,
Vanes,

Suction
Suction Throttling,
Throttling, Discharge
Discharge Throttling)
Throttling)

Emergency
Emergency Shutdown
Shutdown (Overspeed
(Overspeed Trip,
Trip, High
High Thrust,
Thrust,

High
High Vibration)
Vibration)

Tilt-Pad)
Tilt-Pad)
Thrust
Thrust Bearings
Bearings

Cooling
Cooling System
System

Compressor
Compressor Cylinder
Cylinder
Lube/Seal
Lube/Seal Oil
Oil
Interstage/Aftercooler
Interstage/Aftercooler
Driver
Driver

Coupling
Coupling

Lubricated
Lubricated
Non-Lubricated
Non-Lubricated (Flexible
(Flexible

Element,Disc,
Disc,Diaphragm)
Diaphragm)
Element,

Special
Special

Figure 13. Ancillary and Supporting Systems for Compressor Applications

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10.4

April 2013

Detail specifications and Practices for specific equipment types covered in this
guideline may be found in the following list:
10.4.1 Process Industry Practices (PIP)
PIP REIE686/API RP686 - Recommended Practices for Machinery
Installation and Installation Design
PIP REEE003 - Application of General Purpose Non-Lubricated Flexible
Couplings
10.4.2 Application of Industry Codes and Standards to Select Ancillary
Equipment

American Petroleum Institute (API)

Note: Selected parts of API data sheets and specifications can be used
to purchase non API compliant equipment due to the
thoroughness of the documents.
API 611 can be used to develop specific requirements and data sheets
for horizontal or vertical turbines that are used to drive equipment that
is usually spared, relatively small in size or is in non-critical service.
They are generally used where steam conditions will not exceed a
pressure of 48 bar (700 pounds per square inch gauge) and a
temperature of 400C (750F) or where speed will not exceed 6000
revolutions per minute.
API 612 can be used to specify requirements and gives
recommendations for the design, materials, fabrication, inspection,
testing and preparation for shipment for steam turbines in specialpurpose services. It also covers the related lube-oil systems,
instrumentation, control systems and auxiliary equipment.
API 613 can be used to specify the minimum requirements for
special-purpose, enclosed, precision single- and double-helical oneand two-stage speed increasers and reducers of parallel-shaft design
API 614 can be used to specify the minimum requirements for
lubrication systems, oil-type shaft-sealing systems, dry gas face-type
shaft-sealing systems, and control oil systems for general or special
purpose applications.
API 617 can be used to specify the minimum requirements for axial
compressors, single-shaft and integrally geared process centrifugal
compressors and expander-compressors.
API 618 can be used to specify the minimum requirements for
reciprocating compressors and their drivers for handling process air or
gas with either lubricated or non-lubricated cylinders. Compressors
covered by this standard are of moderate- to-low speed and in critical
services. Also covered are related lubricating systems, controls,
instrumentation, intercoolers, aftercoolers, pulsation suppression
devices, and other auxiliary equipment.

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API 619 can be used to specify the minimum requirements for dry and
oil-flooded helical lobe rotary compressors used for vacuum or
pressure or both.
API 670 can be used to specify the minimum requirements for a
machinery protection system measuring radial shaft vibration, casing
vibration, shaft axial position, shaft rotational speed, piston rod drop,
phase reference, overspeed, and critical machinery temperatures.
API 671 can be used to specify the minimum requirements for
special-purpose couplings that transmit power between the rotating
shafts of two pieces of equipment.
API 672 can be used to specify the minimum requirements for
constant-speed, packaged, general purpose and special duty integrally
geared centrifugal air compressors, including their accessories.
API 677 can be used to specify the minimum requirements for
general-purpose, enclosed single and multistage gear units
incorporating parallel shaft helical and right angle spiral bevel gears.

American Society of Mechanical Engineering (ASME)

ASME B19.3 can be used to determine the requirements for safety
devices and protective facilities to prevent compressor accidents as a
result of excessive pressure.
ASME PTC-10 can be used to determine the thermodynamic
performance of an axial or centrifugal compressor or exhauster doing
work on a gas of known or measurable properties under specified
conditions.

Association of German Engineers (VDI)

VDI 2045 can be used for acceptance and performance tests on turbo
compressors and displacement compressors.

Gas Processors Suppliers Association

Engineering Data Book is a source of basic design information along
with data and procedures that can be used to determine operating and
design parameters.

10.4.3 Other References

Compressors: Selection and Sizing, 2nd ed., Gulf Publishing Co., Royce
N. Brown
Compressor Application Engineering, Volume 1, Compression
Equipment, Gulf Publishing Co., Pierre Pichot
Compressor Application Engineering, Volume 2, Drivers for Rotating
Equipment, Gulf Publishing Co., Pierre Pichot
Leak-Free Pumps & Compressors, Elsevier Advanced Technology,
Gerhard Vetter

Process Industry Practices

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