1.

INTRODUCTION

Order 6 deals with pleadings in general. Rule 1 defines pleading, while Rule 2 lays down
the fundamental principles of pleadings. Rule 3 to Rule 13 require the parties to supply
necessary particulars. Rule 14 and 15 provide for signing and verification of pleadings. Rule
16 empowers a court to strike out unnecessary pleadings. Rule 17 & 18 contain provisions
relating to amendment of pleadings.
Pleading is defined as plaint or written statement. 1 According to Mogha,2 Pleadings
are statements in writing drawn up and filed by each party to a case, stating what his
contentions will be at the trial and giving all such details as his opponent needs to know in
order to prepare his case in answer.
A plaintiffs pleading in his plaint, a statement of claim in which the plaintiff sets out his
cause of action with all necessary particulars 3, and a defendants pleading in his written
statement, a defence in which the defendant deals with every material fact alleged by the
plaintiff in the plaint and also states any new facts which are in his favour, adding such legal
objections as he wishes to take to the claim. Where the defendant, in his written statement,
pleads a set-off, the plaintiff may file his written statement thereto. Again, in some cases, the
defendant after filing his written statement may file an additional written statement with the
leave of the court.

1.1 OBJECT
The whole object of pleadings is to bring parties to definite issues and to diminish expense
and delay and to prevent surprise at the hearing. A party is entitled to know the case of his
opponent so that he can meet it. In other words, the sole object of pleadings is to ascertain
the real disputes between the parties, to narrow down the area of conflict and to see where
the two sides differ, to preclude one party from taking the other by surprise and to prevent
miscarriage of justice.
In the leading case of Throp v. Holdsworth4, Jessel, M.R. stated:

1 Or. 6 R. 1.
2 Moghas Law of Pleadings (1983) at p.1.
3 Ibid.
4 (1876) 3 Ch D 637.
1

The whole object of pleadings is to bring parties to an issue, and the meaning of the rules
(relating to pleadings) was to prevent the issue being enlarged, which would prevent either
party from knowing when the cause came on for trial, what the real point to be discussed
was. In fact, the whole meaning of the system is to narrow the parties to definite issues and
thereby to diminish expense and delay, especially as regards the amount of testimony
required on either side at the hearing.

1.2 IMPORTANCE
Importance of pleadings cannot be underestimated. Jacob 5states, Pleadings do not only
define the issues between the parties for the final decision of the court at the trial, they
manifest and exert their importance throughout the whole process of the litigation.
Pleadings provide a guide for the proper mode of trial. They demonstrate upon which
party the burden of proof lies, and who has the right to open the case. They also determine
the range of admissible evidence which the parties should adduce at the trial. They also lay
down limit on the relief that can be granted by the court.

2. BASIC RULES OF PLEADINGS: RULE 2

Sub-rule (1) of Rule 2 lays down the fundamental principles of pleadings. It reads as under:
2(1).Every pleading shall contain, and contain only a statement in a concise form of the
material facts on which the party pleading relies for his claim or defence, as the case may be,
but not the evidence by which they are to be proved.
On analysis, the following general principles emerge:
(i)
Pleadings should state facts and not law;
(ii)
The facts stated should be material facts;
(iii)
Pleadings should not state the evidence; and
(iv)
The facts should be stated in a concise form.

(1) Facts and not law

The first principle of pleadings is that they should state only facts and not law. It is duty of
the parties to state only the facts on which they rely upon for their claims. It is for the court
to apply the law to the facts pleaded.6
The law of pleading may be tersely summarised in four words; Plead facts not law7
5 The Present Importance of Pleadings (1960) at pp. 75-76.
6 Kedar Lal v. Hari Lal, AIR 1952 SC 47 at p.51.
2

Thus, existence of a custom or usage is a question of fact which must be specifically pleaded.
Similarly, intention is also a question of fact and it must be pleaded.
Again, waiver or negligence is a plea of fact and must be pleaded in the pleading.
But a plea about maintainability of the suit raises a question of law and need not be
pleaded. Likewise, when Hindu sons are sued for a debt incurred by their deceased father, it
is not necessary to formulate n the plaint the Hindu Law as to the pious obligation of Hindu
sons to pay their fathers debt. Legal consequences which flow from facts also need not be
stated in the pleading. So also, inferences of law to be drawn from pleaded facts need not be
stated in the pleading. The practice of courts is to consider and deal with the legal result of
pleaded facts, although the particular result is not stated in the pleadings. A construction or
interpretation of a document, being a point of law, need not be pleaded.8
This is based on the principle that a judge is bound to apply correct law even if
incorrect law is pleaded by a party.

(2) Material Facts

The second principle of pleadings is that they should contain a statement of material facts
and material facts only. Though the expression material facts has not been defined in the
Code, it means all facts upon which the plaintiffs cause of action or the defendants defence
depends, or, in other words, all those facts which must be proved in order to establish the
plaintiffs right to relief claimed in the plaint or the defendants defence in the written
statement.
In Udhav Singh v. Madhav Rao Scindia9,The Supreme Court has defined the expression
material fact in the following words:
All the primary facts which must be proved at the trail by a party to establish the
existence of a cause of action or his defence are material facts.
In Virender Nath v. Satpal Singh,10the Supreme Court stated:
The phrase material facts may be said to be those facts upon which a party relies for his
claim or defence .In other words, material facts are facts upon which the plaintiffs cause of
action or the defendants defence depends. What particulars could be said to be material
facts would depend upon the facts of each case and no rule of universal application can be
laid down. It is however, absolutely essential that all basic and primary facts which must be
proved at the trial by the party to establish the existence of a cause of action or defence are
material facts and must be stated in the pleading by the party.
The distinction between material facts and particulars cannot be overlooked. Material
facts are primary and basic facts which must be pleaded by the party in support of the case
set up by it. Since the object and purpose is to enable the opposite party to know the case it
7 Gouri Dutt Ganesh Lall Firm v. Madho Prasad, AIR 1943 PC 147.
8 C.K. Takwani,Civil Procedure Code With Limitation Act,1963, Eastern Book
Company, Lucknow, 7th Edition, 2015.
9 (1977) 1 SCC 511: AIR 1976 SC 744.
10 (2007) 3 SCC 617:AIR 2007 SC 581.
3

has to meet, in absence of pleading, a party cannot be allowed to lead evidence. Failure to
state material facts, hence, will entail dismissal of the suit. Particulars on the other hand, are
the details of the case.
What particulars are to be stated depends upon the facts of each case, but it is absolutely
essential that the pleading, not to be embarrassing to the defendant, should state those facts
which will put his opponents on their guard and tell them what they have to meet when the
case comes up for trial.
Thus, it has been held that a plaintiff, filing a suit on the basis of title, must state the nature
of the deeds on which he relies in deducing his title. Similarly, a party relying upon the fact
that the notice of dishonour is not necessary, or that the woman claiming maintenance has
lost her right on account of her incontinence, or that the person who has signed the plaint in
a suit by a corporate body has authority under the Code, is bound to allege those facts in his
pleadings.

(3) Facts and not evidence

The third principle of pleadings is that the evidence of facts, as distinguished from the facts
themselves, need not be pleaded. In other words, the pleadings should contain a statement of
material facts on which the party relies but not the evidence by which those facts are to be
proved.
The facts are of two types:
(a) Facta probanda- the facts required to be proved (material facts);
(b) Facta probantia- the facts by means of which they are to be proved (particulars or evidence).
The pleadings should contain only facta probanda and not facta probantai. The material facts
on which the plaintiff relies for his claim or the defendant relies for his defence are called
facta probanda, and they must be stated in the plaint or in the written statement, as the case
may be. But the facts or evidence by means of which the material facts are to be proved are
called fact probantia and need not be stated in the pleadings. They are not the fact in issue,
but only relevant facts required to be proved at the trial in order to establish the fact in issue.
In Virender Nath v. Satpal Singh11,the Supreme Court observed:
There is distinction between facta probanda (the facts by means of which they are provided i.e
material facts) and facta probantia (the facts by means of which they are proved i.e particulars of
evidence). It is settled law that pleadings must contain only facta probanda and not facta probantia.
The material facts on which the party relies for his claim are called facta probanda and they must be
stated in the pleadings. But the fact or facts by means of which facta probanda (material facts) are
proved and which are in the nature of facta probantia (particulars or evidence) need not be set out in
the pleadings. They are not fact in issue,but only relevant facts required to be proved at the trial in
order to establish the fact in issue.

The aforesaid principle is well illustrated in the case of Borrodaile v. Hunter12. A was
insured with an insurance company. One of the terms of the policy was that the policy would
be void if the insured committed suicide. A actually committed suicide by shooting himself
with a pistol and thereupon an action was brought against the company on the policy. The
company should only plead that A committed suicide. This is facta probanda. Other facts, that
11 Ibid at p.199.
12 (1845) 5 M&G 639.
4

A was melancholy for weeks, that he brought a pistol a day before his death, shot himself
with the said pistol and that a letter was found with him addressed to his wife stating that he
intended to kill himself- all these facts are facta probantia and they need not be pleaded.
Similarly, it is wrong to set out admission made by the opposite party in the pleading, as that
fact is only evidence.

(4) Concise form

The last general principle of pleadings is that the pleadings should be drafted with sufficient
brevity and precision. The material facts should be stated precisely succinctly and coherently.
The importance of a specific pleading can be appreciated only if it is realised that the
absence of a specific plea puts the defendant at a great disadvantage. He must know what
case he has to meet. He cannot be kept guessing what the plaintiff wants to convey by a
vague pleading. Therefore the pleading must be precise, specific and unambiguous. A party
cannot be allowed to keep his options open until the trial and adduce such evidence as seems
convenient and handy.13
The words in a concise form are definitely suggestive of the fact that brevity should be
adhered to while drafting pleadings. Of course, brevity should not be at the cost of excluding
necessary facts, but it does not mean niggling in the pleadings.
Rule 3 lays down that forms in Appendix A of the Code should be used where they are
applicable; and where they are not applicable, forms of like character should be used.
The facts must be pleaded with certainty. All material facts must be stated in a summary
form, as briefly as the nature of the case requires. Immaterial averments and unnecessary
details must be omitted and material allegations and necessary particulars must be included.

3. OTHER RULES OF PLEADINGS: RULE 4-18

Over and above the aforesaid basic rules, there are other rules of pleadings dealing with
cases of a special nature as follows(1) Wherever misrepresentation, fraud, breach of trust, wilful default or undue influence are
pleaded in the pleadings, particulars with dates and items should be stated.
In Bishundeo Narain v. Seogeni Ratti, the Supreme Court observed:
Now if there is one rule which is better established than any other, it is that in cases of fraud, undue
influence and coercion, the parties pleading it must set forth full particulars and the case can only be
decided on the particulars as laid. There can be no departure from them in evidence. General
allegations are insufficient even to amount to an averment of fraud which any court ought to take
notice of, however strong the language in which they are couched may be, and the same applies to
undue influence and coercion14.
13 Charan Lal Sahu v. Giani Zail Singh, (1984) 1 SCC 390 at p200.
14 M.P. Jain, The Code of Civil Procedure Wadhawa Publications, Nagpur 5 th edition,
2007.

(2) The object of pleading is to bring the parties to a trial by concentrating their attention on the
matter in dispute, so as to narrow the controversy to precise issues and to give notice to the
parties of the nature of testimony required on either side in support of their respective cases.
A vague or general plea can never serve this purpose. Rule 4 has been evolved with a view to
narrow the issue and protect the party charged with improper conduct from being taken by
surprise. Therefore, if the particulars stated in the pleading are not sufficient and specific,
the court should, before proceeding with the trial of the suit, insist upon the particulars,
which give adequate notice to the other side of the case intended to be set up.
(3) The performance of a condition precedent need not be pleaded since it is implied in the
pleadings. Non-performance of a condition precedent, however, must be specifically and
expressly pleaded.(Rule 6)
(4) Generally departure from pleading is not permissible, and except by way of amendment, no
party can raise any ground of claim or contain any allegation of fact inconsistent with his
previous pleadings.
(5) A bare denial of a contract by the opposite party will be construed only as a denial of factum
of a contract and not the legality, validity or enforceability of such contract.
(6) Documents need not be set out at length in the pleadings unless the words therein are
material.
(7) Wherever malice, fraudulent intention, knowledge or other condition of the mind of a person
is material, it may be alleged in the pleading only as a fact without setting out the
circumstances from which it is to be inferred. Such circumstances really constitute evidence
in proof of material facts.
(8) Whenever giving of notice to any person is necessary or a condition precedent, pleadings
should only state regarding giving of such notice, without setting out the form or precise
terms of such notice or the circumstances from which it is to be inferred, unless they are
material.
(9) Implied contracts or relations between persons may be alleged as a fact, and the series of
letters, conversations and the circumstances from which they are to be inferred should be
pleaded generally.
(10)Facts which the law presumes in favour of a party or as to which the burden of proof lies
upon the other side need not be pleaded.
(11)Every pleading should be signed by the party or one of the parties or by his pleader.
(12)A party to the suit should supply his address. He should also supply address of the opposite
party.
(13)Every pleading should be verified on affidavit by the party or by one of the parties or by a
person acquainted with the facts of the case.
(14)A court may order striking out a pleading if it is unnecessary, scandalous, frivolous,
vexatious or tends to prejudice, embarrass or delay fair trial of the suit.
(15)A court may allow amendment of pleadings.

(16)Forms in Appendix A of the Code should be used wherever they are applicable. Where they
are not applicable, forms of like nature should be used.
(17)Every pleading should be divided into paragraphs, numbered consecutively. Each allegation
or averment should be stated in a separate paragraph.
(18)Dates, totals and numbers should be written in figures as well as in words.

4. FORMS OF PLEADING: RULE-3

Averments in pleadings should conform with the forms in Appendix A to the (First) Schedule.
But the forms in Appendix A are not statutory. Non-Compliance thereof, hence, would not
result in dismissal of the suit. A party will not be non-suited on that ground.15

5. PLEADING IN WRIT PETITIONS

There is essential distinction between pleading under the code and a pleading under Article
32 or 226 of the constitution.
Under the Code, every pleading (plaint or written statement) should state only material facts
and not evidence. In a writ petition, on the other hand, the petitioner, or in a counteraffidavit, the respondent, should not only state material facts but also the evidence in support
and proof of such facts by annexing necessary orders and documents.16

6. ALTERNATIVE AND INCONSISTENT PLEADINGS

The expression alternative means the one or the other of two things. It conveys a choice.
A party to litigation may include in his pleadings two or more sets of facts and claim relief in
the alternative.
Inconsistent, on the other hand, means mutually repugnant, contradictory, irreconcilable
or destructive. One is contrary to the other. Both, therefore cannot stand. Acceptance or
establishment of one necessarily implies abrogation or abandonment of the other.
There is nothing in the Code to prevent the plaintiff from relying upon several different reliefs
in the alternative or to prevent the defendant from raising several different defences in the
alternative.
The underlying object of allowing alternative pleas and permitting alternative reliefs to be
claimed in one litigation is to obviate the necessity of another litigation and to decide the
entire controversy in one litigation only.

15 R.C.Chandiok v. Chuni Lal, (1970) 3SCC 140.

16 Mulla, The Code of Civil Procedure, Lexis Nexis Butterworths Publication,
18th Edition.
7

Thus, a suit for possession of property is maintainable on the basis of title or in the
alternative on the basis of lease. Similarly, a landlord can file a suit for eviction of his tenant
on the ground of personal requirement or in the alternative on the ground of non-payment of
rent. Likewise a prayer for specific performance of an agreement or, in the alternative on the
ground of non-payment of rent. Likewise, a prayer for specific performance of an agreement
or, in the alternative, a prayer for damages or compensation can be made. 17Again, in a
petition for restitution of conjugal rights, an alternative prayer for divorce is not barred.
The Code does not prohibit a party from making two or more inconsistent sets of allegations.
A plaintiff may rely on several different rights alternatively, although they may be
inconsistent, so also a defendant may raise by his statement of defence, without leave of the
court, as many distinct and separate inconsistent defences as he may think proper. It is open
to the parties to raise even mutually inconsistent pleas and if relief could be founded on the
alternative plea it could be granted. This is however, subject to the provision that such
pleading does not prejudice or embarrass fair trial of the suit. But a pleading is not
embarrassing merely because it sets up an inconsistent set of facts or irreconcilable pleas.
Moreover, such inconsistent pleas are subject to Rule 16 of Order 6 which empowers the
court to strike out any matter either in the plaint or in the written statement which may
embarrass fair trial of the suit.

7. CONSTRUCTION OF PLEADINGS
It has been uniformly held that pleadings in India should not be construed very strictly. They
have to be interpreted liberally and regard must be had to the substance of the matter than
the form thereof. They have to be interpreted not with formalistic rigour but with latitude or
awareness of low legal literacy of poor people. Again, pleadings have to be read as a whole
and it is not permissible to cull out a passage and to read it out of context, in isolation. The
intention of the party is to be gathered, primarily, from the tenor and terms of his pleadings
as a whole.
In Madan Gopal v. Mamraj Maniram 18, the Supreme Court has rightly observed, It is
well-settled that pleadings are loosely drafted in courts and the court should not scrutinise
the pleadings with such meticulous care so as to result in genuine claims being defeated on
trivial grounds.
Pleadings are not statutes and legalism is not verbalism. Common sense should not be kept
in the cold storage when pleadings are construed. Parties win or lose on substantial
questions, not technical tortures and courts cannot be abettors.
It is respectfully submitted that the following well-known and oft-quoted observations of
Vivian Bose, J. in the leading case of Sangram Singh v. Election Tribunal19 must be borne
in mind while interpreting procedural laws:
17 Jagdish Singh v. Natthu Singh,(1992) 1 SCC 647.
18 (1977)1 SCC 669: AIR 1976 SC 461.
19 AIR 1955 SC 425.
8

 Code of procedure must be regarded as such. It is procedure, something designed to facilitate

justice and further its ends; not a penal enactment for punishment and penalties; not a thing designed
to trip people. Too technical a construction of sections that leaves no room for reasonable elasticity of
interpretation should therefore be guarded against (provided always that justice is done to both
sides) lest the very means designed for furtherance of justice be used to frustrate it.

Thus, it has been held that the court will not dismiss the suit of the plaintiff only on the
ground that the claim is wrongly described, or a wrong section is quoted, or that proper relief
is not claimed.

8. SIGNING AND VERIFICATION OF PLEADINGS: RULES

14-15
As a general rule, every pleading must be signed by the party or by one of the parties or by
his pleader. But if the party is unable to sign the pleading, it can be signed by any person
authorised by him. Similarly, every pleading must be verified by the party or by one of the
parties pleading or by some other person acquainted with the facts of the case. The person
verifying the pleading must specify what paragraphs he verifies upon his knowledge and
what paragraphs he verifies upon information received by him and believed by him to be
true. The verification must be signed on an affidavit by the person verifying and must contain
the date on which and the place at which it was signed. The person verifying the pleading
should also furnish an affidavit in support of his pleadings.
The object underlying this provision is to fix upon the party verifying or on whose behalf
verification is made the responsibility for the statement that it contains, and to prevent as far
as possible disputes as to whether the suit was instituted or defended with the knowledge or
authority of the party, who has signed the verification or on whose behalf it has been
signed.20
Rule 14-A as added by the Amendment Act of 1976 requires a party to the suit to supply the
address for service of notice. It further provides for the stay of suit of the plaintiff or striking
off defence of the defendant in case the address supplied by him is found to be incomplete,
false or fictitious.
A defect in the matter of signing and verification of pleadings is merely an irregularity and
can be corrected at a later stage of the suit with the leave of the court and a suit cannot be
dismissed nor an order be passed against a party on the ground of defect or irregularity in
signing or verification of plaint or written statement. Similarly, if the affidavit filed by the
party is defective, a court, instead of rejecting it, may give an opportunity to the party to file
a proper affidavit21.

20 A.K.K. Nambiar v. Union of India,(1969) 3 SCC 864.

21 Sarkar, Code of Civil Procedure Wadhawa Publications, Nagpur, 11th Edition. 2006.

9. STRIKING OUT PLEADINGS: RULE 16

The court is empowered to strike out any pleading if it is unnecessary, scandalous, frivolous
or vexatious, or tends to prejudice, embarrass or delay the fair trial of the suit or is otherwise
an abuse of the process of the court. In Sathi Vijay Kumar v. Tota Singh22, the Supreme
Court observed that bare reading of Rule 16 of the Code makes it clear that a court may
order striking of pleadings in the following cases:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Where such pleading is unnecessary, scandalous, frivolous, vexatious; or

Where such pleading tends to prejudice, embarrass or delay fair trial of the
suit; or
Where such pleading is otherwise an abuse of the process of the court.

Considering English and Indian decisions on the point, Supreme Court stated in this
case:
It cannot be overlooked that normally, a court cannot direct parties as to how they should
prepare their pleadings. If the parties have not offended the rules of pleadings by making
averments or raising arguable issues, the court would not order striking out pleadings. The
power to strike out pleadings is extraordinary in nature and must be exercised by the court
sparingly and with extreme care, caution and circumspection.

10. VARIANCE BETWEEN PLEADING AND PROOF

It is well-settled that a party can be permitted to adduce evidence on the basis of the
case pleaded by him in his pleading and he cannot set up a case inconsistent with his
pleading. No amount of proof can substitute pleadings which are the foundation of
the claim of a litigating party.
The purpose is twofold; (i) to appraise the opposite party, distinctly and specifically,
of the case he is called upon to answer, so that he may properly prepare his defence
and may not be taken by surprise; and
(ii) to maintain an accurate record of the cause of action as a protection against a
second or subsequent proceeding founded upon the same allegations.
The fundamental rule of pleading is that a party can only succeed on the basis of
what he has pleaded and proved. He cannot succeed on a case not set up by him. He
also cannot be permitted to change his case at the stage of trial if it is inconsistent
with his pleadings. Such variation would cause surprise and confusion and is always
looked upon by courts with considerable disfavour and suspicion.

22 (2006) 13 SCC 353 at p. 365.

10

Whether or not a particular plea has been raised must be decided by reading the
pleading as a whole keeping in mind the substance rather than the form of pleadings.
Where parties are aware of the controversy and go to trial with full knowledge that a
particular question is at issue, absence of specific pleading is a mere irregularity.
Finally, a pure question of law or of jurisdiction can be raised at any stage.

11. OBJECTION TO PLEADING

An objection to pleading should be taken at the earliest. If at an appropriate stage
such objection is not raised, it is deemed to have been waived. This is based on the
principle that, in such cases, it cannot be held that prejudice has been caused to the
party raising a plea at the belated stage.

12. AMENDMENT OF PLEADINGS: RULE 17-18

(a) RULE 17
Rule 17 provides for amendment of pleadings. It reads as under:
The Court may at any stage at the proceedings allow either party to alter or amend his

pleadings in such manner and on such terms as may be just, and all such amendments
shall be made as may be necessary for the purpose of determining the real questions in
controversy between the parties.

Provided that no application for amendment shall be allowed after the trial has commenced,
unless the court comes to the conclusion that in spite of due diligence, the party could not
have raised the matter before the commencement of trial.

(b)

ESSENTIALS OF PLEADINGS
In law as practiced in countries that follow the English models, a pleading is a
formal written statement filed with a court by parties in a civil action, such as a
complaint, a demurrer, or an answer. Order VI of the Civil Procedure Code, 1908
deals with pleadings in general. A plaint is the first document that initiates the
pleading and thus, a lawsuit. A plaint sets forth the relevant allegations of fact that
give rise to one or more legal causes of action along with a prayer for relief. It can
be seen that Rule 1 defines pleading; Rule 2 lays down the fundamental principles of
pleading. Rules 3 to 13 require the essential particulars to be supplied by parties.

(c) AMENDMENT OF PLEADINGS

The Court may at any stage of the proceedings allow both party to alter or amend his
pleadings in such manner and on such terms as may be just and all such amendments
shall be made as may be necessary for the purpose of determining the real question in
controversy between the parties. Provided that no application for amendment shall be
allowed after the trial has commenced, unless the Court comes to the conclusion that in
11

spite of due diligence, the party could not have raised the matter before the
commencement of trial.
(d) AMENDMENT AND ITS OBJECTIVES
As stated earlier, essential details have to be mentioned in the plaint and unnecessary
details have to be struck out. The paramount object behind Amendment is that the courts
should try the merits of the cases that come before them and should consequently allow
all amendments that may be necessary for determining the real question in controversy
between the parties provided it does not cause injustice or prejudice to the other side.
Ultimately, the courts exist for doing justice between the parties and not for punishing
them, and they are empowered to grant amendments of pleadings in the larger interest of
doing full and complete justice to parties. Provisions for the amendment of pleading are
contained to promote end of justice and not for defeating them23.
Further in the leading case of Cropper v. Smith24, the object underlying the amendment of
pleadings has been laid down by Bowen, L.J. in the following words: I think it is wellestablished principle that the object of the courts is to decide the rights of the parties and not
to punish them for mistakes they make in the conduct of their cases by deciding otherwise
than in accordance with their rights.
(e) LEAVE TO AMEND WHEN GRANTED
The rule confers a very wide discretion on courts in the matter of amendment of
pleadings. As a general rule, leave to amend will be granted so as to enable the real
question in issue between parties to be raised in pleadings, where the amendment will
occasion no injury to the opposite party and can be sufficiently compensated for by costs
or other terms to be imposed by the order.
In Kisandas v. Rachappa Vithoba25, Batchelor J. observed as follows:
All amendments ought to be allowed which satisfy the two conditions:
(i) of not working in justice to the other side, and
(ii) of being necessary for the purpose of determining the real questions in
controversy between the parties.
Therefore the main points to be considered before a party is allowed to amend his
pleading are: firstly, whether the amendment is necessary for determination of the
real question in controversy; and secondly, can the amendment be allowed without
injustice to the other side. Thus, it has been held that where amendment is sought to
avoid multiplicity of suits, or where the parties in the plaint are wrongly described,
or where some properties are omitted from the plaint by inadvertence, the amendment
should be allowed.
23 Ganesh Trading Co. v. Moji Ram, (1978) 2 SCC 91.
24 (1884) 29 Ch D 700.
25 ILR (1909)33 Bom 644.
12

(f) LEAVE TO AMEND WHEN REFUSED

It is true that courts have very wide discretion in the matter of amendment of pleadings.
But the wider the discretion, the greater is the possibility of its abuse. Ultimately it is a
legal power and no legal power can be exercised improperly, unreasonably or
arbitrarily.
In Ganga Bai v. Vijay Kumar26, the Supreme Court has rightly observed:
The power to allow an amendment is undoubtedly wide and may at any stage be
appropriately exercised in the interest of justice, the law of limitation
notwithstanding. But the exercise of such far-reaching discretionary powers is
governed by judicial considerations and wider the discretion, greater ought to be the
care and circumspection on the part of the court.
Generally, in the following cases, leave to amend will be refused by the court:
(1) Leave to amend will be refused when amendment is not necessary for the
purpose of determining the real question in controversy between the parties.
The real controversy test is the basic test. In Edevian v. Cohen27, the application for
amendment was rejected since it was not necessary to decide the real question in
controversy.
(2) Leave to amend will be refused if it introduces a totally different, new and
inconsistent case or changes the fundamental character of the suit or defence.
In Steward v. North Metropolitan Tramways Co.28, the plaintiff filed a suit for damages
against the tramways Company for negligence of the company in allowing the tramways to
be in a defective condition. The company denied the allegation of negligence. It was not even
contended that the company was not the proper party to be sued. More than six months after
the written statement was filed, the company applied for leave to amend the defence by
adding the plea that under the contract entered into between the company and the local
authority the liability to maintain tramways in proper condition was of the latter and,
therefore, the company was not liable. On the date of the amendment application, the
plaintiff's remedy against the local authority was time barred. Had the agreement been
pleaded earlier, the plaintiff could have filed a suit even against the local authority. Under
the circumstances, the amendment was refused.
(3) Leave to amend will be refused where the effect of the proposed amendment is
to take away from the other side a legal right accrued in his favour. Every
amendment should be allowed if it does not cause injustice or prejudice to the
other party.
26 (1974) 2SCC 393.
27 (1889) 43 Ch D 187, (CA).
28 (1886) 16 QB 178 (CA).
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In Weldon v. Neal29 the original action was simply for slander, and the plaintiff was nonsuited. Later she sought to amend her claim by setting up, in addition to the claim for
slander, fresh claims in respect of assault, false imprisonment and other causes of action,
which at the time of such amendment were barred by limitation though not barred at the date
of the writ. Here, then, the amendment sought to setup fresh claims, claims which had never
been heard of until they had become barred; yet even in so strong a case as this Lord Esher
M.R. refusing leave to amend intimated that the decision might have been the other way if
there had existed special circumstances to justify it.
(4) Leave to amend will be refused where the application for amendment is not
made in good faith. The leave to amend is to be refused if the applicant has
acted mala fide.
In Patasibai v. Ratanlal30, it was observed that there was no ground to allow the application
for amendment of the plaint which apart from being highly belated, was clearly an
afterthought fur the obvious purpose of averting the inevitable consequence of rejection of
the plaint on the ground that it does not disclose any cause of action or raise any triable
issue.
(g) SUBSEQUENT EVENTS
As a general rule, every litigation must be determined on the basis of facts existed on
the date of filing of the suit. A court may, however, take into account subsequent
events in order to shorten litigation or to preserve, protect and safeguard rights of
both the parties and to subserve the ends of justice. For that purpose, a court may
allow amendment in pleading of the parties.
(h) MERITS NOT TO CONSIDERED
While considering whether an application for amendment should or should not be
allowed, the Supreme Court should not go into correctness or falsity of the case in the
amendment.
In Sampat Kumar v. Ayyakannu31 court held that no straight jacket formula can be laid
down and mere delay by itself cannot be a ground for refusing amendment it is in this
context that the insertion of the proviso to Rule 17 will have to be appreciated.
In this case plaintiff filed prohibitory injunction against defendant but before the
commencement of the trial he was disqualified of the property. After 11 years plaintiff
sought to move an application challenging possession. The defendant claim this would
change the nature of the suit. The lower court refused suit because of delay but Supreme
Court allowed it saying that we fail to understand it is permissible for the plaintiff to file
29 (1887) 19 QB 394 (CA).
30 (1990) 2 SCC 42.
31 AIR (2002) 7 SCC 559.
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a different suit while the same relief which could be prayed in new suit cannot be
permitted to be incorporated in a pending suit. For the benefit of defendant the court put
a condition that the date of this plaint of possession should be the date on which the
amendment was sought and not the date of the initial institution of suit.
(i) WHO MAY APPLY?
Normally, it is the plaintiff or the defendant who may apply for amendment of his
pleading i.e plaint or written statement.
Where there are two or more plaintiffs or defendants in a suit, one or more plaintiffs
or defendants may make such application.
(j) WHO MAY GRANT AMENDMENT?
Ordinarily, it is the trial court which can grant an application foe amendment of
plaint or written statement. But an appellate or revisional court can also grant such
application for amendment of pleading. Even the Supreme Court may grant an
application for amendment of plaint or written statement in an appropriate case.
(k) PRINCIPLES
Provisions relating to amendment of pleadings must be liberally construed with a
view to promote the ends of justice and not to defeat them. The purpose and object of
rules of pleadings is to decide the real controversy between the parties and not to
punish them for their mistakes, negligence or shortcomings.
Ordinarily, the following principles should be borne in mind in dealing with
applications for amendment of pleadings:
(i)
All amendments should be allowed which are necessary for determination of
the real controversies in the suit;
(ii)
The proposed amendment should not alter and be a substitute for the cause of
action on the basis of which the original lis was raised;
(iii)
Inconsistent and contradictory allegations in negation to the admitted
position of facts or mutually destructive allegations of facts would not be
allowed to be incorporated by means of amendment;
(iv)
Proposed amendments should not cause prejudice to the other side which
cannot be compensated by means of costs;
(v)
Amendment of a claim or relief barred by time should not be allowed;
(vi)
No amendment should be allowed which amounts to or results in defeating a
legal right to the opposite party on account of lapse of time;
(vii) No party should suffer on account of technicalities of law and the amendment
should be allowed to minimize the litigation between the parties;
(viii) The delay in filling petitions for amendment of pleadings should be properly
compensated for by costs.
(ix)
Error or mistake which if not fraudulent should not be made a ground for
rejecting the application for amendments of pleadings;
(x)
The above principles are illustrative and not exhaustive.

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(l) AT ANY STAGE OF PROCEEDINGS

Leave to amend may be granted at any stage of the proceedings. Such amendment
applications are not governed by any law of limitation. Leave to amend may be
granted before, or at, or after the trial, or in First Appeal, or in Second Appeal, or in
Revision, or in the Supreme Court or even in execution proceedings, provided the
decree is legal, lawful and enforceable, not otherwise.
Proviso to Rule 17, as inserted by the Amendment Act of 2000, now restricts and
curtails the power of the court and declares that the court should not allow such
amendment after the commencement of the trial unless it comes to the conclusion that
in spite of due diligence, the matter could not have been raised by the party before
the commencement of the trial.
(m) DOCTRINE OF RELATION BACK
Normally, an amendment relates back to the pleading, but the doctrine is not
absolute, unqualified or of universal application. In appropriate cases, the court may
order that the amendment would take effect from the date an application was made or
the amendment was allowed and not from the date when the plaint or written
statement was presented.
(n) LIMITATION
No period of limitation is prescribed either in the Code of Civil Procedure or in the
Limitation Act for making an application for amendment. On the contrary, Rule 17 permits a
party to alter or amend his pleading at any stage of the proceedings.
But it is well-settled that ordinarily, an amendment of pleading should not be
allowed if the effect of such amendment is to deprive a party of a right which he has
acquired by virtue of the law of limitation.
(o) RES JUDICATA
Strict rule of res judicata does not apply to amendment of pleadings.
(p) APPEAL
An order allowing or disallowing an application for amendment is neither a
decree as defined in Section 2(2) nor an order appealable under Section 104 read
with Order 43 of the Code. No appeal, therefore, lies against such an order. An order
allowing or disallowing application, however, may be attacked in an appeal from a
decree.
(q) REVISION
An order granting or refusing amendment is a case decided and is subject to the
revisional jurisdiction of the High Court.
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Since it is at the discretion of the court to allow an amendment, while exercising

powers under Section 115of the Code, normally, the High Court will not interfere
with exercise of discretion by the trial court.
As has been said,It is well-settled that the court should be extremely liberal in
granting prayer of amendment of pleadings unless serious injustice or irreparable
loss is caused to the other side.
(r) WRIT PETITION
Though, it is open to an aggrieved party to challenge an order passed by the trial
court allowing or rejecting an application for amendment of pleading by filling a
writ petition under Article 226 or 227 of the Constitution of India, normally a High
Court will not exercise extraordinary or supervisory jurisdiction to interfere with the
order of the trail court unless it has caused serious prejudice to the applicant or has
resulted in miscarriage of justice.
Ordinarily, the Supreme Court will also not exercise its power under Article 136
of the Constitution by interfering with the order passed by the High Court on an
application for amendment.
(s) FAILURE TO AMEND: RULE 18
If a party, who has obtained an order for leave to amend, does not amend
accordingly within the time specified for that purpose in the order or if no time is
specified then, within 14 days from the date of the order, he shall not be permitted to
amend after expiry of the specified time or of 14 days unless the time is extended by
the court. Again the court has discretion to extend the time even after the expiry of
the period originally fixed. In an appropriate case, the court may allow the
amendment to be carried out by the party in spite of his default on payment of further
costs.
The reason is simple. We cannot be oblivious of facts of life, namely, the parties in courts
are mostly ignorant and illiterate- unversed in law. Sometimes their counsel are also
inexperienced and not properly equipped, and the court should endeavour to ascertain the
truth to do justice to the parties.

CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that the amendment of pleading is necessary to avoid multiplicity of civil
suits. But, the court cannot grant the leave of amendment at its whims and fancies. There has
to be certain criterion for granting or refusing the leave, which has been laid down in case
laws. It is a well known fact that delay in justice is one of the basic flaws of the Indian
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Judiciary and amendment of pleadings is a vital reason for that.

The Court must not refuse bona fide, legitimate, honest and necessary amendments and
should never permit mala fide amendments. Amendment of pleadings cannot be claimed as a
matter of right and under all circumstances, but the Courts while deciding such prayers
should not adopt a mechanical approach. The court should adopt a liberal approach in cases
where the other side can be compensated with costs. Normally, amendments are allowed in
the pleadings to avoid multiplicity of litigations.
Before I conclude I would like to opine with the former Attorney General of India Mr. Soli
Sorabjee that
Justice delayed will not only be justice denied, it will also destroy the Rule of law, - a basic
feature of our Constitution. However, let us gird up the loins to protect and preserve it.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS REFERRED:

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1. C.K. Takwani,Civil Procedure Code With Limitation Act,1963, Eastern Book

Company, Lucknow, 7th Edition (Reprint 2013 Edition) 2015.
2. Mulla, The Code of Civil Procedure, Lexis Nexis Butterworths Publication, 18 th
Edition.
3. Sarkar, Code of Civil Procedure Wadhawa Publications, Nagpur, 11th Edition. 2006.
4. M.P. Jain, The Code of Civil Procedure Wadhawa Publications, Nagpur 5 th edition,
2007.

OTHER SOURCES
1. http://www.vakilno1.com
2. https://indiankanoon.org/

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