Tuberculosis Care: International Standards For

I N T E R N AT I O N A L S TA N D A R D S F O R
Tuberculosis Care
DIAGNOSIS
TREATMENT
PUBLIC HEALTH
Developed by the Tuberculosis Coalition for Technical Assistance (TBCTA)
TBCTA Partners:
Funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID)
Endorsements:
For an updated list of endorsers, see the Francis J. Curry National Tuberculosis Center website at http://www.nationaltbcenter.edu/international/ or the Stop TB Partnership
website at http://www.stoptb.org/.
Disclaimer:
Disclaimer: The information provided in this document is not official U.S. Government
information and does not represent the views or positions of the U.S. Agency for International Development or the U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Tuberculosis Coalition for Technical Assistance. International Standards for Tuberculosis
Care (ISTC). The Hague: Tuberculosis Coalition for Technical Assistance, 2006.
Contact information:
Philip C. Hopewell, MD
University of California, San Francisco
San Francisco General Hospital
San Francisco, CA 94110, USA
Email: [email protected]
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
List of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Standards for Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Standards for Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Standards for Public Health Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Research Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
Development of the International Standards for Tuberculosis Care (ISTC) was supervised
by a steering committee whose members were chosen to represent perspectives relevant
to tuberculosis care and control. The members of the steering committee and the areas
they represent are as follows:
Edith Alarcon (international technical agency, NGO, nurse)
R. V. Asokan (professional society)
Jaap Broekmans (international technical agency, NGO)
Jose Caminero (academic institution, care provider)
Kenneth Castro (national tuberculosis program director)
Lakbir Singh Chauhan (national tuberculosis program director)
David Coetzee (TB/HIV care provider)
Sandra Dudereva (medical student)
Saidi Egwaga (national tuberculosis program director)
Paula Fujiwara (international technical agency, NGO)
Robert Gie (pediatrics, care provider)
Case Gordon (patient activist)
Philip Hopewell, Co-Chair (professional society, academic institution, care provider)
Umesh Lalloo (academic institution, care provider)
Dermot Maher (global tuberculosis control)
G. B. Migliori (professional society)
Richard OBrien (new tools development, private foundation)
Mario Raviglione, Co-Chair (global tuberculosis control)
DArcy Richardson (funding agency, nurse)
Papa Salif Sow (HIV care provider)
Thelma Tupasi (multiple drug-resistant tuberculosis, private sector, care provider)
Mukund Uplekar (global tuberculosis control)
Diana Weil (global tuberculosis control)
Charles Wells (technical agency, national tuberculosis program)
Karin Weyer (laboratory)
Wang Xie Xiu (national public health agency)
Madhukar Pai (University of California, San Francisco & Berkeley) provided

scientific staffing.
Fran Du Melle (American Thoracic Society) provided administrative staffing and

coordinated the project.
Both functioned, in effect, as committee members, as well as providing invaluable
administrative and scientific assistance.
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS FOR TUBERCULOSIS CARE (ISTC)
JANUARY 2006
In addition to the committee, many individuals have reviewed the document and have
provided valuable input. All comments received were given serious consideration by the
co-chairs, although not all were incorporated into the document.
The following individuals had substantive comments on one or more drafts of the ISTC
that have been taken into account in the final document. The inclusion of their names
does not imply their approval of the final document.
Christian Auer
Mohammed Abdel Aziz
Susan Bachellor
Jane Carter
Richard Chaisson
Daniel Chin
Tin Maung Cho
David Cohn
Pierpaolo de Colombani
Francis Drobniewski
Mirtha Del Granado
Don Enarson
Asma El Soni
Anne Fanning
Chris Green
Mark Harrington
Myriam Henkens
Michael Iademarco
Kitty Lambregts
Mohammad Reza Masjedi
Thomas Moulding
PR Narayanan
Jintana Ngamvithayapong-Yanai
Hans L. Rieder
S. Bertel Squire
Roberto Tapia
Ted Torfoss
Francis Varaine
Kai Vink
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
List of Abbreviations
AFB
Acid-fast bacilli
ATS
American Thoracic Society
CDC
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CI
Confidence interval
COPD
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
DOT
Directly observed treatment
DOTS
The internationally recommended strategy for tuberculosis control
DST
Drug susceptibility testing
EMB
Ethambutol
FDC
Fixed-dose combination
HAART
Highly active antiretroviral therapy
HIV
Human immunodeficiency virus
IDSA
Infectious Diseases Society of America
INH
Isoniazid
IMAAI
Integrated Management of Adolescent and Adult Illness
IMCI
Integrated Management of Childhood Illness
ISTC
International Standards for Tuberculosis Care
IUATLD
International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (The Union)
KNCV
Royal Netherlands Tuberculosis Foundation
LTBI
Latent tuberculosis infection
MIC
Minimal inhibitory concentration
MDR
Multiple drug resistance
NAAT
Nucleic acid amplification test
NTP
National tuberculosis control program
PZA
Pyrazinamide
RIF
Rifampicin
RR
Risk ratio
STI
Sexually transmitted infection
TB
Tuberculosis
TBCTA
Tuberculosis Coalition for Technical Assistance
USAID
United States Agency for International Development
WHO
World Health Organization
ZN
Ziehl-Neelsen staining
JANUARY 2006
Summary
The purpose of the International Standards for Tuberculosis Care (ISTC) is to describe a widely accepted level of care that all practitioners, public and private,
should seek to achieve in managing patients who have, or are suspected
of having, tuberculosis. The Standards are intended to facilitate the effective engagement of all care providers in delivering high-quality care
for patients of all ages, including those with sputum smear-positive,
sputum smear-negative, and extra pulmonary tuberculosis, tuberculosis caused by drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (M. tuberculosis) organisms, and tuberculosis combined with
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection.
The Standards
are intended to
facilitate the effective
engagement of
all care providers
in delivering highquality care for
patients of all ages
and all forms of
TB including drugresistant TB and TB
combined with HIV
infection.
The basic principles of care for persons with, or suspected of

having, tuberculosis are the same worldwide: a diagnosis should
be established promptly and accurately; standardized treatment
regimens of proven efficacy should be used with appropriate
treatment support and supervision; the response to treatment
should be monitored; and the essential public health responsibilities must be carried out. Prompt, accurate diagnosis and
effective treatment are not only essential for good patient care
they are the key elements in the public health response to tuberculosis and the cornerstone of tuberculosis control. Thus, all
providers who undertake evaluation and treatment of patients with
tuberculosis must recognize that, not only are they delivering care
to an individual, they are assuming an important public health function that entails a high
level of responsibility to the community, as well as to the individual patient.
Although government tuberculosis program providers are not exempt from adherence
to the Standards, non-program providers are the main target audience. It should be emphasized, however, that national and local tuberculosis control programs may need to
develop policies and procedures that enable non-program providers to adhere to the
Standards. Such accommodations may be necessary, for example, to facilitate treatment
supervision and contact investigations.
In addition to healthcare providers and government tuberculosis programs, both patients
and communities are part of the intended audience. Patients are increasingly aware of
and expect that their care will measure up to a high standard as described in the Patients
Charter for Tuberculosis Care. Having generally agreed-upon standards will empower
patients to evaluate the quality of care they are being provided. Good care for individuals
with tuberculosis is also in the best interest of the community.
The Standards are intended to be complementary to local and national tuberculosis control policies that are consistent with World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations.
They are not intended to replace local guidelines and were written to accommodate local
differences in practice. They focus on the contribution that good clinical care of individual
patients with or suspected of having tuberculosis makes to population-based tuberculosis control. A balanced approach emphasizing both individual patient care and public
health principles of disease control is essential to reduce the suffering and economic
losses from tuberculosis.
SUMMARY
The Standards should be viewed as a living document that will be revised as technology,
resources, and circumstances change. As written, the Standards are presented within a
context of what is generally considered to be feasible now or in the near future.
The Standards are also intended to serve as a companion to and support for the Patients Charter for Tuberculosis Care developed in tandem with the Standards. The Charter specifies patients rights and responsibilities and will serve as a set of standards from
the point of view of the patient, defining what the patient should expect from the provider
and what the provider should expect from the patient.
Standards for Diagnosis

Standard 1. All persons with otherwise unexplained productive cough lasting twothree
weeks or more should be evaluated for tuberculosis.
Standard 2. All patients (adults, adolescents, and children who are capable of producing sputum) suspected of having pulmonary tuberculosis should have at
least two, and preferably three, sputum specimens obtained for microscopic examination. When possible, at least one early morning specimen
should be obtained.
Standard 3. For all patients (adults, adolescents, and children) suspected of having
extrapulmonary tuberculosis, appropriate specimens from the suspected sites of involvement should be obtained for microscopy and, where
facilities and resources are available, for culture and histopathological
examination.
Standard 4. All persons with chest radiographic findings suggestive of tuberculosis
should have sputum specimens submitted for microbiological examination.
Standard 5. The diagnosis of sputum smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis should
be based on the following criteria: at least three negative sputum smears
(including at least one early morning specimen); chest radiography findings consistent with tuberculosis; and lack of response to a trial of broadspectrum antimicrobial agents. (NOTE: Because the fluoroquinolones are
active against M. tuberculosis complex and, thus, may cause transient
improvement in persons with tuberculosis, they should be avoided.) For
such patients, if facilities for culture are available, sputum cultures should
be obtained. In persons with known or suspected HIV infection, the diagnostic evaluation should be expedited.
Standard 6. The diagnosis of intrathoracic (i.e., pulmonary, pleural, and mediastinal or
hilar lymph node) tuberculosis in symptomatic children with negative sputum smears should be based on the finding of chest radiographic abnormalities consistent with tuberculosis and either a history of exposure to an
infectious case or evidence of tuberculosis infection (positive tuberculin
skin test or interferon gamma release assay). For such patients, if facilities
for culture are available, sputum specimens should be obtained (by expectoration, gastric washings, or induced sputum) for culture.
JANUARY 2006
Standards for Treatment

Standard 7. Any practitioner treating a patient for tuberculosis is assuming an important
public health responsibility. To fulfill this responsibility the practitioner must
not only prescribe an appropriate regimen but, also, be capable of assessing the adherence of the patient to the regimen and addressing poor
adherence when it occurs. By so doing, the provider will be able to ensure
adherence to the regimen until treatment is completed.
Standard 8. All patients (including those with HIV infection) who have not been treated
previously should receive an internationally accepted first-line treatment
regimen using drugs of known bioavailability. The initial phase should consist of two months of isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol.
The preferred continuation phase consists of isoniazid and rifampicin given
for four months. Isoniazid and ethambutol given for six months is an alternative continuation phase regimen that may be used when adherence
cannot be assessed, but it is associated with a higher rate of failure and
relapse, especially in patients with HIV infection.
The doses of antituberculosis drugs used should conform to international
recommendations. Fixed-dose combinations of two (isoniazid and rifampicin, three (isoniazid, rifampicin, and pyrazinamide), and four (isoniazid,
rifampicin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol) drugs are highly recommended,
especially when medication ingestion is not observed.
Standard 9. To foster and assess adherence, a patient-centered approach to administration of drug treatment, based on the patients needs and mutual respect
between the patient and the provider, should be developed for all patients.
Supervision and support should be gender-sensitive and age-specific and
should draw on the full range of recommended interventions and available
support services, including patient counseling and education. A central
element of the patient-centered strategy is the use of measures to assess
and promote adherence to the treatment regimen and to address poor adherence when it occurs. These measures should be tailored to the individual patients circumstances and be mutually acceptable to the patient and
the provider. Such measures may include direct observation of medication
ingestion (directly observed therapyDOT) by a treatment supporter who
is acceptable and accountable to the patient and to the health system.
Standard 10. All patients should be monitored for response to therapy, best judged in
patients with pulmonary tuberculosis by follow-up sputum microscopy (two
specimens) at least at the time of completion of the initial phase of treatment (two months), at five months, and at the end of treatment. Patients
who have positive smears during the fifth month of treatment should be
considered as treatment failures and have therapy modified appropriately.
(See Standards 14 and 15.) In patients with extrapulmonary tuberculosis
and in children, the response to treatment is best assessed clinically.
SUMMARY
Follow-up radiographic examinations are usually unnecessary and may be

misleading.
Standard 11. A written record of all medications given, bacteriologic response, and
adverse reactions should be maintained for all patients.
Standard 12. In areas with a high prevalence of HIV infection in the general population and where tuberculosis and HIV infection are likely to co-exist, HIV
counseling and testing is indicated for all tuberculosis patients as part of
their routine management. In areas with lower prevalence rates of HIV, HIV
counseling and testing is indicated for tuberculosis patients with symptoms and/or signs of HIV-related conditions and in tuberculosis patients
having a history suggestive of high risk of HIV exposure.
Standard 13. All patients with tuberculosis and HIV infection should be evaluated to determine if antiretroviral therapy is indicated during the course of treatment
for tuberculosis. Appropriate arrangements for access to antiretroviral
drugs should be made for patients who meet indications for treatment.
Given the complexity of co-administration of antituberculosis treatment
and antiretroviral therapy, consultation with a physician who is expert in
this area is recommended before initiation of concurrent treatment for tuberculosis and HIV infection, regardless of which disease appeared first.
However, initiation of treatment for tuberculosis should not be delayed.
Patients with tuberculosis and HIV infection should also receive cotrimoxazole as prophylaxis for other infections.
Standard 14. An assessment of the likelihood of drug resistance, based on history of
prior treatment, exposure to a possible source case having drug-resistant
organisms, and the community prevalence of drug resistance, should be
obtained for all patients. Patients who fail treatment and chronic cases
should always be assessed for possible drug resistance. For patients in
whom drug resistance is considered to be likely, culture and drug susceptibility testing for isoniazid, rifampicin, and ethambutol should be performed
promptly.
Standard 15. Patients with tuberculosis caused by drug-resistant (especially multipledrug resistant [MDR]) organisms should be treated with specialized regimens containing second-line antituberculosis drugs. At least four drugs
to which the organisms are known or presumed to be susceptible should
be used, and treatment should be given for at least 18 months. Patientcentered measures are required to ensure adherence. Consultation with
a provider experienced in treatment of patients with MDR tuberculosis
should be obtained.
JANUARY 2006
Standards for Public Health Responsibilities

Standard 16. All providers of care for patients with tuberculosis should ensure that persons (especially children under 5 years of age and persons with HIV infection) who are in close contact with patients who have infectious tuberculosis are evaluated and managed in line with international recommendations.
Children under 5 years of age and persons with HIV infection who have
been in contact with an infectious case should be evaluated for both latent
infection with M. tuberculosis and for active tuberculosis.
Standard 17. All providers must report both new and retreatment tuberculosis cases and
their treatment outcomes to local public health authorities, in conformance
with applicable legal requirements and policies.
Research Needs
As part of the process of developing the ISTC, several key areas that require additional
research were identified. Systematic reviews and research studies (some of which are
underway currently) in these areas are critical to generate evidence to support rational
and evidence-based care and control of tuberculosis. Research in these operational and
clinical areas serves to complement ongoing efforts focused on developing new tools for
tuberculosis control.
SUMMARY
10
JANUARY 2006
Introduction
Purpose
All providers who

undertake evaluation
and treatment of
patients with TB
must recognize that,
not only are they
delivering care to
an individual, they
are assuming an
important public
health function.
The purpose of the International Standards

for Tuberculosis Care (ISTC) is to describe a
widely accepted level of care that all practitioners, public and private, should seek to
achieve in managing patients who have,
or are suspected of having, tuberculosis.
The Standards are intended to facilitate
the effective engagement of all care
providers in delivering high-quality care
for patients of all ages, including those
with sputum smear-positive, sputum
smear-negative, and extrapulmonary
tuberculosis, tuberculosis caused by
drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (M. tuberculosis) organisms, and tuberculosis combined
with HIV infection. A high standard of
care is essential to restore the health of
individuals with tuberculosis, to prevent
the disease in their families and others with
whom they come into contact, and to protect the health of communities.1 Substandard
care will result in poor patient outcomes, continued infectiousness with transmission of M.
tuberculosis to family and other community members, and generation and propagation of
drug resistance. For these reasons, substandard care is not acceptable.
The standards in this document differ from existing guidelines in that standards present what should be done, whereas, guidelines describe how the action is to be accomplished. Standards provide the foundation on which care can be based; guidelines
provide the framing for the whole structure of care. Guidelines and standards are, thus,
complementary to one another. A standard does not provide specific guidance on disease management but, rather, presents a principle or set of principles that can be applied
in nearly all situations. In general, standards do not require adaptation to local circumstances. Guidelines must be tailored to local conditions. In addition, a standard can be
used as an indicator of the overall adequacy of disease management against which individual or collective practices can be measured, whereas guidelines are intended to assist
providers in making informed decisions about appropriate health interventions.2
The basic principles of care for persons with, or suspected of having, tuberculosis are
the same worldwide: a diagnosis should be established promptly and accurately; standardized treatment regimens of proven efficacy should be used with appropriate treatment support and supervision; the response to treatment should be monitored; and the
essential public health responsibilities must be carried out. Prompt, accurate diagnosis
and effective treatment are not only essential for good patient carethey are the key elements in the public health response to tuberculosis and are the cornerstone of tubercu-
INTRODUCTION
11
losis control. Thus, all providers who undertake evaluation and treatment of patients with
tuberculosis must recognize that, not only are they delivering care to an individual, they
are assuming an important public health function that entails a high level of responsibility
to the community, as well as to the individual patient. Adherence to the standards in this
document will enable these responsibilities to be fulfilled.
Audience
The Standards are addressed to all healthcare providers, private and public, who care for
persons with proven tuberculosis or with symptoms and signs suggestive of tuberculosis.
In general, providers in government tuberculosis programs that follow existing international guidelines are in compliance with the Standards. However, in many instances (as
described under Rationale), clinicians (both private and public) who are not part of a tuberculosis control program lack the guidance and systematic evaluation of outcomes provided by government control programs, and, commonly, would not be in compliance with
the Standards. Thus, although government program providers are not exempt from adherence to the Standards, non-program providers are the main target audience. It should
be emphasized, however, that national and local tuberculosis control programs may need
to develop policies and procedures that enable non-program providers to adhere to the
Standards. Such accommodations may be necessary, for example, to facilitate treatment
supervision and contact investigations.
In addition to healthcare providers and government tuberculosis programs, both patients
and communities are part of the intended audience. Patients are increasingly aware of
and expect that their care will measure up to a high standard as described in the Patients
Charter for Tuberculosis Care. Having generally agreed-upon standards will empower
patients to evaluate the quality of care they are being provided. Good care for individuals
with tuberculosis is also in the best interest of the community. Community contributions to
tuberculosis care and control are increasingly important in raising public awareness of the
disease, providing treatment support, encouraging adherence, reducing the stigma associated with having tuberculosis, and demanding that healthcare providers in the community adhere to a high standard of tuberculosis care.3 The community should expect
that care for tuberculosis will be up to the accepted standard.
Scope
Three categories of activities are addressed by the Standards: diagnosis, treatment, and
public health responsibilities of all providers. Specific prevention approaches, laboratory
performance, and personnel standards are not addressed. The Standards are intended
to be complementary to local and national tuberculosis control policies that are consistent
with World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations. They are not intended to replace local guidelines and were written to accommodate local differences in practice. They
focus on the contribution that good clinical care of individual patients with, or suspected
of having, tuberculosis makes to population-based tuberculosis control. A balanced approach emphasizing both individual patient care and public health principles of disease
control is essential to reduce the suffering and economic losses from tuberculosis.
12
JANUARY 2006
To meet the requirements of the Standards, approaches and strategies (guidelines), determined by local circumstances and practices and developed in collaboration with local
and national public health authorities, will be necessary. There are many situations in
which the level of care can, and should, go beyond what is specified in the Standards.
Local conditions, practices, and resources also will determine the degree to which this is
the case.
The Standards are

also intended to serve
as a companion to
and support for the
Patients Charter for
Tuberculosis Care.
The Standards are also intended to serve as a companion to and support for the Patients
Charter for Tuberculosis Care (http://www.worldcarecouncil.org) developed in tandem
with the ISTC. This Charter specifies patients rights and responsibilities and will serve as
a set of standards from the point of view of the patient, defining what the patient should
expect from the provider and what the provider should expect from the patient.
There are several critical areas that the Standards do not address. Their exclusion should
not be regarded as an indication of their lack of importance but, rather, their being beyond
the scope of this document. The Standards do not address the extremely important concern with overall access to care. Obviously, if there is no care available, the quality of care
is not relevant. Additionally, there are many factors that impede access even when care
is available: poverty, gender, stigma, and geography are prominent among the factors
that interfere with persons seeking or receiving care. Also, if the residents of a given area
perceive that the quality of care provided by the local facilities is substandard, they will not
seek care there. This perception of quality is a component of access that adherence to
the Standards will address.1
Also not addressed by the Standards is the necessity of having a sound, effective government tuberculosis control program. The requirements of such programs are described in
a number of international recommendations from the WHO, the US Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC), and the International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung
Disease (The Union). Having an effective control program at the national or local level with
linkages to non-program providers enables bidirectional communication of information including case notification, consultation, patient referral, provision of drugs or services such
as treatment supervision/support for private patients, and contact evaluation. In addition,
the program may be the only source of laboratory services to the private sector.
In providing care for patients with, or suspected of having, tuberculosis, clinicians and
persons responsible for healthcare facilities should take measures that reduce the potential for transmission of M. tuberculosis to healthcare workers and to other patients by
following either local, national, or international guidelines for infection control. This is especially true in areas or specific populations with a high prevalence of HIV infection. Detailed
recommendations are contained in the WHO Guidelines for Prevention of Tuberculosis in
Health Care Facilities in Resource-Limited Settings, and the updated CDC guidelines for
preventing the transmission of M. tuberculosis in healthcare settings.4,5
The Standards should be viewed as a living document that will be revised as technology,
resources, and circumstances change. As written, the Standards are presented within a
context of what is generally considered to be feasible now or in the near future. Within the
Standards, priorities may be set that will foster appropriate incremental changes. For example, rather than expecting full implementation of all diagnostic elements at once, priorities
INTRODUCTION
13
should be set based on local circumstances and capabilities. Pursuing this example, once
high-quality sputum smear microscopy is universally available, the first priority activity to
be accomplished would be performing sputum cultures for persons suspected of having
tuberculosis but who have negative sputum smears, especially those in areas of high HIV
prevalence. The second priority would consist of obtaining cultures and drug susceptibility testing for patients at high risk of having tuberculosis caused by drug-resistant organisms. A third priority would be performing cultures for all persons suspected of having
tuberculosis. In some settings, as a fourth priority, drug susceptibility testing should be
performed for isolates of M. tuberculosis obtained from patients not responding to standardized treatment regimens and, finally, for initial isolates from all patients.
Rationale
Although in the past decade there has been substantial progress in the development
and implementation of the strategies necessary for effective tuberculosis control, the disease remains an enormous and growing global health problem.69 One-third of the worlds
population is infected with M. tuberculosis, mostly in developing countries, where 95% of
cases occur.8 In 2003, there were an estimated 8.8 million new cases of tuberculosis, of
which 3.9 million were sputum smear-positive and, thus, highly infectious.6,7 The number
of tuberculosis cases that occur in the world each year is still growing, although the rate of
increase is slowing. In the African region of the WHO, the tuberculosis case rate continues
to increase, both because of the epidemic of HIV infection in sub-Saharan countries and
the poor or absent primary care services in parts of the region.6,7 In Eastern Europe, after
a decade of increases, case rates have only recently reached a plateau, the increases
being attributed to the collapse of the public health infrastructure, increased poverty, and
other socio-economic factors complicated further by the high prevalence of drug-resistant
tuberculosis.6,7,9 In many other countries, because of incomplete application of effective
care and control measures, tuberculosis case rates are either stagnant or decreasing
more slowly than should be expected. This is especially true in high-risk groups such as
persons with HIV infection, the homeless, prisoners, and recent immigrants. The failure to
bring about a more rapid reduction in tuberculosis incidence, at least in part, relates to a
failure to fully engage non-tuberculosis control program providers in the provision of highquality care, in coordination with local and national control programs.
It is widely recognized that many providers are involved in the diagnosis and treatment
of tuberculosis.10-13 Traditional healers, general and specialist physicians, nurses, clinical officers, academic physicians, unlicensed practitioners, physicians in private practice,
practitioners of alternative medicine, and community organizations, among others, all play
roles in tuberculosis care and, therefore, in tuberculosis control. In addition, other public
providers, such as those working in prisons, army hospitals, or public hospitals and facilities, regularly evaluate persons suspected of having tuberculosis and treat patients who
have the disease.
Little is known about the adequacy of care delivered by non-program providers, but evidence from studies conducted in many different parts of the world show great variability
in the quality of tuberculosis care, and poor quality care continues to plague global tuberculosis control efforts.11 A recent global situation assessment reported by WHO suggested that delays in diagnosis were common.12 The delay was more often in receiving a
14
JANUARY 2006
diagnosis rather than in seeking care, although both elements are important.14 This survey
and other studies also show that clinicians, in particular those who work in the private
healthcare sector, often deviate from standard, internationally recommended, tuberculosis management practices.11,12 These deviations include: under-utilization of sputum
microscopy for diagnosis, generally associated with over-reliance on radiography; use of
non-recommended drug regimens, with incorrect combinations of drugs and mistakes in
both drug dosage and duration of treatment; and failure to supervise and assure adherence to treatment.11,12,1521 Anecdotal evidence also suggests over-reliance on poorly
validated or inappropriate diagnostic tests, such as serologic assays, often in preference
to conventional bacteriological evaluations.
Together these findings highlight flaws in healthcare practices that lead to substandard
tuberculosis care for populations that, sadly, are most vulnerable to the disease and are
least able to bear the consequences of such systemic failures. Any person anywhere in
the world who is unable to access quality health care should be considered vulnerable
to tuberculosis and its consequences.1 Likewise, any community with no or inadequate
access to appropriate diagnostic and treatment services for tuberculosis is a vulnerable
community.1 The development of the ISTC is an attempt to reduce vulnerability of individuals and communities to tuberculosis by promoting high-quality care for persons with, or
suspected of having, tuberculosis.
Companion and Reference Documents

The Standards in this document are complementary to two other important companion
documents. The first, Patients Charter for Tuberculosis Care (http://www.worldcarecouncil.org), specifies the rights and responsibilities of patients and has been developed in
tandem with this document. Second, the International Council of Nurses has developed
a set of standards, TB/MDR-TB Nursing Standards (www.icn.ch/tb/standards.htm), that
define in detail the critical roles and responsibilities of nurses in the care and control of
tuberculosis. As a single-source reference for many of the practices for tuberculosis care,
we refer the reader to Tomans Tuberculosis: Case Detection, Treatment, and Monitoring
(second edition).22
There are many guidelines and recommendations on various aspects of tuberculosis care
and control. (For listing, see http://www.nationaltbcenter.edu/international/.) The Standards draw from many of these documents to provide their evidence base. In particular,
we have relied on guidelines that are generally accepted because of the process by which
they were developed, and by their broad use. However, existing guidelines, although
implicitly based on standards, do not present standards that define the acceptable level
of care in such a way as to enable assessment of the adequacy of care by patients themselves, by communities, and by public health authorities.
In providing the evidence base for the Standards, generally we have cited summaries,
meta-analyses, and systematic reviews of evidence that have examined and synthesized
primary data, rather than referring to the primary data itself. Throughout the document
we have used the terminology recommended in the Revised International Definitions in
Tuberculosis Control.23
INTRODUCTION
15
16
JANUARY 2006
Standards for Diagnosis

Not all patients with respiratory
symptoms receive an adequate
evaluation for tuberculosis.
These failures result in missed
opportunities for earlier
detection of tuberculosis and
lead to increased disease
severity for the patients
and a greater likelihood
of transmission of M.
tuberculosis to family members
and others in the community.
STANDARD 1. All persons with otherwise unexplained productive cough lasting twothree
weeks or more should be evaluated for tuberculosis.
Rationale and Evidence Summary
The most common symptom of pulmonary tuberculosis is persistent, productive cough,
often accompanied by systemic symptoms, such as fever, night sweats, and weight loss.
In addition, findings such as lymphadenopathy, consistent with concurrent extrapulmonary tuberculosis, may be noted, especially in patients with HIV infection.
Although most patients with pulmonary tuberculosis have cough, the symptom is not
specific to tuberculosis; it can occur in a wide range of respiratory conditions, including
acute respiratory tract infections, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Although the presence of cough for 23 weeks is nonspecific, traditionally, having cough
of this duration has served as the criterion for defining suspected tuberculosis and is used
in most national and international guidelines, particularly in areas of moderate- to highprevalence of tuberculosis.2225
In a recent survey conducted in primary healthcare services of nine low- and middleincome countries, respiratory complaints, including cough, constituted on average 18.4%
of symptoms that prompted a visit to a health center for persons older than 5 years of
age. Of this group, 5% of patients overall were categorized as possibly having tuberculosis because of the presence of an unexplained cough for more than 23 weeks.26 Other
STANDARDS FOR DIAGNOSIS
STANDARD 1
17
studies have shown that 410% of adults attending outpatient health facilities in developing countries may have a persistent cough of more than 23 weeks in duration.27 This percentage varies somewhat, depending on whether there is active questioning concerning
the presence of cough. Respiratory conditions, therefore, constitute a substantial proportion of the burden of diseases in patients presenting to primary healthcare services.26,27
Data from India, Algeria, and Chile generally show that the percentage of patients with
positive sputum smears increases with increasing duration of cough from 12 weeks,
increasing to 34, and >4 weeks.28 However, in these studies even patients with shorter
duration of cough had an appreciable prevalence of tuberculosis. A more recent assessment from India demonstrated that by using a threshold of >2 weeks to prompt collection
of sputum specimens, the number of patients with suspected tuberculosis increased
by 61%, but more importantly, the number of tuberculosis cases identified increased by
46%, compared with a threshold of >3 weeks.29 The results also suggested that actively
inquiring as to the presence of cough in all adult clinic attendees may increase the yield
of cases; 15% of patients who, without prompting, volunteered that they had cough,
had positive smears, but in addition, 7% of patients who did not volunteer that they had
cough, but on questioning admitted to having cough >2 weeks, had positive smears.29
Choosing a threshold of 23 weeks is an obvious compromise, and it should be recognized that, while using this threshold reduces the clinic and laboratory workload, some
cases would be missed. In patients presenting with chronic cough, the proportion of
cases attributable to tuberculosis will depend on the prevalence of tuberculosis in the
community.27 In countries with a low prevalence of tuberculosis, it is likely that chronic
cough will be due to conditions other than tuberculosis. Conversely, in high-prevalence
countries, tuberculosis will be one of the leading diagnoses to consider, together with
other conditions, such as asthma, bronchitis, and bronchiectasis, that are common in
many areas.
Overall, by focusing on adults and children presenting with chronic cough, the chances
of identifying patients with pulmonary tuberculosis are maximized. Unfortunately, several
studies suggest that not all patients with respiratory symptoms receive an adequate evaluation for tuberculosis.12,15,1720,30 These failures result in missed opportunities for earlier
detection of tuberculosis and lead to increased disease severity for the patients and a
greater likelihood of transmission of M. tuberculosis to family members and others in the
community.
STANDARD 2. All patients (adults, adolescents, and children who are capable of producing
sputum) suspected of having pulmonary tuberculosis should have at least two,
and preferably three, sputum specimens obtained for microscopic examination.
When possible, at least one early morning specimen should be obtained.
To prove a diagnosis of tuberculosis, every effort must be made to identify the causative
agent of the disease. A microbiological diagnosis can only be confirmed by culturing M.
tuberculosis complex (or, under appropriate circumstances, identifying specific nucleic
acid sequences in a clinical specimen) from any suspected site of disease. In practice,
18
JANUARY 2006
Failure to perform a
proper diagnostic
evaluation before
initiating treatment
potentially exposes
the patient to the
risks of unnecessary
or wrong treatment
with no benefit and
may delay accurate
diagnosis and
proper treatment.
however, there are many resource-limited settings in which culture is not feasible currently. Fortunately, microscopic examination of stained sputum is feasible in nearly all settings, and the
diagnosis of tuberculosis can be strongly inferred by finding
acid-fast bacilli by microscopic examination. In nearly all clinical circumstances in high-prevalence areas, finding acid-fast
bacilli in stained sputum is highly specific and, thus, is the
equivalent of a confirmed diagnosis. In addition to being highly
specific for M. tuberculosis complex, identification of acid-fast
bacilli by microscopic examination is particularly important for
three reasons: it is the most rapid method for determining if a
person has tuberculosis; it identifies persons who are at greatest
risk of dying from the disease*; and it identifies the most likely transmitters of infection.
Generally, it is the responsibility of government health systems (national tuberculosis programs [NTPs] or others) to ensure that providers and patients have convenient access
to microscopy laboratories. Moreover, it is crucial that such laboratories undergo assessments of quality and have programs for quality improvement. These quality assessments
are generally the responsibility of a government system (usually the NTP).
Failure to perform a proper diagnostic evaluation before initiating treatment potentially
exposes the patient to the risks of unnecessary or wrong treatment with no benefit.
Moreover, such an approach may delay accurate diagnosis and proper treatment. This
Standard applies to adults, adolescents, and children. With proper instruction and supervision, many children 5 years of age and older can generate a specimen. Adolescents,
although often classified as children at least until the age of 15 years, can generally produce sputum. Thus, age alone is not sufficient justification for failing to attempt to obtain
a sputum specimen from a child or adolescent.
The information summarized below describes the results of various approaches to sputum collection, processing, and examination. The application of the information to actual
practices and policies should be guided by local considerations.
The optimum number of sputum specimens to establish a diagnosis has been examined
in a number of studies. In a recent review of data from a number of sources, it was stated
that, on average, the initial specimen was positive in about 8387% of all patients ultimately found to have acid-fast bacilli detected, in an additional 1012% with the second
specimen, and in a further 35% on the third specimen.34 A rigorously conducted systematic review of 41 studies on this topic found a very similar distribution of results: on
average, the second smear detected about 13% of smear-positive cases, and the third
smear detected 4% of all smear-positive cases.35 In studies that used culture as the reference standard, the mean incremental yield in sensitivity of the second smear was 9% and
that of the third smear was 4%.35
* It should be noted that in persons with HIV infection, mortality rates are greater in patients with clinically-diagnosed tuberculosis who
have negative sputum smears than among HIV-infected patients who have positive sputum smears.31-33
STANDARD 2
19
A recent re-analysis of data from a study involving 42 laboratories in four high-burden

countries showed that the incremental yield from a third sequential smear ranged from
0.77.2%.36 Thus, it appears that in a diagnostic evaluation for tuberculosis, at least two
specimens should be obtained. In some settings, because of practicality and logistics, a
third specimen may be useful, but examination of more than three specimens adds minimally to the number of positive specimens obtained.35 In addition, a third specimen is useful as confirmatory evidence if only one of the first two smears has a positive result. Ideally,
the results of sputum microscopy should be returned to the clinician within no more than
one working day from submission of the specimen. The timing of specimen collection is
also important. The yield appears to be greatest from early morning (overnight) specimens.35,3739 Thus, although it is not practical to collect only early morning specimens, at
least one specimen should be obtained from an early morning collection.
A variety of methods have been used to improve the performance of sputum smear microscopy.4042 In general, the sensitivity of microscopy (as compared to culture) is higher
with concentration by centrifugation and/or sedimentation (usually after pretreatment with
chemicals such as bleach, NaOH, and NaLC) or both, as compared to direct (unconcentrated) smear microscopy. A comprehensive, systematic review of 83 studies describing
the effects of various physical and/or chemical methods for concentrating and processing
sputum prior to microscopy found that concentration resulted in a higher sensitivity (15
20% increase) and smear-positivity rate, when compared with direct smears.40 Although
there are demonstrable advantages to concentration of sputum, there are also disadvantages. Centrifugation is more complex, requires electrical power, and may be associated
with increased infection risk to laboratory personnel. Consequently, it is not clear that the
advantages offset the disadvantages in low-resource settings.
Fluorescence microscopy, in which auramine-based staining causes the acid-fast bacilli
to fluoresce against a dark background, is widely used in many parts of the world. A
systematic review, in which the performance of direct sputum smear microscopy using
fluorescence staining was compared with Ziehl-Neelsen (ZN) staining using culture as the
gold standard, suggests that fluorescence microscopy is the more sensitive method.41
The results of this review have been verified in a more comprehensive, systematic review
of 43 studies. This review showed that fluorescence microscopy is on average 10% more
sensitive than conventional light microscopy.42 The specificity of fluorescence microscopy
was comparable to Ziehl-Neelsen staining. The combination of increased sensitivity with
little or no loss of specificity makes fluorescence microscopy a more accurate test, although the increased cost and complexity might make it less applicable in many areas.
For this reason, fluorescence staining is probably best used in centers with specifically
trained and proficient microscopists, in which a large number of specimens are processed
daily, and in which there is an appropriate quality control program.
20
JANUARY 2006
STANDARD 3. For all patients (adults, adolescents, and children) suspected of having extrapulmonary tuberculosis, appropriate specimens from the suspected sites of involvement should be obtained for microscopy and, where facilities and resources are
available, for culture and histopathological examination.
Although appropriate
specimens may be
difficult to obtain,
bacteriological
comfirmation of
a diagnosis of
extrapulmonary
tuberculosis
should be sought.
Extrapulmonary tuberculosis (without associated lung involvement) accounts for 1520% of tuberculosis in populations with a low prevalence
of HIV infection. In populations with a high prevalence of HIV infection,
the proportion of cases with extrapulmonary tuberculosis is higher. Because appropriate specimens may be difficult to obtain from some of
these sites, bacteriological confirmation of extrapulmonary tuberculosis
is often more difficult than for pulmonary tuberculosis. In spite of the difficulties, however, the basic principle that bacteriological confirmation
of the diagnosis should be sought still holds. Generally, there are fewer
M. tuberculosis organisms present in extrapulmonary sites, so identification of acid-fast bacilli by microscopy in specimens from these sites
is less frequent and culture is more important. For example, microscopic
examination of pleural fluid in tuberculous pleuritis detects acid-fast bacilli
in only about 510% of cases, and the diagnostic yield is similarly low in tuberculous
meningitis. Given the low yield of microscopy, both culture and histopathological examination of tissue specimens, such as may be obtained by needle biopsy of lymph nodes,
are important diagnostic tests. In addition to the collection of specimens from the sites
of suspected tuberculosis, examination of sputum and a chest film may also be useful,
especially in patients with HIV infection, in whom there is an appreciable frequency of
subclinical pulmonary tuberculosis.43
In patients who have an illness compatible with tuberculosis that is severe or progressing
rapidly, initiation of treatment should not be delayed pending the results of microbiological
examinations. Treatment should be started while awaiting results and then modified, if
necessary, based on the microbiological findings.
STANDARD 3
21
STANDARD 4. All persons with chest radiographic findings suggestive of tuberculosis should
have sputum specimens submitted for microbiological examination.
A diagnosis of
tuberculosis cannot
be established by
radiography alone.
22
Chest radiography is a sensitive but nonspecific test to detect tuberculosis.44 Radiographic examination (film or fluoroscopy) of the thorax or
other suspected sites of involvement may be useful to identify persons
for further evaluation. However, a diagnosis of tuberculosis cannot be
established by radiography alone. Reliance on the chest radiograph
as the only diagnostic test for tuberculosis will result in both over-diagnosis of tuberculosis and missed diagnoses of tuberculosis and
other diseases. In a study from India in which 2,229 outpatients
were examined by photofluorography, 227 were classified as having tuberculosis by radiographic criteria.45,46 Of the 227, 81 (36%)
had negative sputum cultures, whereas of the remaining 2,002 patients, 31 (1.5%) had positive cultures. Looking at these results in
terms of the sensitivity of chest radiography, 32 (20%) of 162 culturepositive cases would have been missed by radiography. Given these
and other data, it is clear that the use of radiographic examinations
alone to diagnose tuberculosis is not an acceptable practice.
Chest radiography is useful to evaluate persons who have negative sputum smears to attempt to find evidence for pulmonary tuberculosis and to identify other abnormalities that
may be responsible for the symptoms. With regard to tuberculosis, radiographic examination is most useful when applied as part of a systematic approach in the evaluation of
persons whose symptoms and/or findings suggest tuberculosis, but who have negative
sputum smears. (See Standard 5.)
JANUARY 2006
STANDARD 5. The diagnosis of sputum smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis should be

based on the following criteria: at least three negative sputum smears (including at least one early morning specimen); chest radiography findings consistent
with tuberculosis; and lack of response to a trial of broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents. (NOTE: Because the fluoroquinolones are active against M. tuberculosis complex and, thus, may cause transient improvement in persons with
tuberculosis, they should be avoided.) For such patients, if facilities for culture
are available, sputum cultures should be obtained. In persons with known or
suspected HIV infection, the diagnostic evaluation should be expedited.
The designation of sputum smear-negative tuberculosis presents a difficult diagnostic
dilemma. As noted above, on average, sputum smear microscopy is only about 5060%
sensitive when compared with culture. Nevertheless, given the nonspecific nature of the
symptoms of tuberculosis and the multiplicity of other diseases that could be the cause
of the patients illness, it is important that a rigorous approach be taken in diagnosing
tuberculosis in a patient in whom at least three adequate sputum smears are negative.
Because patients with HIV infection and tuberculosis frequently have negative sputum
smears, and because of the broad differential diagnosis (including Pneumocystis jiroveci
pneumonia and bacterial and fungal lower respiratory infections) in this group, such a systematic approach is crucial. It is important, however, to balance the need for a systematic
approach, in order to avoid both over- and under-diagnosis of tuberculosis, with the need
for prompt treatment in a patient with an illness that is progressing rapidly. Over-diagnosis
of tuberculosis when the illness has another cause will delay proper diagnosis and treatment; whereas, under-diagnosis will lead to more severe consequences of tuberculosis,
including disability and possibly death, as well as ongoing transmission of M. tuberculosis. It should be noted that in making a diagnosis based on the above three criteria, a
clinician who decides to treat with a full course of antituberculosis chemotherapy should
report this as a case of sputum smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis to local public
health authorities (as described in Standard 17).
A number of algorithms have been developed as a means to systematize the diagnosis
of smear-negative tuberculosis, although none has been adequately validated under field
conditions.47,48 In particular, there is little information or experience on which to base approaches to the diagnosis of smear-negative tuberculosis in persons with HIV infection.
Figure 1 is modified from an algorithm developed by WHO and is included as an example
of a systematic approach.24 It should be recognized that, commonly, the steps in the algorithm are not followed in a sequential fashion by a single provider. The algorithm should be
viewed as presenting an approach to diagnosis that incorporates the main components
of, and a framework for, the diagnostic evaluation.
There are several points of caution regarding the algorithm. First, completion of all of the
steps requires a substantial amount of time; thus, it should not be used for patients with
an illness that is worsening rapidly. This is especially true in patients with HIV infection
in whom tuberculosis may be rapidly progressive. Second, several studies have shown
that patients with tuberculosis may respond, at least transiently, to broad spectrum
STANDARD 5
23
F IGU RE 1 .
An illustrative approach to the diagnosis of sputum smear-negative

pulmonary tuberculosis24
All patients suspected of having

pulmonary TB
Sputum microscopy for AFB
Three negative smears
Broad-spectrum antimicrobials
(excluding anti-TB drugs and
fluoroquinolones)
NO IMPROVEMENT
IMPROVEMENT
Repeat sputum microscopy
1 OR MORE POSITIVE SMEARS
ALL SMEARS NEGATIVE
Chest radiograph and physicians

judgment
TB
NO TB
AFB = acid-fast bacilli; TB = tuberculosis
Source: Modified from WHO, 200324
24
JANUARY 2006
antimicrobial treatment.4952 Obviously, such a response will lead one to delay a diagnosis of tuberculosis. Fluoroquinolones in particular are bactericidal for M. tuberculosis
complex. Empiric fluoroquinolone monotherapy for respiratory tract infections has been
associated with delays in initiation of appropriate antituberculosis therapy and acquired
resistance to the fluoroquinolones.53 Third, the approach outlined in the algorithm may
be quite costly to the patient and deter her/him from continuing with the diagnostic
evaluation. Given all these concerns, application of such an algorithm in patients with at
least three negative sputum smear examinations must be done in a flexible manner. Ideally, the evaluation of smear-negative tuberculosis should be guided by locally validated
approaches, suited to local conditions.
Although sputum microscopy is the first bacteriologic diagnostic test of choice
where resources permit and adequate, quality-assured laboratory facilities
are available, culture should be included in the algorithm for evaluating patients with negative sputum smears. Properly done, culture adds a significant layer of complexity and cost but also increases sensitivity, which
should result in earlier case detection.54,55 Although the results of culture
may not be available until after a decision to begin treatment has to be
made, treatment can be stopped subsequently if cultures from a reliable laboratory are negative, the patient has not responded clinically,
and the clinician has sought other evidence in pursuing the differential
diagnosis.
The probability of finding acid-fast bacilli in sputum smears by microscopy is directly related to the concentration of bacilli in the sputum. Sputum microscopy is likely to be positive when there are at least 10,000
organisms per milliliter of sputum. At concentrations below 1,000 organisms
per milliliter of sputum, the chance of observing acid-fast bacilli in a smear is less than
10%.56,57 In contrast, a properly performed culture can detect far lower numbers of acidfast bacilli (detection limit is about 100 organisms per ml).54 The culture, therefore, has
a higher sensitivity than microscopy and, at least in theory, can increase case detection,
although this potential has not been demonstrated in low-income, high-incidence areas.
Further, culture makes it possible to identify the mycobacterial species and to perform
drug susceptibility testing in patients in whom there is reason to suspect drug-resistant
tuberculosis.54 The disadvantages of culture are its cost, technical complexity, and the
time required to obtain a result, thereby imposing a diagnostic delay if there is less reliance
on sputum smear microscopy. In addition, ongoing quality assessment is essential for
culture results to be credible. Such quality assurance measures are not available widely in
most low-resource settings.
In many countries, although culture facilities are not uniformly available, there is the capacity to perform culture in some areas. Providers should be aware of the local capacity
and use the resources appropriately, especially for the evaluation of persons suspected
of having tuberculosis who have negative sputum smears and for persons suspected of
having tuberculosis caused by drug-resistant organisms.
Traditional culture methods use solid media such as Lowenstein-Jensen and Ogawa.
Cultures on solid media are less technology-intensive, and the media can be made locally.
STANDARD 5
25
However, the time to identify growth is significantly longer than in liquid media. Liquid
media systems such as BACTEC utilize the release of radioactive CO2 from C-14 labeled
palmitic acid in the media to identify growth. The MGIT system, also using liquid medium,
has the advantage of having growth detected by the appearance of fluorescence in
a silicone plug at the bottom of the tube, thereby avoiding radioactivity. Decisions to provide culture facilities for diagnosing tuberculosis depend on financial resources, trained
personnel, and the ready availability of reagents and equipment service.
Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs), although widely distributed, do not offer major
advantages over culture at this time. Although a positive result can be obtained more
quickly than with any of the culture methods, the NAATs are not sufficiently sensitive for a
negative result to exclude tuberculosis.5863 In addition, NAATs are not sufficiently sensitive
to be useful in identifying M. tuberculosis in specimens from extrapulmonary sites of disease.5961,63 Moreover, cultures must be available if drug susceptibility testing is to be performed. Other approaches to establishing a diagnosis of tuberculosis, such as serological
tests, are not of proven value and should not be used in routine practice at this time.58
STANDARD 6. The diagnosis of intrathoracic (i.e., pulmonary, pleural, and mediastinal or hilar lymph node) tuberculosis in symptomatic children with negative sputum
smears should be based on the finding of chest radiographic abnormalities
consistent with tuberculosis and either a history of exposure to an infectious
case or evidence of tuberculosis infection (positive tuberculin skin
test or interferon gamma release assay). For such patients, if facilities for culture are available, sputum specimens should be
obtained (by expectoration, gastric washings, or induced sputum) for culture.
Compared with
adults, sputum
smears from
children are more
likely to be negative.
26
Children with tuberculosis commonly have paucibacillary disease

without evident lung cavitation but with involvement of intrathoracic
lymph nodes. Consequently, compared with adults, sputum smears
from children are more likely to be negative. Therefore, cultures of
sputum or other specimens, radiographic examination of the chest,
and tests to detect tuberculous infection (generally, a tuberculin skin
test) are of relatively greater importance. Because many children less
than 5 years of age do not cough and produce sputum effectively,
culture of gastric washings obtained by naso-gastric tube lavage or induced sputum has a higher yield than spontaneous sputum.64
Several recent reviews have examined the effectiveness of various diagnostic tools, scoring systems and algorithms to diagnose tuberculosis in children.6467 Many of these approaches lack standardization and validation and, thus, are of limited applicability. Table
1 presents the approach recommended by the Integrated Management of Childhood
Illness (IMCI) program of WHO that is widely used in first-level facilities in low- and middleincome countries.68
JANUARY 2006
TA BL E 1 .
An approach to the diagnosis of tuberculosis in children68

The risk of tuberculosis is increased when there is an active case (infectious, smear-positive tuberculosis) in
the same house or when the child is malnourished, is HIV infected, or has had measles in the past few months.
Consider tuberculosis in any child with:
A history of:
On examination:
unexplained weight loss or failure to

grow normally
fluid on one side of the chest (reduced air entry, stony dullness
to percussion)
unexplained fever, especially when it

continues for more than two weeks
enlarged non-tender lymph nodes or a lymph node abscess,

especially in the neck
chronic cough
exposure to an adult with probable

or definite pulmonary infectious
tuberculosis
signs of meningitis, especially when these develop over several

days and the spinal fluid contains mostly lymphocytes and
elevated protein
abdominal swelling, with or without palpable lumps
progressive swelling or deformity in the bone or a joint, including

the spine
Source: Reproduced from WHO/FCH/CAH/00.1
STANDARD 6
27
28
JANUARY 2006
Standards for Treatment

Treatment for tuberculosis is not only
a matter of individual health; it is
also a matter of public health. All
providers, public and private,
who undertake to treat a patient
with tuberculosis, must have
the knowledge to prescribe a
standard treatment regimen
and the means to assess
adherence to the regimen and
to address poor adherence in
order to ensure that treatment
is completed.
STANDARD 7. Any practitioner treating a patient for tuberculosis is assuming an important

public health responsibility. To fulfill this responsibility, the practitioner must not
only prescribe an appropriate regimen but, also, be capable of assessing the
adherence of the patient to the regimen and addressing poor adherence when it
occurs. By so doing, the provider will be able to ensure adherence to the regimen
until treatment is completed.
As described in the Introduction, the main interventions to prevent the spread of tuberculosis in the community are the detection of patients with infectious tuberculosis and
providing them with effective treatment to ensure a rapid and lasting cure. Consequently,
treatment for tuberculosis is not only a matter of individual health (as is the case with, for
example, treatment of hypertension or diabetes mellitus); it is also a matter of public health.
Thus, all providers, public and private, who undertake to treat a patient with tuberculosis,
must have the knowledge to prescribe a standard treatment regimen and the means to
assess adherence to the regimen and address poor adherence to ensure that treatment
is completed.69 National tuberculosis programs commonly possess approaches and tools
to ensure adherence with treatment and, when properly organized, can offer these to
non-program providers. Failure of a provider to ensure adherence could be equated with,
for example, failure to ensure that a child receives the full set of immunizations. Communities and patients deserve to be assured that providers treating tuberculosis are doing so
in accordance with this principle and are thereby meeting this standard.
STANDARDS FOR TREATMENT
STANDARD 7
29
STANDARD 8. All patients (including those with HIV infection) who have not been treated
previously should receive an internationally accepted first-line treatment regimen
using drugs of known bioavailability. The initial phase should consist of two
months of isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide and ethambutol.* The preferred
continuation phase consists of isoniazid and rifampicin given for four months.
Isoniazid and ethambutol given for six months is an alternative continuation
phase regimen that may be used when adherence cannot be assessed but is
associated with a higher rate of failure and relapse, especially in patients with
HIV infection.
The doses of antituberculosis drugs used should conform to international recommendations. Fixed-dose combinations of two
(isoniazid and rifampicin), three (isoniazid, rifampicin, and pyrazinamide) and four (isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide, and
ethambutol) drugs are highly recommended, especially when
medication ingestion is not observed.
For the sixmonth treatment

duration to be
maximally effective,
the regimen
must include
pyrazinamide during
the initial two-month
phase, and rifampicin
must be included
throughout the full
six months.
A large number of well-designed clinical trials have provided the evidence base for this Standard and several sets of treatment recommendations based on these studies have been written in the past
few years.24,25,69 These are referenced and data will not be reviewed
in this document. All these data indicate that a rifampicin-containing
regimen is the backbone of antituberculosis chemotherapy and is highly
effective in treating tuberculosis caused by drug-susceptible M. tuberculosis. It is also clear from these studies that the minimum duration of treatment for smear
and/or culture-positive tuberculosis is six months. For the six-month treatment duration to
be maximally effective, the regimen must include pyrazinamide during the initial two-month
phase, and rifampicin must be included throughout the full six months. There are several
variations in the frequency of drug administration that have been shown to produce acceptable results.24,25,69
Two systematic reviews of regimens of less than six months have found that shorter durations of treatment have an unacceptably high rate of relapse.70,71 Thus, the current international standard for smear or culture-positive tuberculosis is a regimen administered for a
minimum duration of six months.24,69
Although the six-month regimen is the preferred option, an alternative continuation phase
regimen, consisting of isoniazid and ethambutol given for six months, making the total
duration of treatment eight months, may also be used. It should be recognized, however,
that this regimen, presumably because of the shorter duration of rifampicin administration, is associated with a higher rate of failure and relapse, especially in patients with HIV
infection.7274 Nevertheless, the eight-month regimen may be used when adherence to
treatment throughout the continuation phase cannot be assessed.24 The rationale for this
approach is that if the patient is nonadherent, the emergence of resistance to rifampicin
* Ethambutol may be omitted in the initial phase of treatment for adults and children who have negative sputum smears, do not have
extensive pulmonary tuberculosis or severe forms of extrapulmonary disease, and who are known to be HIV negative.
30
JANUARY 2006
will be minimized. A retrospective review of the outcomes of treatment of tuberculosis in

patients with HIV infection shows that tuberculosis relapse is minimized by the use of a
regimen containing rifampicin throughout a six-month course.72 Thus, the six-month regimen containing rifampicin throughout the entire course is preferable in patients with HIV
infection to minimize the risk of relapse; however, the patients HIV stage, the need for and
availability of antiretroviral drugs, and the quality of treatment supervision/support must be
considered in choosing an appropriate continuation phase of therapy.
Intermittent administration of antituberculosis drugs enables supervision to be provided
more efficiently and economically with no reduction in efficacy. The evidence on effectiveness of intermittent regimens was reviewed recently.75,76 These reviews, based on several
trials,7782 suggest that antituberculosis treatment may be given intermittently three times a
week throughout the full course of therapy or twice weekly in the continuation phase without apparent loss of effectiveness. However, WHO and The Union do not recommend the
use of twice-weekly intermittent regimens because of the potentially greater consequences
of missing one of the two doses.24,25,83 A simplified version of the current WHO recommendations for treating persons who have not been treated previously is shown in Table 2.24
TABL E 2 .
Recommended treatment for persons not treated previously24

RANKING
INITIAL PHASE
CONTINUATION PHASE
Preferred
INH, RIF, PZA, EMB1,2 daily, 2 months
INH, RIF daily, 4 months
INH, RIF, PZA, EMB1,2 3x/week, 2 months
INH, RIF 3x/week, 4 months
INH, RIF, PZA, EMB2 daily, 2 months
INH, EMB daily, 6 months3
Optional
INH = isoniazid; RIF = rifampicin; PZA = pyrazinamide; EMB = ethambutol

1 Streptomycin may be substituted for ethambutol.
2 Ethambutol may be omitted in the initial phase of treatment for adults and children who have negative sputum smears, do not have extensive pulmonary tuberculosis or severe forms of extra-pulmonary disease, and
who are known to be HIV negative.
3 Associated with higher rate of treatment failure and relapse; should generally not be used in patients with
HIV infection.
The evidence base for currently recommended antituberculosis drug dosages derives
from human clinical trials, animal models, and pharmacokinetic and toxicity studies. The
evidence on drug dosages and safety and the biological basis for dosage recommendations have been extensively reviewed in publications by WHO,24 The Union,25 ATS, CDC,
the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA),69 and others.83,84 The recommended
doses for daily and thrice-weekly administration are shown in Table 3.
STANDARD 8
31
TABL E 3 .
Doses of first-line antituberculosis drugs in adults and children

Recommended dose in mg/kg body weight (range)
DRUG
DAILY
THREE TIMES WEEKLY
isoniazid
5 (46), maximum 300 daily
10
rifampicin
pyrazinamide
25 (2030)
35 (3040)
ethambutol
children 20 (1525)*
adults 15 (1520)
30 (2535)
streptomycin
15 (1218)
15 (1218)
* The recommended daily dose of ethambutol is higher in children (20 mg/kg) than in adults (15mg/kg), because
the pharmacokinetics are different. (Peak serum ethambutol concentrations are lower in children than in adults
receiving the same mg/kg dose.)
Treatment of tuberculosis in special clinical situations, such as the presence of liver disease, renal disease, pregnancy, and HIV infection, may require modification of the standard regimen or alterations in dosage or frequency of drug administration. For guidance
in these situations, see WHO and ATS/CDC/IDSA treatment guidelines.24,69
Although there is no evidence that fixed-dose combinations (FDCs) are superior to individual drugs, expert opinion suggests that they may minimize inadvertent monotherapy
and may decrease the frequency of acquired drug resistance and medication errors.24,69
FDCs also reduce the number of tablets to be consumed and may thereby increase patient adherence to recommended treatment regimens.85,86
32
JANUARY 2006
STANDARD 9. To foster and assess adherence, a patient-centered approach to administration

of drug treatment, based on the patients needs and mutual respect between the
patient and the provider, should be developed for all patients. Supervision and
support should be gender-sensitive and age-specific and should draw on the
full range of recommended interventions and available support services,
including patient counseling and education. A central element of the patient-centered strategy is the use of measures to assess and promote adherence to the treatment regimen and to address poor adherence when
it occurs. These measures should be tailored to the individual patients
circumstances and be mutually acceptable to the patient and the provider. Such measures may include direct observation of medication ingestion (directly observed therapyDOT) by a treatment supporter who
is acceptable and accountable to the patient and to the health system.
Assuming an
appropriate
drug regimen is
prescribed, success
of treatment for
tuberculosis
depends largely on
patient adherence.
The approach described is designed to encourage and facilitate a positive partnership

between providers and patients, working together to improve adherence. Adherence to
treatment is the critical factor in determining treatment success.87 The success of treatment for tuberculosis, assuming an appropriate drug regimen is prescribed, depends
largely on patient adherence to the regimen. Achieving adherence is not an easy task,
either for the patient or the provider. Antituberculosis drug regimens, as described previously, consist of multiple drugs given for a minimum of six months, often when the patient
feels well (except, perhaps, for adverse effects of the medications). Commonly, treatments of this sort are inconsistent with the patients cultural milieu, belief system, and
living circumstances. Consequently, it is not surprising that, without appropriate treatment support, a significant proportion of patients with tuberculosis discontinue treatment
before completion of the planned duration or are erratic in drug taking. Yet, failure to
complete treatment for tuberculosis leads to prolonged infectivity, poor outcomes, and
drug resistance.88
Adherence is a multi-dimensional phenomenon determined by the interplay of five sets of
factors (dimensions), as illustrated in Figure 2 and Table 4.87
F IGU RE 2 .
The five dimensions of adherence87
Health
system/
HCT factors
Conditionrelated factors
Social/
economic
factors
Therapyrelated factors
Patient-related
factors
HCT = Healthcare Team
Source: WHO, 200387
STANDARD 9
33
TABL E 4 .
Factors affecting adherence87

TUBERCULOSIS
INTERVENTIONS TO IMPROVE
ADHERENCE
FACTORS AFFECTING ADHERENCE
Social/economic
factors
( - ) Lack of effective social support

networks and unstable living
circumstances; culture and lay
beliefs about illness and treatment;
stigma; ethnicity, gender, and
age; high cost of medication; high
cost of transport; criminal justice
involvement; involvement in drug
dealing
Assessment of social needs, social

support, housing, food tokens,
and legal measures; providing
transport to treatment settings;
peer assistance; mobilization of
community-based organizations;
optimizing the cooperation
between services; education of the
community and providers to reduce
stigma; family and community
support
Health system/healthcare
team factors
( - ) Poorly developed health

services; inadequate relationship
between healthcare provider
and patient; healthcare providers
who are untrained, overworked,
inadequately supervised or
unsupervised in their tasks; inability
to predict potentially nonadherent
patients
Uninterrupted, ready availability

of information; training and
management processes that aim to
improve the way providers care for
patients with tuberculosis; support
for local patient organizations/
groups; management of disease
and treatment in conjunction with
the patients; multidisciplinary care;
intensive staff supervision; training
in adherence monitoring; use of
DOT
( + ) Good relationships between

patient and physician; availability of
expertise; links with patient support
systems; flexibility in the hours of
operation
Condition-related factors
( - ) Asymptomatic patients; drug

use; altered mental states caused
by substance abuse; depression
and psychological stress
Education on use of medications;

provision of information about
tuberculosis and the need to attend
for treatment
( + ) Knowledge about TB
Education on use of medications;
provision of information about
tuberculosis and the need to attend
for treatment
Therapy-related factors
( - ) Complex treatment regimen;

adverse effects of treatment;
toxicity
Education on use of medications

and adverse effects of medications;
adherence education; use of fixeddose combination preparations;
tailor treatment support to needs
of patients at risk of nonadherence;
agreements (written or verbal) to
return for an appointment or course
of treatment; continuous monitoring
and reassessment
Patient-related factors
(-) Forgetfulness; drug abuse;

depression; psychological stress;
isolation due to stigma
Therapeutic relationship; mutual

goal-setting; memory aids and
reminders; incentives and/or
reinforcements; reminder letters,
telephone reminders or home visits
for patients who default
(+) Belief in the efficacy of

treatment; motivation
DOT = directly observed therapy; TB = tuberculosis;

(+) = factors having a positive effect on adherence; (-) = factors having a negative effect on adherence
34
JANUARY 2006
When a second
individual directly
observes a
patient swallowing
medications, there
is greater certainty
that the patient is
actually receiving
the prescribed
medications. This
approach results
in a high cure rate
and a reduction
in the risk of drug
resistance.
Despite evidence to the contrary, there is a widespread tendency to focus on patientrelated factors as the main cause of poor adherence.87 Sociological and behavioral research
during the past 40 years has shown that patients need to be supported, not blamed.87
Less attention is paid to provider and health system-related factors. Several studies have
evaluated various interventions to improve adherence to tuberculosis therapy. (These interventions are listed in Table 4.) There are a number of reviews that examine the evidence
on the effectiveness of these interventions.69, 87, 89, 9095
Among the interventions evaluated, DOT has generated the most debate and controversy.* The third component of the global DOTS strategy, now widely recommended as
the most effective strategy for controlling tuberculosis worldwide, is the administration of a
standardized, rifampicin-based regimen using case management interventions that are appropriate to the individual and the circumstances.23,24,69,97 These interventions may include
DOT as one of a range of measures to promote and assess adherence to treatment.
The main advantage of DOT is that treatment is carried out entirely under close, direct
supervision.92 This provides both an accurate assessment of the degree of adherence
and greater assurance that the medications have actually been ingested. When a second
individual directly observes a patient swallowing medications, there is greater certainty
that the patient is actually receiving the prescribed medications. This approach, therefore,
results in a high cure rate and a reduction in the risk of drug resistance. Also, because
there is a close contact between the patient and the treatment supporter, adverse drug
effects and other complications can be identified quickly and managed appropriately.92
Moreover, such case management can also serve to identify and assist in addressing the
myriad other problems experienced by patients with tuberculosis, such as undernutrition,
poor housing, and loss of income, to name a few.
The exclusive use of health facility-based DOT may be associated with disadvantages
that must be taken into account in designing a patient-centered approach. For example,
these disadvantages may include loss of income, stigma, and physical hardship, all factors that can have an important effect on adherence.87 Ideally, a flexible mix of health
facility-based and community-based DOT should be available.
In a Cochrane systematic review that synthesized the evidence from six controlled trials
comparing DOT with self-administered therapy,89,90 the authors found that patients allocated to DOT and those allocated to self-administered therapy had similar cure rates (Risk
Ratio [RR] 1.06, 95% Confidence Interval [CI] 0.98, 1.14); and rates of cure plus treatment completion (RR 1.06, 95% CI 1.00, 1.13). They concluded that direct observation of
medication ingestion did not improve outcomes.89,90
In contrast, other reviews have found DOT to be associated with high cure and treatment
completion rates.24,69,91,92,98 Also, programmatic studies on the effectiveness of the DOTS
strategy have shown high rates of treatment success in several countries.87 It is likely that
these inconsistencies across reviews are due to the fact that primary studies are often
unable to separate the effect of DOT alone from the overall DOTS strategy.87,94 In a retrospective review of programmatic results, the highest rates of success were achieved with
* There is an important distinction between directly observed treatment (DOT) and the DOTS strategy for tuberculosis control: DOT is
one of a range of measures used to promote and assess adherence to tuberculosis treatment, whereas the DOTS strategy consists five
components and forms the platform on which tuberculosis control programs are built.96
STANDARD 9
35
enhanced DOT, which consisted of supervised swallowing plus social supports, incentives, and enablers as part of a larger program to encourage adherence to treatment.91
Such complex interventions are not easily evaluated within the conventional randomized
controlled trial framework.87
Treatment support
measures, and
not the treatment
regimen itself, must
be individualized
to suit the unique
needs of the patient.
Interventions other than DOT have also shown promise.87, 95 For example, interventions that
used incentives, peer assistance, repeated motivation of patients, and staff training and
motivation all have been shown to improve adherence significantly.95 In addition, adherence may be enhanced by provision of more comprehensive primary care, as described
in the Integrated Management of Adolescent and Adult Illness (IMAAI),99-101 as well as by
provision of specialized services such as opiate substitution for injection drug users.
Systematic reviews and extensive programmatic experience demonstrate that there is
no single approach to case management that is effective for all patients, conditions, and
settings. Consequently, interventions that target adherence must be tailored or customized to the particular situation and cultural context of a given patient.87 Such an approach
must be developed in concert with the patient to achieve optimum adherence. This
patient-centered, individualized approach to treatment support is now a core element
of all tuberculosis care and control efforts. It is important to note that treatment support
measures, and not the treatment regimen itself, must be individualized to suit the unique
needs of the patient.
In addition to one-on-one support for patients being treated for tuberculosis, community
support is also of importance in creating a therapeutic milieu and reducing stigma.3 Not
only should the community expect that optimum treatment for tuberculosis is provided,
but it also should expect and play a role in promoting conditions that facilitate and assist
in ensuring that the patient will adhere to the prescribed regimen.
36
JANUARY 2006
STANDARD 10. All patients should be monitored for response to therapy, best judged in patients
with pulmonary tuberculosis by follow-up sputum smear microscopy (two specimens) at least at the time of completion of the initial phase of treatment (two
months), at five months, and at the end of treatment. Patients who have positive smears during the fifth month of treatment should be considered as
treatment failures and have therapy modified appropriately. (See Standards
14 and 15.) In patients with extrapulmonary tuberculosis and in children,
the response to treatment is best assessed clinically. Follow-up radiographic examinations are usually unnecessary and may be misleading.
Patient monitoring
is necessary
to evaluate the
response of the
disease to treatment
and to identify
adverse drug
reactions.
Patient monitoring and treatment supervision are two separate functions. Patient
monitoring is necessary to evaluate the response of the disease to treatment and
to identify adverse drug reactions. For the latter function, contact between the
patient and a provider is necessary. To judge response of pulmonary tuberculosis
to treatment, the most expeditious method is sputum smear microscopy. Ideally, where
quality-assured laboratories are available, sputum cultures, as well as smears, should be
performed for monitoring.
Having a positive sputum smear at completion of five months of treatment defines treatment failure, indicating the need for determination of drug susceptibility and initiation of a
retreatment regimen.23 Radiographic assessments, although used commonly, have been
shown to be unreliable for evaluating response to treatment.102 Similarly, clinical assessment can be unreliable and misleading in the monitoring of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis.102 In patients with extrapulmonary tuberculosis and in children, clinical evaluations
may be the only available means of assessing the response to treatment.
STANDARD 11. A written record of all medications given, bacteriologic response, and adverse
reactions should be maintained for all patients.
There is a sound rationale and clear benefits of a record keeping system.103 It is common
for individual physicians to believe sincerely that a majority of the patients in whom they
initiate antituberculosis therapy are cured. However, when systematically evaluated, it is
often seen that only a minority of patients have successfully completed the full treatment
regimen.103 The recording and reporting system enables targeted, individualized follow-up
to identify patients who are failing therapy.103 It also helps in facilitating continuity of care,
particularly in settings (e.g., large hospitals) where the same practitioner might not be seeing the patient during every visit. A good record of medications given, results of investigations (such as smears, cultures, and chest radiographs), and progress notes (on clinical
improvement, adverse events, and adherence) will provide for more uniform monitoring
and ensure a high standard of care.
Records are important to provide continuity when patients move from one care provider
to another and to enable tracing of patients who miss appointments. In patients who
STANDARD 10 / 11
37
default and then return for treatment and patients who relapse after treatment completion,
it is critical to review previous records in order to assess the likelihood of drug resistance.
Lastly, management of complicated cases (e.g., multidrug-resistant tuberculosis) is not
possible without an adequate record of previous treatment, adverse events, and drug
susceptibility results. It should be noted that, wherever patient records are concerned,
care must be taken to insure confidentiality of the information.
STANDARD 12. In areas with a high prevalence of HIV infection in the general population where
tuberculosis and HIV infection are likely to co-exist, HIV counseling and testing
is indicated for all tuberculosis patients as part of their routine management. In
areas with lower prevalence rates of HIV, HIV counseling and testing is indicated
for tuberculosis patients with symptoms and/or signs of HIV-related conditions
and in tuberculosis patients having a history suggestive of high risk of
HIV exposure.
Infection with HIV both increases the likelihood of progression from
infection with M. tuberculosis to active tuberculosis and changes
the clinical manifestations of the disease.32,104,105 Further, in comparison with non-HIV infected patients, patients with HIV infection
who have pulmonary tuberculosis have a lower likelihood of having acid-fast bacilli detected by sputum smear microscopy.32,104,105
Moreover, data consistently show that the chest radiographic features are atypical and the proportion of extrapulmonary tuberculosis is greater in patients with advanced HIV infection compared with
those who do not have HIV infection. Consequently, knowledge of
a persons HIV status would influence the approach to a diagnostic
evaluation for tuberculosis. For this reason, it is important, particularly
in areas in which there is a high prevalence of HIV infection, that the history and physical
examination include a search for indicators that suggest the presence of HIV infection.
Table 5 presents clinical features that are suggestive of HIV infection.105 A comprehensive
list of clinical criteria/algorithms for HIV/AIDS diagnosis and clinical staging is available
in the WHO document Scaling up Antiretroviral Therapy in Resource-Limited Settings:
Guidelines for a Public Health Approach (Geneva, 2002).106
Tuberculosis is highly associated with HIV infection worldwide.7,107 Although the prevalence of HIV infection varies widely among and within countries, in persons with HIV infection there is always an increased risk of tuberculosis. The differences in HIV prevalence
mean that a variable percentage of patients with tuberculosis will have HIV infection as
well. This ranges from less than 1% in low-HIV-prevalence countries to 5070% in countries with a high HIV prevalence, mostly sub-Saharan African countries.7 Even though
in low-HIV-prevalence countries few tuberculosis patients will be HIV-infected, the connection is sufficiently strong and the impact on the patient sufficiently great that the test
should always be considered in managing individual patients, especially among groups in
38
JANUARY 2006
Even though
in low HIV
prevalence
countries few
tuberculosis
patients will be
HIV-infected,
the test should
always be
considered
in managing
individual
patients,
especially
among groups
in which the
prevalence of
HIV is higher.
which the prevalence of HIV is higher, such as injecting drug users. In countries having a
high prevalence of HIV infection, the yield of positive results will be high, and, again, the
impact of a positive result on the patient will be great. Thus, the indication for HIV testing is strong; co-infected patients may benefit by access to antiretroviral therapy as HIV
treatment programs expand or through administration of co-trimoxazole for prevention of
opportunistic infections, even when antiretroviral drugs are not available locally.105,107,108
TABL E 5 .
Clinical features suggestive of HIV infection in patients with

tuberculosis105
Past history
Symptoms
Signs
Sexually transmitted infections (STI)
Herpes zoster (shingles)
Recent or recurrent pneumonia
Severe bacterial infections
Recent treated tuberculosis
Weight loss (>10 kg or >20% of original weight)
Diarrhea (>1 month)
Retrosternal pain on swallowing (suggestive of esophageal candidiasis)
Burning sensation of feet (peripheral sensory neuropathy)
Scar of herpes zoster
Itchy popular skin rash
Kaposi sarcoma
Symmetrical generalized lymphadenopathy
Oral candidiasis
Angular cheilitis
Oral hairy leukoplakia
Necrotizing gingivitis
Giant aphthous ulceration
Persistent painful genital ulceration
STANDARD 12
39
STANDARD 13. All patients with tuberculosis and HIV infection should be evaluated to determine
if antiretroviral therapy is indicated during the course of treatment for tuberculosis. Appropriate arrangements for access to antiretroviral drugs should be made
for patients who meet indications for treatment. Given the complexity of coadministration of antituberculosis treatment and antiretroviral therapy, consultation with a physician who is expert in this area is recommended before initiation
of concurrent treatment for tuberculosis and HIV infection, regardless of which
All patients with
disease appeared first. However, initiation of treatment for tuberculosis should
tuberculosis and
not be delayed. Patients with tuberculosis and HIV infection should also receive
co-trimoxazole as prophylaxis for other infections.
HIV infection either
currently are, or will

be, candidates for
antiretroviral therapy.

The evidence on effectiveness of treatment for tuberculosis in patients with HIV co-infection
versus those who do not have HIV infection has been reviewed extensively.24,69,72,105,109112
These reviews suggest that, in general, the outcome of treatment for tuberculosis is the
same in HIV-infected and non-HIV-infected patients with the notable exception that death
rates are greater among patients with HIV infection, presumably due in large part to complications of HIV infection. With two exceptions, tuberculosis treatment regimens are the
same for HIV-infected and non-HIV-infected patients. The first exception is that thioacetazone, a drug used commonly in the past but no longer recommended, is contraindicated
in patients with HIV infection. Thioacetazone is associated with a high risk of severe skin
reactions in HIV-infected individuals and should not be used.24,105 Second, the results of
treatment are better if a rifampicin-containing regimen is used throughout the six-month
course of treatment.72 Thus, the six-month regimen containing rifampicin throughout the
entire course is preferable in patients with HIV infection to minimize the risk of relapse;
however, the patients HIV stage, the need for (and availability of) antiretroviral drugs, and
the quality of treatment supervision/support must be considered in choosing an appropriate continuation phase of therapy.
All patients with tuberculosis and HIV infection either currently are, or will be, candidates
for antiretroviral therapy. Antiretroviral therapy results in remarkable reductions in morbidity and mortality in HIV-infected persons and may improve the outcomes of treatment for
tuberculosis. Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) is the internationally accepted
standard of care for persons with advanced HIV infection.
In patients with HIV-related tuberculosis, treating tuberculosis is the first priority. In the
setting of advanced HIV infection, untreated tuberculosis can progress rapidly to death.
As noted above, however, antiretroviral treatment may be lifesaving for patients with advanced HIV infection. Consequently, concurrent treatment may be necessary in patients
with advanced HIV disease (e.g., circulating CD4+ T lymphocyte count <200/L). It should
be emphasized, however, that treatment for tuberculosis should not be interrupted in order to initiate antiretroviral therapy, and, in patients with early stage HIV infection, it may
be safer to defer antiretroviral treatment until at least the completion of the initial phase of
tuberculosis treatment.105
There are a number of problems associated with concomitant therapy for tuberculosis
and HIV infection. These include overlapping toxicity profiles for the drugs used, drug-
40
JANUARY 2006
drug interactions (especially with rifamycins and protease inhibitors), potential problems
with adherence to multiple medications, and immune reconstitution reactions.69,105 Consequently, consultation with an expert in HIV management is needed in deciding when
to start antiretroviral drugs, the agents to use, and the plan for monitoring for adverse
reactions and response to both therapies. (For a single-source reference on the management of tuberculosis in patients with HIV infection see the WHO manual TB/HIV: A Clinical
Manual.105)
Patients with tuberculosis and HIV infection should also receive co-trimoxazole (trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole) as prophylaxis for other infections. Several studies have demonstrated
the benefits of cotrimoxazole prophylaxis, and this intervention is currently recommended
by the WHO as part of the TB/HIV management package.105,107,113118
STANDARD 14. An assessment of the likelihood of drug resistance, based on history of prior
treatment, exposure to a possible source case having drug-resistant organisms,
and the community prevalence of drug resistance, should be obtained for all patients. Patients who fail treatment and chronic cases should always be assessed
for possible drug resistance. For patients in whom drug resistance is considered
to be likely, culture and drug susceptibility testing for isoniazid, rifampicin, and
ethambutol should be performed promptly.
Drug resistance is largely man-made and is a consequence of suboptimal regimens
and treatment interruptions. Clinical errors that commonly lead to the emergence
of drug resistance include: failure to provide effective treatment support and assurance of adherence; failure to recognize and address patient non-adherence;
inadequate drug regimens; adding a single new drug to a failing regimen; and
failure to recognize existing drug resistance.119 In addition, co-morbid conditions
associated with reduced serum levels of antituberculosis drugs (e.g., malabsorption, rapid transit diarrhea, HIV infection, or use of antifungal agents) may also lead
to the acquisition of drug resistance.119
Programmatic causes of drug resistance include drug shortages and stock-outs,
administration of poor-quality drugs and lack of appropriate supervision to prevent erratic drug intake.119 Patients with drug-resistant tuberculosis can spread the disease to their
contacts. Transmission of drug-resistant strains of M. tuberculosis has been well described
in congregate settings and in susceptible populations, notably HIV-infected persons.120123
However, multidrug-resistant (MDR) tuberculosis (tuberculosis caused by organisms that
are resistant to at least isoniazid and rifampicin) may spread in the population at large, as
was shown in China, the Baltic States, and countries of the former Soviet Union.
The strongest factor associated with drug resistance is previous antituberculosis treatment, as shown by the WHO/IUATLD Global Project on Anti-TB Drug Resistance Surveillance, started in 1994.124 In previously treated patients, the odds of any resistance are
at least fourfold higher and that of MDR at least tenfold higher than in new (untreated)
STANDARD 13/14
41
Clinical errors that

commonly lead to the
emergence of drug
resistance include:
failure to provide
effective treatment
support and assurance
of adherence; failure
to recognize and
address patient
non-adherence;
inadequate drug
regimens; adding a
single new drug to a
failing regimen; and
failure to recognize
existing drug
resistance.
patients.124 Patients with chronic tuberculosis (sputum-positive after retreatment) and

those who fail treatment (sputum-positive after five months of treatment) are at highest
risk of having MDR tuberculosis, especially if rifampicin was used throughout the course
of treatment.124 Persons who are in close contact with confirmed MDR tuberculosis patients, especially children and HIV-infected individuals, also are at high risk of being infected with MDR strains. In some closed settings, prisoners, persons staying in homeless
shelters and certain categories of immigrants and migrants are at increased risk of MDR
tuberculosis.119124
Drug susceptibility testing (DST) to the first-line antituberculosis drugs should be performed in specialized reference laboratories that participate in an ongoing, rigorous quality assurance program. DST for first-line drugs is currently recommended for all patients
with a history of previous antituberculosis treatment: patients who have failed treatment,
especially those who have failed a standardized retreatment regimen, and chronic cases
are the highest priority.119 Patients who develop tuberculosis and are known to have been
in close contact with persons known to have MDR tuberculosis also should have DST
performed on an initial isolate. Although HIV infection has not been conclusively shown to
be an independent risk factor for drug resistance, MDR tuberculosis outbreaks in HIV settings and high mortality rates in persons with MDR tuberculosis and HIV infection justify
routine DST in all HIV-infected tuberculosis patients, resources permitting.119
STANDARD 15. Patients with tuberculosis caused by drug-resistant (especially MDR) organisms
should be treated with specialized regimens containing second-line antituberculosis drugs. At least four drugs to which the organisms are known or presumed
to be susceptible should be used, and treatment should be given for at least 18
months. Patient-centered measures are required to ensure adherence. Consultation with a provider experienced in treatment of patients with MDR tuberculosis should be obtained.
Because randomized controlled treatment trials for MDR tuberculosis would be extremely
difficult to design, none have been conducted. Current recommendations are, therefore,
based on observational studies, general microbiological and therapeutic principles, extrapolation from available evidence from pilot MDR tuberculosis treatment projects, and
expert opinion.125,126 Three strategic options for treatment of MDR tuberculosis are currently recommended by WHO: standardized regimens, empiric regimens, and individualized treatment regimens. The choice among these should be based on availability of second-line drugs and DST for first- and second-line drugs, local drug resistance patterns,
and the history of use of second-line drugs.119 Basic principles involved in the design of
any regimen include the use of at least four drugs with either certain or highly likely effectiveness, drug administration at least six days a week, drug dosage determined by
patient weight, the use of an injectable agent (an aminoglycoside or capreomycin) for at
42
JANUARY 2006
least six months, treatment duration of 1824 months, and DOT throughout the
treatment course.
Standardized treatment regimens are based on representative drug-resistance surveillance data or on the history of drug usage in the country. Based
on these assessments, regimens can be designed that will have a high likelihood of success. Advantages include less dependency on highly technical
laboratories, less reliance on highly specialized clinical expertise required to
interpret DST results, simplified drug ordering, and easier operational implementation. A standardized approach is useful in settings where second-line
drugs have not been used extensively and, consequently, where resistance
levels to these drugs are low or absent.
Three strategic
options for treatment
of MDR tuberculosis
are currently
recommended by
WHO: standardized
regimens, empiric
regimens, and
individualized
treatment regimens.
Empiric treatment regimens are commonly used in specific groups of patients

while the DST results are pending. Unfortunately, most of the available DST methods have
a turnaround time of several months. Empiric regimens are strongly recommended to
avoid clinical deterioration and to prevent transmission of MDR strains of M. tuberculosis
to contacts while awaiting the DST results.119 Once the results of DST are known, an empiric regimen may be changed to an individualized regimen. Ongoing global efforts to address the problem of MDR tuberculosis will likely result in broader access to laboratories
performing DST and a faster return of results.
Individualized treatment regimens (based on DST profiles and previous drug history of
individual patients, or on local patterns of drug utilization) have the advantage of avoiding
toxic and expensive drugs to which the MDR strain is resistant. However, an individualized approach requires access to substantial human, financial, and technical (laboratory)
capacity. DST for second-line drugs are notoriously difficult to perform, largely because
of drug instability and the fact that critical concentrations for defining drug resistance are
very close to the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of individual drugs.127 Laboratory
proficiency testing results are not yet available for second-line drugs; as a result, little can
be said about the reliability of DST for these drugs.124,127 Clinicians treating MDR tuberculosis patients must be aware of these limitations and interpret DST results with this
in mind.
Current WHO recommendations for treatment of MDR tuberculosis can be found at
(http://www.who.int/tb/en/).119 MDR tuberculosis treatment is a complex health intervention, and medical practitioners are strongly advised to consult colleagues experienced in
the management of these patients.
STANDARD 15
43
44
JANUARY 2006
Standards for Public Health

Responsibilities
The inability to conduct targeted
contact investigations results
in missed opportunities to
prevent additional cases of
tuberculosis, especially among
children. Thus, more energetic
efforts are necessary to
overcome barriers to optimum
tuberculosis control practices.
STANDARD 16. All providers of care for patients with tuberculosis should ensure that persons
(especially children under 5 years of age and persons with HIV infection) who are
in close contact with patients who have infectious tuberculosis are evaluated
and managed in line with international recommendations. Children under 5 years
of age and persons with HIV infection who have been in contact with an infectious case should be evaluated for both latent infection with M. tuberculosis and
for active tuberculosis.
The risk of acquiring infection with M. tuberculosis is correlated with intensity and duration
of exposure to a person with infectious tuberculosis. Close contacts of patients with tuberculosis, therefore, are at high risk for acquiring the infection. Contact investigation is considered an important activity, both to find persons with previously undetected tuberculosis
and persons who are candidates for treatment of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI).128,129
The potential yield of contact investigation in high- and low-incidence settings has been
reviewed previously.128,129 In low-incidence settings (e.g., United States), it has been found
that, on average, 510 contacts are identified for each incident tuberculosis case. Of
these, about 30% are found to have latent tuberculosis infection, and another 14%
STANDARDS FOR PUBLIC HEALTH RESPONSIBILITIES
STANDARD 16
45
have active tuberculosis.128,130,131 Much higher rates of both latent infection and active
disease have been reported in high-prevalence countries, where about 50% of household
contacts have latent infection, and about 1020% have active tuberculosis at the time of
initial investigation.129 A recent systematic review of more than 50 studies on household
contact investigations in high incidence settings showed that, on average, about 6%
(range 0.529%; N=40 studies) of the contacts were found to have active tuberculosis.132
The median number of household contacts that were evaluated to find one case of active tuberculosis was 19 (range 14300).132 The median proportion of contacts found to
have latent infection was 49% (range: 790%; N= 34 studies).132 The median number of
contacts that were evaluated to find one person with latent tuberculosis infection was 2
(range 114).132 Evidence from this review suggests that contact investigation in highincidence settings is a high-yield strategy for case finding.
Among close contacts, there are certain subgroups that are particularly at high risk for acquiring the infection with M. tuberculosis and progressing rapidly to active diseasechildren and persons with HIV infection. Children (particularly those under the age of 5 years)
are a vulnerable group, not only because of the high likelihood of progressing from latent
infection to active disease, but because they are more likely to develop disseminated and
serious forms of tuberculosis such as meningitis. The Union, therefore, recommends that
children under the age of 5 years living in the same household as a sputum smear-positive
tuberculosis patient should be targeted for preventive therapy (after exclusion of tuberculosis to prevent de facto monotherapy of tuberculosis).65,129 Similarly, contacts who have
HIV infection are at substantially greater risk for progressing to active tuberculosis.
Unfortunately, lack of adequate staff and resources in many areas makes contact investigation difficult.65,129 This inability to conduct targeted contact investigations results in
missed opportunities to prevent additional cases of tuberculosis, especially among children. Thus, more energetic efforts are necessary to overcome these barriers to optimum
tuberculosis control practices.
46
JANUARY 2006
STANDARD 17. All providers must report both new and retreatment tuberculosis cases and their
treatment outcomes to local public health authorities, in conformance with applicable legal requirements and policies.
Reporting tuberculosis cases to the local tuberculosis control program is an
essential public health function, and in many countries is legally mandated.
Ideally, the reporting system design, supported by a legal framework, should
be capable of receiving and integrating data from several sources, including
laboratories and healthcare institutions, as well as individual practitioners.
Reporting
tuberculosis
cases to the local
tuberculosis control
program is an
essential public
health function.
The recording and
reporting system
allows for targeted,
individualized
follow-up to help
patients.
An effective reporting system enables a determination of the overall effectiveness of tuberculosis control programs, of resource needs, and of the
true distribution and dynamics of the disease within the population as a
whole, not just the population served by the government tuberculosis control
program. In most countries, tuberculosis is a reportable disease. A system of
recording and reporting information on tuberculosis cases and their treatment
outcomes is one of the key elements of the DOTS strategy.103 Such a system is useful not
only to monitor progress and treatment outcomes of individual patients but also to evaluate the overall performance of the tuberculosis control programs, at the local, national,
and global levels, and to indicate programmatic weaknesses.103
The recording and reporting system allows for targeted, individualized follow-up to help
patients who are not making adequate progress (i.e., failing therapy).103 The system also
allows for evaluation of the performance of the practitioner, the hospital or institution, local
health system, and the country as a whole. Finally, a system of recording and reporting
ensures accountability.
Although on the one hand reporting to public health authorities is essential; on the other
hand it is also essential that patient confidentiality be maintained. Thus, reporting must follow predefined channels using standard procedures that guarantee that only authorized
persons see the information. Such safeguards must be developed by local and national
tuberculosis control programs to ensure the confidentiality of patient information.
STANDARDS FOR PUBLIC HEALTH RESPONSIBILITIES
STANDARD 17
47
48
JANUARY 2006
Research Needs
Research in
operational and
clinical areas
serves to
complement
ongoing efforts
focused on
developing
new tools for
tuberculosis
controlnew
diagnostic
tests, drugs,
and vaccines.
As part of the process of developing the ISTC, several key areas that require additional research were identified (Table 6). Systematic reviews and research studies (some of which
are underway currently) in these areas are critical to generate evidence to support rational
and evidence-based care and control of tuberculosis. Research in these operational and
clinical areas serves to complement ongoing efforts focused on developing new tools for
tuberculosis controlnew diagnostic tests,133 drugs,134 and vaccines.135
Key areas requiring additional research include:
Diagnosis and case finding

Treatment, monitoring, and support
Public health and operational research
RESEARCH AND REVIEW NEEDS
49
TABL E 6 .
Priority areas for research and evaluation

AREA OF RESEARCH
Diagnosis and
case finding
Treatment,
monitoring, and
support
Public health and

operational
research
50
SPECIFIC RESEARCH QUESTIONS
What is the sensitivity and specificity of various thresholds for chronic cough (e.g., two
versus three weeks) as a screening test to determine who should be evaluated for
tuberculosis? How do local conditions such as the prevalence of tuberculosis, HIV infection,
asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) influence the threshold?
What is the optimal diagnostic strategy/algorithm for establishing a diagnosis of tuberculosis

in patients suspected of having the disease but who have negative sputum smears? Should
the strategy be modified in patients with HIV infection?
What is the optimal diagnostic algorithm for children with suspected tuberculosis?
What is the role of therapeutic antibiotic trials in the diagnosis of smear-negative

tuberculosis?
What is the value and role of sputum concentration in improving the accuracy and yield of
smear microscopy?
What is the impact of bleach treatment of sputum on the accuracy and yield of sputum
smear microscopy?
What is the role, feasibility, and applicability of fluorescent microscopy in routine field
conditions in areas of both high and low HIV prevalence?
Is there a role for more intensive case finding in high-HIV-endemic settings?
What is the contribution of routine use of culture in tuberculosis care and control in highprevalence areas?
Is there a role for rapid culture methods in tuberculosis control programs?
What factors lead to delays in establishing a diagnosis of tuberculosis?
What is the impact of engaging former (or current) TB patients and/or patient organizations
in active case finding?
What is the role reporting by components of the healthcare system other than direct patient
care providers?
What interventions are effective in improving patient (adults and children) adherence to
antituberculosis therapy?
What is the efficacy of direct observation of treatment (DOT) versus other measures to
improve adherence to treatment?
What is the role of fixed-dose combinations (FDCs) in improving adherence?
What is the optimal duration of antituberculosis therapy for patients who are HIV-positive?
What interventions help in reducing mortality among tuberculosis patients who have HIV
infection?
What is the effectiveness of standardized versus individualized treatment regimens in the

management of mono-resistant and MDR tuberculosis?
What is the relevance of second-line drug susceptibility test results in determining

individualized retreatment regimens?
What are the optimal drug doses and duration of treatment for children?
What is the impact of engaging former (or current) TB patients or patient organizations in
improving adherence?
What is the effect of the DOTS strategy on tuberculosis transmission in populations with
high rates of MDR tuberculosis?
What is the impact of HIV infection on the effectiveness of DOTS programs?
What interventions or measures are helpful in improving tuberculosis management practices

in private practitioners?
What is the impact of treatment of latent tuberculosis infection on tuberculosis burden in

high-HIV-prevalence settings?
What is the impact of engaging former (or current) patients and/or patient organizations in
improving tuberculosis control programs in regions with insufficient human resources?
What are the optimum models for integration of tuberculosis and HIV care?
JANUARY 2006
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56
JANUARY 2006
Photo Credits
Cover - top
Peru 1997
Photographer: Jad Davenport
Credits: WHO/TBP/Davenport
Source: Stop TB Partnership
Page 29
India 2004
Photographer: Gary Hampton
Credits: WHO/TBP/Gary Hampton
Cover - middle
Morocco 1998
Page 30
Peru 1997
Cover - bottom
India 2004
Credits: WHO/TBP/Hampton
Page 33
China 2004
Photographer: Pierre Virot
Credits: WHO/TBP/Pierre Virot
Page 5
India 2004
Page 37
India 2004
Page 11
Ethiopia 2003
Photographer: Jan van den Hornbergh
Credits: WHO/TBP/Jan van den Hornbergh
Page 38
Uganda 2003
Page 17
Myanmar 2001
Photographer: Virginia Arnold
Credits: WHO/TBP/Arnold
Page 41
Peru 1997
Page 19
Morocco 1998
Page 43
South Africa 2003
Page 21
Peru 1997
Page 45
Ethiopia 2003
Photographer: Jan van den Hombergh
Credits: WHO/TBP/Jan van den Hombergh
Page 22
China 2004
Page 47
Peru 1997
Page 25
Peru 1997
Page 49
China 2004
Page 26
India 2004
Credits: WHO/TBP/Hampton
PHOTO CREDITS
57
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I N T E R N AT I O N A L S TA N D A R D S F O R

Developed by the Tuberculosis Coalition for Technical Assistance (TBCTA)

Funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID)

Edith Alarcon (international technical agency, NGO, nurse)

R. V. Asokan (professional society)

Jaap Broekmans (international technical agency, NGO)

Jose Caminero (academic institution, care provider)

Kenneth Castro (national tuberculosis program director)

Lakbir Singh Chauhan (national tuberculosis program director)

David Coetzee (TB/HIV care provider)

Sandra Dudereva (medical student)

Saidi Egwaga (national tuberculosis program director)

Paula Fujiwara (international technical agency, NGO)

Robert Gie (pediatrics, care provider)

Case Gordon (patient activist)

Philip Hopewell, Co-Chair (professional society, academic institution, care provider)

Umesh Lalloo (academic institution, care provider)

Dermot Maher (global tuberculosis control)

G. B. Migliori (professional society)

Richard OBrien (new tools development, private foundation)

Mario Raviglione, Co-Chair (global tuberculosis control)

DArcy Richardson (funding agency, nurse)

Papa Salif Sow (HIV care provider)

Thelma Tupasi (multiple drug-resistant tuberculosis, private sector, care provider)

Mukund Uplekar (global tuberculosis control)

Diana Weil (global tuberculosis control)

Charles Wells (technical agency, national tuberculosis program)

Karin Weyer (laboratory)

Wang Xie Xiu (national public health agency)

Madhukar Pai (University of California, San Francisco & Berkeley) provided

Fran Du Melle (American Thoracic Society) provided administrative staffing and

INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS FOR TUBERCULOSIS CARE (ISTC)

Mohammed Abdel Aziz

Tin Maung Cho

Mirtha Del Granado

Mohammad Reza Masjedi

American Thoracic Society

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Directly observed treatment

The internationally recommended strategy for tuberculosis control

Drug susceptibility testing

Highly active antiretroviral therapy

Human immunodeficiency virus

Infectious Diseases Society of America

Integrated Management of Adolescent and Adult Illness

Integrated Management of Childhood Illness

International Standards for Tuberculosis Care

International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (The Union)

Royal Netherlands Tuberculosis Foundation

Latent tuberculosis infection

Minimal inhibitory concentration

Multiple drug resistance

Nucleic acid amplification test

National tuberculosis control program

Sexually transmitted infection

Tuberculosis Coalition for Technical Assistance

United States Agency for International Development

World Health Organization