Origin of Rheology
Origin of Rheology
Origin of Rheology
Deepak Doraiswamy
DuPont iTechnologies, Experimental Station
Wilmington, DE 19880-0334
I. Prelude to rheology
This article provides a brief historical perspective on the
evolution of rheology and the long gestation period before the
birth of the subject. It is not intended to be a comprehensive
state-of-the-art review but rather to capture key events in the
historical progression of the discipline, which was far from
monotonic, and the significant contributions from a variety of
specialists. Considerable liberty has been taken in identifying
key players and avoiding repetitive mention of different
efforts by the same workers in order to emphasize the
diversity of influences and individuals who have molded the
discipline, and to satisfy severe space constraints. Some
valuable resources for the historical aspects of rheology are
Bingham (1922), Scott Blair (1949), Markowitz (1968), Bird
et al. (1987a,b), White (1990), and Tanner and Walters (1998),
and the reader is referred to these works for further details.
As per the strict definition, rheology is concerned with the
description of the flow behavior of all types of matter. By
convention, however, rheologists main interests are restricted
to industrially relevant materials with properties intermediate
between those of ideal solids and liquids. A useful engineering
definition of rheology is the description of materials using
constitutive equations between the stress history and the
strain history. Table 1 provides a convenient reference for the
accompanying discussion regarding the period prior to the
formal creation of the discipline of rheology in 1929.
KEY
TIME
1600s
d) Newtonian liquids
Early
1800s
Linear viscoelasticity
Mid
1800s
Generalized Newtonian
(viscous) liquids
Late
1800sEarly
1900s
Non-linear
viscoelasticity
Early
1900s
Ideal
materials
Antiquity
REPRESENTATIVE WORKS
a) Perfect,
rigid bodies
b) Ideal
elastic solids
c) Inviscid
fluids
1700s
a) Suspensions
1) Ideal materials
a) Rigid solids: The entire subject of general mechanics deals
with ideal "Euclidean" bodies where only the mass (or
density) of the bodies is relevant (Euclidean geometry is based
on rigid bodies which do not undergo deformation). In fact,
Newton's Principia was primarily concerned with rigid body
mechanics and his comment on viscosity was only a corollary
of his prescient mind. Solid mechanics is the oldest branch of
the physical sciences and it is appropriate to recall the
apocryphal, if time worn, story of Archimedes (~250 BCE)
who claimed that he could move the world if he were provided
the right leverage.
FLUIDS/MODELS
CLASS
Key
material
descriptions
b) Polymers
c) Extensional
viscosity
The genesis of
rheology
Early
1900s
1929
Schonbein (1847),
Baekeland (1909),
Staudinger (1920),
Carothers (1929)
Barus (1893), Trouton (1906),
Fano (1908),
Tamman & Jenckel (1930)
Bingham, Reiner and others
2) Linear viscoelasticity
Poynting (1913) performed some very elegant experiments in
non-linear elasticity. He determined that loaded wires
increased by a length that was proportional to the square of the
twist against all expectations of linear elasticity theory.
Zaremba (1903) extended linear viscoelasticity theory to the
1
The first official meeting of The Society of Rheology was held at the
National Bureau of Standards on December 19, 1929 at which a formal
committee was appointed on definitions and action was taken for securing an
improved absolute viscosity standard; the Journal of Rheology was also
started as a quarterly.
AREA OF ACTIVITY
a) Differential
models
Constitutive
equations
b) Integral
models
c) Network
models
d) Reptation
models
e) Molecular
models
a) Shear flows
and the no-slip
boundary
condition
b) Normal
stresses and
rod-climbing
effects
c) Dynamic
studies
Experimental
advances
and
rheological
descriptions
d) Thixotropy
e) Flow
Instabilities
f) Turbulent
drag reduction
g) Optical
studies/
birefringence
h) Time-temp.
superposition
i) Extensional
behavior
a) LCPs
Advanced
materials
b) Composites
and two-phase
systems
c) ER/MR
fluids
Computational
rheology
a) Continuum
simulations
b) Molecular
dynamic
simulations
REPRESENTATIVE WORKS
Oldroyd (1950), Truesdell (1952), Rivlin
and Ericksen (1955), Giesekus (1962),
White-Metzner (1963)
Green & Rivlin (1957), Coleman &
Noll (1961)
Green & Tobolsky (1946), Lodge(1956),
Yamamoto (1956),
Kaye (1962) - Bernstein et al. (1963)
Edwards (1967), De Gennes (1971), Doi &
Edwards (1978, 1986)
Kuhn (1934), Rouse (1953), Zimm (1956),
Kirkwood (1967), Bird et al. (1987)
Eisenschitz et al. (1929),
Mooney (1931,1936), Schofield &
Blair (1930), Pearson & Petrie (1968),
Graessley (1977), Ramamurthy (1986)
Lander (1945), Weissenberg (1947),
Markowitz (1957), Philippoff (1957),
Ginn & Metzner (1969),
Binnington & Boger (1985)
Eisenschitz & Philippoff (1933), Schofield
& Scott Blair (1932), Leaderman (1943),
Cox-Merz (1958),
Doraiswamy et al. (1991)
Freundlich & Bircumshaw (1926), Cheng
& Evans (1965), Mewis (1979),
Barnes (1997)
Nason (1945), Tordella (1958), Petrie &
Denn (1976), Bousfield et al. (1986)
Toms (1949), Agoston et al. (1954),
Hershey & Zakin (1967),
Seyer & Metzner (1967)
Adams et al. (1965), Carothers &
Hill (1932), Hermans & Platzek (1939),
Janeschitz-Kriegl (1983), Fuller (1985)
Williams et al. (1955), Ferry (1970)
Merrington (1943), Treolar (1944),
Ballman (1965), Cogswell (1969),
Metzner (1968), Meissner (1969),
Dealy et al. (1976), Spearot &
Metzner (1972), Laun & Munstedt (1978),
Sridhar & Gupta (1985)
Leslie (1968)-Ericksen (1961),Doi (1981),
Wissbrun (1985), Doraiswamy &
Metzner (1986), Marrucci & Greco (1992)
Taylor (1934), Krieger-Dougherty (1959),
Rumscheidt & Mason (1961), Leal (1975),
Batchelor (1977), Folgar & Tucker (1984),
Heller & Kuntamukkula (1987), Khan &
Armstrong (1986), Acrivos &
Shaqfeh (1988), Mewis et al. (1989),
Dennis et al. (2001)
Winslow (1949), Parthasarthy &
Klingenberg (1996)
Turner et al. (1956), Gottlieb &
Orzag (1977), Cruse & Risso (1968), Yoo
& Joseph (1985), Beris et al. (1987),
Walters & Tanner (1992), Crochet &
Walters (1993)
Adler & Wainright (1957), Ashurst &
Hoover, (1975), Evans & Morriss (1988),
Davis & Todd (1998)
3) Advanced materials
The technological need to describe the behavior of advanced
materials like liquid crystals, electro- rheological fluids and
composites spawned a range of related research problems and
some of the efforts are summarized below:
a) Liquid crystalline polymers: Some of the earliest work on
anisotropic fluids was by Oseen (1925) which was eventually
followed by the Leslie(1968) -Ericksen (1961) formulation
based on continuum theory where a unit vector termed the
director was used to incorporate the anisotropy of the system;
these formulations are better suited to describe the flow
behavior of low molecular weight liquid crystals. The
molecular theory of Doi and Edwards for rigid back-bone
4) Computational rheology
a) Continuum modeling: The finite-difference method (FDM)
was widely prevalent by the 1960s when transistor technology
first came into bloom. More powerful techniques like the
finite-element method (FEM) which was initiated in 1956
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