An Introduction To The World's Oceans: Study Guide
An Introduction To The World's Oceans: Study Guide
An Introduction To The World's Oceans: Study Guide
An Introduction to
the Worlds Oceans
Seventh Edition
Keith A. Sverdrup
University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee
Alyn C. Duxbury
University of Washington
Alison B. Duxbury
Seattle Community College
Prepared by
Keith A. Sverdrup
University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee
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PROLOGUE
Key Concepts
Major Concept (I)
Scientists who study the oceans have many different scientific backgrounds.
Essentially any scientific discipline can be applied to some sub-field of
oceanography.
Most of the interaction that early civilizations had with the oceans was the result
of obtaining food or a desire to discover new lands and improve trade routes
rather than to gain any general scientific knowledge.
The Phoenician civilization was adept at sailing and navigation as early as 1200 B.C. They are known
to have established trade routes throughout the Mediterranean Sea and northward into the Atlantic as far
as Great Britain.
The Phoenicians circumnavigated Africa in about 590 B.C.
During this same period of time, from 1500500 B.C., the boundaries of the Indian Ocean were being
explored by Arab traders.
Perhaps the most accomplished open ocean sailors of this time, again between about 1500500 B.C.,
were the Polynesians who managed to travel over vast expanses of the Pacific Ocean basin to populate
numerous island chains.
The Polynesians colonized the Hawaiian Islands between A.D. 450 and 600. By the eighth century
A.D. they had colonized every habitable island in a triangular region roughly twice the size of the
United States from Hawaii on the north to New Zealand in the southwest and Easter Island in the east.
Without the ability to determine latitude and longitude, and hence actual position on the globe, early
explorers observed a variety of natural phenomena to help them in their travel when they were out of
site of land. These included wind and wave patterns, their sense of smell, the location and pattern of
clouds that would characteristically form over islands, and the sighting of birds that wouldnt stray too
far from land.
The Greeks called the Mediterranean Sea Thalassa and believed that it was surrounded by land, which
in turn was surrounded by a great river called Oceanus.
Pytheas (c. 350-300 B.C.), a Greek geographer and explorer, made one of the first voyages from the
Mediterranean to England and then north to Scotland, Germany, and Norway. Pytheas also recognized
the relationship between the tides and the phases of the moon.
Aristotle (c. 384322 B.C.) studied the oceans as a scientist. He believed that they occupied low regions
on the earths surface, he recognized the cycling of water by evaporation from the sea surface followed
eventually by condensation and return as rain, and he studied marine organisms.
Eratosthenes (c. 264194 B.C.) first calculated the circumference of the earth as 40,250 km, or 25,000
mi, (compared to current measurements of 40,067 km, or 24,881 mi on average). He also produced a
map of the known world.
Posidonius (c. 13550 B.C.) reportedly measured an ocean depth of 1800 m, or 6000 ft.
Pliny the Elder (c. A.D. 2379) related phases of the moon to the tides and studied currents flowing
through the Strait of Gibraltar.
Ptolemy (c. A.D. 127151) produced the first world atlas listing more than 8000 places by latitude and
longitude. It was based on a major flaw however. He used a value of the circumference of the earth of
29,000 km (18,000 mi). This had the effect of shortening distances and made Columbus believe he had
reached the eastern edge of Asia when he landed in the Americas.
During the Middle Ages, relatively little new knowledge was added to our
understanding of the oceans. Despite this, however, advances continued to be
made in shipbuilding, navigation, and piloting.
The Arab El-Masd (d. 956) first described the relationship between surface currents and monsoon
winds in the Indian Ocean. Using this knowledge the Arabs pioneered regular trade routes across the
Indian Ocean.
Chinese junks sailed the same trade routes as the Arabs using crews of 200 to 300 during the 1200s.
Charts during this time still lacked accurate lines of latitude and longitude. Consequently, they were not
useful for navigation across large expanses of seawater and absolute location.
Most charts were of near coastal waters, locating ports and noting distances between them. These charts
were called portolanos. These charts included a mileage scale and notes on hazards to navigation but
they did not have latitude and longitude.
In the 13th century:
a. magnetic compass directions were added to maps (Prologue figure VI), and
b. Greek knowledge in the hands of the Arabs was translated into Latin and re-discovered by
northern Europeans.
The Venerable Bede (673-735) made observations of the tides along the British coast.
By the 1300s Europeans had established successful trade routes, including some partial ocean crossings.
By the end of the 1300s the desire for riches from new lands led wealthy individuals in Europe to
finance long voyages of discovery to all the oceans of the world. A leader in this exploration was
Prince Henry of Portugal (1394-1460), also known as Prince Henry the Navigator because he
established a naval observatory for the teaching of navigation, astronomy, and cartography in about
1450.
The 15th and 16th centuries were times of great global voyages of discovery.
These were conducted primarily by northern Europeans.
Ferdinand Magellan:
a. lived from about 14801521,
b. left Spain in 1519 with five ships to cross the Atlantic and rounded the tip of South America in
1520 in search of a westward passage to the Spice Islands,
c. crossed the Pacific with three ships in 1520-21 and was killed in the Philippines in 1521.
d. one of his three ships, Victoria, continued around Africa and across the Indian Ocean to return
home in 1522 completing the first circumnavigation of the globe, and
e. is also credited with determining the length of a degree of latitude and calculating the
circumference of the earth.
In the last half of the 16th century explorers sought new knowledge of, and trade routes across,
northern routes.
Sir Martin Frobisher:
a. lived from about 153594, and
b. led three voyages in search of a northwest passage across North America in the 1570s.
Henry Hudson (d. 1611) followed Frobisher and sailed on four trips from 16071610.
William Baffin:
a. lived from 15841622, and
b. sought a northwest passage during two trips in 1615 and 1616.
Sir Francis Drake:
a. lived from about 154096,
b. sailed on the Golden Hind to circumnavigate the globe in a voyage that lasted from 157780,
and
c. returned with Spanish gold for Queen Elizabeth I.
Scientists in the 17th century were beginning to show an interest in the basics of
Earth science.
b.
In 1598 King Philip III of Spain offered a reward of 100,000 crowns to anyone who could
make a clock that would keep accurate time at sea.
c. In 1714 Queen Anne of England offered a public reward and the British Parliament offered a
reward of 20,000 pounds for a clock that would keep accurate time at sea.
d. John Harrison made four chronometers from 1735 to 1761, the fourth version in 1761 met the
British Parliament's requirements for accuracy by losing only 51 seconds during an 81 day
voyage.
e. In 1772 James Cook (1728-79) used John Harrison's chronometer to chart new regions of the
Pacific ocean.
Some of the earliest extensive mapping of the oceans was carried out by James Cook in his voyages
throughout the Pacific Ocean basin (Prologue fig. X). Cook compiled data covering such things as:
a. ocean depths,
b. prevailing wind directions,
c. characteristics of surface currents, and
d. water temperatures.
The first chart of the Gulf Stream was made by Benjamin Franklin with help from his cousin Timothy
Folger in 1769. Figure Prologue XI in the text shows the detail of the current along the coast of the
United States as well as the general clockwise circulation in the North Atlantic.
The United States established a naval hydrographic office in 1830. This office was called the U.S.
Naval Hydrographic Office and it still exists, although its name has been changed to the U.S. Naval
Oceanographic Office.
Matthew Maury was placed in charge of the U.S. Naval Hydrographic Office and began a career
compiling data on the seas. Among his accomplishments are:
a. the founding of the Naval Depot of Charts,
b. publication of the first wind and currents charts of the North Atlantic in 1847,
c. construction of the first bathymetric chart of the North Atlantic with contours at 6000 ft
intervals, and
d. the publication in 1855 of a comprehensive book called The Physical Geography of the Sea
Maurys careful compilation of current and wind directions along with recommended sailing routes are
credited with reducing travel times between some ports by as much as a month.
In the 19th century scientists began exploring the oceans in earnest. Scientific
exploration was facilitated by accurate charts and ships crews skilled in
navigation.
The British recovered a damaged cable from a depth of over 1500 m (5000 ft) that was covered with
organisms.
Wyville Thompson (1830-82) helped lead two expeditions that recovered organisms from the deep-sea
floor:
a. in 1868 the Lightning recovered animals from a depth of 915 m (3000 ft), and
b. in 1869 and 1870 the Porcupine dredged animals from a depth of over 4300 m (14,000 ft).
Wyville Thompson had his book The Depths of the Sea published in 1873.
It was also in the 19th century that one of the greatest scientific oceanographic
expeditions was mounted, the Challenger expedition.
Late in the 19th century Fridtjof Nansen led a voyage to the Arctic to test his
theories about surface circulation in Arctic waters. This was the beginning of
the exploration of polar seas that continued into the early 20th century.
The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw increased interest in the scientific
study of the oceans to solve practical problems. This work often necessitated
the design and construction of new instruments to make the needed
measurements.
In the early 20th century there was a great deal of interest in oceanography in
the private sector that led to the creation of private institutions that would
eventually become incorporated into universities. American government
interest in oceanography blossomed at the federal level in the middle of the 20th
century in response to World War II.
Oceanography has grown into a major area of research in the last few decades
with the development of new instrumentation and the construction of research
vessels to conduct extensive expeditions in all of the worlds ocean basins.
In the future there will continue to be an increased emphasis on the study of the
planet as a whole system. Now, and in the future, we must recognize that
oceanographic studies need to be interdisciplinary in their nature due to the
complexity of the problems we wish to investigate.
c.
As the floats rise to the surface they will measure temperature and salinity. When it reaches
the surface it will transmit the data to shore via satellite and then descend to 2000 m once
again.
d. In this fashion, detailed profiles of temperature and salinity in the upper 2000 m of water will
be obtained every 10 days.
The United Nations designated 1998 as the Year of the Ocean. Goals included:
a. a comprehensive review of ocean policies and programs, and
b. raising public awareness of the importance of the oceans in human life and the impact human
activities have on the oceans.
The Office of Ocean Exploration (OOE) at NOAA was created in 2001 to encourage and fund new
exploratory mission in the oceans as well as new technology to support such exploration.
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e. Elvis
3. During the Middle Ages
a. scientific investigation of the seas increased.
b. the great depths of the oceans were first discovered.
c. shipbuilding technology improved.
d. the first circumnavigation of Africa was completed.
e. accurate maps with latitude and longitude appeared.
4. The explorer who first believed South America was a distinct continent was
a. Amerigo Vespucci.
b. Franco Americas.
c. Vasco dAmeric.
d. Bartholomeu Dias.
e. none of the above.
5. The Challenger expedition is credited with
a. discovering over 4700 new species of marine organisms.
b. measuring ocean depths greater than any previously found.
c. discovering that major component ions have a constant relative abundance.
d. sailing into and investigating all of the worlds oceans.
e. all of the above.
6. Which of the following explorers used the Fram?
a. William Baffin
b. Fridtjof Nansen
c. Roald Amundsen
d. b and c
e. all of the above
7. While on the HMS Beagle, Charles Darwin studied
a. the variability of seawater salinity.
b. the vertical zonation of life in the seas.
c. the formation of atolls.
d. the westward intensification of surface currents.
e. the Gulf Stream.
8. The first serious study of the small animals and plants that populate surface waters was undertaken by
a. Edward Forbes.
b. Johannes Mller.
c. Aristotle.
d. Wyville Thompson.
e. Charles Darwin.
9. The first European credited with sighting the Pacific Ocean is
a. Vasco Nuez de Balboa.
b. Bartholomeu Dias.
c. Christopher Columbus.
d. Martin Waldseemller.
e. Ferdinand Magellan.
10. Oceanography in the 1970s
a. suffered from a decline in funding for basic research and the construction of ships.
b. was galvanized by the discovery of sea floor hydrothermal vents.
c. saw the development of more sophisticated submersibles.
d. benefited tremendously from the acquisition of satellite data.
e. all of the above.
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2. explorers, traders
4. portolanos
6. 15th, 16th
8. Maury
10. Fram
TRUE - FALSE
1.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.T 9.F 10.F
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1.e 2.b 3.c 4.a 5.e 6.d 7.c 8.b 9.a 10.e
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