Kidney Diseases

Use of Intravenous Iron Supplementation in Chronic

Kidney Disease
An Update

1Department of Renal
Medicine, Kings College
Hospital, London, UK
2Research and Development
Department, Vifor PharmaVifor
International Inc, St Gallen,
Switzerland
Keywords. iron(III)-hydroxide
sucrose complex, ferric
carboxymaltose, ferumoxytol,
iron isomaltoside 1000, irondextran complex

Review

Iain C Macdougall,1 Peter Geisser2

Iron deficiency is an important clinical concern in chronic kidney

disease (CKD), giving rise to iron-deficiency anemia and impaired
cellular function. Oral supplementation, in particular with ferrous
salts, is associated with a high rate of gastrointestinal side effects
and is poorly absorbed, a problem that is avoided with intravenous
iron. The most stable intravenous iron complexes (eg, iron dextran,
ferric carboxymaltose, ferumoxytol, and iron isomaltoside 1000)
can be given in higher single doses and more rapidly than less
stable preparations (eg, sodium ferric gluconate). Iron complexes
that contain dextran or dextran-derived ligands can cause dextraninduced anaphylactic reactions, which cannot occur with dextranfree preparations such as ferric carboxymaltose and iron sucrose.
Test doses are advisable for conventional dextran-containing
compounds. Iron supplementation is recommended for all CKD
patients with anemia who receive erythropoiesis-stimulating
agents, whether or not they require dialysis. Intravenous iron is
the preferred route of administration in hemodialysis patients,
with randomized trials showing a significantly greater increase
in hemoglobin levels for intravenous versus oral iron and a low
rate of treatment-related adverse events. In the nondialysis CKD
population, the erythropoietic response is also significantly higher
using intravenous versus oral iron, and tolerability is at least
as good. Moreover, in some nondialysis patients intravenous
iron supplementation can avoid, or at least delay, the need for
erythropoiesis-stimulating agents. In conclusion, we now have
the ability to achieve iron replenishment rapidly and conveniently
in dialysis-dependent and nondialysis-dependent CKD patients
without compromising safety.
IJKD 2013;7:9-22
www.ijkd.org

IRON DEFICIENCY IN KIDNEY DISEASE

Iron deficiency is an important clinical concern
in chronic kidney disease (CKD), arising from
multiple factors directly or indirectly related to
kidney dysfunction.1-3 Dietary intake of iron may be
inadequate due to poor appetite or advice to consume
a low-protein diet, possibly exacerbated by chronic
iron loss from repeated intestinal bleeding resulting
from CKD-related abnormal platelet function. The

chronic inflammatory status of many CKD patients

induces increased hepcidin synthesis, which in turn
inhibits uptake of dietary iron by enterocytes and
export of iron from enterocytes, macrophages, and
storage cells. These effects restrict the availability of
iron for hemoglobin synthesis and other functions.
In patients undergoing hemodialysis, regular
blood loss compounds these problems, but even
in nondialysis CKD (ND-CKD), iron deficiency

Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases | Volume 7 | Number 1 | January 2013

Intravenous Iron SupplementationMacdougall and Geisser

is estimated to affect over half of all adults with
CKD Stage 3 or 4.4 Iron deficiency is particularly
prevalent in CKD patients receiving treatment with
an erythropoiesis-stimulating agent (ESA) due to
the marked increase in the demand for iron,1 and is
a major cause of nonresponsiveness to ESA therapy
with associated negative implications for anemia
correction and healthcare costs.5
In addition to the well-recognized consequences
of iron-deficiency anemia, such as fatigue,
reduced exercise capacity,6 and potentially serious
consequences for the patients health and quality
of life, iron deficiency also impairs other critical
cellular functions such as the generation of cellular
energy in skeletal and heart muscle, oxygen storage
in myoglobin, T-lymphocyte proliferation and
function, neuron myelination, and DNA synthesis.
Recognizing the pivotal metabolic role of iron, the
European Best Practice Guidelines7 and the Kidney
Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative8 recommend
a minimum serum ferritin level above 100 ng/
mL and a minimum transferrin saturation (TSAT)
greater than 20% in ESA-treated CKD patients. In
addition, the recently published Kidney Disease
Improving Global Outcomes Clinical Practice
Guideline for Anemia in CKD recommends even
more liberal thresholds for the use of iron therapy,
suggesting that clinicians consider the potential

for iron to increase hemoglobin in patients who

have a serum ferritin concentration of 500 ng/mL
or less and a TSAT level of 30% or less.9

METABOLISM OF IRON
Iron in the body is primarily found in the form
of hemoglobin within erythrocytes (accounting for
approximately 60% of all iron), within myoglobin
in the muscles, and stored in the protein ferritin
and, to some extent, in hemosiderin. 10 A small
amount (2% to 3%) of iron is present within heme
and nonheme proteins and enzymes, and a tiny
proportion (<0.2%) is bound to the transport protein
transferrin.10 Iron is essential for cell metabolism and
growth, and is distributed between 3 compartments
in the cell: the transit pool, the storage pool, and
the functional pool. The intracellular transit pool
is often called the labile iron pool, and its exact
chemical nature remains uncertain, although it
has been suggested that iron(II)glutathione is a
dominant component of this pool. 11 The main
storage compartment is cytosolic ferritin, from
which iron can be mobilized as and when required.
The functional iron pool can be divided into
extramitochondrial and mitochondrial functional
iron, the organelle in which heme synthesis and
iron-sulfur protein synthesis occur.
The same properties that enable iron to be an

Figure 1. The metabolism of iron.

10

Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases | Volume 7 | Number 1 | January 2013

Intravenous Iron SupplementationMacdougall and Geisser

efficient cofactor in controlled redox reactions are
also responsible for its toxicity. Under physiological
conditions, iron mainly exists in 2 valence states: Fe2+
(ferrous) and Fe3+ (ferric). Cycling between the two
states can lead to formation of reactive oxygen species
(ROS) and thus oxidative stress. Iron is therefore
highly regulated within the body, transported and
stored tightly bound to iron-specific proteins in a
nonredox active form. Iron in food exists largely as
Fe3+, which upon reduction to Fe2+ by a membrane
reductase and subsequent transport through the
enterocyte membrane, is oxidized back to Fe 3+
after being exported out of the enterocytes. Ferric
is tightly bound to the transport protein transferrin
in the plasma for delivery to the tissues (Figure1).12
Iron is primarily stored in the form of ferritin in the
liver and in the reticuloendothelial system.
Under normal circumstances, iron uptake from
the gut is tightly regulated and transferrin is only
approximately one-third saturated.3 Thus, the levels
of nontransferrin bound iron (NTBI), a form of
iron that might induce oxidative stress (see next
section), are kept undetectably low.

IRON THERAPY
Oral Versus Parenteral Iron Therapy
Iron supplementation can replenish iron stores
effectively in the majority of patients where dietary
intervention is inadequate. Oral iron supplements,

particularly ferrous salts, are frequently prescribed

in response to iron-deficiency anemia or iron
deficiency. Although inexpensive and convenient,
oral iron therapy has several important limitations
(Table 1). First, interactions with foodstuffs can
lead to precipitation of Fe3+ in the gastrointestinal
tract, especially at high doses (2 to 3 times 60 or 100
mg iron). The oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+ can lead to
formation of ROS, provoking local oxidative damage
at the mucosal boundary and local toxicity in the
gut with symptoms such as vomiting, dyspepsia,
diarrhea, and heartburn. Such adverse effects
contribute to widespread noncompliance with iron
salt supplement regimens. Second, the efficacy of oral
iron salts is limited by poor absorption of iron from
the gastrointestinal tract, a problem that is exacerbated
by various well-recognized interactions with drugs
such as proton pump inhibitors, tetracyclines, and
phosphate binders.13 This problem is compounded
by inhibition of iron uptake and export from the
enterocytes to the plasma due to elevated hepcidin
levels in patients with chronic inflammation.14 Taking
iron salts with food inhibits absorption further,
which is unfortunate since concomitant food can
ameliorate gastrointestinal side effects.
Finally, passive and uncontrolled diffusion of
Fe2+ from the gut directly into the blood can occur
following administration of high doses of oral ferrous
salt preparations.15 This, in turn, can lead to high

Table 1. Characteristics of Oral Ferrous Salts Versus Intravenous Iron Therapy

Characteristic
Intestinal
absorption

Oral Iron
Intravenous Iron
Impaired by concomitant food (depending on
Parenteral administration
formulation)
Impaired by concomitant medication (eg,
phosphate binders, gastrointestinal medications
that reduce acidity)
Iron uptake and export of iron from enterocytes via
ferroportin inhibited by elevated hepcidin levels
Iron bioavailability May be inadequate during ESA therapy
Generally high
(accelerated erythropoiesis)
Safety
Gastrointestinal adverse events affect a high
Good safety profile
Risk of (rare) anaphylaxis with dextran-containing
proportion eg, constipation, dyspepsia, bloating,
nausea, diarrhea, heartburn
formulations
Most frequent with ferrous sulfate
Risk of (rare) hypersensitivity reactions
Oxidative stress

Can saturate the iron transport system if the iron

is rapidly released (eg, ferrous sulfate), resulting
in oxidative stress

Compliance

Pill burden: usually 3 tablets per day

Affected by gastrointestinal intolerance
Administered at home
Inexpensive

Convenience
Cost

Oxidative stress only observed with less stable

preparations which can release some more weaklybound iron (eg, sodium ferric gluconate, iron sucrose
similars) than stable (robust) iron complexes (eg, ferric
carboxymaltose, originator iron sucrose)
Administered by health care professional
Requires clinic visits
More expensive per dose but fewer doses required

Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases | Volume 7 | Number 1 | January 2013

11

Intravenous Iron SupplementationMacdougall and Geisser

levels of transferrin saturation, and thus, formation
of significant amounts of NTBI (often also called
free iron) in the plasma.16,17 The NTBI is taken
up from the plasma in an unregulated manner
by cells in the endocrine system, the heart and
other tissues, where it can catalyze the formation
of ROS, and thus induce oxidative stress.18-20 The
Fe 2+ and Fe 3+ iron redox cycling pair catalyzes
redox conversion of the relatively harmless oxygen
products superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide
into the highly reactive hydroxyl radical. The reaction
between Fe2+ and hydrogen peroxide is also called
the Fenton reaction.17 Hydroxyl radicals can damage
a wide range of biological macromolecules in the
immediate vicinity. 21 The NTBI can increase the
intracellular labile iron pool,20 which can thus initiate
a chain of reactions that result in lipid peroxidation,
membrane disruption, DNA strand breakage, and
immunological disturbances (Table 2).10
Stable non-ionic ferric iron complexes, such
as the Fe3+ polymaltose complex (Maltofer), have
been developed for oral use. These complexes are
able to avoid the risk of toxicity seen with iron
salts 22,24,33 and show improved gastrointestinal
tolerability compared to iron salts, 33 as well as
permit ingestion with food. 34 Even with stable
oral complexes, however, the bioavailability of
iron from oral supplements is low and thus they
must often be taken for 2 to 3 months even after
correction of anemia has been achieved in order
to replenish the bodys iron stores. Moreover, oral
iron is often inadequate to meet the demand for
iron during treatment with an ESA.1
Parenteral administration bypasses the absorption
difficulties associated with oral iron, even in the
presence of elevated hepcidin levels, 35 such that
hemoglobin concentration and iron parameters,

increase more quickly than with oral iron. 36-38

Parenteral iron is an appropriate option in CKD
patients with severe iron deficiency or deficiency
that proves unresponsive to oral iron therapy, 39
or in patients receiving ESA therapy, particularly
if there is a lack of response, or those undergoing
hemodialysis.
Parenteral iron preparations have evolved
dramatically since the first toxic injections of
iron-oxyhydroxide complex in the 1930s. 40 A
series of iron complexes has been developed for
intravenous use, in which various carbohydrate
ligands stabilize the iron core, ie, a polynuclear,
non-ionic Fe3+-oxyhydroxide core similar to that of
the physiological iron storage protein ferritin. The
first such complex, saccharated iron oxide, now
more commonly known as iron sucrose, was
introduced by Nissim and Robson41 and as Ferrum
Hausmann Intravenous by Hausmann Laboratories
(now Vifor Pharma) in 1949 in Switzerland. This
preparation is today produced by Vifor Pharma
under the brand name Venofer. Later, Imferon, a
low-molecular-weight iron dextran became available
in 1954. It was followed by other low-molecularweight iron dextrans (INFeD, CosmoFer) and a
high-molecular-weight dextran (Dexferrum), ferric
gluconate (Ferrlecit), ferric citrate (Jectofer), and
more recently, ferric carboxymaltose (Ferinject ),
iron isomaltoside 1000 (MonoFer), and ferumoxytol
(Feraheme , Rienso ). 40 The latest generation of
intravenous iron preparations (ferric carboxymaltose,
iron isomaltoside 1000, and ferumoxytol) permit
administration of a much higher dose of iron in a
single administration without the need for a test
dose. Additionally, a shift from intramuscular to
intravenous administration has been welcomed
by patients.

Table 2. Potential Oxidative Effects of Iron

Target
Lipids

Effect
Catalyzes the oxidative degradation of lipids, resulting in a chain
reaction of lipid peroxidation22,23 in cell membranes, fibroblasts and
macrophages.10 Mitochondria are particularly susceptible to lipid
peroxidation.24,25

DNA

Dose-related damage to DNA constituents,10,26 possibly potentiated by

ascorbic acid (vitamin C)27

Immune system

Gastric mucosa

12

Potential Implications
Range from changes in membrane
permeability to cell lysis. Oxidation
of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol
promotes atherosclerosis.

Single-strand breaks, base lesions, sugar

lesions, abasic sites and DNA-protein
cross links.
Less well understood, but some oral iron preparations (eg, iron protein- Low immunological defense can
potentially lead to higher infection
succinylate,28 iron citrate29 and ferrous sulfate30) can impair the
immunological profile, affecting various immune cell populations.10
rates.31
32
Gastric ulceration and erosions, leading
Damage to the gastric epithelium
to gastrointestinal side effects

Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases | Volume 7 | Number 1 | January 2013

Intravenous Iron SupplementationMacdougall and Geisser

Physicochemical Characteristics of Intravenous
Iron Preparations
The physicochemical properties of the iron
complexes used for intravenous iron therapy
(Table 3) determine which ones are best suited
for parenteral use and offer the lowest toxicity.
In particular, the thermodynamic stability of the
complexes defines the amount of weakly-bound
iron present in the intravenous iron formulation and
thus the extent of iron that is directly transferred
to transferrin. The thermodynamic stability thus
restricts the maximum amount of a preparation
that can be given in a single dose and the rate
of its administration, without formation of large
amounts of NTBI (Table 4).
Another important physicochemical parameter
is the reduction potential, ie, the propensity of the
complex to be reduced and thus induce oxidative
stress. In the most stable compounds (eg, iron
dextran, ferric carboxymaltose, and ferumoxytol),
the polynuclear iron core cannot be reduced
under physiological conditions to Fe2+by naturally
occurring reducing agents such as ascorbic acid
or reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate (NADPH), minimizing the risk of
oxidative stress reactions.24 Less stable preparations
such as iron gluconate are more prone to reduction.
Toxicology Studies and Iron-induced Oxidative
Stress in Nonclinical Models
Nonclinical toxicology studies with high iron
doses have shown that iron-related pathological
changes are observed first in the liver, 46 where

cells become infiltrated by iron, causing necrosis.

Subsequently, necrotic changes in organs such as
the heart, brain, adrenal glands, kidney, spleen,
and lungs start to become apparent.24
Studies with nonanemic rats have shown that
there are significant differences in oxidative stress
and inflammation levels induced by the different
intravenous iron preparationseven between stable
complexes that release negligible amounts of iron
directly into the circulation.47-49 Following 5 weekly
doses of 40 mg iron per kilogram of body weight,
increased levels of markers of oxidative stress and
inflammation were observed in animals treated with
sodium ferric gluconate, iron dextran, ferumoxytol,
or iron isomaltoside 1000 compared to animals given
ferric carboxymaltose or iron sucrose.47-49 This was
coupled with physiologic effects of hypotension
and impaired liver and kidney function.
Due to the complex manufacturing process
involved in the production of polynuclear Fe 3+
oxyhydroxide compounds, in particular iron
sucrose, iron sucrose similar formulations may
not show identical physicochemical properties and
toxicity profiles as those of the originator drug.
Several nonclinical studies have reported that
oxidative stress and inflammation vary between
different iron sucrose similar preparations compared
to the originator drug (Venofer).50-53 In the same
rat model as that described above, oxidative stress
and inflammatory responses in the liver, heart,
and kidneys were significantly higher in animals
receiving various iron sucrose similars versus the
originator, accompanied by reduced kidney function

Table 3. Physicochemical and Pharmacokinetics Parameters for Intravenous Iron Preparations42,43

Parameter
Molecular weight, Da

Reactivity
Half life, h
Cmax, mg Fe/L
Area under the
curve, mg Fe/L h
Clearance, L/h

Iron
Isomaltoside
(MonoFer)42

Iron Sucrose
(Venofer)

103000*
410000
165000
Low
27 to 30

1371

Ferric
Carboxymaltose
(Ferinject or
Injectafer)
150000*
not measured
233100
Low
7.4/9.4
37/331
333/6277

69000*
not measured
150000
Low
23.244
37.3
1010

43300*
252000
140100
Moderate
5.3
35.3
83.3

Sodium Ferric
Gluconate in Iron
Sucrose Solution
(Ferrlecit)
37500*
200000
164100
High
1.42
20.6
35.0

0.26/0.16

0.10

1.23

2.99

Ferumoxytol
(Feraheme)

Iron Dextran
(Imferon)
USP/BP

185000*
731000
275700
Low
14.7
130
922
0.11

*Method based on the USP Iron sucrose injection, relative to a pullulan standard, as reported in Geisser and colleagues24
Method according to Balakrishnan and colleagues,45 relative to a protein standard
Method according to Jahn and colleagues,42 relative to dextran standards

Standardized for a dose of 100 mg of iron

For Ferinject, the second PK-values represent the results from the clinical study with a dose of 1000 mg of iron.

Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases | Volume 7 | Number 1 | January 2013

13

Intravenous Iron SupplementationMacdougall and Geisser

Table 4. Dosing and Administration of Intravenous Iron Preparations According to Manufacturers Recommendations
Preparation
Ferric carboxymaltose
(Ferinject*)
Infusion

Maximum Single Dose

Minimum Duration of Infusion

or Injection

Test Dose Postdose Observation

Required
Required

Up to 1000 mg iron in a
single dose*
(maximum 20 mg Fe/kg),
or 200 mg in hemodialysis
patients

100 mg to 200 mg iron, no

minimum
200 mg to 500 mg iron, 6 min
500 mg to 1000 mg iron, 15 min

No

No

Up to 1000 mg iron in a
single dose*
(maximum 15 mg Fe/kg)

100 mg to 200 mg iron, no

minimum
200 mg to 500 mg iron, 100 mg
Fe/ min
500 mg to 1000 mg iron, 15 min

No

No

510 mg iron followed by

a second 510 mg iron
injection 3 to 8 days later

17 s (30 mg Fe/s)

No

Yes (minimum 30 min)

0 mg to 10 mg Fe/kg, 30 min
11 mg to 20 mg Fe/kg, 60 min
0 to 5 mg Fe/kg, 15 min
6 to 10 mg Fe/kg, 30 min
11 to 20 mg Fe/kg, 60 min
50 mg Fe/min

No

No

No

No

No

No

20 mg Fe/kg

4 to 6 h

Yes

Drip infusion

20 mg Fe/kg

Yes

Injection

20 mg Fe/kg

15 min for first 25 mg iron, wait 15

minutes, administer remainder
at minimum 20 min/dL solution
Administer 25 mg Fe over 1 to
2 min, wait 15 min, administer
remainder

Yes (minimum 1 h after

total dose infusion)
No

Yes

No

Yes/No

Only in some markets

(eg, USA, minimum
30 min)

Yes/No

Only in some markets

(eg, USA, minimum
30 min)

1h

No

Yes (minimum 30 min)

12.5 mg Fe/min

No

Yes (minimum 30 min)

Injection

Ferumoxytol (Feraheme)
Injection

Iron isomaltoside (Monofer)

Total dose infusion
20 mg Fe/kg
Drip infusion

200 mg to 1000 mg Fe per

week

Injection

100 mg to 200 mg iron

up to 3 times a week

Iron dextran (Cosmofer/

InFed)
Total dose infusion

Iron sucrose (Venofer)

Infusion

Injection

Ferric gluconate in sucrose

solution (Ferrlecit)
Infusion
Injection

100 mg to 400 mg iron

(500 mg iron in some
markets)
100 mg to 200 mg iron

125 mg iron (or 62.5 mg iron

in some markets)
125 mg iron

100 mg, 15 min

200 mg, 30 min
300 mg iron, 1.5 to 2.5 h
400 mg iron, 2.5 h
500 mg iron, 3.5 h
5 to 10 min

*Injectafed in some markets. See Ferinject prescribing information for dosing limitations.
Varies between markets.

and hepatic damage. 51-53 Three cases of adverse

events following conversion to an iron sucrose
similar have been described in the literature.54 In
a sequential, observational study undertaken at a
single center in France, 75 hemodialysis patients
exhibited a significant decrease in hemoglobin level

14

despite a higher dose of intravenous iron and ESA

therapy following conversion from iron sucrose
(Venofer) to an iron sucrose similar preparation.55
Dextran-related Toxicity
Iron complexes that contain dextran ligands can

Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases | Volume 7 | Number 1 | January 2013

Intravenous Iron SupplementationMacdougall and Geisser

cause dextran-induced anaphylactic reactions, albeit
rarely.56 Low-molecular-weight iron dextran has
been associated with severe anaphylactic events,
but at a far lower rate than high-molecular-weight
formulations. 57,58 Nevertheless, the risk of these
serious acute reactions has led to recommendations
that intravenous iron dextran should be avoided.7
Complexes that do not contain dextran, of course,
cannot induce such reactions although nondextran
induced hypersensitivity reactions are still possible.
Sodium ferric gluconate, iron sucrose, and
ferric carboxymaltose do not contain dextran or
any dextran derivatives and thus do not crossreact with antidextran antibodies in vitro. 59 In
ferumoxytol, the ligand is carboxymethyl dextran,
a dextran derivative.42 The ferumoxytol prescribing
information requires that patients must be observed
for signs and symptoms of hypersensitivity for
at least 30 minutes after its administration. One
case of laboratory-proven anaphylaxis related to
ferumoxytol has been reported in a patient with
a previous reaction to iron dextran.60 The ligand
in iron isomaltoside 1000 is a very-low-molecularweight hydrogenated dextran (3 to 5 glucose
units) which has been shown to cross-react with
antidextran antibodies in vitro,59 possibly because
it may act as a polyvalent dextran when it is bound
to the polynuclear iron core. Although the isolated
ligand is not immunogenic, iron isomaltoside 1000
should be used with caution in patients who have
experienced a previous anaphylactic reaction to
iron dextran. Clinical data show, however, that
iron sucrose can be administered to patients with
a previous reaction to iron dextran.61-64
Reliable clinical evidence regarding the relative
incidence of hypersensitivity reactions to different
intravenous iron preparations is difficult to obtain
since the absolute rates of occurrence are low
and reporting tends to be poor. Additionally,
pharmacovigilance data from drug authorities are
inevitably skewed in favor of older products, due
to the tendency of prescribers to more actively
report adverse events related to more recently
available preparations (the Weber effect). Analyses
of data from the Food and Drug Administration
have shown a higher risk of anaphylaxis for lowmolecular-weight iron dextran versus sodium ferric
gluconate or iron sucrose,65 as would be expected,
and for ferumoxytol versus sodium ferric gluconate
or iron sucrose. 66 However, due to the inherent

bias in spontaneously reported pharmacovigilance

systems of this type, the value of performing such
analyses, as well as the clinical significance of such
reports, remains questionable.
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of
Intravenous Iron Preparations
Stable complexes such as iron dextran, ferric
carboxymaltose, iron isomaltoside 1000, and
ferumoxytol show longer terminal elimination rates
than iron sucrose,67 which in turn is eliminated more
slowly than sodium ferric gluconate (Table3). When
standardized, dose-normalized values of the area
under the concentration-time curve are compared,
it can be seen that area under the curve is largely
determined by the terminal elimination rate, ie, there
is a negative correlation between the area under the
curve and the elimination rate constants (Figure 2).
The bioavailability of iron from intravenous
iron preparations, defined as the the rate and
extent to which the active substance or active
moiety is absorbed from a pharmaceutical form
and becomes available at the site of action, 68
cannot be assessed simply by measuring plasma
concentrations of iron since iron is present
throughout the body, is constantly in flux between
different compartments, and is transported in the
plasma bound to iron-specific proteins. Moreover,
the key site of action for exogenous iron is the
erythrocyte, so plasma concentrations are not
biologically relevant. The optimal technique for
assessing iron bioavailability is to label the iron

Figure 2. Dose-normalized simulated single first-order

elimination kinetics for intravenous iron preparations, depicted
as fraction of total serum iron over time (adapted from reference
43).

Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases | Volume 7 | Number 1 | January 2013

15

Intravenous Iron SupplementationMacdougall and Geisser

in the complexes with radioactive or stable iron
isotopes and measure uptake in the erythrocytes.69
Using this technique, Beshara and colleagues have
shown that utilization of iron by erythrocytes
following a single intravenous administration
of iron sucrose 70 or ferric carboxymaltose 71 is
within the range of 91% to 99% in patients with
iron-deficiency anemia. Comparable data are not
available for other intravenous iron products.
Dosing and Indications for Current Intravenous
Iron Preparations
As discussed above, the physicochemical
characteristics, and thus the type of ligands of
iron complexes used for intravenous therapy,
determine the maximum dose and administration
times. Stable complexes that do not contain
dextran or dextran derivatives, such as ferric
carboxymaltose, can be administered rapidly in
large doses since the risk of oxidative stress is
lower than with smaller, less robust complexes.47
The opportunity to administer large single doses
with the newest preparations may reduce the need
for total dose infusions, thereby avoiding the risk
of iron overload and side effects such as arthralgia
in patients for whom the amount of iron required
to replenish stores is very high (eg, 2000mg iron).
Instead, 2 or even a single administration of ferric
carboxymaltose, ferumoxytol, or iron isomaltoside
1000 may be adequate. Conventional dextranbased preparations require a test dose and must be
administered slowly because they have the potential
for a hypersensitivity reaction, even though they
are large, stable complexes with tightly-bound
iron and thus have a low risk of oxidative stress.
Iron sucrose can generate significant amounts of
NTBI if administered in high doses; therefore, the
maximum recommended single dose is lower, and
the administration time is longer, than for type
I complexes (Table 4).24 Sodium ferric gluconate
(Ferrlecit ) releases relatively large amounts of
iron directly into the circulation and is therefore
administered slowly in small doses to limit the
potential for acute liver toxicity due to NTBI-induced
oxidative stress, as well as adverse events related
to high transferrin saturation, eg, metallic taste.
Clinical Experience With Intravenous Iron
Preparations in Kidney Disease
Iron supplementation is recommended for all

16

CKD patients who receive ESA therapy, whether

or not they require dialysis.1 Dialysis-dependent
patients usually have greater iron requirements
than ND-CKD patients.1 The European Renal Best
Practice guidelines state that iron supplementation
should be used first in any CKD patients with iron
deficiency, and that only once iron stores are replete
should ESA therapy be initiated. 72 The Kidney
Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative recommends
that iron supplementation should be given during
ESA treatment to maintain minimum serum
ferritin and TSAT levels in dialysis-dependent or
nondialysis patients with CKD, with intravenous
therapy the preferred route of administration in
hemodialysis patients.8 More recently, the Kidney
Disease Improving Global Outcomes Clinical
Practice Guideline for Anemia in CKD has suggested
the potential for an increase in hemoglobin in
patients with serum ferritin of 500 ng/mL or less
and TSAT of 30% or less.9
Intravenous iron in dialysis-dependent patients.
Several randomized trials have examined the
efficacy and safety of different intravenous iron
preparations in ESA-treated hemodialysis 73-76
a n d p e r i t o n e a l d i a l y s i s 37,77 r e c i p i e n t s w i t h
anemia (Table5). Two of these studies compared
intravenous iron (ferumoxytol or iron sucrose)
versus oral iron as de novo therapy, and each
found that the mean increase in hemoglobin was
approximately twice as high with intravenous
versus oral supplementation.73,75 A comparison of
sodium ferric gluconate in sucrose versus no iron
in anemic hemodialysis patients showed similar
but slightly less marked results which were still
significantly in favor of the intravenous iron
therapy, but in this cohort, baseline iron stores were
relatively high (mean serum ferritin, 761 ng/mL).74
Two other randomized trials have compared iron
sucrose versus oral iron 37 or no iron77 in anemic
peritoneal dialysis patients receiving ESA therapy,
and again, there was a significantly greater increase
in hemoglobin in the intravenous iron-treated
cohorts. No randomized studies have assessed the
use of iron isomaltoside 1000 in CKD recipients,
but in an 8-week noncomparative single-arm study
for which safety was the primary endpoint, 182
patients (161 on dialysis and 21 not on dialysis)
received either 4 intravenous bolus injections of
iron isomaltoside 1000, 100 mg to 200 mg iron per
dose, or, for 40 patients, a fast high-dose single

Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases | Volume 7 | Number 1 | January 2013

Intravenous Iron SupplementationMacdougall and Geisser

Table 5. Hemoglobin Response in Randomized Controlled Trials of Intravenous Iron in Dialysis Patients With Anemia

Study
Provenzano et al
200973
Coyne et al 200774

Li et al 200875

Kosch et al 200176

Singh et al 200677

Li et al 200837

Design

Population

Multicenter
Open label
5 weeks
Multicenter
Open label
6 weeks
Single center
Open label
8 weeks
Single center
Open label
6 months
Multicenter
Open label
8 weeks
Single center
Open label
8 weeks

230 hemodialysis
patients

Intravenous
Iron Arm
Ferumoxytol

134 hemodialysis Sodium ferric

patients
gluconate

Mean Hemoglobin Increase, g/dL

Intravenous
Control
Control Arm
ESA
P
Iron Arm
Arm
Oral iron (ferrous Yes
1.02 1.13 0.46 1.06 < .001
fumarate)
No iron

Yes

1.6 1.3

1.1 1.4

.03

136 hemodialysis
patients

Iron sucrose

Oral iron (ferrous Yes

succinate)

3.77

1.79

< .05

59 hemodialysis
patients*

Iron sucrose

0.09a

0.09a

> .05

96 peritoneal
dialysis patients

Iron sucrose

Sodium ferric
Yes
gluconate in iron
sucrose
No iron
Yes

1.3 1.1

0.7 1.1

46 peritoneal
dialysis patients

Iron sucrose

3.38

0.68

Oral iron (ferrous Yes

succinate)

.003

< .05

*Maintenance phase, ie, all patients had received iron supplementation and erythropoiesis-stimulating agent (ESA) therapy prior to study entry
(previous iron therapy was stopped 4 weeks before baseline)

infusion at baseline (in which the total calculated

iron requirement was infused over 30 minutes,
mean, 975238 mg iron). 78 In the 38 patients
for whom iron isomaltoside 1000 was the first
intravenous iron therapy, the mean hemoglobin
increased by 1.20 g/dL by week 8.
There is also evidence that the addition of
intravenous iron supplementation to ESA therapy
reduces the ESA doses required by dialysis patients
to achieve an adequate response, 75,77,79,80 with
consequent cost savings, although ESA dose has
not been the primary endpoint of any trial to date.
S a f e t y d a t a f r o m r a n d o m i z e d 37,73-77 a n d
nonrandomized78,81 studies indicate a low incidence
of treatment-related adverse events in hemodialysis
patients receiving intravenous iron therapy.
Three randomized studies reported no adverse
events related to intravenous iron therapy 37,75,76
or a similar incidence to that seen with oral iron
(ferrous fumarate) or no iron,73,74 with a low rate
of treatment-related adverse events.73,74,77 Only one
serious adverse event with a suspected relation
to intravenous iron therapy was reported, which
was a case of hypotension in a patient receiving
ferumoxytol that resolved within a few minutes.73
Given the efficacy and long-term experience
with iron sucrose and its cost advantage versus
new intravenous iron therapies, it is often used as
first-line therapy in the hemodialysis setting since

patients are already attending the unit frequently

for dialysis sessions. While iron sucrose can only
be administered in smaller doses than the newer
generation of intravenous iron complexes (Table4)
and thus requires multiple dosing, this does not
incur major inconvenience since specific clinical
visits are not necessary and intravenous access
is already established for the dialysis session.
It should be noted, however, that iron sucrose
similar preparations may not be therapeutically
equivalent to the originator complex (Venofer ).
In addition to preclinical data demonstrating
a greater potential for toxicity with some iron
sucrose similar preparations (see Toxicology
Studies and Iron-induced Oxidative Stress in
Nonclinical Models), there are preliminary data
to suggest clinical differences. 51,55 In a sequential
observational study of 75 ESA-treated hemodialysis
patients who were switched from Venofer to an
iron sucrose similar, the mean levels of hemoglobin
and TSAT decreased significantly in the 27 weeks
after conversion compared to the preceding 27
weeks. 55 These alterations were seen despite a
significant increase in the intravenous iron dose
and a 13.8% increase in ESA dose after the switch
as physicians attempted to maintain hemoglobin
levels at the pre-conversion level. One center has
described the onset of adverse events, including
severe hypovolemic dysregulation, after conversion

Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases | Volume 7 | Number 1 | January 2013

17

Intravenous Iron SupplementationMacdougall and Geisser

of 3 patients from Venofer to an iron sucrose
similar.51 Controlled clinical trials of iron sucrose
similars would appear warranted before their
widespread adoption.
Intravenous iron in nondialysis chronic kidney
disease patients. All but one randomized study
of intravenous iron versus oral iron (ferrous
sulfate or ferrous fumarate) in ND-CKD patients
have shown a significantly greater erythropoietic
response in the intravenous iron treatment arms
(Table 6). A hemoglobin increase of at least 1
g/dL has been observed in 50% to 100% more
patients randomized to intravenous iron versus
oral iron, 38,82,84 representing a clinically relevant
difference. The tolerability of intravenous iron
appears to be at least as good, or better, than that
of ferrous sulfate or ferrous fumarate in this setting,
and serious drug-related adverse events are rare
in ND-CKD patients receiving intravenous iron
within randomized studies.38,82-84
A question of particular interest is whether iron
supplementation alone can produce an adequate
increase in hemoglobin without ESA therapy, a
situation that would be desirable both in terms

of cost and the avoidance of ESA-related side

effects. There is an increasing body of evidence
to indicate that intravenous iron can avoid, or at
least delay, the need for ESA in some ND-CKD
patients.85 In one randomized trial by Agarwal and
colleagues, 75 ND-CKD patients were randomized
to sodium ferric gluconate or oral iron (ferrous
sulfate) without concomitant ESA therapy. 83
The increase in hemoglobin from baseline to the
end of the 6-week study was significant in the
intravenous iron group but not in the oral iron
arm. Subpopulation analyses of data from three
large randomized studies have been performed
among the patients without ESA therapy, each of
which showed a significantly greater hemoglobin
response among intravenous iron-treated patients
versus those randomized to oral iron (Table 7).38,82,84
Of note, in one randomized trial, the proportion of
patients achieving an increase in hemoglobin of at
least 1g/dL was similar with ferric carboxymaltose
and no ESA (53.2%) versus oral iron (ferrous
sulfate) given in combination with ESA therapy
(50.0%; Figure 3). 82 Consistent with this, in a
series of 30 ND-CKD patients who showed a mean

Table 6. Hemoglobin Response in Randomized Trials of Intravenous Versus Oral Iron in Nondialysis Chronic Kidney Disease Patients

Study
Qunibi et al 2011

82

Spinowitz et al
200838
Agarwal et al 200683
Van Wyck 200584

Intravenous
Design
n
Oral Iron Arm
Iron Arm
Multicenter Open 255
Ferric
Ferrous sulfate
label 8 weeks
carboxymaltose
Multicenter Open 304
Ferumoxytol
Ferrous
label 5 weeks
fumarate
Multicenter
75
Sodium ferric
Ferrous sulfate
Open-label
gluconate
Multicenter Open 188
Iron sucrose
Ferrous sulfate
label 7 weeks

ESA
Yes/No

Mean Hemoglobin Increase, g/dL

Intravenous Iron
Oral Iron
P
Arm
Arm
0.95 1.12
0.50 1.23
.005

Yes/No

0.82 1.24

No

0.4 0.8

0.2 0.9

0.7

0.4

Yes/No

0.16 1.02 < .001

> .05
.01

Table 7. Hemoglobin Response in Randomized Trials of Intravenous Versus Oral Iron in Nondialysis Chronic Kidney Disease Patients
not receiving Erythropoiesis-stimulating Agent Therapy

Study
Agarwal et al 2006

83

Qunibi et al 201182 and

Benjamin 200986*
Spinowitz et al 200838*
Van Wyck 200584*

Mean Hemoglobin Increase, g/dL

Intravenous
Oral Iron Arm
P
Iron Arm

0.4 0.8
0.2 0.9
> .05

Ferrous sulfate

1.16 1.1

0.75 1.1

.01

188*

Intravenous
Iron Arm
Sodium ferric
gluconate
Ferric
carboxymaltose
Ferumoxytol

Ferrous fumarate

0.62 1.02

0.13 0.93

.005

161*

Iron sucrose

Ferrous sulfate

Design

Multicenter Open
label
Multicenter Open
label 8 weeks
Multicenter Open
label 5 weeks
Multicenter Open
label 7 weeks

75
188*

Oral Iron Arm

Ferrous sulfate

0.7

0.4

.03

*Subpopulation analysis
P<.01 versus baseline

18

Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases | Volume 7 | Number 1 | January 2013

Intravenous Iron SupplementationMacdougall and Geisser

ferritin, 400 ng/mL to 600 ng/mL), low-dose ferric
carboxymaltose (targeting serum ferritin, 100 ng/
mL to 200 ng/mL), or oral iron (ferrous sulfate),
in a 1:1:2 randomization schedule.89

Figure 3. Proportion of hemoglobin responders (defined as

subjects with hemoglobin increase 1 g/dL on or before each
visit) among nondialysis patients with chronic kidney disease
randomized to ferric carboxymaltose or oral iron (ferrous sulfate),
with or without concomitant erythropoiesis-stimulating agent
(ESA) therapy (adapted with permission from reference 86).

*P<.001
**P<.01 for ferric carboxymaltose with ESA versus ferric
carboxymaltose with no ESA
P>.05 for ferric carboxymaltose with no ESA versus oral iron with
ESA
P>.05 oral iron with ESA versus oral iron with no ESA

hemoglobin increase of 0.73 g/dL 1 month after a

single infusion of ferric carboxymaltose (800 mg
iron), there was no difference in the hematopoietic
response between patients with (n=6) or without
(n=24) concomitant ESA therapy.87
These studies, however, were all of relatively
short duration (maximum 8 weeks). Data to 1 year
are available from a single-arm trial that evaluated
the effect of intravenous iron supplementation (iron
sucrose) in a series of 60 ND-CKD patients with
anemia who were not receiving ESA therapy. 88
Although the mean TSAT level in the study
population was 21.6%, the mean serum ferritin
level was 98 ng/mL, below recommended minimum
levels. Encouragingly, there was a significant
increase in the mean hemoglobin of 1.6 g/dL
from baseline to the 12th month. The most marked
increase was observed over the first 6 months
after the start of treatment, but was sustained and
increased further to the 12th month.89 Comparative
1-year data on the impact of intravenous iron in the
absence of ESA therapy in ND-CKD patients will
be provided by the ongoing FIND-CKD study, in
which 631 ND-CKD patients have been randomized
to high-dose ferric carboxymaltose (targeting serum

CONCLUSIONS
There is a growing recognition that an adequate
supply of iron is essential not only to avoid anemia
but also to maintain a good quality of life, and
it is becoming apparent that iron deficiency per
se merits treatment even in nonanemic patients.
The recent FAIR-HF trial randomized 459 irondeficient patients with chronic heart failure, with
or without anemia, to intravenous iron or oral
iron and included quality of life as a primary
endpoint.90 Results showed that intravenous iron
therapy improved quality of life in significantly
more patients than oral iron even in the absence of
anemia.57 Growing awareness of the clinical impact
of iron deficiency, coinciding with advances in the
safety and convenience of new intravenous iron
preparations, has resulted in a steady increase in
intravenous iron use in CKD patients. Partly based
on this experience, other therapeutic areas have seen
a dramatic rise in intravenous iron supplementation,
for example in cardiology, cancer-induced anemia,
inflammatory bowel disease, and gynecology.
Physicians now have a wider choice of
intravenous iron preparations than ever before.
The structures of new preparations permit far
larger doses of iron to be administered safely in
a single visit, an important feature for ND-CKD
patients in whom clinic attendance is required each
time an intravenous iron dose is given. Careful
attention to the dosing guidelines for individual
compounds remains essential, since differences in
physicochemical characteristics necessitate different
maximum doses and rates of administration.
Nevertheless, we now have the opportunity to
achieve iron replenishment rapidly and conveniently
in dialysis-dependent and ND-CKD patients.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The manuscript was drafted by a medical writer
based on a detailed outline agreed with the authors,
with funding from Vifor Pharma.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
Iain C Macdougall has received speakers fees,
honoraria, and consultancy fees from several

Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases | Volume 7 | Number 1 | January 2013

19

Intravenous Iron SupplementationMacdougall and Geisser

erythropoiesis-stimulating agent and intravenous
iron manufacturers, including Affymax, AMAG,
Amgen, Ortho Biotech, Pharmacosmos, Roche,
Takeda, and Vifor Pharma. Peter Geisser is a
consultant to Vifor Pharma.

16. Hutchinson C, Al-Ashgar W, Liu DY, Hider RC, Powell

JJ, Geissler CA. Oral ferrous sulphate leads to a marked
increase in pro-oxidant nontransferrin-bound iron. Eur J
Clin Invest. 2004;34:782-4.

REFERENCES

18. Ryan TP, Aust SD. The role of iron in oxygen-mediated

toxicities. Crit Rev Toxicol. 1992;22:119-41.

1. Locatelli F, Aljama P, Barany P, et al. European Best

Practice Guidelines Working Group. Revised European
best practice guidelines for the management of anaemia
in patients with chronic renal failure. Section III: Treatment
of renal anaemia. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2004;19:ii1631.
2. Fishbane S. Iron management in nondialysis-dependent
CKD. Am J Kidney Dis. 2007;49:736-43.
3. Handelman GJ, Levin NW. Iron and anemia in human
biology: a review of mechanisms. Heart Fail Rev.
2008;13:393-404.
4. Fishbane S, Pollack S, Feldman HI, Joffe MM. Iron indices
in chronic kidney disease in the National Health and
Nutritional Examination Survey 1988-2004. Clin J Am Soc
Nephrol. 2009;4:57-61.
5. Hrl WH. Non-erythropoietin-based anaemia management
in chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant.
2002;17:35-38.
6. World Health Organization. WHO Guidelines for the Use
of Iron Supplements to Prevent and Treat Iron Deficiency
Anemia WHO/NHD/01.3. 2001. Available from: http://www.
who.int/nutrition/publications/micronutrients/guidelines_
for_Iron_supplementation.pdf.
7. European Best Practice Guidelines. Section II: Targets for
anaemia treatment. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2004;19:ii615.
8. National Kidney Foundation. KDOQI clinical practice
guidelines and clinical practice recommendations for
anemia in chronic kidney disease. 3.2.Using iron agents.
Am J Kidney Dis. 2006;47:S58-70.
9. Dreke TB, Parfrey PS. Summary of the KDIGO guideline
on anemia and comment: reading between the (guide)
line(s). Kidney Int. 2012;82:952-60.
10. Crichton RR, Danielson BG, Geisser P. Iron therapy with
special emphasis on intravenous administration. 4th ed.
Bremen, Germany: UNI-MED Verlag AG; 2008.
11. Hider RC, Kong XL. Glutathione: a key component of the
cytoplasmic labile iron pool. Biometals. 2011;24:1179-87.
12. Hentze MW, Muckenthaler MU, Galy B, Camaschella C.
Two to tango: regulation of mammalian iron metabolism.
Cell. 2010;142:24-38.
13. Alleyne M, Horne MK, Miller JL. Individualized treatment
for iron-deficiency anemia in adults. Am J Med.
2008;121:943-8.
14. Darshan D, Frazer D, Anderson GJ. Molecular basis of
iron-loading disorders. Expert Rev Mol Med. 2010;12:e36.
15. Heinrich HC, Gabbe EE, Whang DH. [Dose dependency
of the intestinal absorption of iron in humans with normal
iron reserves and persons with prelatent-latent iron
deficiency]. Z Naturforsch B. 1969;24:1301-10. German.

20

17. Dresow B, Petersen D, Fischer R, Nielsen P. Nontransferrin-bound iron in plasma following administration
of oral iron drugs. Biometals. 2008;21:273-6.

19. Stohs SJ, Bagchi D. Oxidative mechanisms in the toxicity

of metal ions. Free Radic BioI Med. 1995;18:321-36.
20. Brissot P, Ropert M, Le Lan C, Loral O. Non-transferrin
bound iron: A key role in iron overload and iron toxicity.
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2012;1820:403-10.
21. Geisser P. Iron therapy with special emphasis on oxidative
stress. St Gallen, Switzerland: Vifor International Inc;
1998.
22. Tuomainen TP, Nyyssnen K, Porkkala-Sarataho E, et
al. Oral supplementation with ferrous sulphate but not
with non-ionic iron polymaltose complex increases the
susceptibility of plasma lipoproteins to oxidation. Nutr Res.
1999;19:1121-32.
23. King SM, Donangelo CM, Knutson MD, et al. Daily
supplementation with iron increases lipid peroxidation
in young women with low iron stores. Exp Biol Med
(Maywood). 2008;233:701-7.
24. Geisser P, Baer M, Schaub E. Structure/histoxicity
relationship of parenteral iron preparations.
Arzneimittelforschung. 1992;42:1439-52.
25. Zimmerman JJ. Oxyradical species and their relationship
to pathophysiology in pediatric critical care illness. Crit
Care Clin. 1988;4:645-60.
26. Anderson D, Yardley-Jones A, Hambly RJ, et al. Effects of
iron salts and haemosiderin from a thalassaemia patient
on oxygen radical damage as measured in the comet
assay. Teratog Carcinog Mutagen. 2000;20:11-26.
27. Rehman A, Collis CS, Yang M, et al. The effects of iron
and vitamin C co-supplementation on oxidative damage
to DNA in healthy volunteers. Biochem Biophys Res
Commun. 1998;246:293-8.
28. Zanni G, Ghini M, Mastrantoni M, Bonati ME. An
evaluation of the effect of iron treatment on some immune
parameters in sideropenic patients: preliminary report.
Curr Ther Res. 1989;45:48-52.
29. Rudd MF, Good MF, Chapman DE, Powell LW, Halliday
JW. Clonal analysis of the effect of iron on human
cytotoxic and proliferation T lymphocytes. Immunol Cell
Biol. 1990;68:317-24.
30. Santos M, De Sousa M. In vitro modulation of T-cell
surface molecules by iron. Cell Immunol. 1994;154:498506.
31. Devaki PB, Chandra RK, Geisser P. Effect of oral
supplementation with iron(III)-hydroxide polymaltose
complex on the immunological profile of adolescents with
varying iron status. Arzneimittelforschung. 2007;57:41725.
32. Eckstein RP, Symons P. Iron tablets cause
histopathologically distinctive lesions in mucosal biopsies
of the stomach and esophagus. Pathology. 1996;28:142-5.

Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases | Volume 7 | Number 1 | January 2013

Intravenous Iron SupplementationMacdougall and Geisser

33. Geisser P. Safety and efficacy of iron(III)-hydroxide
polymaltose complex: a review of over 25 years
experience. Arzneimittelforschung. 2007;57:439-52.
34. Kaltwasser JP, Werner E, Niechzial M. Bioavailability
and therapeutic efficacy of bivalent and trivalent iron
preparations. Arzneimittelforschung. 1987;37:122-9.
35. Auerbach M. Clinical experience with intravenous iron.
Transfus Altern Transfus Med. 2007;9:26-30.
36. Qunibi WY, Martinez C, Smith M, Benjamin J, Mangione
A, Roger SD. A randomized controlled trial comparing
intravenous ferric carboxymaltose with oral iron for
treatment of iron deficiency anaemia of non-dialysisdependent chronic kidney disease patients. Nephrol Dial
Transplant. 2011;26:1599-607.
37. Li H, Wang SX. Intravenous iron sucrose in peritoneal
dialysis patients with renal anemia. Perit Dial Int.
2008;28:149-54.
38. Spinowitz BS, Kausz AT, Baptista J, et al. Ferumoxytol for
treating iron deficiency anemia in CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol.
2008;19:1599-605.
39. Besarab A, Coyne DW. Iron supplementation to treat
anemia in patients with chronic kidney disease. Nat Rev
Nephrol. 2010;6:699-710.
40. Macdougall IC. Evolution of iv iron compounds over the
last century. J Ren Care. 2009;35:8-13.
41. Nissim JA, Robson JM. Intravenous treatment of anemia
with an iron-sucrose preparation. Lancet. 1949; 253:3267.
42. Jahn MR, Andreasen HB, Ftterer S, et al. A comparative
study of the physicochemical properties of iron
isomaltoside 1000 (Monofer), a new intravenous iron
preparation and its clinical implications. Eur J Pharm
Biopharm. 2011;78:480-91.
43. Geisser P, Burckhardt S. The pharmacokinetics and
pharmacodynamics of iron preparations. Pharmaceutics.
2011;3:12-33.
44. Nordfjeld K, Andreasen H, Thomsen LL. Pharmacokinetics
of iron isomaltoside 1000 in patients with inflammatory
bowel disease. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2012;6:43-51.
45. Balakrishnan VS, Rao M, Kausz AT, et al.
Physicochemical properties of ferumoxytol, a new
intravenous iron preparation. Eur J Clin Invest.
2009;39:489-96.
46. Britton RS, Ramm GA, Olynyk J, Singh R, ONeill R,
Bacon BR. Pathophysiology of iron toxicity. Adv Exp Med
Biol. 1994;356:239-53.
47. Toblli JE, Cao G, Oliveri L, Angerosa M. Assessment of
the oxidative stress induced by intravenous ferumoxytol,
ferric carboxymaltose, iron sucrose and iron dextran in a
nonclinical model. Arzneimittelforschung. 2011;61:399410.
48. Toblli JE, Cao G, Oliveri L, Angerosa M. Evaluation
of toxicity and oxidative stress induced by
intravenous isomaltoside 1000 in a nonclinical model.
Arzneimittelforschung. 2011;61:553-65.
49. Toblli JE, Cao G, Olivieri L, Angerosa M. Comparison
of the renal, cardiovascular and hepatic toxicity data
of original intravenous iron compounds. Nephrol Dial
Transplant. 2010;25:3631-40.

50. Martin-Malo A, Merino A, Carracedo J, et al. Effects

of intravenous iron on mononuclear cells during the
haemodialysis session. Nephrol Dial Transplant.
2012;27:2465-71.
51. Toblli JE, Cao G, Oliveri L, Angerosa M. Differences
between original intravenous iron sucrose and different
iron sucrose similar preparations. Arzneimittelforschung.
2009;59:176-90.
52. Toblli JE, Cao G, Oliveri L, Angerosa M. Comparison of
oxidative stress and inflammation induced by different
intravenous iron sucrose similar preparations in a rat
model. Inflamm Allergy Drug Targets. 2012;11;66-78.
53. Toblli JE, Cao G, Oliveri L, Angerosa M. Differences
between the original iron sucrose complex Venofer
and the iron sucrose similar Generis, and potential
implications. Port J Neprhol Hypert. 2009;23:53-63.
54. Stein J, Dignass A, Chow KU. Clinical case reports raise
doubts about the therapeutic equivalence of an iron
sucrose similar preparation compared with iron sucrose
originator. Curr Med Res Opin. 2012;28:241-3.
55. Rottembourg J, Kadri A, Leonard E, Dansaert A, Lafuma
A. Do two intravenous iron sucrose preparations have the
same efficacy? Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2011;26:3262-7.
56. Bailie GR, Clark JA, Lane CE, Lane PL. Hypersensitivity
reactions and deaths associated with intravenous iron
preparations. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2005;20:1443-9.
57. Hayat A. Safety issues with intravenous iron products in
the management of anemia in chronic kidney disease.
Clin Med Res. 2008;6:93-102.
58. Chertow GM, Mason PD, Vaage-Nilsen O, Ahlmn J. On
the relative safety of parenteral iron formulations. Nephrol
Dial Transplant. 2004;19:1571-5.
59. Neiser S, Wilhelm M, Schwarz K, Funk F, Geisser P,
Burckhardt S. Assessment of dextran antigenicity of
intravenous iron products by an immunodiffusion assay.
Port J Nephrol Hypert. 2011;25:219-24.
60. Santosh S, Podaralla P, Miller B. Anaphylaxis with
elevated serum tryptase after administration of
intravenous ferumoxytol. Nephrol Dial Transplant Plus.
2010;3:341-2.
61. Charytan C, Schwenk MH, Al-Saloum MM, Spinowitz BS.
Safety of iron sucrose in hemodialysis patients intolerant
to other parenteral iron products. Nephron Clin Pract.
2004;96:c63-6.
62. Aronoff GR, Bennett WM, Blumenthal S, et al. Iron
sucrose in hemodialysis patients: safety of replacement
and maintenance regimens. Kidney Int. 2004;66:1193-8.
63. Haddad A, Abbadi R, Marji A. Use of iron sucrose in
dialysis patients sensitive to iron dextran. Saudi J Kidney
Dis Transpl. 2009;20:208-11.
64. Van Wyck DB, Cavallo G, Spinowitz BS, et al. Safety
and efficacy of iron sucrose in patients sensitive to iron
dextran: North American clinical trial. Am J Kidney Dis.
2000;36:88-97.
65. Bailie GR, Hrl WH, Verhoef JJ. Differences in
spontaneously reported hypersensitivity and serious
adverse events for intravenous iron preparations:
comparison of Europe and North America.
Arzneimittelforschung. 2011;61:267-75.

Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases | Volume 7 | Number 1 | January 2013

21

Intravenous Iron SupplementationMacdougall and Geisser

66. Bailie GR. Comparison of rates of reported adverse
events associated with i.v. iron products in the United
States. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2012;69:310-20.
67. Danielson BG, Salmonson T, Derendorf H, Geisser P.
Pharmacokinetics of iron(III)-hydroxide sucrose complex
after a single intravenous dose in healthy volunteers.
Arzneimittelforschung. 1996;46:615-21.
68. European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal
Products. Committee for Proprietary Medicinal Products
(CPMP). CPMP/EWP/QWP/1401/98. Available from:
http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/
Scientific_guideline/2009/09/WC500003519.pdf Accessed
on 8 August 2012.
69. Wienk KJ, Marx JJ, Beynen AC. The concept of iron
bioavailability and its assessment. Eur J Nutr. 1999;38:5175.
70. Beshara S, Lundqvist H, Sundin J, Lngstrm B, et al.
Pharmacokinetics and red cell utilization of iron(III)hydroxide-sucrose complex in anaemic patients: a study
using positron emission tomography. Br J Haematol.
1999;104:296-302.
71. Beshara S, Srensen J, Lubberink M, et al.
Pharmacokinetics and red cell utilization of 52Fe/59Felabelled iron polymaltose in anaemic patients using
positron emission tomography. Br J Haematol.
2003;120:853-9.
72. Locatelli F, Aljama P, Canaud B, et al. Target haemoglobin
to aim for with erythropoiesis-stimulating agents: a
position statement by ERBP following publication of
the Trial to reduce cardiovascular events with Aranesp
therapy (TREAT) study. Nephrol Dial Transplant.
2010;25:2846-50.
73. Provenzano R, Schiller B, Rao M, Coyne D, Brenner
L, Pereira BJ. Ferumoxytol as an intravenous iron
replacement therapy in hemodialysis patients. Clin J Am
Soc Nephrol. 2009;4:386-93.
74. Coyne DW, Kapoian T, Suki W, et al. Ferric gluconate is
highly efficacious in anemic hemodialysis patients with
high serum ferritin and low transferrin saturation: results
of the Dialysis Patients Response to IV Iron with Elevated
Ferritin (DRIVE) Study. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007;18:97584.
75. Li H, Wang SX. Intravenous iron sucrose in Chinese
hemodialysis patients with renal anemia. Blood Purif.
2008;26:151-6.
76. Kosch M, Bahner U, Bettger H, Matzkies F, Teschner M,
Schaefer RM. A randomized, controlled parallel-group trial
on efficacy and safety of iron sucrose (Venofer) vs iron
gluconate (Ferrlecit) in haemodialysis patients treated with
rHuEpo. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2001;16:1239-44.
77. Singh H, Reed J, Noble S, Cangiano JL, Van Wyck DB;
United States Iron Sucrose (Venofer) Clinical Trials Group.
Effect of intravenous iron sucrose in peritoneal dialysis
patients who receive erythropoiesis-stimulating agents
for anemia: a randomized, controlled trial. Clin J Am Soc
Nephrol. 2006;1:475-82.

with elevated ferritin. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008; 19:372-9.

80. Fishbane S, Frei GL, Maesaka J. Reduction in
recombinant human erythropoietin doses by the use of
chronic intravenous iron supplementation. Am J Kidney
Dis. 1995;26:41-6.
81. Nissenson AR, Lindsay RM, Swan S, Seligman P, Strobos
J. Sodium ferric gluconate complex in sucrose is safe and
effective in hemodialysis patients: North American Clinical
Trial. Am J Kidney Dis. 1999;33:471-82.
82. Qunibi WY, Martinez C, Smith M, Benjamin J, Mangione
A, Roger SD. A randomized controlled trial comparing
intravenous ferric carboxymaltose with oral iron for
treatment of iron deficiency anaemia of non-dialysisdependent chronic kidney disease patients. Nephrol Dial
Transplant. 2011;26:1599-607.
83. Agarwal R, Rizkala AR, Bastani B, Kaskas MO, Leehey
DJ, Besarab A. A randomized controlled trial of oral versus
intravenous iron in chronic kidney disease. Am J Nephrol.
2006;26:445-54.
84. Van Wyck DB, Roppolo M, Martinez CO, Mazey
RM, McMurray S; for the United States Iron Sucrose
(Venofer) Clinical Trials Group. A randomized, controlled
trial comparing IV iron sucrose to oral iron in anemic
patients with nondialysis-dependent CKD. Kidney Int.
2005;68:2846-56.
85. Macdougall IC. Iron supplementation in the non-dialysis
chronic kidney disease (ND-CKD) patient: oral or
intravenous? Curr Med Res Opin. 2010;26:473-82.
86. Benjamin J, Qunibi W. A randomized controlled trial
comparing I.V. ferric carboxymaltose (FCM) to oral iron
in anemic nondialysis dependent CKD patients (with or
without erythropoiesis stimulating agent use). J Am Soc
Nephrol. 2009; 20:666A (SA-PO2422).
87. Tagboto S, Cropper L, Turner J, Pugh-Clarke K.
The efficacy of a single dose of intravenous ferric
carboxymaltose (Ferinject) on anaemia in a pre-dialysis
population of chronic kidney disease patients. J Ren Care.
2009;35:18-23.
88. Mircescu G, Grneata L, Capusa C, Ursea N. Intravenous
iron supplementation for the treatment of anaemia in
pre-dialyzed chronic renal failure patients. Nephrol Dial
Transplant. 2006;21:120-4.
89. Ferric Carboxymaltose Assessment in Subjects With Iron
Deficiency Anaemia and Non-dialysis-dependent CKD
(FIND-CKD). Available from: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/
show/NCT00994318.
90. Anker SD, Comin Colet J, Filippatos G, et al. Ferric
carboxymaltose in patients with heart failure and iron
deficiency. N Engl J Med. 2009;361:2436-48.

78. Wikstrm B, Bhandari S, Barany P, et al. Iron isomaltoside

1000: a new intravenous iron for treating iron deficiency in
chronic kidney disease. J Nephrol. 2011;24:589-96.

Correspondence to:
Iain C Macdougall, MD
Department of Renal Medicine, Kings College Hospital
Denmark Hill, London SE5 9RS, UK
Tel: +44 203 299 6233
Fax: +44 203 299 6472
E-mail: [email protected]

79. Kapoian T, OMara NB, Singh AK, et al. Ferric gluconate

reduces epoetin requirements in hemodialysis patients

Received October 2012

22

Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases | Volume 7 | Number 1 | January 2013