Administrative Theories MGS 712
Administrative Theories MGS 712
Administrative Theories MGS 712
COURSE DEVELOPMENT
Course Code:
MGS 712
Course Title:
ADMINISTRATIVE THEORY.
COURSE DEVELOPERS:
MARTHA ORUKU
MUMEN LUGARD
PROGRAMME LEADER:
COURSE COORDINATOR:
EMMANUEL ABIANGA
COURSE CONTENTS
MODULE1
Unit 1
Conceptual Clarifications.
Unit 2
Administrative Behaviour
Unit 3
Principles of Administration
Unit 4
Administrative theory.
2.0
OBJECTIVES,
At the end of the unit , a student should be able to;
*Understand the concept of administrative theory.
*Explain the nature of Administration.
*Understand politics and administration .
3.0
MAIN CONTENT .
3. 1 CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATIONS.
The concept of administration has been defined in many ways. The vantage
points through which authorities have defined it seem to emanate from the
environment and social milieu.
Dwight Waldo (1955) defines administration as a type of co-operative human
behavior that has a high degree of rationality characterized by the
management and organization.
John Mooney (2001) , looked at administration as the attainment of common
purpose . Furthermore Henri Fayol defines administration in a narrower sense
of management and also regards administration as a discipline in which any
organization should be involved He further maintained that administration has
five elements
3
*Foresight
*organization
*command
*Co ordination.
*Control.
From the above a working definition of administration as the The process
of rationally channeling all organizational activities for efficient and effective
goal attainment .
making decision, issuing them in the form of order or directions and getting
them implemented. Direction or leadership always emphasizes the presence of
a group of persons. One member of the group holds authority to direct or holds
the place of leadership.
The efforts of the others are directed by him. He gives all of them a common
direction for the common purpose, and goal. The success of direction or
leadership is determined by the integration of group efforts in the solution of a
common purpose and goal. .The success of direction or leadership is determined
by the integration of group efforts in the solution of a common problem.
Direction shows the way in administration. It channelizes the entire
organization towards a common goal.
Co-ordination: In administration, there is always, the involvement
of a number of things and persons. It is the detail of co-ordination with
procedures in all of them a sort of governess, single-mindedness and collective
effort. It serves as a lubricant in administrative structure for smooth
functioning. Differ functionaries of the machinery are made to pursue the same line
of action, instead of pulling different directions. Various units and parts have to be
interrelated to produce this co-ordination.
The efficiency of an organization depends on the co- - ordination of between its
units, and parts. Every unit is to be assigned its proper place; the units are to be
coordinated with one another, ultimately producing a total, well integrated unity, in
the whole organization. A good and successful administration will be judged from
the spontaneous co-ordination between the different organs in
the establishment.
Evaluation: This represents the stage of stock taking of an administration. In
any administrative set up, scope for manpower will always be there; since
administration is a dynamic process, it has to be reviewed from time to time. Even if the
organization is going on smoothly, the possibility must be explored to run it more
smoothly. A search for better ways and means should constantly go on less
efficient arrangements includes the followings:
(i)
Discovering of short-comings on the existing arrangements may be realized.
(ii)
Modification or enhancement of aims and objectives to be
realized
(iii)
Change in the conditions inside and outside the organization
(iv)
Invention of a new technique or discovery of new of doing
things better.
Exercise 1
What are the tools for administration in an organization.
3.3
Scholars, Like J.M Pfiffner, Gullick Herbert Simon, shared the view that
"management is part of administration. To them management is one of
the action in administration. In their words, "management activity unites
controls and coordinates all other activities of a group to achieve set
objectives.
Despite
the
merits
or
otherwise
of
administration/management dichotomy lets now attempt to look at the
similarities and differences in the use of the concepts.
3.4
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
3.5
Politics and administration dichotomy is the first paradigm in the study of science of
administration. Paradigm is a particular way of looking at things or administrative
phenomenon, formulating questions, generalizing and conducting research. It is
a form of intellectual inquiry or specific approach to administrative science
investigation. This term was popularized by Thomas Kuhn, a philosopher
interested in the nature of scientific thought. This is an abstract in reality (Michal
Sodaro 2006).
The idea of separating politics and administration is one of the erudite
fundamental paradigms in the study of public administration and the science of
administration. This paradigm is featured by distinctive premises or definitions. Politics
and administration are two separate things and that each has its functions and meanings.
This paradigm was due to Woodrow Wilson's famous article that administrative
decisions should not be mixed with political decision. This was due to the spoil
system inherent in American politics .
All government system has two primary functions. These are politics and
administration. The second school of thought was championed by Appleby that
"rigid (distinction) between politics and administration cannot be defined in any
political system". This presupposes that, administration and politics are
mixed up in political decisions. Politics and administration separation is an
American syndrome erected to defend the "spoil system" and which
cannot be easily maintained. Ladipo Ademolekun (1986) highlighted the
apparent contradiction in the position of the school of thought; about
8
(ii)
(iii)
Organization of materials:
This encapsulates organization of building, campus, grounds,
accommodation,' This implies arrangement of each physical facility in
such a way that each item can be most efficiently used and no wastage takes
place. Equipment will be proportionate to the number of people.
Organization of human:This involves organization of human factors, board of management and
workers. It is organization and mobilization of all the persons who are legally
or legitimately concerned and interested in a firm. This includes each
members joining to contribute their best in the joint activity and
collective responsibility. Organizational members have to participate in
the activity in conformity with planned purpose and well thought- out
procedure. Organization answers effective and harmonizes utilization of their
talents and emerges.
Organization of ideas and principles:- This embraces the art of
cementing desirable ideas, principles, e.g., norms of achievement, rules and
regulations, policy formulation, and administration, and working out
innovations, and institutional programs for improvement and reforms.
Therefore, organization deals with making systematic arrangements so that
the purposes of the entire system are achieved. Good organization ensures
unity of action; efficiency, economy, optimum utilization of resources,
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well being, all round satisfaction and good results for collective goals.
Without proper organization, there would be confusion, chaos, and haphazard
activity resulting into wastage of time, effort and resources.
4.0
CONCLUSION.
The unit was able to give an introduction to administrative theory. It gave the
conceptual clarifications to understanding the concept of administrative theory
nature of administration , comparison of administration and management.
5.0
SUMMARY
The unit was a summary of some of the conceptual clarifications as regards
administrative theory about the organization and management.
6.0
7.0
FURTHER READINGS.
Ladipo, A. (1986) Nigerian government and politics and administration. A global
view. Spectrum books.
Karthy , J (1999) Administrative Science , McGraw Hill Ltd New York.
Adebayo.A(1989)Nigerian Public Administration, Spectrum books . Ibadan.
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UNIT 2
ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOUR
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
1.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Definition of Administrative Behaviour.
3.2
Key points in understanding Administrative Behaviour.
3.3
Administrative behavior across regimes.
3.4
Administrative Discretion.
3.5
Policy and administration
3.6
Channel of influence.
3.7
Critical Frame work.
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor marked Assignment
Further Reading.
Introduction.
Behaviour is basically goal- driven. This presupposes that human behaviour is
generally motivated by desire to attain some goals. The specific goal is not always
consciously known by the individual. This demonstrates that, the reason for action
is not always apparent to the conscious mind. The drive that energizes
distinctive individual behavioural pattern (personality) is to a considerable degree
subconscious and therefore not easily accessible to examine or evaluate (Paul
Hevsey 1999).
Behaviour, therefore, is a term given to the things that human beings do, that can be
directly detected by the senses of others. People have thought processes and
images of the world around them. These processes and images are part of our daily
conscious expectations, they influence our behaviour and deserve to be object of
study in the same as observable behaviour. (David Buchanan 1999) within this
view point, activity is the term given to the things that people do and the reasons
that they have for doing them. Cognitive psychologist recognizes the internal,
invisible, working of the human mind as a legitimate object of
investigations. Sociologist has adopted action perspective, and several approaches
in esoteric names like phenomenology, symbolic interactionisrn. A political scientist
regards it, as the application of behaviourism to understanding political behaviour.
While public administrationists regards it as administrative behaviour.
Behavioural scientist attempts to bring together from a veracity of discipline,
whose concepts, theories and research, may be useful to people in making-decisions
about the behaviour of individuals and groups. This means that behavioural scientists
11
2.0
OBJECTIVES.
At the end of the unit , a student should be able to;
*Explain the concept of administrative behavior.
* Identify the key points in understanding administrative behavior.
*Explain administrative behavior across regimes.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1 DEFINITION OF ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOUR
Administrative behaviour are the degree of responsible or accountable
behaviour and the extent to which administrators adhere to professional norms e.g
adhere to the concept of career civil service, norms of anonymity, impartiality
and political neutrality. Nigerian study on regime types did not produce
significant account in administrative behaviour (Ladipo Adomolelcun
1986) we must note that attempt made to enforce accountable behaviour and
adherence to professional norms in civil service have been largely
unsuccessful; despite the professionalsation of 1988 civil service reforms.
Furthermore, administrative behaviour analyses organization in term.; of
decision-making of their participants, precisely organizational system surrounding
the behaviour that gives its special character (Herbert A. Simon). Administrative
behaviour is scientifically base; and amenable to empirical research and is
not inherent endowment, nor is it entirely a commonsense experience acquired
12
ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOUR
All behaviour involves conscious or unconscious selection of
particular action out of all actions of all those persons over whom
he exercises influence and authority. Therefore, administration is purposiveoriented towards goals or objectives. The purposiveness brings about integration
in the pattern of behahviour. If administration is getting things done by groups of
people, purpose provides, the principal criterion in determining how things are to be
done in administrative organization.
This study on administrative behaviour will:
i)
ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
The Governor General uses the corps of administrative officers appointed to run
the colonial administration at the provincial level. These were resident officers and
each resident was responsible to the governor through lieutenant-Governor. The
resident was to supervise and coordinate all the activities of the colonial
government within his province.
The resident was not accountable to local people but to colonial administration in
the metropolis. The essential duties of the resident and his staff are those in
connection with the conduct of native administration, which embraces close
supervision of native courts and assessment for taxation.
In the Northern Nigeria, the colonial administration was regarded as AngloAfrican administration with the colonial official as master of every stage. There
was power sharing between the administrative officer and the emirs. The native
administration was criticized as a mere smoke screen of petty autocrat of
administrative officer. The chiefs power were clearly eroded. The essential
ingredient in the training of political officer was the working knowledge of
original native language, which was an important qualification for promotion
(Ladipo Adamelekun 1986 p.41).
Furthermore, the native administration system, the chiefs were mere administrative
councils, doing the job of imperial policy and dual-mandate. The colonial
administration was not responsible to the wishes of the people. The raison d 'entre
of a colonial administration was the notion that a 'superior race' are on a mission to
"civilize" the subject people the-uncivilized people.
This kind of assumption influenced governance and the nature of administration we
have in Nigeria. The principle of government by consent was thrown to 'the dogs'
and the rules of the bureaucrats dominated the system of administrative relationship
between politics and administration was enacted, making sure that
technically sound career civil service became an enduring legacies _ that enveloped
subsequent administration in Nigeria.
1952 60, the West-Minister- model was introduced. The quasi-parliamentary
system of administration was introduced. This epoch, promoted the second regime
type. The consequences this regime type brought to politics and administration
were the role political and administrative officers in policy making process
within the ambit of the doctrine of political accountability. The career civil
service with principle of impartiality, neutrality and anonymity was to assist the
cabinet in the formulation of public policy intents of the government. Three
regional civil services were established in 1954. This era saw the generalization
of the civil service. This promoted expertise of high crop of civil service across
Nigeria.
An overview of regime types in Nigeria system of administration, have
demonstrated many points.
One, the impacts of regime type on the relationship between politics and
administration, and the performance and responsiveness of administration to the
15
wishes of the people is obvious in all regime types. The native administration was
featured by the fusion of politics and administration. The role of political
officer and administrators was not properly defined in the public policy making
process. Many Nigerian in native administration occupied insignificant
positions while the real power belonged to the colonial administrators.
The West Minister, model, was British-inspired administrative and
political institutions, principle and practices. The idea of career civil service survives
the idea of confidentiality that dominated the relationship between administrative
and political officers in Britain was alien to the local administration. The military
regime type, spelt out new administrative doctrines. This introduces administrative
diarchy with military and career civil service working together. This era brought
about high political interference in the part of military administrator.
The presidential regime type, the relationship between politics and
administration still hold water.
CHANNEL OF INFLUENCE.
In the study of imbalance thesis , the characteristics of organizations and the
resurgence of skills of their members , promote bureaucratic expertise and influence
over the development of public policy and its administration . These influences are
channeled through distinctive sources .
1) Ability of bureaucrats to gather information and give advice that shapes the
decision of political officials.
2) The capacity of bureaucratic organizations to carry on the task that must be
performed once policy goals are determined or decided upon the power of
implementation and,
3) Critical dimension of power to implement policies , the discretion with which
18
CRITICAL FRAMEWORK.
There are many theoretical
foundations on bureaucratic behavior in an
administrative organization. Alan Peacock (2000) observed that there is a close
analogy between the theory of the firm and the theory of bureaucratic operation. They
are traced and treated like elites.
The theory is an attempt to establish the kind of behavior that leads to over production
by the bureaucrat .
The conclusion of interest for government policy is that , if all bureaucrats act in the
way described , there is a waste of resources in producing government services which
can be avoided only by improving bureaucratic efficiency .Niskanen(1998) considers
such as competition between bureaus, altering the reward system for bureaucrats
(e.g.; bonuses to 'top' officials) in order to encourage economy in resource use, turning
over production to private firms (e.g. refuse collection), and facilitating
investigation of government departments by "watchdog" committees of the
legislative. Bureaucrats are not economic eunuchs in administrative
19
on the part of the individuals in society. Public choice therefore must acknowledge
the relationship between economics, politics and administration. (Breton 1988).
(ii)
Demand for money rents are elastic. The state cannot readily 'give money away', even if
it might desire to do so. The rent-seeking anaysis can be applied to many activities of
the modern state and its administrations; including the making of money to classes of
recipients. If mothers with \ dependent children are granted payments for being
mothers, we can predict that we shall soon have more such mothers. If the
unemployed are offered higher payments, we predict that the numbers of
unemployed will increase. As the expansion of modern government and
administration offers opportunities for rents, we must expect that the utilitymaximizing behaviour of individuals will lead them to waste more and more
resources in trying to secure the 'rents' or 'profits' promised by administration.
The public choice approach
The public choice approach to understanding administrative behaviour attempts to
analyse the process of collective decision-making by reference to techniques which
have proved successful in analyzing private decision-making. Public policies are
viewed as the outcome of the forces of individual demand and supply as they
impinge on administrative (market) place. Individual citizens are assumed to make
21
known the profile of their individual preference over alternative social state to the
extent that they deem to be economic. And they attempt to influence administration to
satisfy those preferences by resorting to the instruments available, notably by
voting, pressure group, social movement activities, migration or by revolution. The
government and its administration are viewed as mentioning such objectives during its
period of office subject to some constraint on probability of-election variable. A
further important influence in the supply of public policies is seem to stem from
bureaucracy, with senior bureaucrats viewed as maximizing their utility in terms of the
specific reward-cost structure which confronts them.
Such an approach to the determination of public policy administration, conflicts
sharply both with the paradigms of Arronian collective choice theory, and with
platonic notions of government administration which still haunt may corridors in
political establishment. The approach has encountered resistances from economist and
political scientists from a variety of methodological positions. Marxists have
attacked the notion that a positive, non-value-laden analysis of political'
administrative behaviour is even possible, claiming that those who engage in such
exercise are prone to illusion which they designate to be 'false consciousness, in
which abstractions are idealized, and then are taken for reality itself. They view
public choice approach essentially as an attempt to protect corrupt systems of
government administration.
doubt that some public choice analysts are influenced by ideological considerations, and that
it is very easy to confuse paradigms with reality and that not all assumptions employed in public
choice theory are equally well to appropriate tests, and that empirical research is an
exhausting exercise. For all these reasons, the critics of public choice analysis requires serious
consideration from those concerned to advance understanding of the administrative or
political market-place.
Equally, however, it would be foolhardy to reject one method of approaching an
important subject on the ground that it has weaknesses, public choice is a young discipline (at
least in its modem form), and it encounters all the well-known problems of straddling diverse
discipline. Certainly, its theoretical structure has been developed from relatively primitive
initial forms, and the test to which it has been exposed have been fairly simple and
subsequently often proved unacceptable. But this is true of any emergence discipline.
What is clear that public choice analysis now is establishing credibility in profession which
initially was hostile to its reception. Scientists are jealous guardians of their disciplines, new
ventures are not easily accommodated judged by the market test itself, public choice analysis is
now, accepted and its future in reasonable time seems indisputably attractive as a distinct
science of inquiry in behavioral thinking.
4.O
CONCLUSION.
The unit was mainly about the concept of administrative behavior. It
was a critical assessment of administrative behavior across regimes
types. From the administration in the colonial period to the present day
administration.
5.0
SUMMARY
The unit defined the term administrative behavior, the key points in
understanding
administrative behavior. It also explained
the
administrative behavior across regimes types , administrative discretion,
policy and administration and the channels of influence.
6.0
23
UNIT THREE
PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION.
I.O INTRODUCTION
2.0 OBJECTIVES
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Administrative behaviour was first published to conduct a model of
rational choice that incorporates the actual properties of human being
and retain some of the formal clarity of economic- man model. Two
crucial alternatives were needed to transmit the economic man into
administrative man and
a man of limited rationality, the
administrative man, whom we recognized in everyday life. (Herbert
Simon).
The economic man deals with the "real world" in its complexity;
while administrative man recognizes that "real world. Administrative
man recognizes that the "real world" he perceives is drastically
simplified with gross simplification, because the courses and
24
OBJECTIVES.
At the end of this unit , a student should be able to ;
*Explain the rationale behind the Administrative Principles.
*Discuss the major principles of administration.
Explain the scientific management principles
Explain the classical management principles.
Identify and explain the Administrative theory of Henri Fayol.
25
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Communication
Another
fundamental principle
of administration
is
communication. "Communication is the process by which _ information
is exchanged and understood by two or more people, usually with the
intent to motivate or influence behaviour". The information must
possess timeliness, that is the degree to which information is
available soon after events occur and completeness refers the extent
to which information contains the appropriate amount of data. The
last characteristic of information is relevance which is the d e g r e e
t o w h ic h i n f o r ma t i o n p e r t a i n s t o t h e p r o b l e ms ,
d e c is i o n s a n d t a s k s f o r w h ic h a n administrator is
responsible.
3.4
Bureaucratic Principle
Bureaucratic principles of administration came into focus, because of
the work of a sociologist Max Weber. He saw that bureaucratic
principle cut across every organization. The principle looks at
organization as a whole. This is a sub-field of classical principles.
Weber envisioned organization that would be managed on an
impersonal, rational basis. Weber believed that an organization based
on rational authority would be more efficient and adaptable to change,
because centrality is related to formal structure and positions rather
than a particular prison which may live or die. To Weber, rationality in
organizations meant employee selection, and advancement, based on
competence, rather than on "whom you know" the organizations relies
on rules and written records for connectivity and continuity.
The basic reason for Weber's dogged appreciation of
bureaucratic organization is that, it is blessed with technical
e x p e r t i s e a n d c o mp e t e n c e , e s t a b l i s h e d r u l e s a n d
regulations, specialization, and control.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Stipulated rules
This principles holds that the arrangement of human organization must
be based on rules. This means that bureaucratic organizations should be
based on established rules and regulations , which must embrace rights ,
duties and obligations to all members. These rules are designed to
promote efficiency and effectiveness , and economy in handling men
and material of an organization.
Division of Labor based on functional specialization. According to
bureaucratic principle of administration, it asks four area of competence and
expertise, and obligation to perform duties which are based on competence and
division of labour. Also the provision of the office holder with adequate
authority to carry out the predetermined functions of an organization.
Hierarchy of Authority
This demonstrates that principle of hierarchy is necessary in all
28
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Exercise I
State and explain administrative principles.
3.4
Unity Of Direction
The entire organization should be moving towards a common objective in a
common direction.
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
(xii)
(xiii)
3.6
to perform a task .
Justice
The idea of justice, and its definition, and meaning have greater different
disciplines, ranging from Law, politics, sociology and so on. In public administration,
justice cannot easily be quantified or measured; but it is accepted as concept that human
organization needs to attain in its goals.
In administration, justice implies rigidly in implementing rules and regulation without
victimization. This is the application administrative discretion uniformly. There are
some features of justice, balance fairness and equality of all before established rules
and regulation. Furthermore, the principle establishes that "written rules and regulations
should be definite and clear enough so that each worker will know where he or she stands".
Justice enjoins those administrative agents and their administrators to use his discretion
consciously in applying the norms, rules, laws or regulations on individual or groups,
since differences may occur. Justice recognizes that rigid application of rules, and
32
administrators are appealed to make room for exception while employing uniform
application of justice. Besides, too many exceptions weaken justice and acceptance of
authority (Nwokafor and Ighalo 1999). When justice is perverted, peace is the
eventual casualty. People always resist injustice in administration of the society
Justice as a principle can be discovered when it exist in any administrative process.
(iii) Equality of Opportunity
This principle entails that administrators and managers undertaking the formulation and
implementation of public and private goods and services should ensure that, enabling
opportunities are provided for "individuals to develop their abilities to the fullest."
Furthermore equality emphasizes that everybody should be of equal footing .
Equality does not mean that all opportunities are to be equally distributed whether
the individuals are able and deserving or not. Humanitarian principle entails that
opportunities should be granted to an individual in proportion to his capacities. Equality
of opportunities to people in administration decries quota system in public
administration in Nigeria.
(Iv)
Human Relations
Human relation principles attempts to "emphasis the notion of friendliness" "justice"
and 'fair play' in administrative process. Most of the time spent by
managers and administrators are spent in organizations, with or through people;
these people have needs, expectations, emotions, and personal goals to actualize via
administration of the organization. This principles implies that, respects,
courtesy, consideration, trust, open mindedness, and sincerity should be ingrained
in administering of any human organizations. One scholar maintained that
good administrators (manager) must maintain an accessible but respectful
distance from all members of the organization . The human relations principle in
administrative thinking, and practice, emphasizes satisfaction of employees, the people
or target audience's basic needs, as the key to increase worker productivity.
Target audience's inability to satisfy their basic needs can create problems for
administration of any human organization.
Furthermore, through this principle, organizations can take advantage of the imagination
and intellect of their workforce, to promote organizational goals and objectives.
Workforce will exercise self-control and contribute to organizational objectives
when they are recognized and given the opportunity to excel. The exponents of these
principles include Abraham Maslow, and Douglas McGregor. They attempted
to look at the human side of organization to increase service delivery
through effective administration .
PRUDENTIAL PRINCIPLE
Prudence is the "ability to anticipate, calculate, regulate, utilize,
interpret, and control" with care both material and human resources of
33
3.6
ii)Unity of Command.
This holds that an individual must only receive orders from one hierarchical
superior. A related principle , is the unity of direction communicated that there
should be one head and one plan of activities which contribute to the same
objectives,
(iii)Exception principle
(ix)
(x)
Initiative. The administrator must sacrifice his own vanity to encourage and
inspire those under him to show initiative, within the limits of
respect for authority and discipline.
Espirit de corps. The manager must encourage cohesiveness and
esprit de corps among his subordinates. The administrators may be
subject to these:
(i)
Divide and rule, and
(ii)
Abuse of written communications.
Administration represents the instrument and machinery for carrying out the
process and policies of organization. Administration, and decision
36
process, gives room for rational calculation of administrative behaviour, and the
process through which, organizational administrators perform their work and roles.
In administration and administrative behaviour, decision making, holds the key to the
understanding of organizational phenomena. Administration is the "art of getting
things done" through people. Principle of administration are set forth for securing
concerted action from groups of men; deciding and doing things, has been
recognized, that a theory of administration blended with principles that should be
concerned with the processes of decision as well as with the process of action. A
general theory of administration will insure correct decision-making, as it will
include principles that insure effective action.
Some accepted principle of Administration
(i)
Administrative efficiency is increased by a specialization of
the task among group.
(ii)
Administrative efficiency is increased by limiting the span of control at every
point in the hierarchy to a small number.
(iii)
Administrative efficiency is increased by grouping the workers, for
purposes of control, according to, purpose, process, clientele, or place.
(Herbert Simon, p,21).
The above appear simple but their application to concrete administrative
organization on empirical test will reveal different things.
Principle of Specialization.
Administrative efficiency is supposed to increase with increase in
specialization.
3.7
7.0
Conclusion. The unit was mainly about the rationale behind administrative
theory.
8.0
Summary
The unit went through the major principles of administration, the
management principles, bureaucratic principles , classical principles and the
classical theories.
9.0
Question 1
State and explain the bureaucratic principles as propounded by Max Webber.
Question 2
State to explain scientific management theories.
38
UNIT FOUR.
Theories Of Administration
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of concept.
3.2 Significance of Administrative Theories.
3.3 An approach to administrative theory.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 Further Reading.
1.0
Introduction
The basis of theories in science of administration lies in the clarity, comprehensiveness
process, the nature of decision and elements of values entering into rational or irrational
organizational decision. Theories of administration will provide conceptual
tools for realistically describing administrative organizations, the
effectiveness of its structure and operation and the ecological influence
interfering with decision-making in human organization.
It must be observed that, the science of organization and administration can never
be substituted for specific experience in specific organizations. The usefulness of more
general knowledge to the administrations and managers of organization, comes
from rational understanding, it gives behaviour that is largely based on trial and error
or repetitive experience. Its immediate practical use is limited. Its ultimate
practical value is a great sharpening observation, preventing the neglect of
important factors and redefining and reducing consistencies between behaviour and
its verbal description (Herbert Simon 1976.)
The theory of administration is concerned with how organizations should be
constructed and operated in order to accomplish its work efficiently. Therefore, a
valid approach to the study of the science of administration requires that all relevant
diagnostic criteria be identified, and each administrative situation and regime types
analyzed in terms of the behavioural and moral variables, entering organizational
decision making. Besides, administrative theories are also concerned with some
fundamental questions like, what are the limits of knowledge , how can human
39
2.0
Objectives.
A student should at the end of the unit be able to :
Explain the significance of administrative theories.
Discuss the approach to administrative theory.
3.0
Main Content.
3.1 CONCEPTUAL DEFINITTON
A theory is based on the use of abstract deductive reasoning that enables conclusions to
be drawn from a set of initial hypothesis, or assumptions about any real world
problem. This contrasts with applied studies that are inductive in nature.(Sola Fajana
2000).
Theory is one of the most elusive and misunderstood term in scientific inquiry.
Brace A. Singleton (2000) regards it as "idles speculation or conjuncture" concept.
McCain and Segal (1937: 98) maintained that "for an explanation to be called a theory
,it must emphasize a considerable evidence". From the above, we can say that a
"complete and formal presentation of theory must embrace the definitions of concepts
and a set of assumption describing circumstances under which it applies its central
features, a set of interconnected, abstract principles or propositions, that have same basic
form as laws but are more general' (Bruce C. Straits 2000). Theories explain law
deductively in the same manner that laws explain facts. "A theory is one of the most
elusive and in scientific research, its locus is directed at testing alternative theories to
the extent that;
It involves the fewest number of statements and assumptions.
(ii)
It explains the broadest range of phenomena and
(iii)
Its prediction is more accessible. Therefore theoretical explanations
deepens our understanding by reducing the laws to a common set of
principles as well as showing how accepted laws are very appropriate.
Theoretical framework are network of reasoning's that embodies theories,
concepts, and assumptions about some observed phenomena or events, and explanations
as to how these events and phenomena are related to each other. Therefore, "a theory is
a set of propositions that seeks to explain interrationship among events. Theory is said
to be a systematic way of looking at a phenomena". (Simbo Banjoko 1996).
Administrative theories deal with principles and behaviour governing administrative
organizations and how they operate. Administrative theory casts light on the
proper application of principles of administration. It is comprehensive to know
40
that
"theories of administration were developed by some administrative
thinkers while most administrative theories were borrowed from other
disciplines, particularly business administration, or management,
sociology and psychology" (Emmanuel Onyebuchi Ezeani 2005)
There are four distinctive school of administrative theory.
(i)
The classical
(ii)
The neoclassical
(iii) The modem organization theory
(iv) The decision making theory
3.2
SIGNIFICANCE OF ADMINISTRATIVE
THEORIES.
The significance of administrative theories lies in its symbolic
representation of the real administrative world and situations. It enables,
administrative agents, administrators, managers, practitioners and
theoreticians in the science of administration to communicate with air of
efficiency and effectiveness.
Theory of administration acts as guide to administrative actions and nature
of decision-making in administrative organization. Theories of
administration enable us to carryout case studies, as regards, ecology of
administration, and how regime types, influences administrative
process. These new knowledge, enable scholars, to develop analytic, and
diagnostic competence in science of administration; it also aids
administrative capacity to identifying and certification of defined
problems. (Nwizu 1999).
Furthermore, theories of administration enables us to analyze some,
principles of administration, and understand the contending controversies,
surrounding the application of theories and practice of administration.
The criteria of efficiency is somehow very problematic in its application
in administrative organizations today. The efficiency criteria in
commercial organizations, money, provides a common denominator for
measurement; both output and input; but in government
administrative set-up and quasi-nongovernmental organization
where efficiency criteria is applicable in decision, where factors
involved, are not directly measurable in monetary terms. Adequate
understanding of theories, and principles of administrative science,
which apply on efficiency criteria in management of both material and
human resources of an organization .In another vein, decision theory, enable
theoretician and practitioners, and student of administration, to acquire analytic tools
for interpreting the role value play in decision making and the Significance of decisions
in human organizations. This is why Joseph L. Bower (2000) maintained that,
"organization is the characteristic mechanism that men have chosen for ordering
41
3.3
conceptualization of management. For him, it consists of planning, organizing, command, coordination and control. These are still vital elements of modern management. Many modern
management have furthermore added such as communicating, motivating, decisionmaking and others. Following Fayol,s focus on the argument, that most classical writers
crystallized their ideas about the processes and structure of management into a list of principles
which also was regarded as "universal prescription for success". (L. Gullick and L. Urwick).
The most fundamental of all classical concepts is authority. This is the right to get
things done. The classical writers were attempting to legitimize their position of
influence that authority originated from ownership, and must be viewed in the same
manner.
Related to the idea of authority is the idea of responsibility. This is the obligation to
undertake tasks and assignments. In classical point of view, no administrator should
have authority without commensurate responsibility, vice versa. Having created this
administrative building block, the classical writers developed the idea of hierarchy.
Gullick for instance sees organizing as interrelating the subdivision of work by
allotting them to men who are placed in a structure of authority, so that the work may be
coordinated by the orders of superiors to subordinates, coming from the top to the bottom
of the entire organization. Mooney and Reiley Chester Barnard were other
contributors to administrative management. They recorded their observations about
effective administration in a single classic book, The Functions of Executives published
in 1938.
One of Chester Barn ads renowned contributions is his acceptance theory of
authority; which holds that authority flows from the bottom to the top. How much
authority administrator wields depends to a large extent on the willingness of
employees to accept the directives of the administrators. Thus administrators should
communicate their requirements in a way that takes the feelings and capabilities of
employees into account.
Furthermore, acceptance theory as postulated by Chester Barnard, entails that, "authority does
not depend as much on 'persons of authority" who gives order as on the willingness to
comply with those who receive the orders". This in his view, is that employee who will
accept or not accept orders and direction from above.
Finally, Chester Barnard as exponent of administrative management helped us
to integrate concern with authority, which was growing out of the
administrative and bureaucratic approaches, with emphasis on worker needs,
which was simultaneously developing within behavioral frame work.
(Caroline Katz 2006).
BUREAUCRATIC THEORY
The literal meaning of bureaucracy is "rule by the office" or "rule by officials".
In social sciences, the usage tends to follow the classical conception.
Max Weber was interested in formal organization as a student of the history of
46
comprehensive set of rules that one accepts as legitimate. Access to superior roles is
theoretically open to all who are experts through acknowledge, and to be accepted
as property superior in status and power because they have greater skill, more
experienced, or on supervisory capacity. In this realm, it gives variety of authority rights to
command and demand rationally assigned duties or a systematic scheme for relating
resources to ends, and the procedures which are embodied in formal or well-understood
codes and rulings which have the forces of law.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BUREAUCRACY
Certain characteristics of employment and career are associated with the bureaucratic system
the individual office holder is appointed to and not elected to it, or nominated for it by a
personal sponsor. His tenure and duties, and rewards are specified. His work is rewarded by
a regular salary and by prospect of regular employment (probably advancement) in a life time
career. His appointment, placement, and promotion are dependent on his technical
qualifications and his competence as displayed in the work and by a formal examination, or
equivalent form of scrutiny of his technical proficiency.
3.5
MODERN THEORIES
The systems approach
Socio-technical approach
(iii) The contingency or situational approach
Modern theories tend to be based on the concept that the organization is a system
which has to adapt to changes in its environment In modem theory, an organization is
defined as a designed and structured process in which individuals interact for objectives
(Hicks and Gullet, 1975). The contemporary approach to the organization is
multidisciplinary, as many scientists from different fields have contributed to its
development, emphasizing the dynamic nature of communication and importance
of integration of individual and organizational interests. These were subsequently reemphasized by Bernard (1938) who gave the first modern and comprehensive view of
management. The operation research approach was suggested in 1940. It utilized the
contributions of several disciplines in problem solving.
NEOCLASSICALTREORY
Neoclassical theorists recognized the importance of individual or group behaviour and
emphasized human relations. Based on the Hawthorne experiments, the neoclassical approach
emphasized social or human relationships among the operators, researchers and
supervisors (Roethlisberger and Dickson, 1943). It was argued that these considerations
were more consequential in determining productivity than mere changes in working
conditions. Productivity increases were achieved as a result of high morale, which was
influenced by the amount of individual, personal and intimate attention workers
received.
Principles of the neoclassical approach
The classical approach stressed the formal organization. It was mechanistic and ignored
48
The individual is not a mechanical tool but a distinct social being, with aspirations
beyond mere fulfillment of a few economic and security works. Individuals differ from
each other in pursuing these desires. Thus, an individual should be recognized as interacting with
social and economic factors.
The work group. The neoclassical approach highlighted the social facets of work groups or
informal organizations that operate within a formal organization. The concept of
'group' and its synergistic benefits were considered important.
Participative management or decision making permits workers to participate i process
of decision making. This was a new form of management to ensure increase in
productivity.
3.6
the organization,
D
Role comprehension of the individual, and
(i) The physical environment in which individuals work.
(ii)
Linking processes: The different components of an organization are
required to operate in an organized and correlated manner. The interaction
between them is contingent upon the linking processes, which consist of
communication, balance and decision making. Communication is a means for
eliciting action, exerting control and effecting coordination to link decision
centers in the system in a composite form.
Balance is the equilibrium between different parts of the system so that they
keep a harmoniously structured relationship with one another.
Decision analysis is also considered to be a linking process in the systems
approach. Decisions may be to produce or participate in the system.
Decision to produce depends upon the attitude of the individual and the
demands of the organization. Decision to participate refers to the
individuals decisions to engross themselves in the organization process.
That depends on what they get and what they are expected to do in
participative decision making.
(iii)
Goals of organization: The goals of an organization may be growth,
49
SOCIO-TECHNICAL APPROACH
It is not just job enlargement and enrichment which is important, but also
transforming technology into a meaningful tool in the hands of the users. The sociotechnical systems approach is based on the premise that every organization consists of
the people, the technical system and the environment (Pasmore, 1988). People (the
social system) use tools, techniques and knowledge (the technical system) to
produce goods or services valued by consumers or users (who are part of the
organization's external environment). Therefore, an equilibrium among the social
system, the technical system and the environment is necessary to make the organization
more effective.
4.0
Conclusion.
In conclusion, we can maintain that the theory of administration enables
us to evaluate actors in administrative process. The theory of "bureaucratic
operation enables us to interpret bureaucrats as an elite who mould their actions,
and thoughts as superior to other actors.
5.0
SUMMARY.
In this unit we have attempted to examine administrative theories. We looked at the
classical and neo-classical theories of administration and decisional theories. The
various schools have their strong and weak points. This unit has enabled us to
examine that administration is a science capable of theory building in interpreting its
activities. The classical theories, administrative management, classical, scientific
management increased our understanding of scientific principles in determining
the task of employees. The decision theory enables us to evaluate the role, decisionmaking plays in organizational situations. Scientific management theory led to
professionalization of administration and management.
6.0
7.0
Further Readings.
Felix, A,Lloyd , G(1996) Introduction to modern public administration.
Ladipo, A. (1986) Nigerian government and politics and administration. A global
view. Spectrum books.
Karthy , J (1999) Administrative Science , McGraw Hill Ltd New York.
Adebayo.A(1989)Nigerian Public Administration, Spectrum books . Ibadan.
designed and structured process in which individuals interact for objectives (Hicks and
Gullet, 1975). The contemporary approach to the organization is multidisciplinary,
as many scientists from different field administration enables us to evaluate actors in
administrative process. The theory of "bureaucratic operation enables us to
interpret bureaucrats as an elite who mould their actions, and thoughts as superior to
other actors.
5.0
SUMMARY.
In this unit we have attempted to examine administrative theories. We looked at the
classical and neo-classical theories of administration and decisional theories. The
various schools have their strong and weak points. This unit has enabled us to
examine that administration is a science capable of theory building in interpreting its
activities. The classical theories, administrative management, classical, scientific
management increased our understanding of scientific principles in determining
the task of employees. The decision theory enables us to evaluate the role, decisionmaking plays in organizational situations. Scientific management theory led to
professionalization of administration and management.
6.0
designed and structured process in which individuals interact for objectives (Hicks
and Gullet, 1975). The contemporary approach to the organization is
multidisciplinary, as many scientists from different fields have contributed to its
development, emphasizing the dynamic nature of communication and
importance of integration of individual and organizational interests. These were
subsequently re-emphasized by Bernard (1938) who gave the first modern and
51
the organization,
D
Role comprehension of the individual, and
Li The physical environment in which individuals work.
(iv)
Linking processes: The different components of an organization are
required to operate in an organized and correlated manner. The interaction
between them is contingent upon the linking processes, which consist of
communication, balance and decision making. Communication is a means for
eliciting action, exerting control and effecting coordination to link decision
centres in the system in a composite form.
Balance is the equilibrium between different parts of the system so that they
keep a harmoniously structured relationship with one another.
Decision analysis is also considered to be a linking process in the systems
approach. Decisions may be to produce or participate in the system.
Decision to produce depends upon the attitude of the individual and the
demands of the organization. Decision to participate refers to the
individuals decisions to engross themselves in the organization process.
That depends on what they get and what they are expected to do in
participative decision making.
(v)
Goals of organization: The goals of an organization may be growth,
stability and interaction. Interaction implies how best the members of an
organization can interact with one another to their mutual advantage.
3.7
SOCIO-TECHNICAL APPROACH
52
It is not just job enlargement and enrichment which is important, but also
transforming technology into a meaningful tool in the hands of the users. The sociotechnical systems approach is based on the premise that every organization consists of
the people, the technical system and the environment (Pasmore, 1988). People (the
social system) use tools, techniques and knowledge (the technical system) to
produce goods or services valued by consumers or users (who are part of the
organization's external environment). Therefore, an equilibrium among the social
system, the technical system and the environment is necessary to make the organization
more effective.
54
MODULE TWO
UNIT 6
MEANING OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Table of Content
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0
References/Further Reading.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
2.0
OBJECTIVES
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
3.2
Figure: 1.1
Melting /Critical Point
57
Political process
Administrative Process
Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain the relationship between the Political process and Administrative
process
2. In your own words, define Public Administration and Management
3.3
b.
above definitions revolve around the main variables which are: accomplishment
of organisational goals and the cooperative effort as a means of goals
accomplishment.
Management on the other hand involves conceiving, initiating and bringing
together the various elements; coordinating, actuating, integrating the diverse
organizational components while sustaining the viability of the organization
towards some pre-determined goals. In other words, it is an art of getting things
done through and with the people in formally organized groups. Management is
seen as the act of handling or controlling affairs. Management is rigid and
somewhat autocratic; this is because the output is predetermined and can easily
be measured. Management tends to be product-oriented (Obiajulu and Obi,
2004). Drucker (1973), states that management is an objective function that
ought to be grounded I the responsibility for performance. Follett (1920),
defines management as the art of getting things done through people, which
implies that management is an art (that is, depends on personal qualities),
managers must have subordinates and that they do not do the same things as
other employees. Managers tasks include making good use of the enterprises
employees to perform whatever task that may be necessary to achieve
organisational goals. Management is concerned with human beings whose
behaviour is highly unpredictable. Most people would prefer to use
administration for government businesses and refers to any other organisation
that is non-governmental management. Peretomode (1980), states that
management is the act of getting things done through and with people in
formally organised groups. It is the art of creating the environment in which
people can perform and individuals could cooperate towards attaining of group
goals. Breach (1975), states that management requires a sequence of
coordinated activities undertaken by one person or group of persons in the most
effective and efficient way to direct the activities of others for the purpose of
accomplishing organisational goals. He further stated that management is a set
of activities which is classified as concerning with planning, organising or
controlling. Management is seen as giving direction to their organisations,
provide leadership and how to use organisational resources to accomplish goals
(Drucker, 1979). Management refers to persons who work with and through
other to achieve organisational goals. He is equally of the view that, all
organisations operate by the provision, combination and utilization of
organisational resources of men, material (material inputs and technology) and
money. (Akpala, 1988) Management is the process of designing and
maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups,
efficiently accomplish selected aims (Koontz and Weihrich, 1990) Management
is more scientifically based than administration. The principles of management
are different from administration.
The difference between Management and Administration can be summarized
under (2) two categories: 60
- Functions, and
- Usage or Applicability
On the basic function, table-1 below shows the major dichotomy between
administration and public administration.
Table: 1.1
Basis
Management
Administration
Meaning
It is concerned with
formulation of broad
objectives, plans and
policies.
Nature
Management is an executing
function.
Process
Function
Administration is a thinking
function because plans and
policies are determined under
it.
Skills
Level
Management
Administration
Applicability
It is applicable to business
concerns i.e. profit-making
It is applicable to non-business
concerns i.e. clubs, schools,
61
organization.
hospitals etc.
Influence
The administration is
influenced by public opinion,
govt. policies, religious
organizations, customs etc.
Status
Administration represents
owners of the enterprise who
earn return on their capital
invested & profits in the form
of dividend.
3.4
Formation:
1. Public administrations are being financed from various taxes or being
owned by the public. They are being paid by the tax payer fund. But
private organizations are owned by limited number of people not as large
as a country
2. Public organization is opened to more criticism (either constructive or
otherwise) while the private organizations are not all that prune to frequent
criticism as their operations are not widely known
Structure:
1. The size of public organizations is usually larger than those of private
organizations. Many private organizations structures do not extend
beyond their locality.
2. Recruitment into the public services is based on geographical spread
(federal character) those of the private sector, are mostly on merit
irrespective of applicants state of origin.
3. Personnel procurement in the public sector is done by a centralized body,
civil service commission, or by ministries acting on their behalf and
64
4.0
CONCLUSION
From the foregone discussion, you have learnt that the term public
administration originated from two Latin words, Public us and Ad+Ministaraire
which have no universally accepted definition. It is concerned with cooperative
efforts and the accomplishment of defined objectives such as planning,
organizing, staffing, directing coordinating, reporting and budgeting. The major
difference between politics and administration is in the areas of interaction and
influences on the political process and efficiency of the administrative system.
The difference between management and administration is on the nature of the
organization and the kind of decisions involved. The differences that exist
between public and private administration are in the setting, formation and
structure.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, you learnt that, Public Administration is seen as the function that
has to do with getting things done or the accomplishment of defined objectives.
Public administration involves around decision-making, planning, formulating
objectives and goals, establishing and reviewing organizations, directing and
supervising employees, exercising control and other functions performed by
government executives and supervisors. Administration tends to concentrate on
efficiency. Management sets standard for attainment of goals, encourages
creativity and flexibility.
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1.
2.
3.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
67
UNIT 7
CONCEPT, NATURE AND SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Table of Content
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0
References/Further Reading.
68
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In the last section you had an idea about what Public administration is all about.
This unit takes you a step further into the Concept of public administration. In
this unit, the focus is on the Concept of public Administration, Nature of Public
Administration, Scope of Public Administration and Public Administration as a
discipline.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
b.
c.
d.
The word public refers to an association of people who are large in numbers and
who are faced with a number of issues, concerned with the problem of solving
the issues and are engaged in discussing the issues. Administration involves
machinery through which set goals and objectives can be achieved. Therefore,
public administration can be conceived as the study of machinery and structures
which can be used to achieve certain objectives which affects the lives of
individuals in a particular environment.
For an adequate understanding of what public administration is, an explanation
of the operative concept is very imperative. Scholars are not in agreement of a
common definition of Public Administration. What has been observed is a
situation in which each individual tries to picture the concept from its
environmental, situational and circumstantial perspective. Equally worthy of
69
note is the fact that, time and value systems also affect the definition of a
concept.
This being the case, we wish to present the definition offered by some scholars
in the field of public administration over the years. We must stress that these
definitions are not exhaustive but are representative of the numerous definitions
of the concept.
Dimock (1973), defines public administration as concerned with what and how
of government. What is the subject matter, the technical knowledge of a field
which enables an administrator to perform his task. How is the technique of
management and the principle according to which corporate programmes are
carried through to success. He argues that, what and how of government form
the synthesis called public administration.
Nnoli (1986), perceives public administration as the machinery as well as the
integral processes, through which the government performs its functions. It is a
network of human relationships and associated activities extending from the
Head of state to the lowest officer charged with utilizing resources on behalf of
the people. Its a system of roles and relationships which defines a clear and
practicable terms, detail intentions and programmes of the government. It is also
a system of resources available internally and externally to accomplish them,
there, when and how they are to be accomplished; who is to benefit from them.
It is a system that causes these intentions and programmes of government to be
realized in real life. It is a pattern of routine activities involving decision
making, planning, advising, coordinating, negotiation, conciliation, arbitration,
command and data gathering through which the government carries out its
responsibilities.
Gullick and Urwick, (1937 )promoted seven principles of administration and in
so doing, he gave students of public administration that snappy acronym,
POSDCORB that is, Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating,
Reporting and Budgeting. He further stated that, public administration has been
70
set firm, and its the functions that has to do with getting things done or the
accomplishment of defined objectives. His definition touches vital issues of set
objectives being accomplished. White (1966), defines public administration as
all those operations of which their purpose is the fulfilment or enforcement of
public policies. Public administration is essentially concerned with the
management of organizations in the pursuit of desired public goals and
objectives. The ultimate goal of public administration is how to maximize, the
rationality or efficiency and social effectiveness of public institutions. Pfiffner
and Prethus (1967), defines public administration as the coordination of
collective efforts to implement public policy. Public administration is a
collective affair involving many people, for profit majority of the people.
Ademolekun (1983), states that public administration is commonly used for the
activities of government and the study of these activities; in other words, it is
used in two distinct senses, as practice and as knowledge.
From the foregoing one could deduce that public administration is concerned
with the activities and functions of government; the services performed by some
groups of officials working together for the interest of the nation. The
institutional arrangement designed to achieve the objective interests and welfare
of the public is what we generally refer to as public service and the process of
formulation and implementation of strategies, policies and programmes by
public officials for the satisfaction of social goals and public welfare is referred
to as public administration.
Stone (1939), views the concept of public administration as the process by
which the objectives are defined, plan, and policies formulated, institutions
created and managed, human energies mobilized, resources utilized and change
effected in the overall public interest. However in Nigeria, there are 3 levels of
public administration which are:
a. Federal Government Administration
b. State Government Administration
71
The nature of public administration is broad and complex. The nature focuses
attention on the concept of public administration as earlier discussed, the
evolution of public administration, and the conditions that made it imperative.
Its also focuses on the features, control and the scope of public administration.
For the purpose of this unit, the nature of public administration will help you
understand the relevance of these issues in improving effectiveness and
efficiency in the public sector. The conditions that led to the evolution of public
administration are: (a) The existence of extensive empires (b)
the
rise
of
absolute monarchy(c) the need for central management of scarce resources (d)
the introduction of money economy (e)
(f) Increase in literacy rate and (g) Introduction of codified laws. Many scholars
have written and argued about these conditions and how each has helped the
origin of public administration; we shall explain in brief, how these factors have
helped the emergence of public administration.
The existence of empires whether old or new, has invariably called for the
evolution of administration. These empires called for the setting, structure and
formation of a formal organization which is necessary for the day to day
running of the empire e.g. the Roman and Chinese Empires. Tout (1968),
attributes the rise of Public Administration to absolute monarchs and argues that
earliest bureaucracy was identified in the kings household. He recaptured the
experiences in France and Russia between 12 and 14 century and argued that,
72
the servants of the kings or absolute monarchs later became servants of the
states when capitalism came into control of the European economy and society.
(Scott and Blau, 1963), believes that public Administration arose in these
empires due to the need for management of scarce resources. He cited an
example of the Chinese empire, where as a result of scarce resources; a central
management committee was constituted to manage the distribution of resources.
Mere existence of empires did not bring about public administration, but the
shortage of resources brought public administration because of the need to
manage the scarce resources.
The rise of money economy made it possible for labour to be exchanged for
money. The emergence of money (because of the difficulty of trade by barter)
as a medium of exchange became an essential ingredient for the rise of public
administration. Weber (1964), states that, bureaucracy arose essentially because
of the emergence of money economy, the armies and the empires. The need for
effective contact between and amongst people made the evolution of public
administration. It became absolute necessary to provide this communication.
Another factor that contributed to the rise of public administration is the
introduction of codified laws with specified functions.
Brain (1966), believes that the influence of the Catholic Church attributed to the
rise of public administration. He is of the fact that, in the early days, the
Catholic Church of the Roman Empire was the largest employer of human
resources. Others empires that contributed to the rise of public administration
are the monarchs in France, Prussia and Britain.
3.2.1 The Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria.
The origin and growth of Public Administration in Nigeria are articulated from
two points of view, which are:
a.
b.
who is the administrative head of the emirate, traced his lineage to Oduduwa, he
and his council of elders take many fundamental and routine decisions. Below
an Oba, are the lesser provincial and village chieftains who exercised some
measures of military execution and ritual powers. Each Oba of a community has
a constituted council made of communitys chiefs. However, the Yoruba precolonial public administration provided a constitutional arrangement in which
agents of the community such as the Ogboni society were used to execute the
decisions of the councils, and thus the society. It is interesting to state here that,
the then society of the various kingdoms as identified are not as complex as it is
today since the needs of the communities were not as diverse as it is today.
However, modern public administration in Nigeria owes its origin to the British
colonial administration. The evolution of Public administration in Nigeria can
be traced the handwork of the British. In the same vein, these institutions that
found expression in Nigeria states came purposely to ensure adequate
exploitation of the resources of Nigeria.
3.2.2 The Control of Public Administration
The control of public administration in Nigeria and all over the world became
necessary to ensure effectiveness and efficiency of public service and
institutions, Public administration is controlled through some measures that
guide against waste of public funds. Some of the controls measures of public
administration are as follows:
A.
service rest with the Federal Civil Service Commission and same goes for the
state. The Civil Service Commission is under the Ministry of Labour and
Productivity that appoints members of the public service and also dismiss them.
B.
charge of a ministry various questions about the general policy of the ministry
and the way forward.
C.
D.
E.
mass media. Leaders and organizers of public opinion constitute the pressure
groups. However, public opinion has significant influence and control of the
public administration through the expression of some ills or wrong doings by
the public or civil servants.
F.
particularly the trade unions are able to have some control on the functions and
role of the government in their various Ministries and Parastatals with
references to salary negotiation and staff welfare.
G.
stories in the newspaper (print) radio and television (broadcast) expose public
servants who err or are involved in shady deals and abuse of powers. The press
ensures that, the society is governed without any biasness, sentiment and tribal
lines. The newspapers and other publications medium act as the eyes of the
people. The pressmen do a lot to see that justice, fair play and normalcy is
adopted during the course of their duties. The press has been able to control the
public administrators by expressing and exposing public office holders on any
act contrary to civil service rules and regulations.
The society generally has its problems vis--vis, corruption, embezzlement of
public funds, wrongful dismissal of official etc. such issues are brought to the
notice of the press in form of complaints to the appropriate quarters, particularly
to the press or the Public Complaints Commissions by public servant.
H.
and local governments is one of the measures used to ensure that public funds
are well utilized and not wasted.
I.
public servants do not usually adhere strictly to lay down procedures for the
award of contracts and project execution. A team is always set up by the
federal, state and local governments to ensure that all projects are executed and
delivered as specified by the award. The monitoring of projects and
programmes
is
capable
of proffering solutions
to
Nigerias
public
administration problems.
Self Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain the evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria.
2. In your own understanding, what are the control processes of Public
Administration in Nigeria
3.3
as well as the 774 Local government areas in the country. However, from the
foregoing one could be able to deduce that the Scope of public administration
can be categorized as follows:
Protection: It is duties of government to provide some level of protection for
the society as a whole; e.g. police, fire protection, healthcare, national and civil
defence, prison services, safeguarding and conservation of natural resources of
the environment.
Promotion of services: The government owns and operates enterprises
services, e.g. postal services, post facilities, municipal, water supply, electric
power, vehicle assembly plants, cement factories, banks and allied institutions,
etc. the government also provides some level of services to education and social
groups e.g. farmers, factory workers, businessmen and women, women and
children, the unemployed public administration and the aged.
Regulation: The government through it various departments and agencies
regulates the public and private sectors. The activities of NDLEA, NAFDAC,
S.O.N. etc. and other regulatory bodies and boards are of significance here.
Furthermore, the scope of public administration deals with intergovernmental
and other functional responsibilities such as agriculture, civil aviation, high
ways, housing, rural and urban development, vocational rehabilitation, care of
the aged, the blind, the destitute, and the refuges. Public administration is also
concerned with how a countrys administration is organized and how it
functions.
3.4
Public administrators have often faced with issues of having to argue that public
administration is not a field of study. That public administration now exists, as
important academic field of study is no longer debatable. Public administration
is concerned with the study of how a countrys administration is organized and
how it functions. Since it is the machinery for implementing government policy,
it follows that its study must lead to the study of the most efficient ways of
organizing the executive branch of government. Public administration as a field
of study deals with systematic, analytical and procedural method of arriving at
facts which will in turn help in finding solutions to the problem of the society.
However, public administration has gained added impetus as scientific methods
are now employed to gather and analyse data and reach logical deductions.
The key issue in the study of public administration is the emphasis on
efficiency, the item of public administration has been economy and efficiency
that is the provision of public services of the minimum cost. Although,
practitioners would insist that there is a world of difference between theory and
practice, it is the view of most scholars that a systematic understanding of the
theoretical basis of administration would produce better results in the practical
activities of administrators.
4.0
CONCLUSION
5.0 SUMMARY
There is no common definition of public administration, that the concept, nature
and scope of public administration are pictured from various perspectives. The
scope of public administration is broad and complex in nature; it covers the
areas of protection, provision of services and regulations of government
activities. Public administration is the machinery through which the activities of
the government are performed. The functions of public administration are
social, economic, cultural and political. There are some controls of public
administration in Nigeria.
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Question:
1.
2.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
UNIT 8
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND APPROACHES TO THE STUDY
OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
83
Table of Content:
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objective
3.0
Main Content
3.1
3.2
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0
References/Further Reading.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In the last section, you had an idea about what the concept, nature and scope of
public administration are all about. This unit will take you a step further into the
Historical Development and Approaches to the Study of Public Administration.
In this unit, the focus is on the Historical Development of Public Administration
and the various approaches of the Study of Public Administration.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
b.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
3.2
There are various approaches to the study of public administration since the
inception of the concepts of public administration. These approaches are as
follows:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
service nor public administration such as the likes of Fredrick Taylor, Urwick,
Gulick, Herbert Simon, Max Weber etc. However, the latter are those without
sound knowledge of public administration, but are interested in the practical
nature of the discipline efficiency and effectiveness of public organization.
These groups of people however, are saddled with unveiling practical ways of
improving work performance. In Nigeria, for example, the origin of civil service
in Nigeria is traced to the administration of Lord Lugard who was governorgeneral and Head of administration at the time of amalgamation of the Northern
and Southern in 1914. However, the real nucleus of public service in Nigeria
evolved under Sir Hugh Clifford who succeeded Lord Lugard administration in
1921, with the establishment of a central secretariat in Lagos for administrative
practice. ( Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999)
In 1906, the New York Bureau of Municipal Research was founded to promote
efficient and economical municipal government and the scientific study of
municipal administration. This Bureau became a model, after the publication of
handbooks and materials on public administration. In 1911, a training school
was established for administrative practice (Simon, 1964)
Administrative law is that part of the law which governs the relations of the
executive and administrative authorities of the government. The rule of law is
concerned with the functions of administration which is part of the
administrative law.
Self- Assessment Exercise
1. Explain the various approaches of the study of Public administration.
2. Which of these approaches is most appealing to you?
3.2.3 The Structural Institutional Approach
In this approach, policies are clearly separated from administration. The belief
is that the major role of the administrator is to implement the government
policies. This approach sees public administration as an academics field of
study, because it covers the political and administrative processes of an
institution. It is also concerned with the distribution of power among the levels
of government, public accountability, and planning of local government
administration, it analyses organizational structures and constituted authorities
and responsibilities of the three organs of government. However, the major
criticism against this approach is that it does not specify the role of individuals
and informal groups in structural organizations. Secondly, it fails to relate
public administration to both internal and external environment. The basic
ingredient of this approach is that, it maintains a link and separation of powers
amongst the three arms of government e.g. legislative, executive and judiciary
(Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999)
However, from the foregoing one could be able to deduce that the major
features of the structural/institutional approach of public administration are
planning, supervision and leadership, teamwork and group norms.
3.2.4 The Behavioural or Administrative Approach
This approach is concerned with the study of administrative attitude,
behaviours, actions and reactions, senses of reasoning of the decision makers
and policy planners. Mayo (1927), in one of his researches, stated the
importance of groups in affecting the behaviours of individuals at work. In this
approach, great scholars have made significant contribution to the concept of
behaviourism. Dahl (1995), states that, public administration must be viewed
and studied from the aspect of human behaviour. He further argues that to treat
organization in a formal and technical way and with regards human beings at
the organization as more or less materials are not desirable. He finally,
submitted that, the study of public administration should embrace the totality
87
of man and must not presume that man is a simple machine responding to goals
and self-interest. (Anifowose and Francis C. Enemuo, 1999)
Simon (1976), advocated the careful study of human behaviour, using
demonstrated techniques from the physical science. Such techniques are
Critical Path Analysis (CPA) Programme Evaluation Review Technique
(PERT), Game Probability Theory (GPT) etc. These erudite and great scholars
see decision-making as the heart of administration and how to understand the
behaviour of human beings in any organization. Behavioural contributions to
decision-making are very significant, it tells us that decision-making determines
the success or otherwise of any organization. Simeon (1976), identifies three
major stages in decision-making, these are: Intelligence, Design and Choice
activities. (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999). Mayo (1927), a psychologist and
professor states that the study of public administration is basically concerned
with human beings and not machines, but that machines requires human
components to functions. His emphasis is on the effects of human beings on
production. He believes that human beings possessed certain components that
make them more efficient and hardworking in the discharge of his duties.
However, he came out with the following findings:
a.
b.
c.
d.
The importance of leadership which constitute another
modification of scientific management. (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999)
major
business, a wheel within a wheel, and as the ex-obey. Taylor further states
that, the desire to increase production of goods and services is by motivating the
workers to work harder. He emphasized that the motivation of workers can be
achieved by adopting the bottom-up approach which is the decentralized
system of management. (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999)
Fayol, (18411925) was also a contemporary of Taylor, he believes in the
distribution of work in a centralized management system. He believed that an
increase in production can best be achieved through division of labour rather by
motivation. In one of his book, titled General and Industrial Administration and
published in 1929, Fayols divided scientific management into a number of
functions: which are technical, commercial, financial, security, accounting and
management. He further stated that the job of the manager is to forecast and
plan, to organize, to command, to co-ordinate and control of human and
material resources. Other erudite scholars who contributed to the study of public
administration on scientific approach are the likes of Urwick, Luther Gulick,
and Professor Brit. However, in 1937 Gulick and Urwick, book titled papers
on the science of Administration introduce the process of scientific
management under the acronym POSDCORD (Planning, Organising, Staffing,
Directing, Coordinating, Recording and Controlling)
4.0
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
89
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHERREADING.
Easton, D. (1965), A System Analysis Of Political Life; New York Wiley
Taylor,F.W (1917), Introduction To The Study Of Public Administration; New
York; Macmillan
Obiajulu Sunday And Obi Emeka Anthony (2004), Public Administration In
Nigeria, A Developmental Approach, Bookpoint Limited
Elton.M. (1927), Public Control And Administration; New York
Patrick Mbieli (2004), Public Administration, A Broad View, Megavons (West
Africa) Limited
Remi Anifowose And Francis C. Enemuo (1999), Elements Of Politics.
Malthouse Press Limited
Simon A. Herbert (1946), Approaches To Public Administration, Book Of The
Half Century 4th Edition
90
UNIT 9
PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Table of Content
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1
3.2
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0
Reference/Further Reading
91
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In the last section, you learnt about what Historical Development and
Approaches to the study of Public Administration are all about. This unit will
take you a step further on the principles of public administration. In this unit,
the Principles of public administration are concerned with efficiency of
services, worker welfares political direction, relation, and responsibility
soldering public institutions. The principles of public administration assist the
organisation towards the realization of goals and objectives. These principles
are sources of action, regulations and fundamental truths capable of guiding
human conduct, behaviour and performance. However, from the foregoing
discussion, one can be able to deduce that the principles of public
administration guide the management process of an organisation.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Enumerate the principles of Public Administration
2. Explain the basic principles of Public Administration
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 HENRY FAYOLS PRINCIPLES
The principles of public administration are referred to as the principles of
management. These principles can be examined from two different
perspectives, firstly from the management point of view and secondly, from
public administration view. However, both principles help to organise and direct
the affairs of Public administration.
92
Organising,
Controlling, Coordinating,
Directing)
Source: (Obiajulu and Sunday, 2004).
However, he states that these six essential groups do exist in all organisations
whether simple or complex but that, the first five are well known, the sixth
(management) required further explanation. However, his principles on public
administration were credited for being the first to identify the Functions of
Management as Planning, Organising, Coordinating, Controlling and Directing.
Fayol, contends that the six essential groups of activities are interdependent and
it is managements role to assure the smooth relationship of the sub-units of
management to achieve enterprise goals and objectives.
93
However, Fayol
2. Authority: Means the same as power, it is the right to give orders. Authority
and responsibility go together, authority should not be considered without
reference to responsibility. Authority must come from the top of the hierarchy
e.g. Chief Executive, the Vice Chancellor, the Military, the Navy and others
Para-Military Operatives.
3. Unity of Command: Every staff must have a superior upon whom he takes
directives that is one man, one superior; no subordinate should report to more
than one supervisor at a time to avoid error. The principles of Public
administration presuppose that every member of an organisation should receive
orders and directives from one supervisor and the same goes on and on.
94
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Political Direction
Public Responsibility
Efficiency
Organisation
Research
Social Necessity
Public Relations
(a)
Political Direction: Public Administration as the youngest branch of
political science obtains instruction from the political will of the politicians in
providing essential services to the people. Political direction is instructions in
form of leadership role that is, commanding attention and stimulating
subordinates to achieve organisational goals. Public administration provides
political directions in terms of the broad policies and laws formulated at the
National and States Assemblies, and implemented by the administrative
executives of the Federal, State and Local public servants.
(b) Public Relations: This is concerned with informing and relating to the
public. Members of the public need to be enlightened about the affairs of
government. People should be well informed about policies and intentions of
the government. Public relations are concerned about the reactions of the people
to government policies, problems and possible solutions. The mass media has
helped to achieve these principles. The media through its agencies exposes daily
activities of the government, these include government ideology and intentions,
96
government budget, public office holders etc. public relation of the government
to the people and viz-a- viz are newspapers, radio, television, magazines, etc.
(c) Public Responsibility: People are elected into public offices as
representatives of the peoples interest. Public responsibility ensures the
exercise of certain power and authority in the execution of certain specified
duties and functions for the benefit of the people. It also stimulates the need for
accountability from the elected officers to the people.
(d)
Efficiency: For administration to be efficient in the discharge of its
duties, the personnel must have acquired knowledge to execute public
programmes and also to satisfy the needs of the society. Efficiency of public
servants can be achieved through pre-entry and in-service training programmes
for both the junior and senior cadre. These career developments are essentially
meant to promote efficiency of goods and services.
(e) Social Necessity: The call for public administration from political
science as a field of study is purely for effectiveness and efficiency of the
institutions of the government. The essence of public administration is in the
process of formulating and implementing public policy and providing the
citizenry with civil amenities as well as developing them socially, economically,
and politically.
(f)
Organisation: The activities of public administration are felt in the local,
state and federal levels. The organs of government are organised into
legislative, the executive and the judiciary. Public administration is organised
into hierarchy and auxiliary agencies which engages in different functional roles
within the organisational setup. Organisations whether formal or informal bring
human and material resources together for effective use and service to the
people.
(g) Research: Research means the process of investigating a problem. It is
the capacity to probe the known and the unknown. Research in administration
enables the organisation to grow and change with the law of nature. In public
administration, the essence of research is to makes amends and corrections of
the flaws in the past administrative records, and for improvement and
achievement of new ideas.
4.0
CONCLUSION
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit you learnt about the essentials activities of an Organisation which
technical, commercial, financial, accounting security and management. The 14
Principle of Management guides the management process of any Organisation.
The Principles of Public administration are political Direction, Public
Responsibility, Efficiency, Organisation, Research, Social Necessary and Public
Relations. No organisation can achieve its goals without the applications of the
essentials of management.
6.0
7.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT.
Question:
1. List and explain the Principles of administration
2. Discuss five Henry Fayols principle that are applicable to the Nigeria
public service
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
UNIT 10
COMPARISON OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ADMINISTRATION
Table of Content
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
7.0
References/Further Reading.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In the last section you learnt about what the principles of public administration
are all about? This unit will take you a step further into the comparison of
public and private administration. In this unit, the focus is on the meaning of
99
2.0
OBJECTIVES
b.
c.
d.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Meaning of Administration
b.
c.
Public administration could also be defines as the art and science of managing
government affairs, enforcing law and fulfilling public policy. Public
Administration is regarded as an art since it concerns with the practical
management of men and materials for public interest. And it is a science
because it concerns with the knowledge of the ways and methods for efficient
fulfilment of public policy. Early scholars regarded public administration as
potentially a science that would emerge as the result of hypothesis and research
findings. Woodrow Wilson (1887), referred public administration to the science
of executive methods from the confusion and costliness of empirical experiment
and set them on the foundations laid deep in principle. Charles A. Beard (1874),
maintained that public administration is a body of exact knowledge derived
from experience and observation (Simeon, 1976) Public administration can
never become an exact science, for it relates to human behaviour and the
cooperative activities of individuals in groups..
At first, the study of public administration was closely identified with the study
of law, since the primary task of administration is the execution of law and its
activities are circumscribed by law with ways and means of achieving
efficiency and economy in the management of governmental agencies and
human relations. Today the study of public administration has matured and is
closely identified with political science, which is the study of government. It
draws upon the other social sciences: Economics, Business Administration,
Sociology, Psychology and Social Psychology, Statistics, History and
Anthropology.
3.2
The features of organisation are the same for every organization in all parts
where public administration operates. The features of public organizations assist
organizations to attain effectiveness and efficiency of the goals and objectives
of such organisation.
The Features are as follows:
1.
2.
Public Servants are not allowed to take part in partisan politics; this is so
because of the danger that the government which comes to power could
victimize public servants, who are not in the same party.
102
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
However, from the foregoing, one could be able to deduce that the features of
Public Organisations can also be applied to private Organizations with little
exception where applicable.
Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain the relationship between public and private Administration.
2. Identify the features of public Organisation
3.3 SIMILARITIES
BETWEEN
PUBLIC
ORGANIZATIONS OR ADMINISTRATION.
AND
PRIVATE
There exist some similarities between the public and private organizations: in
the conditions of service and other operations of these organizations.
103
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Both Organizations source for capital for operations either internally and
externally from the public through the sales of shares
7.
4.0
CONCLUSION
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, there exist some levels of differences between public and private
Organisations. The differences are mostly felt in the features of these
Organizations. Private Organizations are out for profit making irrespective of
the services rendered. The differences between public and private
administration are in the setting and formation of the Organizations. There also
104
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Question:
1.
2.
105
UNIT 11
ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN
NIGERIA
TABLE OF CONTENT
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
106
3.1
3.2
Nigeria
3.3
3.4
3.5
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0
References/Further Reading
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In the last unit you were informed about the features of public and private
organisations. This unit is on the Ecology and Evolution of Public
Administration in Nigeria. The focus is on Ecology and Evolution of Public
Administration in Nigeria. We shall look at the meaning of Ecology of Public
Administration as well as Public Administration, during the Pre-Colonial era of
the Northern, Western and Eastern Regions of Nigeria and the Organization
Structure of Colonial Civil Service in Nigeria
2.0
OBJECTIVES
b.
c.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
SULTAN
EMIRS
DISTRICT HEADS
108
SARKIN DAWA
MAAJI
DONGARIS
colonial era was easy. The Sultan and its kinsmen were in charge before the
advent of colonialism. The Sultan was at the apex of affairs with unquestionable
powers.
administration of the northern region. His powers were equated to that of the
Governor-general, Sir Lord Lugard.
The Emirs are the Heads who ruled their domains or jurisdictions on behalf of
the Sultan. These emirs, head their domains and are accountable to the sultan
for effective and efficiency of administration. The kingdom was divided into
districts and governed by district head. Each unit of government had specialized
departments handling specific duties.
The Galadimas are in charge of the daily administration of the Northern region.
The treasury (internally generated revenue) was controlled by the Maaji, who
move all over the region. Internal security and maintainer of laws and order is
controlled by the Dongaris, they exercised the powers of the military and
performs police duties. The Alkalis were those who interpret and enforce the
laws; the alkalis are experts in Islamic jurisprudence and are Lawyers by
profession. The Sarkin-Ruwas are in charge of fishing and other related aquatic
activities in the region. The Sarkindawa are the officers in charge of butchers and
other related activities while the Madawaki are the commanders in charge of
Calvary (cemeteries) and other related activities. However, from the foregoing we
can deduce that powers and authorizes flow down the seat of power (the Sultan of
Sokoto) to the Madawaki, Wiziri and the Galadimas on the field. However these
lines of powers and authorities are strictly adhered to.
3.3 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN THE PRE-COLONIAL WESTERN
REGION OF NIGERIA.
3.3.1 Political Structure of Public Administration in Pre-colonial Western
Region of
Nigeria.
ALAFIN
110
BASHORUN
(Prime Minister)
Figure 6.2
Structure of Public Administration in the Western Region of Nigeria:
Source: (Bello and Ojodu, 2004)
Ecology and Evolution of Public Administration in pre-colonial western region
in Nigeria was a mixture of Centralization and Decentralization of powers and
authorities. Six states constituted the Western region. There was a mixed
variation in the administrative system and governance of the Western region
unlike in the Northern region.
The system of administration was centralized because power and authority
come from the Alafin and decentralized because some groups of persons were
engaged in the removal of the centralized power in areas where these powers
and authorities have stronghold. The Alafin was fully-in-charge. He was the
political head and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. The Alafin was so
powerful that he was considered as next to God (Obikeze and Obi, 2003.)
with the cooperation of the Baales. He conquered villages and communities
within the region paid tributes to the Alafin. Subordinating the Alafin was the
Bashorun(Prime Minister) their power and functions are similar to that of the
Emirs in the Northern region. The Bashorun and Cabinet ministers administered
111
their domains on behalf of the Alafin. They head functional departments of the
Western region and are accountable to the Alafin.
ordinary ministers whose major role is to check the excesses of the Alafin.
However, the Alafin could not rule without the full co-operation of his chiefs, if
his administration is autocratic, the chiefs could decide to depose him, and if
convinced of an offence they pass judgement on his office. The Aare Onakakanfo is in command and control of the Army. His role is equivalent to the
Dongaris of the Northern region, he exercised the powers of the military and the
police; he is in control and maintenance of laws and security of the region.
Other specialized departments of the Western region are the Native doctors,
Sooth Sayers, Diviners, Babalawos and the Orisa Priest (diviner) whom are
under the powers of the Aare Ona-kakanfo. However, the Alafin consults their
opinions for the way forward on the entire region. Any Oba (Alafin) that
defaults to carry the people along will be asked to commit suicide or to leave his
seat.
Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain Public administration in Pre-Colonial Eastern Region of Nigeria
2. Comment on the Organisational Structure of the Colonial Civil Service.
3.4
EASTERN
REGION OF NIGERIA
SECRET
SOCIETIES
Figure: 6.3
Structure of Public Administration in the Eastern Region of Nigeria:
Source: (Bello and Ojodu, 2004)
Ecology and Evolution of public administration in the pre-colonial era of the
Eastern Region in Nigeria took a different scenario. The diffused system of
authority was described as fragmented (Obikeze and Obi, 2003). During this
era, political administration varied from one town to another and this undoubted
encountered major problems. The central government is a mixture of politically
equivalent units; such as village groups, towns lineages, age grades and secret
societies. Each head of lineage makes law for members of his lineage. Each
fragment head has full powers and control of the armed forces unlike the
Western and Northern regions. Each fragment had defined obligation in
communitys service. There is rivalry and power tussle among communities
over trivial issues and good will. The secret societies of the Eastern region were
valuable instruments of social control; there activities are not binding by law.
The eldest man in every family provides political and administrative powers. A
good number of families formed a lineage and every lineage is headed by the
most senior person. Head of all the lineages constitutes the elders of council;
the Okpara is the over-all head, he is the most senior person of the council of
elders. However, the most senior Okpara title holders are crowned with the Ozo
title and this automatically make them members of the elders council of the
Igbos Empire.
However, the Okpara has no power and authority on issues bordering the Igbo
Empire except those ones that affects his own lineage. The Okpara has no
supreme power unlike the Emirs and Oba of the Yorubas and Hausa kingdoms.
This is why the system was regarded as decentralized since each head makes
law for members of its own lineage, there is devolution of powers and
113
3.5
SERVICE.
QUEEN
COLONIAL SECRETARY
GOVERNOR-GENERAL
PROVISIONAL COMMISSION
RESIDENT OFFICERS
DISTRICT COMMISSIONER
114
DISTRICT OFFICERS
directly instead, they ruled the people through the indirect rule system with the
aids of the Oba, Sultan and Obi. (Obikeze and Obi, 2003). However, whatever
changes
have
occurred
to
Nigerian public
administration, the legacy of the Colonial Civil Service had an enduring effect
on the character and structure of the Nigerian civil service.
4.0
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
In this unit, you learnt that Ecology and Evolution of Public administration are
concerned with human influences and the environment. The progression and
trends that have been made over time. The concept of Ecology and Evolution
varies from one region to another in term of structure, organizations and
approach. In Nigeria, the diversity of the people, culture, customs, and traditions
testifies to this. The essentials of Public administration in the Northern region
were mainly Legislative, Executive and Judicial. In the Western region, the
Bashorun was seen as the Prime Minister with so much power. Power and
authority in the Northern and Western regions was Centralised, while in the
116
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1.
2.
7.0
REFERENCE/FURTHER READING
117
MODULE THREE
UNIT
12
PUBLIC POLICY
Table of Content
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.0
Conclusion
118
5.0
Summary
6.0
Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0
Reference/Further Reading.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, you have learnt about what public personnel management is all
about. This unit will take you a step further into the concept of public policy. In
this unit, the focus will be on the meaning and features of public policy, the
differences between public policy and decisions making, the components and
types of public policy, the various approaches to Public Policy analysis, the
roles and relationship between public administration and policy making process
in Nigeria.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
2.
3.
4.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
His definition contains the idea of policy as a course of action directed towards
the accomplishment of some purpose or goal.
James (1960), defines Policy as a purposive course of actions followed by an
actor or set of actors dealing with the problem or matter of concern. This
concept of policy focuses intention on what was actually done as against what is
proposed or intended, and it differentiates a policy from a decision, which is a
choice among competing alternatives. Public Policies are those policies
developed by governmental bodies and officials. The special characteristics of
Public Policies stem from the fact that they are formulated by authorities in a
political system. Examples of such authorities are The Provisional Ruling
Council, Armed Forces, Ruling Council, the Presidency, the Legislature,
Councillor etc. Mbiele (2006), defines Public Policy as the general statement of
the peoples intentions, goals and objectives with the adoption of workable
measures for the realization of targeted interests and satisfaction of needs.
Eyestone (1971), defines Public Policy as the relationship of the governmental
units to their environment. Dye (1955), also sees public policy as what
government choose to do or not to do. It is the integrated courses and
programmes of actions and practices in certain problem areas. Public policy is
simply governmental actions and programmes of action towards solving societal
problems. Policy is flexible and dynamic in nature and it differs from rules
which are specific and rigid. Policy is a conscious effort and it differs from
custom which springs from the land of the society. Policy is of a wider nature
having the goals, means and the end while decision is selection of one
alternative out of several alternatives.
It is pertinent to emphasize that policy consists of courses or patterns of action
by governmental officials rather than their separate decisions. For example, a
policy includes not only the decision to enact a law on some issue but also
subsequent decisions relating to its implementation and enforcement. Public
policy may be either positive or negative in form. A policy is positive, if it
involves some form of overt government action to solve a particular problem. It
is negative, if it involves a decision by government officials not to take action or
to do nothing on some matter for which governmental involvement is sought.
3.1.1 Features of Public Policy:
The features of public policy are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
b.
c.
It develops the
administratively.
d.
3.2
people
socially,
economically,
politically
and
Public policy varies from one sector to another. There are different types of
policies depending on different criteria of classification; there can be public
policy in the areas of Housing, Education, Health, Transport, Agriculture,
Industry etc. Policies can also be classified based on intent, operating process,
issues and clientele. However, Lowi (1964), classified Policies into three;
Distributive, Regulatory and Redistributive.
a.
Distributive Policies
These are policies relating to tariff or taxes and public and, allocation of public
amenities etc. Ikelegbe (1996), states that, distributive policies are those which
involve incremental dispersal, unit to different segments of the population and
to individuals and institutions, they are actually favours benefits or patronage
policies, dispensed to a small number of people. The dispersal is continual and
thus, those not favoured at one point may be accommodated through further
dispersal at some other time. One distinguishing attribute of distributive policies
is that it does not generate conflict among those seeking to benefit from the
policy. The main reason for this is that distribution is continual and those who
lose out initially are almost certain of gaining later (Ikelegbe, 1996)
In this type of policy, the decision maker is neither aware of all the alternatives
nor of their consequences. This condition is more rampant in real life situation
as most decision making are done under conditions of uncertainty. Here, the
decisions are based on the few alternatives known to the decision maker and his
limited knowledge of their consequences.
b.
Regulatory Policy
Regulatory policies are meant to control the activities of different groups in the
society. Regulatory policies are targeted at particular sectors and as such, they
121
Redistributive Policies
These are policies that tend to transfer resources from one sector or group to
another. e.g. revenues from the Oil sector to Health or Transportation sectors.
Redistributive Policies are government policies that favour a particular group to
the detriment of others to achieve equity or inequity. These types of policies
naturally generate conflicts and tensions. The beneficiaries of these policies are
quite easy to identify because the issue in question may involve class,
ideological, tribal, religious or geographical lines. Examples of these policies
are governments progressive tax policies, social welfare programmes and sect
oral allocation preference policies.
3.3
There are three stages in the policy making process, they are (a) Policy
Formulation (b) Policy Implementation and (c) Policy Evaluation.
A.
Policy Formulation
B.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Policy Implementation
This is the critical stage in policy making process as it determines the overview
of the quality of the decision made. This stage is very sensitive and subject to
criticism. The quality of a policy is determined by its implementation, and not
how good it looks on paper. The 6 3 3 4 policy on education looks so good
on paper but how effective is it since inception? In Nigeria, it is well known fact
that, the ability to implement a policy is a big problem. However, policy
implementation centres on, who is involved, what is to be done to carry policy
into effect, what resources are available for policy implementation, what impact
does this have on policy content.
The following factors are considered when policies are to be implemented.
I.
Clarity and Specificity of Policy: Before policies are adopted for
implementation, the intention of such policies would have been known clear and
specific on a particular sector, item or purpose. Any policy that is not clear,
direct and specific in nature may be rejected by the masses. The interest and
opinion of the people have to be considered before implementing such policy.
The government should enlighten the people on public policies in order to enlist
their support and cooperation.
ii.
Implementation Organization: Before embarking on Programme
implementation there is supposed to be an appraisal of the institutional capacity
of the implementing organization to know whether the policy can be
implemented or not. Most government policies are not properly implemented
due to inadequate institutional capabilities which need to be created or to
upgrade the existing ones.
iii.
Identification/Assessment of the Target Group: Every policy
formulation has a purpose and target group once this has been achieved,
implementation of such policy takes centre stage. For instance, if a group has an
organized leadership, the government may decide to penetrate the group
through its leaders.
iv.
The Environment: The environment where the policy is to be
implemented must be taken into consideration. Some salient features within the
123
environment have to be considered for the success and failure of the policies. In
Nigeria, the enactment and implementation of Sharia law was restricted to few
states of the country because the peoples religion or way of life permits such
policies. The peculiarities of each location must be of much concern to the
policy implementation team.
C.
Policy Evaluation
Theoretical approaches are relevant to public policy analysis in the sense that
they direct our attention to important political phenomena, help clarify and
simplify our thinking, and suggest possible explanations of the form and
outcome of public policy. The approaches in this unit include systems theory,
group theory, elite theory, functional process theory and institutionalism.
3.4.1.
institutions of government. This group believes that public policy is the product
of the group struggle. From this perspective, public policy is the equilibrium
reached in the groups struggle at any given moment, and it represents a balance
which the contending factions or groups constantly strive to weigh in their
favour. Public Policy at any given time will reflect the interests of dominant
groups. As groups gain and lose power and influence, public policy could be
altered in favour of the interests of those gaining influence against the interests
of those losing influence.
Limitations of Group theory
Even though it focuses attention on one of the major dynamic elements in
policy formulation in pluralist societies, group theory seems both to overstate
the importance of groups and to understate the independent and creative role
that public officials, political leaders, institutions and ideas play in the policy
process. Group analysis has traditionally assumed that individuals are bound
together in order to enhance their chances of obtaining a common goal or good.
Implicit in this reasoning is the assumption that groups pursue their self-interest
in the same manner as individuals seek their self-interest. (Olson, 1997) Shown
in his Theory of Collective Goods is that individuals within large groups will
not ac t to achieve the common or group interest. This conclusion is based on
the premise that individuals act rationally and in their own self-interest.
However, Olson (1997) states that, If the members of a large group rationally
seek to maximize their personal welfare, they will not act to advance their
common or group objectives unless there is coercion to force them to do so, or
unless some separate incentive, distinct from the achievement of the common or
group interest, is offered to the members of the group individually on the
condition that they help bear the costs or burdens involved in the achievement
of group objectives. Despite these limitations, real or perceived inter-group
hostilities and struggles have sometimes been exploited in the process of
126
colonial
or
neo-imperialist
penetration
of
political
systems
in
the
3.4.3Elite Theory
The fundamental perspective of the elite approach is summarized by the
assertion that all political systems are divided into two strata those who rule
and those who are ruled. The rulers are labelled the political elite, and these elite
are the most significant aspects of any political system. The political elite are
that group which possesses most political power and which makes most
important political decisions in a society. The elite group is composed of
minority individuals who are most active in political affairs. By focusing
analysis upon this particular group within the political system, one can best
understand the processes of political life. However, one can deduce that public
policy can be regarded as the values and preferences of governing elite. The
essential argument of elite theory is that it is not the people or the masses who
determine public policy through their demands and action; rather public policy
is decided by ruling elite and carried into effect by public officials and their
Organizations.
Basic Elements of the Elite Theory
(a)
Society is divided into few, who have power and the many who do not.
Only a small number of persons allocate values for society; the masses do not
decide public policy.
(b) The few who govern are not typical of the masses that are governed. Elites
are drawn disproportionately from the upper socio-economic strata of society.
127
ii.
iii.
128
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
129
ii.
Top Civil Servants (in theory) are to advice the ministers on policy
issues by preparing a list of possible policy options from which
ministers preferred option.
iii.
iv.
The military rely too heavily on public servants for advice on policies,
simply because they are not trained in the art of government.
ii.
iii.
The increased political role of the civil servants brought them into
limelight as a political interest group. Thus, the Murtala Mohammed
regime embarked on the historic purge of 1975 in which about 11,000
130
civil servants were fired or retired from the service. He blamed public
administrators, for the indecision of the Gowon Regime.
The Civilian Presidential Regime
i.
Top civil servants were accountable to the politicians under the civilian
regimes the President and Vice-president, the Ministers, and Special
advisers to the President and the Legislature.
ii.
Public
Servants
had
indirect
influence
on
the
initiation
and
CONCLUSION
From the foregoing discussion on public policy, we can deduce that Public
policy is the bedrock of any government whether military or civilian. It is what
differentiates one government from another. The programmes and projects of
the governments are usually derived from the policies. This therefore makes the
development of policy management skills necessary for both public servants
and public office holders. A bad policy can make a government loose an
election. It is therefore important that public policy formulation process should
include a very robust consultation stage which will enable all the ramifications
of the policy to be considered
5.0 SUMMARY
Public policy means the general statement of the peoples intentions, goals,
objectives and decisions put in place by individuals and government within a
society. Public policy refers to government actions and programmes towards
solving societal problems. Policy can either be analysed as positive where the
impact is felt and accepted and negative where the people react negatively.
Policies are supposed to be flexible and dynamic in nature and not rigid.
Policies are significant in that they of help to develop the people socially,
economically, politically and administratively. Policies can be classified into
Distributive, Regulatory and Redistributive and these can further be classified
as Broad, Specific and General Policies. The stages of policy formulation
process are Formulation, Implementation, and Evaluation. These processes
vary from one sector or society to another. The approaches of public policy
131
analysis are systems, group, elite, functional and institutionalism theories. The
oldest of public policy is the institutionalism theory which activities and
concerns revolve around governmental institutions. The roles of public
administrators in policy making in Nigeria vary with the regimes in power.
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1.
a.
b.
2.
7.0
References/Further Reading
UNIT 13
THE CONCEPT OF THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER (CEO)
Table of Content:
1.0
Introduction
133
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In the last section, you have an idea about what public policy is all about. This
section will take you a step further into the Concept of the Chief Executive
Officer. In this unit, the focus is on the Chief Executive Officer, we shall be
looking at meaning and concepts of the Chief Executive Officer. The Chief
Executive Officer (CEO) is the term used for the Head of an organisation both
in the public and the private sectors. This unit will discuss the responsibilities,
roles and functions of the Chief Executive Officer. In the public service, the
(CEO) comes under the nomenclature: Minister, Director General, Chairman,
Commissioner or Managing Director.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
a.
b.
c.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
The Chief
The Emissaries: These are the Chief Executive Officers who spend most
of their time outside their designated office. They work mostly as administrators
136
The Committee Man: These are the Chief Executive Offices who spend
most of their time in attending meetings outside the Organization. They work
mostly, on contracts and exist mainly in large Organizations. They also delegate
most of their responsibilities to competent hands just like the Emissaries.
c.
The Writers: These are the Chief Executive Officers who spend most of
their time in writing, reading, and dictating. Their working days are shorter
compared to the Emissaries and Committee Man. These Executives are staff
specialists who rise to become the Chief Executives.
d.
The Trouble Shooters: These are set of Chief Executive Officers who
spend most of their time coping with crisis outside the Organization. Their
working days are also fragmented.
e.
The Discussers: These are the Chief Executive Officers who spend most
of their time discussing and negotiating with other groups for the progress of the
Organization, they are involved in diverse ranges of activities.
3.3
(CEO)
The following are the major responsibilities of the Chief Executives Officers:
1.
He/she ensures that their subordinates are well motivated, activated and
trained with the set standard of the Organizational goals.
2.
3.
4.
He/she is responsible for taking corrective actions and decisions when the
need arises.
137
5.
6.
Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain the responsibilities of the Chief Executive Officer.
2. Enumerate the types of the Chief Executive Officer
3.4
OFFICER
3.4.1 The Role of the Chief Executive Officer
The basic role of the Chief Executive Officer of any organization is that, he is
the Chief Accounting and Budgeting Officer. He needs to use the available
resources judiciously. As the Chief Accounting Officer, his major role is to
approve Budget plans, and to achieve the goals of the Organization. He makes
estimate of costs and benefits of a project before the Organization can embark
on such project. He will be responsible for both success and failure of the
Organization. However, Mintzberg (1973) believes that, the roles of the Chief
Executive Officer can be divided into three categories (1) Interpersonal Role (2)
Informative Role and (3) Decisional Role.
1.
ensuring that the policies of the Organization are clearly interpreted and
implemented. He acts as a figurehead, a symbol of legal authority, handling
ceremonial duties etc. As a leader, he liaises and motivates his subordinates; he
serves as link in the communication chain. The Chief Executive Officer is the
person entrusted with responsibilities of the operation of the Organization and
usually the Managing Director (MD) in a private enterprise.
138
2.
resources (Money, Human and Material) which are critical inputs into the
management of the Organization. He acts as a disturbance handler, arbitrating
labour conflicts. He establishes Organizational goals, formulates strategies for
existing goals and spends more time in policy formulation. He/she acts as the
operational head of the management team and reports to the Board of Directors,
the results of his implemented policies, programmes and projects.
3.4.2 Functions of the Chief Executive Officer (C.E.O)
The Chief Executive Officer performs daily essential and routine functions such
as:
1. He/she makes complex decisions and delegates functions to qualified and
competent subordinates of the Organization.
2. He/she determines goals and set priorities through others to achieve
results.
3. He/she has a conceptual and analytical view, he/she is a diplomat and
communicate with his employer, employee and government if need be to
move the Organization forward.
4.0
CONCLUSION
From the foregoing discussion on, the Chief Executive Officers (CEO) are the
heads and coordinators of the activities of any organisation whether public or
private. He/She is responsible for formulating policies, and supervised
implementations of duties assigned. In the Public Service Ministers,
Commissioners, Directors General and Councils Chairmen are Chief
Executives. The responsibilities of the Chief Executives are to Decisionmaking; Monitoring, Disseminating and allocation of organisational resources.
The roles of the Chief Executive Officer are divided into, Interpersonal,
Informative and Decision-making.
5.0
SUMMARY
139
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1.
2.
140
UNIT 14
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
Organising
3.1.3
Staffing
3.1.4
Planning
3.1.5
Controlling
3.1.6
Directing
3.1.7 Communicating
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
141
6.0
Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In the last section, you had an idea about what the Chief Executive Officer does.
This unit will take you as step further into the functions of the Chief Executive
Officer. In this unit, the focus will be on the detailed functions of the Chief
Executive Officer (CEO) which are Planning and Decision making, Organising,
Staffing, Planning, Controlling, Directing and Communication. These functions
are universal and are performed by all CEOs whether in the private or public
sectors.
1.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1.
2.
(b).
(d).
144
place at all levels in an Organization, and in most cases, the activities are
grouped as follows:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(b)
145
the on-going decisions that allow them to accomplish the task of the
Organization.
(II).Staff Authority Relationship: This involves the relationship that exists
among the staff, and it is based on expertise in specialized activities and
includes the authority to advise, plan, gather information. However, there
should exist a cordial relationship between the line manager or authority and the
staff authority.
(III).Functional Authority Relationship: This involves the rights of individual
staff with functional authority to issue directives expect compliance: A
marketing manager may for example, have the authority to specify marketing
schedules for sales representative in any part of the company.
(c) Decentralization of Managerial Process
Decentralization of Managerial Processes are;
The
Concepts
of
(i) The span and level of management and (ii) The decentralization of
managerial authority
This span and levels of management is based on the executive control that is,
the number of subordinates, a manager can effectively supervise, the narrower
the span, the less levels that are needed. Decentralization is the delegation of
authority for making managerial decisions to subordinates at lower levels in the
organization. A broader span occurs when the chief executive decentralizes
authority. However, certain factors such as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Competency of subordinates
Nature of work
Time required for the job and
Organisational policies, are considered when making this decision to
ensure that the delegation of authority accomplishes the organizational
goals.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Multiples subordination.
146
g.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3.1.4 Controlling
Controlling as a management function means the act of monitoring progress and
making needed changes in an organization. It also means monitoring employees
activities, determining whether the organization is on target toward its goals,
and making correction as necessary. Every Chief Executive must make sure that
the Organization is moving towards its goals. It involves using Information
System to advise managers on the performances of employees. Lack of control
or information is one of the reasons for organizational failure (Simon,
1976).Control in an organization focuses on individual tasks and is carved out
and the strictly defined guideline issues by strategic planning and management
decisions. In order to exercise control, Chief Executive must decide which goals
to measure perhaps goals pertaining to productivity, quality responsiveness to
customers and then they must design information and control systems that will
provide the data they need to assess performances. Controlling function also
allows Chief Executives to evaluate themselves in terms of performance of
other functions of management.
Importance of Control
Control is important in that:
a.
b.
c.
d.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3.1.7 Communication
Communication is the means whereby people in an organization exchange
information regarding the operation of the organization. Communication is the
transmission of information und understanding from one body to another
through the use of common symbols. It is the interchange of ideas, facts and
emotions by two or more persons through the use of words, letters and symbols.
Bernard (1948), stressed the need for communication to occupy a central place
in Organization. Communication can be regarded as the foundation upon which
Organization or administration is built. The media of communication are
memos, letters, news bulletin, radio, television etc. Communication is the
process of transmitting information from one person/place to another and the
message been understood by the receiver/encoder. It involves the transmission
of a message through a medium/channel from a transmitter to a receiver.
4.0 CONCLUSION
From the foregoing discussion on, the duties of the Chief Executive Officer
(CEO) we can deduce that the duties of the Chief Executive Officer are the
same as Managerial duties or functions. He heads and coordinates the activities
of an organization. He is directly or indirectly involved in all functions or
activities of the Organization. He is responsible for formulating policies, and
supervises implementations. The core duties of the Chief Executive Officer are
Decision-making,
Staffing,
Planning,
Communicating,
Directing
and
Controlling. Each of these duties has various steps, processes and significance
to the success of the Organisation.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the duties of the Chief Executive Officer.
Most Chief Executive Officers are rated for the quick, timely and quality of
decisions they make. Decision making takes place under three different
150
conditions: under certainty, risk and uncertainty conditions. There are two of
kinds of decision, the programmed and Non-Programmed.
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
QUESTION:
1. Explain the duties of the Chief Executive Officer.
2. Differentiate between Planning and Directing.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
151
UNIT 15
DRAFTING, MINUTING, MEMO WRITING AND OFFICIAL LETTER WRITING .
Table of Contents
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Contents
3.1
Drafting
Minuting
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0
Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
They are:
(i)
Drafting
(ii)
Minuting
(iii)
(iv)
2.0
OBJECTIVES
iii.
Explain the format and strategies for writing each of them to acceptable
standard.
3.0MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 Drafting
A draft is a proposed letter, circular, or minute, report or other document,
prepared and sent by a lower officer to his superior for consideration. The
process of preparing a Draft is called Drafting. If the proposed letter or
suggested circular serves the prescribed purpose, it is considered good and
approved. A draft may be amended by filling in the gaps in the efforts of the
officer or by the incorporation of additional facts by the senior officer. A bad
draft (e.g one which does not show an appreciation of the point at issue or one
hastily put up without taking pains) may be rejected and scrapped.
154
When to Draft
Where an item or correspondence is of a routine nature and calls for a routine
reply, a letter ready for signature should be put up to the senior officer for his
signature. Sometimes the writer of a minute has to submit a draft embodying
a recommendation in his minute. Draft replies suggested for consideration
may reduce substantially the length of a minute. When a draft has been
approved, it is sent to a typist to be produced in the correct form for issue.
The act of typing the letter in this form is known as fairing and the finished
document is known as a faired draft.
3.1.1 Features of A Good Draft Are As Follows:
(a) Clarity of thoughts and expression Say exactly what you wish to say in
simple and direct language. Avoid repetition.
Typed drafts of minutes, briefs, letters, etc should s a rule, have headings
which give an idea of the matter in the drafts. Reasonable spacing is used in
typed drafts so that there is ample space for amendments. Drafts should be
typed drafts so that there is ample space for amendments. Drafts should be
typed only on one side of the typing sheet or sheets used. For economy, the
155
reverse page of used, clean sheets with discarded typed-scripts at the front
may be used for typing drafts.
After drafting a minute or letter for the superior officer, the drafting officer
should remember to write the superior officers name and not his own name
as the author. While a superior officer ends a loose minute. It is the duty of
the subordinate to put it in a file before sending the reply back to him. The
worst that can happen in the absence of the main file is for you to address your
superior in a Temporary File (T File). A good draft from a subordinate to a
superior officer should be such that the senior has little or no addition to
make.
3.2
MINUTING
156
(c) A more senior officer has specifically suggested that the matter at
issue should be referred to him for further action usually because he is
familiar with the background of the subject and /or he wishes to put
down some drafting instructions.
the typewritten or stamped name of the officer writing it. Under his name, the
post held is shown and the date of his minute, indicated.
(b) State the present position and focus and facts affecting it, supporting
the statement by reference to previous papers
(c) Verify whether or not the report, proposal or request accords with any
laws, Public Service Rules, Financial Regulations, Circulars, or
memoranda which have been circulated. Sometimes, it is helpful to
quote the actual words of the Public Services Rules, etc, or to attach a
copy of the relevant document.
(d) Indicate any previous decisions which may be relevant to the point at
issue.
(e) Point out any facts or argument which may influence the action to be
taken (or decision to be given) as they occur to you when examining
papers, precedents and previous decisions. Cite relevant authorities.
(f) Finally, suggest what action you propose should be taken. The
substance of a memoranda or letter in reply may be suggested in your
minute which should be so drafted that the wording may be
incorporated direct into the reply to issue.
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
159
QUESTION: What are the faults to guard against in drafting and minuting.
(i)
Go through the subject matter files and other relevant documents to
ensure you have facts to enable you produce a good minute or write a good
letter.
(ii)
Make Sure You Clearly Understand the Subject Matter Which Should Be
Briefly Stated.
(iii) State The Previous Positions Or Decisions, If Any , Which May Led To The
Present.
160
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Indicate Whether There Are Laws Or Past Decisions That May Affect The
Present Case.
(vii)
Identify relevant facts and argue persuasively either for or against the
matter at issues, quoting appropriate authorities or laws or precedence
wherever necessary
(viii) Identify the options and make sure your argument is balanced by
stressing points for and against the options that may present them.
(ix)
Highest reasons why you favour one option rather than the other.
(x)
(xi)
Avoid bad grammar and insist on good punctuation e.g the word,
however, is always isolated by commas before and after.
(xii)
(xiv) Finally, ensure that the line of action you advocate flows from your
presentation. Short titles or abbreviations are tolerated by minute but
not by letters e.g perm sec., Hon Minister.
(xv)
3.3
MEMO WRITING
From the foregoing we already have six (6) paragraphs. Then comes the
PRAYER paragraph which is either the last paragraph in which the approval is
sought. It is important to note that in seeking approval finally, each of the
issues discussed in the previous paragraphs should be itemized in the prayer
paragraph and A prayer paragraph could sound like this:
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
The final paragraph could then be: Submitted please OR submitted for the
Perm Secs king consideration and approval please.
Therefore the officer forewarning the memo signs his signature and write his
designation and date. It is important to note the following.
164
(i)
(ii)
Aside from paragraph one other paragraphs are numbered for crossreferencing purposes.
Sometimes the word PRAYER could be written in that paragraph but the
important thing Is to understand that it means request. For instance, an
officer who feels unfairly treated in a disciplinary action or loss or
promotion opportunity, could appeal for a re-consideration of his case.
In this instance, he could use the word Prayer in that paragraph. On no
account Should people be praying in this paragraph for the Almighty
God or Allah to make the approving Authority to grant their request.
3.4
As in the case of minutes, the letters we are interested in are those that
originate from government offices. Letters, like minutes, are forms of
communication from one individual or group to another. Letters are used to
convey decisions, give directives on the required course of action or to let
people know of certain new developments. Letters differ from minutes in that
they, unlike minutes invariably insist on certain formalities such as the
inclusion of the addresses of both the author and the addressee, indication of
the date \of the letter at the right hand side, insertion of headings and so on.
Letters do not also allow the use of abbreviations such as perm Sec, or Hon
Minister. Words are written in full for letters. Most letters are written on a
prepared letter-headed paper which have already printed address of the
sender, columns for Reference Number, and Date. The format of any letter
will, to a large extent, depend on the addressee. If the letter is from one
ministry to anther the format is similar. But if it is from a Ministry of Parastatal
to an individual or organization outside government, the format is different. If
a letter is going from one ministry to another the person who signs it will
equally depend on the seriousness of the subject matter and again, on who is
supposed to treat it at the other end. If the subject matter of a given letter is a
165
In fact, some letters demand that either the permanent Secretary or the
Honourable Minister/Commissioner should sign them. It is important to stress
here that the mere fact that an officer has been directed in a minute to issue a
letter does not mean that he should also sign it. If the content of the letter is a
very serious one e.g, if it is a matter of national importance or if the letter is
being made for the attention of an officer much higher than himself, the
schedule officer should either prepare the letter for the signature of his
superior or suggest that it be signed at a level higher than his own. The
signatory to a letter is perhaps much more serious when it has to do with
people in regimented establishments especially the Armed Forces. A schedule
officer should always use his discretion to know when a letter should be
signed by a higher officer even though he may have been asked to issue it.
When an officer is in doubt as to who should sign an outgoing letter, it is better
to have the letter discussed with his superior officer.
166
up (b.u) for a reappraisal of the content of the letter. It I also necessary for
officers to keep their own flimsy copies for future reference, if need be.
3.4.2 Solutions
In letters from one ministry of government establishment to another, letter,
letters are addressed to the Chief Executive, e.g . Honourable Minister, in the
case of Ministries or to the General Manager, Managing Director or DirectorGeneral for parastatal , as the case may be. For ministries, it is not usual to
start with Dear sir, or Dear xyz. Sometimes, however, some Permanent
Secretaries or Chief Executives are known to put some familiar and personal
touches by starting with Dear Colleague or Dear xyz. The closing is also less
formal in that yours faithfully etc., are not included. This style is not very
common outside government establishments. The style differs remarkably
from that of letter going outside government establishments. Letters from
government ministries or departments to outsiders take a more formal format
as they are started with dear XYZ and close with Yours faithfully. As earlier
stated, in government to government correspondence, Dear Mr . XYZ may be
tolerated at higher levels and where the author and the addressee are fairly
familiar; otherwise it is usual not to include these.
3.4.3 Attachments
Whether letters are meant for government or non-government addressees, it
is necessary that attachments necessary for the circumstance of the given
letter should be added. Such attachments make for faster consideration of the
subject or matter at issue, in addition to assisting better appreciation of the
matter at hand. Attachments should be clearly indicated and signs for them
either shown at the left-hand margins or all the enclosures are spelt out at the
bottom end of the letter.
167
3.4.5 Endorsements
An endorsement is letter written at the bottom of an earlier letter to person
or persons to which the original one was not addressed. The purpose is to pass
information to the new addressee with the appropriate request or directive as
to what he or she is required to do sequel to the body of the main letter.
Since definite actions are often required, unless the endorsement is for
information only, it is preferable to draw the attention of the person to whom
it is endorsed to the paragraph or paragraphs requiring his action. An example
is, the above is for your necessary action with particular reference e to the
issues raised at paragraphs 2 and 3 of my letter or of the ministry xyz letter or
circular referred to.
4.0CONCLUSION
Drafting encompasses all forms of writing, if should be appropriately done ,
others will fall in place. Minuting , memo writing and official letter writing are
all undertaken for decisions to be made officially, policies to be formulated or
approvals to be given officially also. Whatever actions are carried out
subsequently i.e implementations or executions must confirm with the
168
5.0
SUMMARY
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
-.
7.0FURTHER READING
Fadeyi, B. (1995); Minuting , Drafting, Report/Letter Writing, Paper
Presentation at an Induction Programme for Newly Employed
Officers of the Nigeria Public Service, Lagos.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1997); Civil Service Handbook (Abuja: Office
of Establishment and Management services, the Presidency.
Little, P. (1975): Communications in Business, 2nd Edition, (London:
Longman Group Ltd).
Maduabum, C.P (2009): Drafting, Minuting, Memo Writing, Official Letter
Writing, in Chucks P. Maduabun (Ed) Writing Techniques for the
Management of Public and Private Affairs , ASCON Press, Badagry
Obiaku, D., (1999): Communication Skills (Lagos: Advertising
Practitioneners
169
MODULE 4
THE ART OF GOVERNANCE.
UNIT16
TABLE OF CONTENT
1.0
Introduction
2.0
3.0
Objectives
The Concept of Government and Governance
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
7.0
Further Reading
1.0
INTRODUCTION
170
This unit explores the basis of governance and the idea of government. Here,
various views on the concept of government and governance are undertaken.
This explanation will help you to appreciate and identify significant parameters
for subsequent discussions. The unit goes further to identify those things that
constitute apparatus of government. The role of the constitution in our guest
is clearly explained. It is usually difficult to talk about government without
discussing public administration. This is because public administration is the
main apparatus of government. The constitution merely provide the legal
framework for governance.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Explain the concept of public administration as on apparatus of
government.
(Sills, 1968:214-217)
gore due to the need to demarcate one state from another for mutual coexistence. Every state in the world is therefore located on a particular area of
the earths surface with clear-cut boundaries. The territory of a state therefore
features such things as
its geographical location, resources, technology and climate. Sovereignty on
the other hand, entails the supreme and final legal authority on a state above
and beyond, which no further legal power, exists. Thus, a sovereign state is
that which is able to conduct its own affairs independently of other states.
particularly the second and third world countries, our interest here is in the
most civilized and modern form of government, which is democracy.
3.1
The interplay among these branches of government is such that hardly are
they independent of one another. Their system of checks and balances gives
each branch of government the means of checking the power of the other
branches in certain circumstances. These checks enable each branch to keep
the power of the others in proper balance with its own power. Most checks
and balances involve a limited sharing of the same power by more Executive
performs legislative and judiciary functions, much the same way that the
legislature exercises executive and judicial powers. The Judiciary on the other
hand, regulates the activities of the executive and legislative arms of
175
(i)
(ii)
(iii).
176
ACTIVITY
List the different branches of government both vertically and horizontally in
Nigeria.
ANSWER: Vertically we have Federal State and Local governments.
Horizontally we have the executive, legislature and Judicial arms
of government.
3.2
the United State of America; and most modern states or scattered through
various sources and legal documents like the British Constitution. It could even
portend a vague body of unwritten laws taking the form of usages,
understandings, customs or conventions which courts do not recognize as
laws, but which are not less effective in regulating the operations of
government. Constitutions are therefore universally regarded as embodying
the fundamentals of the political system. These fundamentals have the force
of law, enforceable by the courts.
In this wise, the constitution is superior to, and different from ordinary laws.
The constitution is less easily changed and more binding than ordinary law
which are made by the Parliament of National/State Assembly through the
ordinary law-making process and orders, rules and regulations made by any
person or authority in accordance with constitutional provisions. The very fact
that parliament or legislature derives its power from the constitution, places
the constitution over and above whatever laws made by the parliament or
Legislative. The constitution,, merely lays down broad principles guiding and
directing the making of ordinary laws with regards to the manner in which they
should be made and who should make them. It is in this sense that a
constitution is the fundamental law of the state. Even Military dictatorship
which operate with peculiar laws referred to as Decrees quite often recognized
the superiority of the constitution by setting aside some sections of the
constitution in order to legitimize their relevance in governance. In fact, some
of the decrees are coined from the constitutional provisions but made unique
to the whims and caprices of the military authorities.
The point still has to be made that in modern democracies the constitution is a
fundamental and highest law of the land hence, governments could hardly
operate recourse to the constitution. Unlike other laws like decrees which
could be a product of a few individuals, the constitution is usually a product of
a cross-section of the people (citizens) constituted as representatives of the
people either in a committee to draft the constitution or at an Assembly to
scrutinize a draft constitution and subsequently ratify the document as
containing the collective will of the people.
178
3.3
Consequently, they opine that public administration is the action, business side
of government, employing more than 90% of all public services and
programmes. One name that is so easily associated with the concept that he
cannot be easily glossed-over is Woodrow Wilson. In fact his recognition is in
association with pioneering the work in the field of public administration. His
ascertain is the public administration is the most obvious part of government;
it is government in action; it is the executive, operative, the most visible side of
government (Wilson, 1887: 197-222).
4.0
CONCLUSION
180
that the welfare of the people are improved upon through provision of
education, health, food, housing , infrastructure etc.
5.0
SUMMARY
This unit discussed the concept of government and the process of governance.
It explain government as an organ that has the responsibility of managing the
affairs of a nation state. The process of this management it refereed to as
governance. The unit equally identified the constitution as the bedrock of
governance particularly in a democratic setting such as ours. The unit also
explains the concept of public administration as an uncountable means of
reaching the people understanding their plight and improving their welfare in
order to fulfill the purpose of government.
6.0
Explain the role of government in Nigeria and how it performs this role.
7.0
FURTHER READING
UNIT 17
THE ENVIRONMENT AND ITS INFLUENCE ON GOVERANCE
TABLE OF CONTENT
182
1.0
2.0
3.0
Introduction
Objective
The Environment
3.1
3.2
Historical Antecedents
Social Factor
3.3
3.4
Language
3.5
Educational System
3.6
Climatic Condition
3.7
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor marked Assignment
Further Reading
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will be able to identify variable within the Nigerian
environment which impact on government and the conduct of its business.
Government does not exist in a vacuum. It exists in the social setting of
Nigeria, conditioned by history and traditions, and by physical factors of
geography, climate and resources which are fundamental to the acquisition of
knowledge in this direction. The setting in this context is what the social
Scientifics refer to as ecology. That setting, we must appreciate is no static.
The dynamic nature of the world in which we exist has instigated efforts
towards that, it is from the environment that government perceives the
problems to be resolved, the alternative possibilities within which choices can
be made, the resources to be employed and the support and opposition to
policies and programs. Furthermore, within the environment are found the
183
clients to be served or regulated, the market focus which establish costs for
the goods and services produced by government, special interest groups that
have a particular concern about what the government does and other public
and private institutions that may offer support or opposition. Finally, it I within
that environment that the consequences of governance are to be judged right
or wrong.
3.1
Historical Antecedents
(i)
(ii)
condition which affects the ability of local elites to run the economy
in an autonomous manner beneficial to the local economy and
society in the first instance.
The consequence of the foregoing is that Nigeria is yet to recover from that
experience. Many of the leaders in contemporary Nigeria were creations of
the colonial system. Many of the officers in the bureaucracy were recruited
and trained under the colonial system. Several officers in the army, itself
originally a colonial creation was recruited and trained under the colonial
system. The countrys international trade is largely shaped by economic
structures and relations and entered into in the colonial era. The
educational and agricultural policies, even legal forms and patterns are
structured after these of the British who, ab initio had no positive designs
for Nigeria as a colony.
3.2
Social Factor
The consequences of this factor are enormous. Infact, continues to shape and
reshape the art of governance in Nigeria. It has tended to erode the national
consciousness of Nigerians. This is because, within the Nigeria societies, we
find that family, local, state and ethnic loyalties compete with and often take
precedence over loyalties to the nation. These are so deeply rooted that they
create problems in governance practically with their attendant nepotism in all
its forms. The consequences are that supervision and control, s management
functions, are difficult to exercise. Directly related to this s corruption which
has equally eaten deep into the fabrics of the Nigerian society such that the
Transparency International has continuously rated Nigeria for almost ten years
as one of the most corrupt nations in the world despite efforts being made by
the Government to reduce this practice. The tendency to see Federal
186
The situation is even worsened by the recognition accorded such officials who
have corruptly enriched themselves within the society. They are almost always
welcomed with such recognitions as chieftaincy titles and the like. This
category of persons is found across and among various classes of the society
particularly the political class which appears to be the final point of abode
due to the concomitant protection enjoyed within that class. The truth of the
matter is that one can hardly penetrate this class unless he is very rich. Yet, we
find retired military officers, other public officers and professionals, within the
rank and file of the political class. The tendency and trends have equally
exposed that fallacity embedded in the art of governance as espoused by the
received wisdom in the field. Otherwise, how else can one explain virtually
unquestioned belief and sarcastic expressions and with impunity for that
matter, that political appointments in a democratic dispensation is an
opportunity to recoup electoral expenses rather than to render service to the
people in particular, and the nation in general.
Put differently, how else can the pitiable condition of a retired official or
successful businessman who sold all his landed properties both at home and
abroad in order to penetrate the political class, get nominated by his political
party, contest and win an election a a Senator are Local Government
Chairman be salvaged ? Infact, another trend is a situation where corruptly
enriched but retired public officials quickly gain entry into the political class to
escape being investigated since protection by the political class is guaranteed
into position =s where they use their new positions to torpedo any move that
would make such investigation possible. Cases abound of sharp practices in
various forms which influence governance in Nigeria.
3.3
187
Language
Nigeria, just like many other developing and developed countries lacks as
indigenous linqua franca. The implication of this is that below the topmost
levels in the various sectors of the society, most people are conducting their
business in a language which in varying degrees, they have not infact,
mastered. This adversely affects productivity in the conduct of government
business because, quite often, instructions and directives are not fully
understood, a situation that corresponding affects execution of such
instructions. To compound the problem, most managers in public sector
organizations, understandably, lack the patience with which to deal with
subordinates who lack the required proficiency in the linqua franca,, just as
most of them are equally poor communicators.
3.5
Educational System
188
This evolved from a colonially imposed elitist system of education with its
focus on liberal arts. As severally argued, the colonial maters were not
interested in educating members of their colonies, yet they required
interpreters that would assist them with the native hence the emphasis on
reading and writing only. This patterned what in later ears became popular,
first , focus on Arts and Social Science; and secondly , too much emphasis on
Paper Qualification rather than acquisition of skills Such Paper
Qualifications acquired in liberal Arts guaranteed Nigerians the much sought
after white collar jobs. The result is that today, students enrolment in
tertiary institutions slant more in favour of these liberal Arts than in Science
and Technology. This encourages generalists as against specialists in the
public service. As strong apostles f Lord Fultons in the dictum that the cult of
generalists is obsolete at all levels and in all parts of the service we uphold our
support for Science and technology which, we do know constitutes a
passport to economic development all over the world. It is obvious that a
country which de-emphasizes science and technology when one considers
interests of students in quest of advanced knowledge as demonstrate by the
enrolment figures in tertiary institutions in Nigeria, could not be said to be
seriously pursuing economic development.
Operations within the public service do not help matters because of the
division of the service into air-tight classes which stand in a hierarchy of power
and prestige and which is both undemocratic in spirit and a obstacle in efficient
management. The entire educational system of the nation seems to be
designed to uphold and reinforce this elitist philosophy to sort out, by stages,
the most worthy, who are crowned with the laurels of success certified by
diplomas and degrees, from the less worthy who at one stage or another in the
educational ladder, are crowed with the dunce-cap of failure. Hence the
common phenomenon of superior and inferior cadres in the service. About
this, we had severally pronounced that Bogous Certificates do not necessarily
make competent officers This is interpreted to mean that possession of chains
of degree and a certificate is not synonymous with performance because
certificates do not do the job. The job can only be effectively done through
demonstration by the individual about his acquired competences and skills.
Akin to this, is, fact of congruity between the quality of products of our
educational system and the economic direction of the nation or demonstrated
189
by the industrial sector which ought to absorb and utilize these products. The
result appears to be several cases of unemployment of educationally qualified
Nigerians.
3.6
Climatic Condition
3.7
There is that tendency to be too conscious of the way things are done in other
countries. This is particularly so in the public service, whether in the
organization of ministries, the administration of justice, the education of the
children or the method of keeping files This issue here is that, whereas these
model counties may have been modernizing many of their systems.
Nigerians seem to have more reverence for the past than for the present or
the future. Many policies and management practices in particular, are based
on experience and guess-work rather than on objective information obtained
through, reliable research. In addition, the tendency to copy from our model
nations at the detriment of our cultural values had brought cultural conflicts in
the areas of dress-code, attitude to life, mode of speaking and generally
believing that looking like an irresponsible person is by keeping up with the
Jones or Yankees of America. Provocative dressing among the female
gender in all works of life has attracted immense criticisms in recent times
leading to public discourse due to its conflict with our cultural values. These
190
ACTIVITY
List the factor that influence the conduct of government business in Nigeria
4.0
CONCLUSION
5.0
SUMMARY
191
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
7.0
FURTHER READINGS
1.
2.
4.
5.
UNIT 18
192
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1 What is Constitution?
3.2 Constitutional development in Nigeria
3.3 Implications for Political and Administrative Development in
Nigeria.
3.4
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor-marked Assignment
Further Reading.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
193
2.0
OBJECTIVES
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
What is Constitution?
194
From the above definition, six cardinal characteristics emerge for a valid
constitution namely: Fundamental law of a nation; establishes the
government; prescribes the functions and powers of government; regulates
the exercise of those powers; and derives its authority from the people.
On the other hand, constitutionalism refers to the application of the spirit and
letters of the constitution. It is the anti-thesis of arbitrary rule. It follows from
the obvious fact that government is universally accepted to be necessity, since
man cannot fully realize himself except within ordered society. Yet, the
necessity for government creates its own problem for man, the problem of
how to limit the good of society. It is this limiting of the arbitrariness of
political power that is expressed in the concept of constitutionalism
(Nwabueze, 1973, Ibid). Thus, between constitution and constitutional
practice, we observed certain arbitrariness which now shaped the content and
character of constitutional amendments in Nigeria. It is also in the light of this
that we shall attempt to explain the political and administrative implications of
the constitutional developments in Nigeria.
3.2
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(i)
In 1919, educated elites both in Lagos and Calabar criticized the Lugard Council
on grounds that the illiterate Chiefs and Obas in the Council could not speak
English. This gave rise to the formation of the Clifford Constitution.
196
(ii)
197
(iv)
(a)
For the first time, Nigerians were involved in the Drafting of the
Constitution from the grass-root level to the national level.
It established a central legislature and a central executive for the
country.
It established a council of ministers charged with the responsibility of
formulating policies and directing executive action. It should be
noted here that the ministers together with the Lt. Governor, the
Civil Secretary, Legal , Financial and Development Secretary formed
the Regional Executive Council. Under the new arrangement, head of
government departments ceased to be members f the Executive
Council. This was a change of great magnitude in the sense that it
marked the crucial dividing line between politics and administration.
(b)
(c )
(v)
(2) Concurrent Lists: These specify matters on which the federal and state
governments have powers to legislate on i.e., Agriculture, industrial
development, insurance, higher education, etc.
(3) Residual Lists: This borders on items or matters not under exclusive ad
concurrent lists i.e Local Government, Chieftaincy Affairs, etc
(c ) There was the establishment of the Supreme Court and Regional Courts.
199
(d) Premiers and Ministers were appointed in the various regions and
ministers at the
Federal level were now given portfolios.
(e) Apart from the institution of the Public Service Commission, other
Administrative changes took place with the setting up of the Gorsuch
Commission, which recommended among others the introduction of the
technical grade. The Civil Service was divided into two distinct classes
1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Sub-Clerical
Clerical
Executive
Superscale
General Administration
2.
Professional Class
Minor Technical
Technical
Higher Technical
Superscale
The
200
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(vi)
The Republican Constitution (1963)
Nigeria became Republic on 1st October, 1963 with adoption of the Republican
Constitution. The significant features of the Republican Constitution were:
201
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
With the Republican Constitution in force, Nigeria became a sovereign nationstate. The politicians of the 1st Republic became political masters, who
unfortunately could not manage the transfer of political power to them by the
British. Hence, the mis-rule and the irresponsible manner the politicians
conducted the affairs of the nature led to the military take-over of government
on 15th of January, 1966. The bloody coup, which was led by Major Chukwuma
Kaduna Nzeogu was characterized by certain anomalies in terms of its
operations. Thus, contradictions arose within he military class which led to
counter coups in military administrations from General Aguiyi Ironsi to General
Yakubu Gowon n the one hand, and from General Murtala Mohammed to
General Olusegun Obasanjo, with the murder of the latter, on the other.
However, the duo promised and instituted a transitional programme which
was to return Nigeria to democratic rule in 1979. To achieve this lofty aim, the
1970 Constitution came into being as mid-wifed by General Olusegun
Obasanjos regime through a 50-Man Member Committee headed by Chief
F.R.A Williams (Odanye, 2002:5-106).
(vii)
The 1979 Constitution:
The 1978 Constitution ushered in Nigerias second Republic with Alhaji Shehu
Shagari as President . The significant features of the Constitution were:
202
We wish to note that the Nigerian policy, being guided by Constitutional and
Transitional Decrees under general Babangida, the Military Government gave a
purposeful direction on the political and ideological commitment of Nigerian
politicians without ethnic bias. This led to the /first generally accepted and
widely acclaimed free and fare presidential elections in Nigeria. It was rather
unfortunate that the acclaimed winner of the presidential election, late Chief
M.K.O Abiola was prevented from exercising that mandate, thereby creating
obstacles on the path of Nigerias match to democracy and development. But
this contradiction itself has today led to another constitutional experience: the
birth of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria as against
Decrees and Edicts (with respect to Federal and States respectively).
Activity 1
ANSWER:
(a) We the people of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, having firmly and
solemnly resolved to live in unity and harmony as one indivisible and
indissoluble sovereign nation under God dedicated to the promotion of
inter-African solidarity, world peace, international co-operation and
understanding.
(b) And To Provide for a Constitution for the purpose of promoting the
good government and welfare of all persons in our country on the
principles of freedom, equality and justice, and for the purpose of
consolidating the unity of our people.
(c) Do Hereby make , Enact and Give To Ourselves the following
Constitution
General provisions.
Chapter II:
Policy
Chapter III:
Citizenship
Chapter IV
Fundamental Rights
Chapter V:
The Legislature
Chapter VI.
The Executive
Chapter VII:
The Judicature
Chapter VIII:
Provisions
Schedules:
3.4.1 The main features of the 1999 Constitution are outlined as follows:
(a)
(b)
(c )
(d)
That Nigeria shall operate a two-chamber legislature at the
federal level and a unicameral at the states level;
(e) That there shall be rule of law and constitutional separation of
powers;
(f)
(g)
(h)
Chapter One
This chapter is divided into two parts (Part 1 and Part 2). Issues treated
under Part 1 titled: Federal Republic of Nigeria include: Supremacy of
the Constitution and the status of the Federal Republic of Nigeria as well
as its components. It also contains (in terms of making references to)
schedules that help to clarify what is treated under this part like
schedules 1 and 2 to the Constitution. Part 2 titles Powers of the
Federal republic of Nigeria deals with Legislative Powers; Executive
Powers; Judicial Powers; Local Government System; the processes of
creating new states and boundary adjustment; mode of altering
provisions of the Constitution; prohibition of State Religion; Public Order
and Public Security, and Implementation of Treaties. (Sections 4-12 of
the Constitution).
(b )
Chapter Two
This section outlines the Fundamental Objectives and directive Principles
of State Policy. Section 13 of the chapter directs as a matter of
207
(c )
Chapter Three
This chapter focuses on citizenship. Citizenship can be described as the
Legal right which an individual acquires to belong to a particular country.
The doctrine of citizenship has far-reaching implications in terms of
rights, obligations and status of the citizen. According to the oxford
English Dictionary, a citizen is an inhabitant of a city; a person with full
rights in a country. The concept of citizenship therefore deals with the
way and manner a country determines who her nationals are. The
chapter is divided into six sub-sections that deal with the various
concept of citizenship. These include: (i) Citizenship by Birth, (ii)
Citizenship by Registration, (iii) Those who naturalize as Nigerians; (iv)
Dual citizenship, (v) Renunciation of citizenship, and (vi) Deprivation of
citizenship by the President.
(d)
Chapter Four
This chapter deals with Fundamental Human Rights. Fundamental
human rights complement and enhance our harmonious existence and
208
Others are the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion (Sec.
38); right to freedom of expression and press (Sec.39), the right to
peaceful assembly and association (Sec. 40); the right to freedom of
movement (Sec . 41); the right to freedom from dissimilation (Sec.42); it
also dealt with compulsory acquisition of property(Sec.44); restriction on
and derogation from fundamental right (Sec 45); and special jurisdiction
of high court and legal aid. (Sec . 46).
(e)
Chapter Five
The focus of this chapter is the Legislature; the Legislature is the
sovereign organ of the state powers. It is the law-making today as far as
Nigerian constitution is concerned. This fact is attested to in Sections
47-129 of this chapter which stated that there shall be a national
Assembly for the Federation which shall consist of the House of Senate
and House of the Senate shall consist of three senators from each state
and one from the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. While, the House of
the representative shall consist of three hundred and six members
representing various constituencies of nearly equal proportion in the
country. There shall be a President and a Deputy for the Senate and the
Speaker and Deputy Speaker for the House of Representatives who shall
be elected from among the members of those houses.
209
(f)
Chapter Six
This chapter, focuses on the Executive Arm of Government at National
and State levels. Various conditions for the election of the President and
State Governors and their removal from office, are clearly enunciated in
this chapter. There are also provisions for the setting up off special
Federal and State Executive bodies (Commissions and Councils). Others
important provisions are in respect of Public Revenue and the Public
Services of the Federal and States. Part III of this chapter contains
supplemental provisions which are in Sections A,B,C and D that pertain
to the national Population Commission, the Nigeria Police Force, the
Armed Forces of the Federation , and Political parties , respectively.
(g)
Chapter Seven
Judicature is the subject matter of this chapter and it relates to the
judicial system. It is the body of lawyers, (Judges and Lawyers in the
Benches and Bars) that constitute the third estate of the realm. In
essence, the Constitution of the country is the supreme law meant to
regulate the conduct of affairs in both our public and personal lives. The
chapter is divided into four parts. Part 1 focuses on Federal Courts; Part
II, State Courts,; Part III, Election Tribunals and Part V, Supplemental.
(h)
Chapter 8
This chapter deals with the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja and general
supplementary provisions. The chapter consists of 4 parts. Part one is
made up of sections 297 to 304. This part highlights
the
establishment of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja, as the capital of
the Federal and seat of Government of Nigeria. This part of the
constitution accords the Federal Capital Territory the status state.
Additionally, this section provides for the appointment of a Minister of
210
the Federal Capital Territory to oversee the Federal Capital and he/she is
to be appointed by the President of the federal Republic of Nigeria. The
administrative structure and the organs of government in the Federal
Capital Territory are enshrined in this portion.Section 305 to 308 make
up part of the Chapter. This part contains miscellaneous provisions.
Some of these provisions include the procedure for declaration of the
state of emergency as well as the presidents power to proclaim a state
of emergency.
Part III of the chapter deals with transitional provisions and savings and
these are contained in Sections 309 to 307. The concluding part of the
Chapter is contained in Sections 318 to 320 and it deals with
interpretation, citation and the commencement of the 1999 on 29 th
May, 1999.
3.4.3 Schedules in the Constitution
The schedules are 1-7, The first schedule has parts one and two whereas part I
titled States of the Federation lists the 36 States of Nigeria and local
government areas in each state, thus totalling 747 local government areas.
(Including those of the Federal Capital Territory, FCT). Part II titled: Definition
of Federal Capital Territory, Abuja lists the Seven Area Councils in the FCT.
Second schedule has Parts 1 to III. While Part I addresses Exclusive Legislative
list, Part II addresses concurrent legislative list and Part III addresses
supplemental and interpretation. As explained by Akande (2000:478), in this
schedule is the distribution of legislative powers between the Federal and
State Governments. There are 66 numbered items and two items of matters of
incidental and supplementary to those mentioned in the Exclusive List and 12
main items on the concurrent list subdivided into 30 subsidiaries.
The third schedule equally has three (3) parts. Part I outlines Federal Executive
Bodies such as Code of Conduct Bureau; Council of State; Federal Character
Commission; Federal Civil Service Commission; Federal Judicial Service;
Independent National Electoral Commission; national Defence Council;
national Economic Council; National Judiciary Council; national Population
Commission; national Security Council and Revenue Mobilization Allocation
211
and Fiscal Commission. Part II explains the States Executive Bodies such as
State Civil Service Commission; State Independence Electoral Commission and
State Judicial Service Commission. Part III on the other hand explains the
Executive Body of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.
The Fourth Schedule explains the functions of the Local Government Council.
The Fifth schedule deals with the Code of Conduct for Public Officers which
includes the Code of Conduct Bureau and the Code of Conduct Tribunal. Part II
identifies public officers for the purposes of the code of conduct. The sixth
schedule dwells on Election Tribunals. Here are the National Assembly
Tribunal and the Governorship and Legislative Houses Election Tribunal.
eminent jurists have condemned not only the process of its making but also ,
many of its provisions and called for its abrogation (Akande, 2000:vi).
However, the fact still remains that the present civilian administration has
operated the 1999 constitution since assuming power in May, 1999.
Experience garnered while the operation lasted revealed in more practical
terms lapses of the constitution. In recognition of this and in response to the
peoples wish for another constitution, the Federal Government inaugurated
the Presidential Committee on the Review of the 1999 Constitution on 19 th
October, 1999. The report of the Committee was submitted on 30 th February,
2001. On this report, Ibe, (2004: B.6) has this to say:
of self-preservative machinery which they could truly call their own, thus, they
established these dreaded forces. These forces sometimes engage in
protection of lives and property thereby counting the intention of section 214
of the constitution which insists on the establishment of a centralized Nigeria
Police Force. The point being made is that the burning issues of state police,
sharia system, local government creation, resource control and the
composition of some bodies like the National Judicial Council are some of the
detectors which signal the morbid inadequacies of the constitution on the
issue of true federalism.
6.
7.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Above all, no constitution in Nigeria has a legitimacy status hence the move for
a National Dialogue or Sovereign National Conference. Here, whatever
issues that are decided should be subjected to a Referendum in order to get
sufficient inputs from generality of Nigerians. By so doing, the product of such
214
conference would be a Constitution that will for the first time be accorded
legitimacy.
5.0
SUMMARY
Finally a critique of the constitution was undertaken which led the unit to
recommend constitutional review.
It is our belief that acquisition of knowledge in this direction will assist in the
adoption of Due Process in the conduct of government business.
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1.
7.0
FURTHER READINGS
1.
2.
3.
of
4.
5
Nwabueze , B.) (1973) Constitutionalism in the Emergent States (London:
C. Host.
216
MODULE FIVE.
UNIT 19
INTRODUCTION TO LOCAL GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION
Table of Content
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1
3.2
3.1.2.1
Pre-Colonial Period
3.1.3.2
Post-Colonial Period
3.1.4.3
3.1.5.4
3.1.6.5
3.1.7.6
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0
References/Further Reading.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
217
In the last section, you had an idea about what the types, styles and process of
planning and decision-making are all about. This unit will take you a step
further into the Introduction to Local Government Administration. In this unit,
the focus is on Introduction to Local Government administration, we shall be
looking at the meaning and evolution of Local government institutions, in pre
and post-colonial era, the Principle underlying the creation, as well as the Legal
Framework of Local Government administration in Nigeria.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
2.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
218
government are autonomous except where they are subordinate to the state,
Local government administration in Nigeria fall within this group.
(Orewa and Adewumi, 1992) points that Local government is a system of Local
communities and towns which are organized to maintain law and order provide
some limited range of social services and co-operation of the inhabitants in join
endeavours towards the improvements of their conditions of living. From the
foregoing definitions on Local government, one can deduce that Local
government provides the community with a formal organizational framework
which enables them conduct their affairs effectively and regulates the actions of
their members for the general public.
The Federal Republic of Nigeria guidelines for Local government reforms of
1976, defines Local government councils as government exercised through
representative councils established by law to excise specific powers within
defined areas.
b.
Post-Colonial Period.
c.
d.
e.
f.
This period marked the beginning of modern Local government system in the
country. Prior to this period; the traditional institutions were at liberty to
practice any system of administration that suits their environment. This period
saw the establishment of the native administration or native authorities, where
the people were enlightened on political and administrative education. This
system of administration allowed the traditional authorities to flourish under the
closer supervision of the resident who introduce the indirect rule system.
However, under this system, the British were able to penetrate and exploit the
vast territory of Nigeria prior to the indirect rule system. The traditional
institutions were inferior before the colonial authorities did not accept of parity
of status between the Local chiefs or traditional rulers and the Resident
Officers. Oyediran (1988), states that, the structure of Local government
administration is described as a military-like chain of responsibility extending
from the Governor and Lieutenant Governor down to the Resident, District
Officer, Chief Emir, District Head, Chief and Village Head.
In summary, authorities of Local government administration during this period
where centralized but despite the advent of indirect rule system, the traditional
native authorities were still able to carry out Legislative, Executive and Judicial
functions. The problem during these periods was corruption of the chiefs and
Obas. They were arrogant and over bearing, making Local government
administration during this era a failure.
3.1.2.2
Post-Colonial Period
stronghold and control of the political will of the region. In the Eastern region,
they practiced a two tiered system; District and Local Council System in the
Local areas and a three tiered system compose of an all-purpose municipal,
urban county and county councils. During this period, members of the various
councils were mostly elected. These councils were supposed to be autonomous
since the members were elected representatives of the people. The control over
the councils was from the Ministry for Local government Inspectorate and the
Local Government Service Board (Obiajulu and Obi, 2004). In the western
Region, the Local government administrative system was similar to that of the
Eastern region in terms of administration and elections. Three tiered structure
was in operation, the municipal, urban county and county councils. The councils
were thus seen and used as avenues from planting the coalitions surrogates at
the grass-roots. The major achievements in the three regions during the postcolonial era were primarily to maintain laws and order, prevention of crime etc.
The institutions were poorly financed and over staffed; there was no proper
election into key positions.
3.1.2.3
This era witnessed a period of great political instability and all efforts were
geared towards maintaining stability and combating the Biafran treat of
succession. The entry of the military did witness some changes in the councils
as the Local government administrations were dissolved and new care-taker
imposed on them. The nature of military regime which was usually centralized
and authoritarian affected the Council since the various regional governments
made no pretence of allowing the Councils a semblance of authority. Nothing
really remarkable happened at the Local government councils during this
period.
3.1.2.4
rapid development of
Local government
3.
4.
5.
this period was highly ineffective, unnoticed and made little or no significant
impact on the lives of the people.
3.1.2.6
The second military era, led to the present status and transformation of the
Local government system in Nigeria. The military were quite unsatisfied with
the state of the Local governments. The Dasuki Panel (1984), was set up to look
into the affairs of the Councils and stipulate guidelines for operation and
efficient administration. The Committee, in its report attributed the problems of
Local government as operational factors arising directly from the behaviour and
attitude of the persons who operated the system.
Some of the recommendations of Alhaji Ibrahim Dasuki Panel were as follows:
1.
2.
3.
and in assigning powers to them to be autonomous the state should put the
following into considerations.
1.
The State should attempt to set Local units that are homogenous in nature
3.
CONCLUSION
From the foregoing discussion on, Local government administration is a suborgan entity of the state, where government administration are practiced at the
grass-root areas and closer to the people. The evolution of Local government
system in Nigeria could be traced back to the colonial era of the British
administration. There are six analytical phases of Local government
administration in Nigeria, the colonial, the past colonial, the early military era,
late military era, the second republic and the second military era and all
recorded remarkable achievements in the history of Nigeria. The essentials of
Local government administration cannot be ignored because it brings the
government closer to the people.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the evolution of Local government
administration in Nigeria. The powers of the Local government institutions are
derived from the State. The underlying principles for the creation of Local
government institutions vary in geographical areas and diversity of people and
culture.
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Question:
225
1.
2.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Bello, S. A,
Government
Administration,
(Enugu
Fourth
Dimension
Publishers).
Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of Local Government Reforms
1976, Kaduna Government Press.
Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of The Federal Republic Of
Nigeria 1976, Apapa Daily Times Publication.
Federal Republic Of Nigeria (1999), The Constitution Of The Federal Republic
Of Nigeria, Lagos Government Press.
Obiajulu Sunday And Obi Emeka Anthony (2004) Public Administration In
Nigeria, A Developmental Approach Bookpoint Limited.
Orewa, G. O. And Adewunmi J. B. (1983), Local Government In Nigeria, The
Changing Scene Benin Ethiopia Publishing Co-Operation
Oyediran,O. (1988) Essays On Local Government And Administration In
Nigeria, Lagos Government Press.
Nwatu, D. N (1995) Local Government In Nigeria: An Introduction, Enugu
Agatha Service Publisher Ltd
226
UNIT 20
FUNCTIONS OF THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN NIGERIA
Table of Contents
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1
selected
3.2
countries.
Institutions
3.2.2 Concurrent /Permissive Functions of Local Government
Institutions
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0
Reference/Further Reading
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In the last section, you learnt about introduction to local government. This unit
will take you a step further into the functions of the local government in
Nigeria. In this unit, we shall be looking at the roles of rural and urban local
government institutions, the different between Concurrent and Exclusive
functions of local government and a comparative view of some selected Local
government institutions in some countries.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
a.
b.
c.
d.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Communist countries for example, China on either a two or three level basis
(Nwatu, 1995).
In France, financing local government institutions is the primary control of the
Ministry of Interior. This makes the Local government to be weak and this had
adverse effects on the paste of services administered both at the rural and urban
centres. The most important and substantive functions of the French Local
government institutions are provision of free education, that provides political
education and participation as well as police services. The French Local
government councils have great authority over items that are more difficult and
local in character such as parks or gardens, recreations centres and street
maintenance (Nwatu, 1995).In Britain, Local Government performs three broad
functions and these are classified as: (A) Environmental (B) Protective and (C)
Personal. The environmental functions of Local government in Britain are
concerned the with the immediate physical environment via, land, air and
water, through the protection of the atmosphere, road construction and
maintenance, labelling, cleaning and provision of street lights, water supplies,
refuse disposal etc. The protective functions are those that deal with safety of
citizens, police and fire services, while the Personal service deals with
individual well-being such as health, schools, housing, museum, libraries
services. In Britain today, the most significant complex and cumbersome
function of Local government is the provision of housing for the teeming
population. However, not all Local government institutions can perform these
functions. In rural districts, parish councils have limited control in matters of
Local interest such as allotments, burial grounds, lighting and provision of
amenities (Nwatu, 1995). In the United States, special districts are created to
carry out specific functions or projects. The main function of Local government
administration is the management of the public schools system. The other
functions performed by Local government in the USA are policing, public
works, libraries and recreation, public utilities, city planning, public health,
229
airports, harbour and housing. These are indeed gigantic functions which
municipal city government can take on (Nwatu, 1995).
In India, Local government administration is known as Panchyali-Raj. The
functions of Local government institutions in India follow a similar pattern like
that of the USA except for police and the gigantic function of harbours and
airports. The functions of Local government administration are similar to the
Nigerian situation. Their functions can also be classified as obligatory and
discretionary, such functions include agricultural programmes, animal
husbandry, building and communications, education administration, fishery,
forestry, small-scale industries, medical services, security disposal etc. The
urban councils could perform obligatory functions like conservation, street
lighting, drainage construction, waste management and road maintenance, while
the larger councils could also engage in water supply, street cleaning and
labelling; refuse disposal, fire service, primary educations etc. (Nwatu, 1995).
In the Nigerian situation, the functions of Local government institutions are
usually spelt out by the Central government, and the local units are expected to
operate within the framework of the status establishing it. The urban Councils
provide more services because of challenges than their rural counterparts. The
functions of Local government institutions in Nigeria as discussed in the 1999
Constitution (fourth schedule) are discussed in the next section.
Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Identify the functions of local government institutions in the USA,
Britain, France, India and USSR.
3.2
The functions of the Local government are usually spelt out by the central
government. The administration of Local government can either be rural or
urban. The functions of rural Local government institutions are simpler than
their urban counterpart. The Local government institutions are subjected to the
standards required by the Central government especially in the provision of
230
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
(i).
(ii).
(iv). Restaurants, bakeries and other places for sale of food to the public.
3.2.2 Concurrent
or
Permissive
Functions
of
Local
Government
Institutions
The functions of a Local government institution shall include-participation of
such Council in the government of a State in respect of the following matters:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
CONCLUSION
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, you learnt about the functions of Local government administration
in Nigeria. The functions are classified into two, the exclusive or mandatory and
the permissive or concurrent. In India, local government institutions are called
Panchayali-Raj. The Urban councils performed more functions than their rural
counterparts. The functions of Local government institutions in France, and
USSR, are majorly in the provision of primary education. In USA, Local
government institutions are classified into three; environmental, protective and
personal.
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Question:
1. Explain the functions of Local government institutions in Nigeria.
2. Explain the functions of the French system of Local government
administration.
7.0
REFERENCE/FURTHER READING
Government
Administration,
(Enugu
Fourth
Dimension
Publishers).
Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of Local Government Reforms
1976, Kaduna Government Press.
Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of The Federal Republic Of
Nigeria 1976, Apapa Daily Times Publication.
233
234
UNIT 21
FINANCING LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN NIGERIA
Table of Content
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1
Internal Sources
3.1.1 Property Tax
3.1.2 User Charges
3.1.3 General Administration Revenue
3.2
External Sources
3.2.1 Grants
3.2.2 Loans
3.3
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0
References/Further Reading.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In the last section, you had an idea of what the functions of Local government
are all about. This unit is on financing Local government in Nigeria. In this unit,
the focus is on the finance, sources of revenue and Federal government control
over Local government financing in Nigeria. We shall be looking at the sources
of revenues (externally mobilized and internally generated) how funds are
raised.
235
2.0
OBJECTIVES
b.
Explain the Federal government financial controls of Local government
council in
Nigeria.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
revenues are funds mobilised outside its territories, which could be in form of
grants and loans.
3.1
Internal sources of Local government revenue are those generated within the tax
jurisdictions of Local government. As mentioned earlier, such jurisdictions are
sometime in line with the constitution while others are conventional. In the
Nigerian case, these sources are specified in the constitution. There are also tax
laws to support revenue generation. Local government internal revenue can be
classified as Local tax revenues, user charges and administrative revenues. The
most common of these three, is tax revenue or levies by the Councils on the
people for services rendered. The principles of taxation are efficiency, equity
and revenue productivity. Tax administrations are better managed at the city or
urban areas than rural ones. A local tax is generally seen as a tax whose base or
236
b.
Despite the promising nature of this tax, it is associated with some problems.
These constraints are mainly administrative, technical and political. The
administrative problems have to do with the attitude of the tax collectors who
are not usually efficient and effective. The problem is technical, where the
machines for computation of data and classification of property malfunction and
are limited in supply, and political, where political forces influence compliance
237
with property valuation. In Nigeria, the rating of property tax mostly in rural
areas are faced with a lot of challenges such as unwillingness to comply while
in the urban areas there is no clear measure of determining property tax.
3.1.2. User Charges
Taxes of this kind are fees paid in exchange for a service provided by the Local
government. Most of the exclusive and concurrent functions assigned to Local
government as earlier mentioned are sources of revenue. These could be
classified as user charges administrative or general revenues. They come from
the sale of economic goods, services and resources by the government, fares in
Local government buses, fees for using Local government properties, car park
etc. In Nigeria, the Council generates more of these fees and charges from the
urban Local government councils than the rural ones.
3.1.3. General Administrative Revenue
Local government powers over revenue are largely residual. In Nigeria, the
following cases are codified under the following Local government revenue
heads (Anifowose and Enemuo, 1999).
1001 Taxes
1002 Rates
1003 Local licenses, fees and fine
1004 Earnings from commercial undertaking
1005 Rent in Local government property
1006 Internal payments and dividends.
Part of what has been treated under property tax and user charges fall under
1001 and 1004 respectively. In Nigeria, Local governments heads 1003 1004
continue to be the mainstay of Local government revenue. A few revenue items,
such as market and motor parks licences and fees from television and radio have
shown to be visible sources of revenue. However, most items of internal
238
revenue in Nigeria Local governments are inelastic, this means, that the
administrative cost of collecting them could exceed the benefits. Furthermore, a
revenue head like Head 1003 alone covers a range of items or subhead of 1001
items. These include licenses on dogs, bicycles and other minor permits which
may add up to little.
From the foregoing, one can deduce that the internal sources of revenue of
urban areas are likely to raise higher revenue than local areas. Hardly do rural
governments in Nigeria go beyond the 10% of total Local government revenue,
and in some cases less than 5%, while urban Local government may generate up
to 15 20%. However, the survival of Local governments rests largely with
external sources rather than internal ones, despite the huge internally generated
revenues realized by some selected states or urban Local government council.
Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain the differences between grants and loans as sources of revenue to
Local government institutions
2. Identify and explain the central government control over Local
government institutions
3.2
b.
c.
GOVERNMENT
CONTROL
OF
LOCAL
GOVERNMENTS
There are various controls or bodies charged with the supervision of Local
government councils. The three main federal government organs the
Legislature Executive and Judiciary exercise different forms of control over
Local government institutions.
These forms of controls are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
b.
c.
The bulk of Local government revenue comes from grants from the
Federal government. The Federal government may decide to reduce the
grant or to withhold it entirely if the services for such grants have been
allocated are either not being provided for satisfactory, the grant to Lagos
state was with-held for a while during Obasanjos second term in office
over the creation of additional Local councils development areas. When
grants are withheld, the Local government councils can hardly function
with regards to the provision of essential services.
b.
against the Local institutions. They have the power to pardon and grant amnesty
to any person or officers that contravene Local government laws.
4.0
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Question:
1. Explain the Sources of Revenues of Local government institutions in
Nigeria
2. Differentiate between judicial and administrative control of Local
government
243
Government
Administration,
(Enugu
Fourth
Dimension
Publishers).
Obiajulu Sunday And Obi Emeka Anthony (2004), Public Administration In
Nigeria, A Developmental Approach Bookpoint Limited.
Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of Local Government Reforms
1976, Kaduna Government Press.
Federal Republic Of Nigeria, The Constitution Of The Federal Republic Of
Nigeria 1976, Apapa Daily Times Publication.
Federal Republic Of Nigeria (1999), The Constitution Of The Federal Republic
Of Nigeria, Lagos Government Press.
Federal Republic Of Nigeria, Operational Guidelines For Local Government
Councils, Abuja 1997
Orewa, G. O. And Adewunmi J. B. (1983), Local Government In Nigeria, The
Changing Scene Benin Ethiopia Publishing Co-Operation
Oyediran, O.(1988), Essays On Local Government And Administration In
Nigeria. Lagos, Government Press.
Remi Anifowose And Francis C. Enemuo (1999), Elements Of Politics, Sam
Iroanusi Publications
Nwatu, D. N (1995), Local Government In Nigeria: An Introduction, Enugu
Agatha Service Publisher Ltd
244
UNIT 22
PROBLEMS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENTS AND
REFORMS/COMMITTEES
Table of Content
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
3.0
Main Content
3.1
3.2
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0
References/Further Reading
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In the last section, you had an idea of what the sources of revenue and Federal
government control over Local government are all about. This unit will take you
a step further into the problems facing Local government and reforms of Local
Government in Nigeria. This unit discussed the problems of finance,
administration, inter-governmental relations among others. It also discussed the
reforms under President Obasanjo and Babangida administration among other.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
b.
3.1.1 Finance
Inadequate financial resource is a major problem facing Local government
administration and in Nigeria. The collective impact of several factors have
compounded these problems, for instance, some Local governments are
generally poor. Many citizens do not see the need to pay taxes, as the amenities
on which they are taxed are inadequate in supply or never provided. Other
financial problems of Local Government in Nigeria are:
a.
b.
With the low level of finance, massive corruption takes place in Local
governments
institutions,
money
realized
are
either
embezzled
3.1.2 Administrative
a.
b.
Surveys have shown that in recent years, the quantum of staff has
increased. Though, there have been more quality staff in administration
than the technical (Engineers, Architect) and professional fields (Planning
and Research) in Local government, the appointment of incompetent staff
is rampant. The resultant effects of this are mismanagement,
incompetence, embezzlement, misappropriation, corruption and failure to
provide the necessary opportunities for the Local people (Egwurube,
1991).
c.
b.
c.
3.1.4 Community
The communities often feel marginalized in development. Community
development efforts are not adequately supported by Local government even
where intervention occurs. The net effect of this is that, the community feels
marginalized
and efforts.
The
more
programmes and projects are community driven and participatory, the more the
community would want to own and sustain the programme. Community attitude
also reinforces the corruptive attitude of politicians. Instead of demanding for
accountability from politicians who amass lots of wealth and status symbols
while in office, they perceive this as the ultimate objectives of politics. Such
political actors are acclaimed. They have on the basis of this is his time. This
is a very negative attitude to anti-corruption and development.
3.1.5 Intergovernmental Relations
Intergovernmental relationships in Nigeria exist among the three organs of
government legislature, executive and judiciary. The Legal or Constitutional
Framework, within which these relations take place and the position of the
government functions in the hierarchy are institutionalized. However, there
exist four (4) types of intergovernmental relations; these are vertical, horizontal,
diagonal and external intergovernmental relations (Obiajulu and Obi, 2004).
a. Vertical Intergovernmental Relations: This is where the institution at the
higher level has a position of influence and authority over the institution at the
lower level e.g. the influence of Public Service Commission on Local
government Councils.
b Horizontal Intergovernmental Relations
employees, in 1988 afforded the Local government the chance to promote their
staff up to grade level fifteen. This created opportunities for the employment of
professionals such as engineers, legal officers, health officials, architect etc.
b.
own government secretaries had made them real Chief Executives in their
domains while the creation of Local Government Legislative Assemblies made
the separation of powers and responsibilities complete. Local governments
became a distinct third-tier level of government in the country.
c.
Local government Councils started getting their grants directly from the Federal
government.
d.
system. Secondly, government lacked the financial base to sustain the autonomy
of these Local government Councils (Egwurube, 1991).
3.2.4 Local Government Reforms in the Fourth Republic (1979)
The implementation of Babangida reforms boosted the performance and
activities of Local government Councils but the major setback was the
frequency of postponed elections. The Council Chairmen and their councilors
were voted into office. Decree 36 of 1998 specified three year tenure for them
which ought to expire on 29th of May, 2003 but the Council chairmen demanded
of a-four year tenure. They felt that what was obtains at the Federal level should
apply to them. They formed an Association of Local Government Chairmen of
Nigeria (ALGON) and lobby the National Assembly for one year extension of
tenure as contained in the Electoral Act 2007. However, this resulted in a court
case and on the 28th of March, 2002 the Supreme Court ruled against the Local
government Chairmen. The judgement was a big blow to Council bosses that
were preparing to spend one more year in office; State governors thereafter
started making arrangements for council polls. The Council polls that were
fixed for April 13th, 2002 could not hold until March 2004. This was due to the
inability of the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to provide
the electoral register, and the registration of new parties and all those led to the
change of date till, 2004, after the general election of 2003 (Obiajulu and Obi,
2004).
3.2.5. The 2003 Local Government Reforms
The 2003 Local government reforms were set up due to the problems of Local
governments in the fourth republic. The President in a nationwide broadcast on
the 18th of June, 2003, informed the nation that the Council of State, (made up
of the President, his Deputy, the 36 State Governors, all past Presidents and the
leaders of National Assembly) has agreed on a reform of the nations Local
government system.
The decisions of the Council of States were based on:
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CONCLUSION
From the foregoing discussion, Local government institutions were faced with
many challenges and problems ranges from Finance, Administrative,
Community, Political and Leadership and Intergovernmental Relations. Various
Reforms and Committees were set-up to reviews the activities and make
recommendations on Local government systems in Nigeria. The reports have
similar views and intentions. There is the need to grant Local governments third
254
SUMMARY
in Nigeria. Grants
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Question:
1.
2.
255
UNIT 23
CONCEPT OF BUREAUCRACY
TABLE OF CONTENT
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objectives
256
3.0
Main Content
3.1
Meaning of Bureaucracy
3.1.1 Forms of Power/Authority in Bureaucracy
3.1.2 Power and Authority
3.2
3.3
Elements of Bureaucracy
3.4
Functions of Bureaucracy
3.5
Criticisms of Bureaucracy
4.0
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
6.0
7.0
References/Further Reading.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
Define Bureaucracy
b.
c.
d.
3.0
3.1
MEANING OF BUREAUCRACY
based on the obedience which is owed to the legally established impersonal set
of rules rather than a personal ruler. Weber, (1918) Legal-rational authority and
power rest in the office rather than, the occupier of the office. Legal rational
authorities reside in rulers who are rationally appointed by people and can be
changed through a formal process or through an established procedure.
3.1.2 Power and Authority
Weber (1918), defines power as higher forces which compel a person to do
what he would not have done; while authority is referred to a legitimate power
which wills makes a holder responsible for certain functions. He further states
that, authority is inseparable from responsibility for the achievement of goals
for which any organization was established.
(A). The ruler appoints his loyalist to court; he granted them powers and
commissioned them to perform these tasks.
(B).
A.
Hierarchy of Authority
for this supervision is to oversee the activities of the lower officers with a view
to training the junior employees and ensuring their activities tilt towards
realizing organizational aims and objectives.
B.
Bureaucracy operates within the framework of law which guides both the
superior and the subordinates. (The rule of law requires the administration of
actions affecting individuals rights and should reflect: (i) precedents and (ii)
legal sanctions not personal discretion of the official. The pre-imminent position
of the rule of law means:
(a) The official leans heavily toward precedents (b) He leans towards
inflexibility in his actions; (c) He is dependent on legal and financial assistance
(d) There is strict conformity to established rules, procedures and legal
regulations. The framework of law is to regulate the employees behavioural
patterns in the organization. This will help to coordinate activities in the
organisation and ensure uniformly in the actions of the employee.
C.
Technical Specialization
Weber (1918), in conjunction with Taylor (1917) believes in the preference for
scientific methods of appointing employee into sensitive positions. Weber
emphasized the need to base promotion on security and ability of employee to
meet the targets agreed with him/her. He emphasized the need for training and
development of workers through internal movement from one position to the
other.
to
ensure
Organisational processes are reviewed, over and over again, to make the
workers more specialized and competent. The division of activities called
routinization of work and it is implicit in the idea of specialization. Another
aspect of specialization is that bureaucratic Organizations tend to divide its
entire aims and goals, to sub-units until it reaches the level of targets for
individual.
D.
This is the ability to think and make decisions on reasons. It was the search for
rationality that hastened the development of bureaucracy. Rationality represents
the systematic organization of task and individuals to maximize efficiency.
Bureaucracy facilitates the channelling of individuals behaviour into
productive ends by means of rule, regulations and sanctions. It provides its
members with valuable and factual premise for decision making. The goals of
rationality are promoted by the principles of unity of command, ultimate
authority as well as rules and organisations.
E.
Written Records/Documentation
Value System
Bureaucrats work within a value system that determines the conduct of their
actions. Values consist of opinion of colleagues and cultural values of the
society. Bureaucracy and its characteristics vary from society to society. This
phenomenon modified Webers contention that bureaucracy is universal.
Bureaucrats identify value system with the rules of their organization;
bureaucrats rarely attach loyalty to persons, but attribute loyalty to the
impersonal functions they perform. This notwithstanding, they are also, under
the influence of other loyalties e.g. social clubs, church, ethnic group, political
parties, relations, colleagues e.g. (giving job or admission to a brother who is
qualified, first before any other person).
3.4
FUNCTIONS OF BUREAUCRACY
performing certain crucial functions. For example, during the turbulent period
(1966-1970) in Nigerian, the survival of Nigeria as a nation owed much to the
dedication and actions of the Federal Bureaucrats.
5. Environmental Functions: Environmental functions which are performed
by bureaucrats include:
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a.
every issue first and foremost against public interest. Unfortunately, there is no
way of determining what public interest is, especially in situations where they
are vague and ambiguous.
b.
CRITICISMS OF BUREAUCRACY
Another criticism of
It thrives best under stable routine conditions. Weber (1918), failed to recognize
that men are endowed with limited intelligence. Men are not Omniscience and
therefore all Organizations must be designed for the normal man and not for a
superman. Knowledge of organizational effectiveness of operations may not
always come from the superior. There are situations where the subordinate
could be very relevant to the success of the Organization than the boss. Weber,
(1918), did not recognize that environmental factors affect the operation of the
Bureaucrats, for example, Nigeria Bureaucracy is affected by ethnicity, Federal
character and Quota systems and such other cultural and environmental factors
which a dynamic Bureaucracy must put into consideration for harmonious coexistence its members.
Marx (1848), a prudent scholar of Bureaucracy, sees bureaucracy as an
apparatus of the state, that emerged under capitalism as an auid pro quo. He
states that bureaucracy emerged because of the division of people into social
classes. To Marx, bureaucracy is not directly related to production but it
constitutes the unproductive sector of economy. Lenin (1984), argues that,
bureaucracy is historically contingent on the capitalist mode of production, and
this mode of capitalism production pre-supposes a situation in which there is
division of people into social class namely Bourgeoisie and Proletariat
(privileged and less privileged people).However, reutilization and rigid
adherence to rules have made bureaucracy sluggish, drudgery and full of red
tapeism. The ideal form of bureaucracy brings about precision, speed,
effectiveness, efficiency and increased productivity and performance.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Bureaucracy refers to orderly and structural arrangement of things in an
organisation. The essentials of bureaucracy are to implement policies of large
entities such as government and non-governmental organizations. The purpose
and mission of bureaucracy are to determine efficiency of organisations.
266
SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that Bureaucracy centred on human organizations
particularly the collective personnel and structure of government organizations.
Bureaucratization processes ensures the execution of laws and commands and
the need for security of tenure of officer. Pure bureaucracy does not exist in the
real sense. The Functions of Bureaucracy are Policy implementation, framing
legislation, influencing Legislature, ensuring survival and growth of
organization, economic planning, and environmental functions etc.
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
QUESTION:
1a.
Define Bureaucracy
b.
2.
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
UNIT 24
THE NIGERIAN CIVIL SERVICE
TABLE OF CONTENT
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Objective
3.0
Main Content
3.1
3.2
3.3
Conclusion
5.0
Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last section, you had an idea of what bureaucracy is all about. This
section will take you a step further into the concept of the Nigerian Civil
Service. In this unit, we shall be looking at the meaning and evolution of the
Civil Service; the organizational chart of the service, the principles or
characteristics of the Nigerian Civil Service, the functions, advantages and
disadvantages of the Nigerian Civil Service.
8.0
OBJECTIVES
b)
c)
d)
3.0MAIN CONTENT
3.1
SERVICE
The Civil Service is an institution created by the government to take care of the
various needs of the society or a country either directly or through agencies
responsible or answerable to the service (Nwosu, 1977). The Civil Service had
laid down rules and regulations but the service is designed primarily to govern
the conduct of governmental affairs and to safeguard public interests. The
service spent time taken in considering issues thoroughly and ensure that
decisions are not based on wrong conclusions and premises but that facts are
made available. The Civil Service is the body of permanent officials employed
to assist the political executives in implementation of governmental policies.
The effectiveness of the Civil Service in the discharge of its functions depends
on the will of the society it serves and also on its ability to respond in practical
terms to its policy decisions (Nwosu, 1977). It can therefore be said that, civil
service is narrower in scope and exclude some government employees who are
public servants. According to the defunct 1998 Civil Service reforms, civil
servants exclude the President and Commander-in-chief of the Army Forces,
Governors,
Local
Government
Chairmen,
Ministers,
Commissioners,
Supervisory Councillors etc. (precisely all political office holders). The term
civil service therefore covers all employees of the State other than those holding
270
political appointments who are employed into the Civil Service. The vision of
the civil service is to develop professionally sound, highly competent and
qualified personnel, technological-driven and performance-oriented. The Office
of the Head of Service of the Federation is responsible for providing leadership
and direction to the service through the promotion of good relations between
Ministers and the civil servants. The mandate of the Head of Service is to
provide management leadership, training and motivation of civil servants in all
the ministries and departments of the government.
Ademolekun, (1983), believes that the civil Service is meant to provide social
services to the populace. Public service as a term is broader in scope than civil
service.
ministries and departments but also, statutory cooperation e.g. (PHCN, NITEL)
etc. and the armed forces. Public service means the totality of services that are
organized under government authorities. The evolution of the Civil Services in
Nigeria started from 1900 when Britain formally established her authority in
most areas in Nigeria.
interest, norms, and structures. Despite the amalgamation and its attendant
unification the two regions developed at their own space. The major function of
the Civil Services at that time was mainly the maintenance of law and order and
secondly to raise revenue to sustain the colonial authorities. Economic and
social Development were never the major objectives of the administration.
However, Nwosu, (1977), outlined the structure of the colonial service in
Nigeria thus: The Governor-general was the Head of Public Service; he was
accountable to the colonial secretary in London. The colonial secretary was
himself accountable to the British cabinet and to the parliament.
The
indirect rule system was easy because the Emirs were fully in control of the
people before the advent of colonialism; they had unquestionable powers. In the
West, the indirect rule was also successful; the Obas were fully in control
(though with some measures of checks and balances). In the East, it was a
different scenario all together, with the exception of few areas. The diffused
system of authority was described as segmentary /fragmented; this made it
difficult for the indirect rule system to be introduced. However this did not
deter the colonial officials from building an administrative. They created the
warrant chief and made them to perform the roles of their counterparts in the
North and Western regions. However, the system of administration in the
Eastern region undoubtedly encountered many problems as stated in Unit six of
module one (Ecology and Evolution of Public Administration). During this
period, Nigerians were restricted to the lower echelons of the civil service.
3.1.1 Organisational Structure of the Nigerian Civil Service
The defunct 1988 Civil Service reforms recommended the organisational
structure of the Nigerian Civil Service as: (a)Secretary to the Government (b)
Permanent Secretary (c) Directors (d) Deputy Directors (e) Assistant Directors
(f) Principal Officers (g) Senior Officers(h) Administrative Officer I&ll (j)
Junior Officers. However, the Structure of the Civil Service can be divided into
the following categories: (A) The Administrative Class (B) The Executive Class
(C) The Professional Class (D) The Junior Cadre.
273
not professional. They constitute the unskilled and semi-skilled labour. They
constitute about 40-60% of the workforce of any Organisation. These categories
of civil servants are the clerical officers, drivers, massagers/office assistants,
cleaners, typist, gardeners, security guards, key punch operators, receptionist
etc.
Self-Assessment Exercise:
1. Explain the Personnel practices performed by the Civil Service
2. Explain the Organisational Structure of the Civil Service
3.2 PERSONNEL PRACTICES PERFORMED BY THE CIVIL SERVICE
The Civil Service like any other organisation has organisational goals (provision
of social services) Personnel management in the civil service encompasses the
following functions:
(a) Recruitment: The mode of recruitment into the civil service is through the
Civil Service Commission for officers on grade level 08-17 on the completion
of civil service form, while the individual ministries recruited officers on grade
level 01-07.
councils and whose remuneration are paid out of the money voted by the
legislature. The following are the functions of the Civil Service:
3.4.1. Policy Implementation: The major function of the Civil Service is the
implementation of government policies. Civil Servants are not policy makers
and are not really in a position to question government policies. Whenever
policy is made, it becomes the role of the civil servants to implement the policy
the way it ought to be implemented. Often times, it is when policies are being
implemented that most people become aware of the policy and its effects and
where the policy is unfavourable to the masses, they may react adversely to it.
Policies are subject to adjustment and the Civil Servants give feed-back to the
political office holders who are policy makers.
3.4.2. Ensuring Continuity of Public Administration: The Civil Service
being a body of permanent officials of the state stands for continuity, this helps
to stabilise the state by ensuring the continuity of government activities mostly
to societies like Nigeria with unstable political history. As governments come
and go, the civil service makes sure that vital activities of the state do not break
down.
3.4.3 Advising Policy Makers: Civil servants are people with a lot of
experience and are expected to advice political office holders on policies
(formulation and implementation). This role was more emphasized during the
military regimes were young military officers with little experience found
themselves in power. Being novice in parade they had no choice than to rely
on the expertise of top Civil Servants. Where the advice of the civil servant is
rejected, he must go ahead to implement the decision of the government even
though it is against his personal wish.
3.3.4. Provision of Input for Policy: Civil Servants with vast knowledge of
experience make provision of inputs for policy formulation. Whenever a policy
is to be formulated, some top level Civil Servants (professional and seasoned
administrators) makes their inputs with the elected office holders (Ministers,
Governors, Special advisers, Commissioners) etc.
3.3.5 Information Function: It is one of the duties of the Civil Servants to pass
information from the political office holders down to the masses and vice versa.
It is expected that the Civil Servants who come into contact with the masses,
should give a feed-back to the political office holders who are policy makers
who can then adjust the policy, to suit the demands of the people. The core civil
servants are always on ground to give information to the public.
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