STRUCTURE OF ATOM

Structure of Atom

1. Write a short note on discovery of electrons( cathode rays)?

Electrons were discovered in 1897 by J.J. Thomson, an English

physicist. These are negatively charged subatomic particles. Thomson
performed a series of discharge tube known as cathode ray discharge
tube as shown in the fig (1). It is made of glass containing two thin
pieces of metal, called electrodes, sealed in it.
The electrical discharge through the gases in it under low pressure by
applying high potential across the discharge tube. He observed that
some invisible rays emerge from the cathode and are named as
cathode rays.
2. What are the characteristics of cathode rays?
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.

Cathode rays are deflected in electric and magnetic fields. So, they
are electrically charged particles.
The cathode rays start from cathode and move towards the anode.
In the absence of electrical and magnetic fields these rays travel in
straight lines.
The direction of deflection shows that they are negatively charged
particles named as electrons.
They produce fluorescence on glass.
The temperature of the object rises on which they fall.
The particles in the cathode rays have considerable energy.
Cathode rays contain negative charge (1.602 X10-19C) and a mass

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equal to
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.

1
of a hydrogen atom (9.1 X 10-31 kg )
1837

They produce X- rays when they strike hard metals like copper,
tungsten, etc.
They penetrate through thin sheets of aluminum or other metals.
Cathode rays affect photographic plates.
They produce shadow of opaque object placed in their path.

3. Explain the determination of charge of the electrons by Mullikens Oil

Drop Method?

In this method, oil droplets in the form of mist, produced by the atomizer
, Were enter the apparatus through a small hole and are allowed to fall
Between the charged plates. The downward motion of these droplets was
viewed through the telescope, equipped with a micrometer eye piece. By
measuring the rate of fall of these droplets, Milliken was able to measure the
mass of oil droplets. The air inside the chamber was ionized by passing a
beam of X-ray through it. The X-ray ionize the molecules of air. The oil
droplets as a result become negatively charged. By measuring the velocity of
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a given droplet as it falls freely under the influence of gravity and then in an
electric field, it is possible to calculate charge on the droplet. Millikan found
charge on all oil droplets which could be expressed as whole number multiple
of e, which was considered to be the electronic charge. The charge on the
electron is found to be 1.6022 X 10-19 coulomb.
4. Explain the determination of charge to mass ratio(e/m) of electrons.

J.J Thomson was the first scientist who measured the ratio of electrical
charge(e) to the mass of electrons (m) by using cathode ray tube and
applying electrical and magnetic field perpendicular to each other as
well as to the path of electrons as shown in fig (3).
Thomson argued that the amount of deviation of the particles from their
path in the presence of electrical or magnetic field depends upon:
a. Greater the magnitude of the charge on the particle greater is the
deflection from magnetic and electrical fields.
b. Lighter particles show more deflection.
c. The deflection of electrons from its original path increases with
increase in the voltage or strength of the electric field.
d. When only electric field is applied, electrons deviate from their path
in one side and when only magnetic field is applied, electrons deviate
in another side.
e. By balancing the electrical and magnetic fields it is possible to bring
back the deflected electrons to the path as in the absence of
electrical and magnetic fields.
The e/m value of electrons is
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e = 1.76 X 108 C/g or

m

1.76 x 1011 C/kg

5. What is the charge of an electron?

The charge of electrons is - 1.602 X 10-19 C
Charge of one mole of electron is 96500 C 1 Faraday.
Relative charge of electron is -1.
6. Determine the calculation of the mass of the electron?
The mass of an electron (m) is determined by dividing the value of e
by e/m.
Mass of electron (m) =

e 1.602 X 10-19 coulombs =9.1 X 10-31 kg

=
e 1.76 X 1011 coulombs/kg
m

7. Explain the discovery of protons (anode rays).

Since atoms on the whole are neutral, the presence of negatively

charged electrons suggested the presence of positively charged
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particles are called protons.

Gold Stein (1886) observed that in addition to the cathode rays,
another type of rays were present in the discharge tube. These rays
travel in a direction opposite to cathode rays. They were named as
positive rays or protons.
By using perforated cathode in the discharge tube the properties of
these rays can be studied. Positive rays are also composed of metered
particles. The positive rays are not emitted from anode but are
produced by the ionization of residual gas molecules in the discharge
tube. When cathode rays strike with gas molecules, electrons are
removed and positive particles are produced .
8. What are the characteristics of anode rays.
I. Anode rays are deflected by electric field towards negatively
charged plate. Therefore, these rays carry positive charge.
II. Anode rays are deflected by magnetic field.
III. Change to mass ratio of these particles in the canal rays depends
upon the nature of the gas taken in the discharge tube.
IV. The positive charge is either equal to or internal multiple of the
charge on an electron.
V. Unlike, cathode rays, the properties of positive rays are
characteristic of the gas in the tube.
VI. The deflection of positive rays under the influence of an electric or
magnetic field is smaller than that of the cathode rays for the
same strength of field. This shows that the positive rays have a
greater mass than that of electrons.
VII. The anode rays produce mechanical and heating effects.
VIII. The change to mass ratio depends upon the nature of the gas.
9. What is charge and mass of the positive particles.
The e/m ratio of the anode rays 9.58 X 104 C g-1
The charge of proton is 1.602 X 10-19C.
Thus, mass of proton =

e 1.602 X 10-19 C = 1.67 X 10-27 kg

=
e 9.58 X 104 C g -1
m

As the mass of the electron is 9.1 X 10-28 g, the ratio of the mass of
positive particle obtained from hydrogen to the mass of an electron is

1.67 X 10-27 = 1837

9.1 X 10-31
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Charge of 1 mole of proton is 96500 C.

Relative charge of proton is +1.
10.

Define neutrons.

Neutrons are nuclear particles with no charge but mass almost identical
to that of proton. These are not deflecting either towards anode or
cathode.
11.
What is charge and mass of the neutrons.
Charge of neutron is 0
The mass of neutron is 1.675 X 10-27 kg (1.00866 amu)
12.
Define electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation is a form of radiant energy which propagates
through space in the form of waves which are associated with electric
and magnetic fields.
13.
Define wavelength:
The distance between two successive crests or troughs in a wave is
called the wavelength & is denoted by (lamda).
It is expressed in nanometers (nm) or in Angstrom units().
a. 1 nm = 10-9 m
b. 1 = 10-10 m
c. 1 picometer, pm = 10-12 m
d. 1 micrometer, m = 10-6 m
14.
Define frequency:
Frequency is the number of waves which pass through a particular
point in one second. And is denoted as . Its unit is cycles per second
(cps) or hertz (Hz).
1 c p s = 1 Hz
1 k Hz = 103 Hz
1 M Hz = 106 Hz
15.

Define velocity:
The distance travelled by a wave in one second is called velocity of the
wave & is denoted by c.
The frequency () and wavelength ( ) are related to velocity (c) by
the relation

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c =
It is expressed in ms-1. velocity of light is 3 X 108 ms-1
16.

Define wave number :

Number of wave lengths per unit length or the reciprocal of
wavelength is called wave number. It is expressed as m-1.

=
17.

1 or

Define amplitude (a):

It is the height of crest or depth of the trough of a wave. It is generally
expressed by the letter a. The amplitude of a wave determines the
intensity of radiation.

The above fig shows the relation between wavelength and frequency
18.
What is electromagnetic spectrum:
The arrangement of different types of electromagnetic radiations in the
order of increasing wavelength is called electromagnetic spectrum.
19.

What are the characteristics of electromagnetic radiation.

The main characteristics of electromagnetic radiation are:
a. Electromagnetic radiation propagates through space in the form of
waves. These waves may be described as oscillating electric and
magnetic fields which are perpendicular to each other.

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b. All the electromagnetic radiations travel with a speed equal to the

speed of light.
c. These radiations do not require any medium for transmission.
d. The energy of an electromagnetic radiation is directly proportional to its
frequency or inversely proportional to its wavelength.
20.

Define atomic spectrum:

When an element is heated strongly, it emits light. The emitted light can
be resolved by a prism into a spectrum (atomic spectrum). Atomic
spectrum is a characteristic of each element. It differs from one
element to the other. It is discontinuous and consists of lines of
different colours. It is called line spectra.
Spectral lines are considered as the finger prints of the elements.

21.

Define emission spectra:

The emission spectra are produced by thin gases in which the atoms
do not experience many collisions because of the low density. The
emission lines corresponds to photons of discrete energies that are
emitted when excited atoms in the gas make transitions back to
lower energy levels.
It has been classified into:
a. Continuous emission
b. Line emission
c. Band emission

22.
Define continuous emission
A continuous spectrum results when the gas pressures are higher, so
that lines are broadened by collision between the atoms until they are
smeared in to a continuum. It is obtained by incandescent solids such
as glowing candle or vapour under high pressure. The spectrum
appears as a luminous based with one end red and other end violet. In
between other colours(VIBGYOR) with each colour fading into other
colour. The influence is maximum in only some region of the spectrum
and m

1
T

23.

Define line emission:

It is obtained by electric arcs and sparks. The line spectra are the light
emission only at specific wavelengths.
Example: sodium has two lines D1 and D2. Hydrogen gives four distinct
lines.

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24.
Define band emission
It is obtained due to vibrational and rotational motions of the molecules.
The spectrum consists of a large number of bright bands with one end
intensity being maximum called band head and with minimum intensity
at the other end called band tail.
25.
Define continuous absorption
Light having continuous range of wavelengths, when passed through
solids or liquids, results in absorption spectrum with certain portions cutoff continuously.
Ex: Whenever white light is passed through green colored glass, all
colors of the light are being absorbed except green.
26.
Define line absorption:
The spectrum is found to consist of large number of dark lines against
the bright back ground indicating the absorption of particular
wavelengths by the gas molecules.
27.
Write a note on Fraunhoffer lines:
The spectrum from the sun light is found to consists of large number of
dark lines against the bright background. These lines are called
Fraunhoffer lines. These lines are name as A,B, C, D, E, F, G & H. A
detailed analysis of these lines will give the information about the
constituents of Sun.
28.

Explain Plancks Quantum theory ?

Note: 1.According to Plancks Quantum theory, a body which emits &

absorbs radiations of all frequencies are called black body.
2. The radiations emitted by the black body are called black body
radiation. The frequency of these radiations are temperature
dependant.
3.But at a given temperature, the intensity of these radiations
emitted increases with decrease in wavelength & reaches a
maximum value at a given wavelength & starts decreasing with
further decrease in wavelength.

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(i)

(ii)

(iii)

29.

According to Max Planck,

Electromagnetic radiations are emitted, absorbed and propagated
discontinuously in the form of small packets of energy. Each packet
of energy is called a photon or quantum of radiation (quantum
means bundle).
Energy associated with a quantum of radiation is given by E = h
-34
where h is a constant called Plancks constant, h = 6.627 x 10 Js.
It is a universal constant.
Its value is same for all types of electromagnetic radiations under all
conditions.
A body emits or absorbs radiations only in integral multiples of the
quantum. i.e., E = n h where n is an integer.
Explain Photoelectric effect:

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The process of emission of electrons from the surface of metals

when they are exposed to light of suitable frequency is called
photoelectric effect.
In 1887 Hertz discovered the emission of negatively charged particles
from metal under the influence of light, while measuring electrical conductivity
of different metals.
NOTE: 1.The photoelectric effect occurs only with a radiation
above a particular frequency (i.e energy).
2. For metals there is a characteristic minimum frequency
called threshold frequency, below which no electrons are
emitted & it is denoted as 0
Explanation: When a light of a particular frequency strikes a clean metal
surface inside a vacuum chamber, electrons are ejected from the metal and
are counted by a detector that measures their kinetic energy. When light of
suitable frequency falls on a metal, electrons are emitted from the surface of a
metal.
The following are the results of the experiment:
a. The Electrons are ejected from the metal surface immediately after the
beam of light strikes the metal surface.
b. The number of electrons ejected is proportional to intensity or
brightness of light .
c. The minimum frequency required to cause photoelectric effect is called
threshold frequency (0)
d. The kinetic energy of emitted electrons is directly proportional to
frequency of incident light.
The photon has energy equal to E = h
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The minimum energy required to eject electrons is =h0

Work function = W0
(h-h0) is equal to the kinetic energy of the photoelectron =
Therefore , (h-h0)

1
m v2
2

1
m v2
2

or Z = W0 + KE, where m is the mass

of electron and v is its velocity. This equation is called Einstein photoelectric

equation.
30.
Define Threshold frequency(0):
The minimum frequency of incident radiation for which photoelectric
effect just takes place is called threshold frequency.
31.
Define work function (h0):
The minimum amount of energy required to eject an electron from the
surface is called work function of that metal.
Note: work function is different for different metals.
32.

Explain Thomson model of atom(plum pudding model):

The plum pudding model of the atom was proposed by J.J.Thomson in

1898. He considered that the structure of an atom is like a raisin bread, so this
atomic model is also called as raisin bread model.
In this model atom is composed of electrons surrounded by a soup of
positive charge to balance the electrostatic forces.
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It is like negatively- charged plums (seeds) surrounded by positively

charged pudding(watermelon). Pudding represents the sphere of positive
charges and the bits of plum scattered in the pudding are the electrons. The
electrons were thought to be positioned throughout the atom. The important
assumption of this model is that mass of the atom is uniformly distributed over
the atom.
33.

Explain Rutherfords gold foil experiment

Ernest Rutherford designed an experiment to study how alpha particles

interact with a piece of very thin gold foil. He bombarded a very thin
piece of gold foil with a stream of positively charged particles known as
alpha particles and he found that most of alpha particles passed straight
through the foil. This shows that most of the atom is empty space, and
few of the alpha particles bounded back and some particles were
deflected. This shows that the centre of the atom is positively charged
because it repelled the alpha particles. It is called nucleus. A direct
collision repels an alpha particle backward, this shows that the centre of
the atom of gold is a tiny core heavier than an alpha particle.
From this he concluded that an atom was made of very
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dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded primarily by empty space

in which the electrons could not found.

34.
What are the conclusions were drawn from the Rutherfords alpha
scattering experiment.
a. The most of the particles went through the foil undeflected it means
most of the space occupied by an atom is empty.
b. Few particles deflect over a wide angle of 150 degrees it shows that
these particles strike with heavy body having positive charge.
c. Positively charged central part of the atom is called nucleus.
d. The over all mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
e. The size of the nucleus is very small compared to the size of atom.
35.
Explain the limitations of Rutherfords atomic model:
a. This model does not account for atomic stability.
b. This model doesnot have any specific radius for radius of electron
orbit.
c. This model doesnot explain line spectrum.
36.

Explain Bohrs theory of atomic model:

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The postulates of the theory are :

1) The electrons revolve around the nucleus of an atom in certain definite
circular paths called orbits or stationary states or shells. These are called
K shell, L shell, M shell
2) As long as an electron revolves in the same shell, it does not lose or
gain energy. i.e., the energy remains constant. Shells closer to the
nucleus have less energy. Outer shells have more energy.
3) Around the nucleus, only those shells are possible in which the angular
momentum of the electron is an integral multiple of

h i.e., mvr = n , h
2
2

where n = 1,2,3 .. etc. h is the radius of the circular path.

4) When an electron jumps from an outershell (of energy E2) to an inner
shell, the energy differences is emitted in the form of a photon. i.e., E2
E1 = h or = E2 E1 = h.

c where is the frequency ( is the wavelength

) of the emitted radiation. When an electron jumps from an inner shell to

an outer shell, the energy difference is absorbed in the form of a photon.

37.
1.
2.

3.
4.

Explain the facts in favor of Bohrs Theory?

The facts in favor of the validity of Bohrs theory are as follows:
The theory explains the formation of lines in the emission spectrum of
hydrogen.
The calculated radii of various orbits and the energies of the electrons
moving in these orbits are in good agreement with the experimental
values.
The frequencies of the spectral lines of the hydrogen spectrum are in
agreement with the calculations of Bohr.
The value of Rydberg constant calculated from Bohrs theory is in close

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agreement with the experimentally found values.

38.
Explain the origin of lines in the hydrogen spectrum using Bohrs
theory:
On heating hydrogen gas in a discharge tube, the electrons present in
different atoms of hydrogen jump out to various higher levels (excited) .
These excited electrons returns to the ground level either directly or
by jumping to the intermediate levels.
The excess energy is emitted in the form of photons during their return.

The spectrum consisting of 5 series of lines is obtained. The series are

named after their discoverers.
Lyman series is formed when an electron jumps from 2nd, 3rd, 4th or any
higher levels to the first level (n = 1). Excess energy is given out in the form
of photons. Balmer series lies in the visible region. The wave number can be
calculated using the formula.

1
1 1

=R 2 - 2 where n = 2, 3, 4..

1 n

Balmer series is formed when an electron jumps from 3rd, 4th, 5th or any
higher levels to the second level (n = 2 ) Excess energy is given out in the
form of photons. Balmer series lies in the visible region. The wave number
can be calculated using the formula:

1
1 1
=R 2 - 2 where n = 3, 4, 5.

2 n

Paschen series is formed when an electron jumps from 4th , 5th , 6th, or any
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higher levels to the third level (n = 3). Excess energy is given out in the form
of photons. Paschen
series lies in the infra red region. The wave number can be calculated using
the formula :

1
1 1
=R 2 - 2 where n = 4, 5, 6.

3 n

Bracket and Pfund series are formed similarly. They lie in the infra red
region.

39.
1.
2.

3.

4.

Explain the limitations of Bohrs Theory?

The limitations of Bohrs theory are:
It fails to explain the spectra of multi electron atoms.
The line spectra of hydrogen analyzed using powerful spectroscope
showed the presence of a large number of closely spaced lines. i.e.,
fine spectrum. Bohrs theory fails to explain the fine structure.
The spectral lines split into a number of closely spaced lines, when the
source is placed in a magnetic field (Zeeman effect) or in an electric
filed (stark effect) Bohrs theory fails to explain these observations.
The theory does not give any idea on the distribution and arrangement
of electrons in atoms.

40.
Define atomic number and atomic mass:
The number of protons or electrons present in the nucleus of an
atom is the atomic number (Z) of the element.
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Atomic mass or mass number (A) is the sum of number of protons

and neutrons present in the nucleus of the atom.
Thus, Z = Atomic number = No. of protons = No. of electrons
A = Mass number = No. of protons + No. of neutrons.
A Z = No. of neutrons.
The symbol 23
Na indicates that
11
a) The atomic number (Z) of Na = 11
No. of protons = 11 No. of electrons = 11
b) The atomic mass (A) of Na = 23

A = protons + neutrons
23 = 11
+ neutrons.
The number of neutrons = 23 11 = 12.

41.
What are Isotopes?
Atoms of the same element containing same number of protons but
different number of neutrons are called isotopes.
Ex: Hydrogen atom has 3 isotopes : Protium , Deuterium , Tritium
1H
1

Note:

2H
1

3H
1

1. Isotopes have the same chemical properties.

2. Isotopes differ in physical constants and weights.
3. Isotopes occupy the same position in the periodic table.

42.
What are Isobars?
The atoms of different elements having same mass number and
different atomic number are called isobars.
Ex: 40 S, 40 Cl, 40 Ar, 40K and 40 Ca . The nuclei of these nuclides
contain 40 nucleons; however they contain varying numbers of protons
and neutrons.
43.

What are Isotones?

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The atoms of different elements which contain the same number of

neutrons are called isotones.
Ex: 14
C, 15
N, 16
O.
7
6
8
44.
What are Isodiapheres?
Isodiapheres are the atoms having the same difference of neutron and
proton or same isotopic number. Nuclides and its decay product after
the emission of an alpha- particles are called isodiapheres.
45.
Derive de Broglies equation (matter wave equation):
Louis de Broglie derived a relation between wavelength of the matter
wave and momentum of the particle.
According to Planks theory, energy E of a photon is given by
E = h . 1
According to Einsteins equation,
Where h is Plancks
E = mc2 ..2
constant.
From equations 1 & 2, we get
h = mc2
is frequency.
c
c
2
h. = mc
but =

m is mass of photon
=

h
mc

c is velocity of light

Replacing c by the velocity of electron

h
mv

h
p

is wavelength

v,

or

Where p is the momentum of the particle. This is de-Broglie equation.

46.
State & explain HEISENBERGS UNCERTAINITY PRINCIPLE:
Statement: According to Heisenbergs principle: It is impossible to
determine the exact momentum as well as the exact position of an
moving sub-atomic particle like electron simultaneously.
Explanation: The position and the momentum of a moving particle like
electron are interdependent . i.e Accuracy in the determination of one
results in the inaccurate determination of the other. If x is the error in
the determination of position and p is the error in the determination of
momentum. Then,
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x. p

h
2

Hence, the exact position of the electron around the nucleus cannot be
determined.
47.
What is an orbital?
An orbital may be defined as the three dimensional region in space
around the nucleus where the probability of finding the electron is maximum.
48.
What are the types of orbitals.
There are 4 types of orbitals there
a. s- orbital : These are non-directional and spherically symmetrical.
s- orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons
b. p- orbitals: This shape of the orbital is called dumb-bell shape.
There are three p-orbitals in each p-subshell. P-subshell is full it
holds a maximum of 6 electrons.
c. d orbitals: There are five d orbitals and have relatively complex
geometry. Out of the five orbitals, the three project in between the
axis and the other two lie along the axis. It contains a maximum of
10 electrons.

d. f orbitals: The shape of f orbitals are not relevant at this level due
to the complicated geometry. There are seven sets of f orbitals in
each f subshell and 7 orbitals holding a maximum of 14 electrons.

49.

Write the differences between orbit and an orbital.

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Orbit

i) It is a circular path around

orbital

i) It is a three dimensional

the nucleus in which

region in space around

electron revolves

the nucleus in which

the probability of finding
the electron is maximum.

ii) It represents the movement

of electrons in one plane

ii) It represents the

three dimensional region
in space around the nucleus

iii) It can contain a maximum

of 2n2 electrons.

iv) Position and momentum

iii) It can contain a maximum

of two electrons.

iv) It is impossible to find

of the electron can

the exact position

be calculated at the

and momentum of

same time.

the electron at the same

time.

50.
Define quantum numbers:
The numbers which identify the state of an electron and which specify the
energy associated with it and its location around the nucleus are called
quantum numbers.
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51.
Explain the significance of the 4 quantum numbers:
The numbers which identify the state of an electron and which specify the
energy associated with it and its location around the nucleus are called
quantum numbers.
Four quantum numbers are used to define the state of an electron
completely.
1. Principal quantum number : (n)
This represents the main shell to which the electron belongs. It defines
the distance of an electron from the nucleus and its energy level. It is
designated by n.
It has the values n = 1,2, 3,. These levels are also represented by
the letters K,L,M,N etc. to represent the principal quantum numbers
1,2,3,4
respectively. The first energy level n = 1 is nearest to the nucleus and
has the least energy. The energy of the main shell increases as the
value of n increases.
Each main shell contains a maximum of 2n2 electrons. Thus, K shell (n
=1) contains a maximum of 2 electrons. L shell (n = 2) contains a
maximum of 8 electrons. M shell n = 3) contains a maximum of 18
electrons etc.
2. Angular quantum number: (/)
(secondary, subsidiary, orbital or angular momentum q. no)
This represents the sub- shell to which the electron belongs. It defines
the shape of the orbital occupied by the electron and the angular
momentum of the electron. It is designated by /
It has the values / = 0,1,2,3,.n 1. Sub shells are often represented
by the letters s, p, d, f . Which correspond to / values of 0,1,2, & 3
respectively.
i.e., / = 0 means s- sub shell (spherical), / = 1 means p sub shell
(dumb bell)
/ = 2 means d sub shell (double dumb bell), / = 3 means f - sub shell.

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The energy of the sub shell increases as the value of / increases.

Each sub-shell contains a maximum of 2 (2/ +1) electrons. Thus, s
orbital contains a maximum of 2, p orbital contains a maximum of 6, d
orbital 10 and f orbital contain a maximum of 14 electrons.

3. Magnetic quantum number ( m)

This represents the orientation of an orbital in space. It is desinated by m
It has the values m = -/,, -2, -1, 0, +1 , +2, ,+/
The electrons within a subshell are distributed in orbitals. Each sub- shell
s,p,d, f has
(2/ + 1) possible, equivalent orbitals.
Sub shell

Number of orbitals

Value of m

For a s sub
shell

No of s orbitals = 2/+1 =(2x 0) + 1

=1

M=0

For a p sub
shell (/ = 1)

No of p orbitals = 2/ +1 = ( 2x1) +
1=3

M = -1 , 0 , +1,

For a d sub
shell (/= 2)

No of d orbitals = 2/ +2 = ( 2x2) +
1=5

M = -2, -1 , 0 +1 , +2

For a f sub
shell (/=3)

No of f orbitals = 2/ + 3 = (2x3)
+1 = 7

M = -3, -2, -1 ,0 , +1,

+2 , +3

( / =0)

Thus, one s , three p , five d and seven f orbitals are possible.

4. Spin quantum number (s):

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STRUCTURE OF ATOM

It represents the direction of spin of the electron. The electrons present

in an orbital spin about their own axis. It is designated by s.
It has the values s = +

1
1
or 2
2

Each orbital may contain a maximum of 2 electrons. one with

s=+

1
1
( ) and the other with s = ()
2
2

52.
Explain Aufbau principle or Energy level diagram:
In the ground state of an atom, electrons enter into various available
orbitals in the order of increasing energies.
Orbitals of lower energy are filled up first. The order is :
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d etc.
According to the this principle,
a. The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the atomic number.
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b. Each added electron will enter the orbitals in the order of increasing
energy.
c. An orbital cannot take more than 2 electrons.
This order is conveniently remembered by referring to the figure:

53.
State & explain Paulis exclusion principle
54.
Statement: No two electrons in the same atom can have the same set
of values for all the four quantum numbers.
Explanation: According to this principle, an orbital can contain a maximum
of two electrons. i.e., electrons in a given orbital will have the first three
quantum numbers the same. Only two electrons with opposite spins
S=+

1 and - 1 can be present in an orbital. Though these two electrons

2
2

has the same value of the first three quantum numbers they will definitely
differ by spin quantum number as the directions of spinning of the electron
would be different

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Ex:. For the two electrons in 1s orbital, the quantum numbers are:
Quantum numbers
n

Electron 1

Electron 2

1
2

1
2

Note: For any two electrons in an atom, all the four quantum numbers may
also be different.
55.
State Hunds rule of maximum multiplicity.
Statement: Pairing of electrons begins only after all the available orbitals
of equal energy are singly occupied. This rule applies for p, d and forbitals.
Explaination: Ex: Consider carbon atom (At.No.6) It has 6 electrons.
According to Hunds rule, the 6th electron enters into 2py orbital and does
not pair with the 2px electron. Thus, the filling of electrons in the orbital is
like this:

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similarly, in Nitrogen (At. No. 7 ) , the 7th electron enters into the 2pz
orbital. i.e.,

In Oxygen (At.No.8) , electron pairing commences in the 2px orbital. Thus,

PROBLEM 1: Calculate the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation

emitted by transmitter of frequency 2.356 kHz. Which part of the
electromagnetic spectrum does it belong to?
Solution: =

C
3 X 108 ms-1
=
= 127.3m

2.356 X103 s-1

The wavelength belongs to radio waves of electromagnetic spectrum.
=

PROBLEM 2: The threshold for a metal is 5.3 X 1014 s-1. Calculate the
kinetic energy of an electron emitted when radiation of v = 1.0 X 10-15 s-1 hits
the metal.
Solution:

1
mv2
2
1
= me V2 = h ( - o)
2

Kinetic energy =

=( 6.626 X 10-34 Js)(1.0 X 1015s-1 5.3 X 1014s-1)

=( 6.626 X 10-34 Js)(10 X 1014s-1 5.3 X 1014s-1)
=( 6.626 X 10-34 ) Js 4.7 X 1014s-1
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STRUCTURE OF ATOM

= 31. 14 X 10-20 J.
PROBLEM 3: Calculate the energy associated with the first orbit of Li3+.
What is the radius of this orbit?
Solution:

En = -13.595 eV X Z2 = -13.5953 X32 = -122.365 eV.

2
2

n
1
2
0.529 2
0.529 X 1
.n =
rn =
= 0.1763
Z
3

PROBLEM 4: Calculate the number of photons emitted per second by the

bulb of 40 watt having energy 3 X 10-17 J.
Solution:

Number of photons emitted =

Power of the bulb

40
=
Energy
3 X 10-17

= 13.33 X 1017 photons.

PROBLEM 5: Calculate the frequency of radiation for one mole photons

whose energy is 175 .32 X 103 J.
Solution:

E=h
3
= E = 175.32 X10 J = 26.45 X 1037 s-1 or Hz.
h 6.626 X 10-34 Js

PROBLEM 6: What will be the wavelength of cricket ball of mass 0.32 kg

moving with a velocity of 20 ms-1?
Solution:

= h

mv

6.626 X10-34 kg m2s-1 = 1.03 X 10-34 m.

0.32 kg X 20 ms-1

PROBLEM 7: Calculate and compare the energies of two radiations one with
a wavelength of 900 nm and other with a wavelength 300nm.
Solution:

E = h.

E900 =

6.626X10-34 Js X 3 X 108 ms-1 = 2.2 X10-19 J

900 X 10-9 m

E300 =

6.626X10-34 Js X 3 X 108 ms-1 = 6.6 X10-19 J

400 X 10-9 m

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E900
2.2X10-19 J
1
=
=
-19
E300
3
6.6X10 J

E300 = 3 E900.

PROBLEM 8: On the basis of Heisenbergs uncertainty principle, show that

electron cannot exist within the atomic nucleus.
Solution: (Plankss constant 6.626 X 10-34 Js, Nuclear radius = 10-15 m,
Mass of electron = 9.1 X 10-31 kg)
Since this value is more than the velocity of light which is impossible, electron
cannot exist within the nucleus.

x.p =

h
6.626 x 10-34 kgm2 s-1
=
= 5.7 x 1010 m s-1
-31
-15
4 m r 4 x 9.1 x 10 kg x 3.14 x 10 m

PROBLEM 9: Calculate the wavelength of the spectral line where the

electron in the hydrogen atom undergoes transition from 3rd to 1st energy
level.
Solution: Calculate the wavelengths & wave numbers of the second & third
lines in Balmer series, n1=2 the Rydberg formula 1/=R[1/n1 2 -1/n2 2]
becomes;
1
/= 1.09678X107 [ 1/22-1/n22]
If n2=3, 1/ = 1.096789 X 107 (1/22-1/32)
= 1.09678 X 107 (1/4-1/9)
= 1.09678 X 107 X 5/36
= 1.523 X 106 m-1
= 1/1.523 X 106m
= 6.567 X 10-7m
= 656.7nm. (red)
If n2=4, 1/ = 1.09678 X 107 (1/2 2-1/4 2)
= 1.09678 X 107 (1/4-1/16)
= 1.09678 X 107 X 6/32
= 2.056 X 106 m-1
= 1/2.056 X 106m
= 4.863 X 10-7 m
= 486.3nm (bluish green)
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If n2=5, 1/ = 1.09678 X 107 (1/2 2-1/5 2)

= 1.09678 X 107 (1/4-1/25)
= 1.09678 X 107 X 21/100
= 2.302 X 106 m-1
= .302 X 106m
= 4.344 X 10-7m
= 434.4nm (indigo)

PROBLEM 10: Calculate the wave unmbers and wave lengths of the first
and the third line of the Lyman series.
Solution: For Lyman series, n1= 1. For the first line n2= 2 and for the third line
n2= 4. The Rydberg formula 1/=R[1/n1 2 -1/n2 2] becomes:
1

/= 1.09678X107 [ 1/12-1/n22] = wave number

when n2=2, 1/ = 1.096789 X 107 (1/12-1/22)

= 1.09678 X 107 (1-1/4)
= 1.09678 X 107 X 3/4
= 8.239 X 106 m-1
Frequency = 1/8.239X 106m
= 1.213 X 10-7 m
= 121.3nm
when n2=4, 1/ = 1.096789 X 107 (1/12-1/42)
= 1.09678 X 107 X 15/16
= 10.2823 X 106 m-1
Frequency = 1/10.2823X 106m
= 0.9725 X 10-7 m
= 97.25nm

PROBLEM 11: What are the frequency and wavelength of a photon emitted
during a transition from n=5 state in the n=2 state in the hydrogen atoms?
Solution: Since n1= 6 and n2= 3, this transition gives rise to a spectral line in
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STRUCTURE OF ATOM

the visible region of the Parchen series. From equation (2, 17)
1
1
E = 2.18X 10-19J 2 2
3
6
19
=1.8312X 10
It is an emission energy
The frequency of the photon(taking energy in terms of magnituse) is given by
V=

1.8312 X10-19 J
=
6.626 X 10-34 Js

= 2.763X 1014Hz
C
3.0 X108 ms-1
=
=
= 408 nm
14

2.76X 10 Hz

PROBLEM 12: Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in

80
35 Br.
80
Solution: In this case, 35
Br , Z = 35, A = 80, species is neutral

Number of protons = number of electrons = Z = 35

Number of neutrons = 80 35 = 45,
PROBLEM 13: The number of electrons, protons and neutrons in a species
are equal to 18,16 and 16 respectively. Assign the proper symbol to the
species .
Solution: The Atomic number is equal to number of protons = 16. The
element is sulphur (S).
Atomic mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons = 16+16=32.
Species is not neutral as the number of protons is not equal to electrons. It is
anion(negatively charged) with charge equal to excess electrons = 18-16 = 2.
2.
Symbol is 32
16 S
PROBLEM 14: The Vividh Bharati station of all India Radio, Delhi,
broadcasts on a frequency of 1.368 kHz. Calculate the wavelength of the
electromagnetic radiation emitted by transmitter. Which part of the
electromagnetic spectrum does it belong to?

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Solution: The wavelength, ,is equal to

C
, where c is the speed of
V

electromagnetic radiation in vacuum and v is the frequency. Substituting the

given values. We have

C 3.00X108 ms-1
3.00X108 ms-1
= 219.3 m.
=
=
V
1368 k Hz
1368X103 s-1

This is a characteristic radiowave wavelength.

PROBLEM 15: Calculate the energy of each photon which is having a
wavelength of 0.80 .

6.626 X10-34 Js X 3 X 108 ms-1

= 24.84 X 10-15 J
Solution: E =
-10
0.8 X 10 m
PROBLEM 16: What are the frequency and wavelength of a photon emitted
during a transition from n = 3 state to n = 2 state of the hydrogen atom?
1 1
1
Solution:
= R 2 - 2

n1 n2
1 1
= 1.0967 X 107 m-1 2 - 2
2 3

= 0.152 X 10 7m-1

1
= 6.578 X 10-7 m
7
0.152X10
c 3X108 ms-1
= =
= 4.5 X 1014 Hz.
-9
657.8X10

PROBLEM 17: Calculate deBroglie wavelength of an electron travelling with

a speed equal to 13% of the speed of light.

13
= 3.9 X 107 m s-1
100
h
6.626X10-34 kgm2s-1
= 1.86 X 10-12 m =1.86 pm
=
=
-31
7
-1
mc
9.1X10 kg X 3.9X 10 ms

Solution: c = 3 X 108 ms-1 X

PROBLEM 18: calculate energy of one mole of photons of radiation whose

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STRUCTURE OF ATOM

frequency is 5 X 1014 Hz.

Solution: Energy (E) of one photon is given by the expression.
E = hv
h = 6.626 X 10-34 Js, v = 5 X 1014 s-1 (given)
E = (6.626 X 10-34 J s) X ( 5 X 1014 s-1) = 3.313 x 10-19 J.
Energy of one mole of photons = (3.313 x 10-19 J) X ( 6.022 x1023 mol-1)
= 199. 51 kJ mol-1.
PROBLEM 19: A 100 watt bulb emits monochromatic light of wavelength
400nm. Calculate the number of photons emitted per second by the bulb.
Solution:
Power of the bulb = 100 watt = 100 J s-1.
Energy of one photon E = hv =

hc 6.626X10-34 J sX 3 X 108 ms-1

=

400 X 10-9 m

= 4.969 X 10-19 J
100 J s-1
20 -1
Number of photons emitted =
=2.012
X
10
s
-19

4.969 X 10

PROBLEM 20: When electromagnetic radiation of wavelength 300 nm falls

on the surface of sodium, electrons are emitted with a kinetic energy of 1.68 X
105 J mol-1. What is the minimum energy needed to remove an electron from
sodium? What is the maximum wavelength that will cause a photoelectron to
be emitted?
Solution: The energy (E) of a 300 nm photon is given by
hc 6.626X10-34 J sX 3 X 108 ms-1
-19
hv =
=
6.626
X
10
J.
=
-9

300 X 10 m

The energy of one mole of photons = 6.626 X 10-19 J X 6.022 X1023 mol-1
= 3.99 X 105 J mol-1.
The minimum energy needed to remove one mole of electrons from sodium
= (3.99 1.68) 105 J mol-1 = 2.31 x 105 J mol-1.
2.31 X105 J mol-1
The minimum energy for one electron =
23
-1

6.022 X 10

= 3.84 X 10-19 J

electrons mol

This corresponds to the wavelength

hc
6.626X10-34 J sX 3.0 X 108 ms-1
=
= 517 nm
=
-19

3.84 X 10

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(This corresponds to green light)

PROBLEM 21: Calculate the energy associated with the first orbit of He+.
What is the radius of this orbit?
Solution:

En =

(- 2.18X10-18 J) Z2 atom-1
n2

For He+, n = 1 , Z = 2
E1

2.18X10-18 J)( 22 )
(
== - 8.72 X 10

-18

The radius of the orbit is given by rn =

( 0.0529 nm ) (n2 )
Z

Since n = 1 , and Z = 2
rn =

( 0.0529 nm ) (12 )
2

= 0.02645 nm.

PROBLEM 22: What will be the wavelength of a ball of mass 0.1 kg

moving with a velocity of 10 m s-1?
Solution: According to de Brogile equation

h
=
=
mv

( 6.626X10-34 J s) = 6.626 x 10
( 0.1kg) (10 ms-1 )

-34

m ( J = kg m2 s-2)

PROBLEM 23: The mass of an electron is 9.1 X 10-31 kg. If its K.E. is 3.0 X
10-25 J, calculate its wavelength.
1

1
2K.E. 2

Solution:Since K.E. =

h
=
=
mv

2X3.0X10-25 kg m2s-2 2
-1
=

=812 ms

-31
9.1X10 kg

( 6.626X10-34 J s) = 8967 x 10
(9.1 X10-31kg) (812 ms-1)

-10

m =896.7 nm.

PROBLEM 24: Calculate the mass of a photon with wavelength 3.6 .

Solution: = 3.6 = 3.6 X 10-10 m
Velocity of photon = velocity of light
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STRUCTURE OF ATOM

h
m=
=
v

( 6.626X10-34 J s)
= 6.135 X 10
-10
8
-1
(3.6 X10 m) (3 X10 ms )

-29

kg

PROBLEM 25: A microscope using suitable photons is employed to locate

an electron in an atom with in a distance of 0.1 . What is the uncertainty
involved in the measurement of its velocity?
Solution:
x p=
v=

h
4

or

x mv=

h
4

h
4xm

6.626X10-34 Js
v=
=0.579 X107ms-1(1J = 1kg m2s-2)
-10
-31
4X3.14X0.1X10 mX9.11X10 kg
= 5.79 X 106 m s-1.
PROBLEM 26: A golf ball has a mass of 40g, and a speed of 45 m/s. If the
speed can be measured within accuracy of 2%, calculate the uncertainty in
the position.
Solution: The uncertainty in the speed is 2%, i.e., 45 X = 0.9 m s-1.
Using the equation x =

h
6.626X10-34 Js
=
4mv 4X3.14X40gX10-3 kg g-1 0.9ms-1

= 1.46 X 10-33 m.
This is nearly 1018 times smaller than the diameter of a typical atomic
nucleus. As mentioned earlier for large particles, the uncertainty principle sets
no meaningful limit to the precision of measurements.
PROBLEM 27: What is the total number of orbitals associated with the
principal quantum number n = 3?
Solution: For n = 3, the possible values of l are 0,1 and 2. Thus there is
one 3s orbital ( n =3, l=0 and ml = 0 ); there are three 3p orbitals ( n= 3, l= 1
and ml = -1,0. +1); there are five 3d orbitals ( n = 3, l = 2 and ml = -2,1,0,+1+,+2.)
Therefore the total number of orbitals is 1+3+5 = 9.
PROBLEM 28: Using s,p,d,f notation, describe the orbital with the following
quantum numbers.
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(a) N = 2 , l = 1, (b) n = 4 , l = 0, (c) n = 5, l = 3, (d) n = 3, l = 2.

Solution:

n
2
4
5
3

a)
b)
c)
d)

l
1
0
3
2

orbital
2p
4s
5f
3d

PROBLEM 29: What is the energy of an electron in the n = 3 energy state of

a hydrogen atom?
Solution:

E = h =

hc

According to the Rydberg formula:

Z2
1
= RH 2 where

n
RH =1.097 X 107 m-1.
Z = Atomic number of the atom ( Z= 1 for hydrogen ).
Combine these formule;

Z2

E = hc RH 2
n

h = 6.626 X 10-34 J.s

c = 3 X 108 m /sec
RH = 1.097 X 107 m-1.
-34

E = 6.626 X 10

12
Js X 3 X 10 ms X 1.097 X 10 m X 2
3
8

-1

-1

E = 2.42 X 10-19 J.

PROBLEM 30: What is the energy change when an electron drops from the
n = 4 energy state to the n =2 energy state in a hydrogen atom?
Solution:

Z2
E = hc RH 2
n

E n =4 = 6.626 X 10

-34

E n =4 = 1.36 X 10-19 J

12
Js X 3 X 10 ms X 1.097 X 10 m X 2
4
8

-1

-1

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E n =2 = 6.626 X 10

-34

12
X 3 X 10 ms X 1.097 X 10 m X 2
2
8

-1

-1

E n =2 = 5.45 X 10-19 J
E = E n =4 - E n =2
E n =4
12
-19
E = 5.45 X 10 J 2
4

1
E = 5.45 X 10-19 J

16
E = 3.40 X 10-20 J
E n =2

E = E n =4 - E n =2
E = 3.40 X 10-20 J - 5.45 X 10-19 J
E = - 5.11 X 10-19 J
PROBLEM 31: What is the wavelength associated with 150 eV electron?
Solution:

=
=

X m X K.E.

2
6.626 X10-34 Js
-10

X 9.1 X10-31 kg X 150 X 1.6 X 10-19J

= 10 m = 1
PROBLEM 32: Compare the wavelength for the first three lines in the Balmer
series with those which arise from similar transition in Be3+ ion (neglect
reduced mass effect).
1
1
Solution: H = RH X 12 2 2
n
2
1
1
H = RH X 42 2 2
n
2

Be
= 16
H

So we can conclude that all transitions in Be3+ will occur at wavelengths

1
16

times the hydrogen wavelengths.

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