Harold Saxton Burr

BLUEPRINT FOR
IMMORTALITY
The Electric PanerJ)S of Ufc
HAROLD SAXTON BURR
Blueprint for Immortality

The Electric Patterns of Life
LONDON
NEVILLE SPEARMAN
Harold Saxton Burr, Ph.D

E. K. Hunt Professor Emeritus, Anatomy
Yale University School of Medicine
Portrait by An:r.ybsheff. Rcprodu,ed by perm;uion of YOile Uniyer-sily Art GaliN)'
Portrait was ,ill offormer students, alumni and colh.aguei of Yal. Unjverit)' Schaal of Medidne
First published in Great Britain 1972

by Neville Spe arm an Limited
112 Whitfield Street, London WIP 6DP
Copyright 1972 by Harold Saxton Burr
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be

reproduced in any form by any electronic or
mechanical means, including information storage and
retrieval systems, without permission in writing
from the Publisher, except by a reviewer who may
quote brief passages in a review.
SBN 85 435 281
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number
72-75971
Set in II pt Tuli an a, I '2 pt leaded, and

printed by Northumberland Press Ltd, Gates
head. Bound by Mansell Bookbinders Ltd.
London
CONTENTS
Foreword
Part I
VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY
Chapter 1 .
An Adventure in Science
11
Chapter
The Course and the Compass
26
Chapter 3.
The Female Field
45
Chapter 4.
The Ubiquitous Field
61
Chapter 5 .
The Field a s a Signpost
80
Chapter 6.
Antennae to the Universe
96
Chapter 7.
The Continuing Adventure
110
2.
Part II
SELECTED PAPERS
135
Appendix
Bibliography of H. S. Burr
185
ILLUSTRATI ONS
Harold Saxton Burr
Frontispiece
Voltmeter recommended by the Author page 86

Measurement of hypnotic conditions
page 87
FOREWORD
The Universe in which we find ourselves and from which we

can not be separated is a place of Law and Order. It is not an
accident, nor chaos. It is organized and maintained by an
Electro-dynamic Field capable of determining the position and
movement of all charged particles.
For nearly half a century the logical consequences of this
theory have been subjected to rigorously controlled experimental
conditions and met with no contradictions.
H. S. Burr
PART I
Voyage of Discovery
CHAPTER ONE
An Adventure in Science
1
We live in troubled and difficult times. There are wars and

dangers of war. In many parts of the world there are revolts, pro
tests, crime and lawlessness in ceaseless eruption. And over this
age hangs the Sword of Damocles of possible nuclear destruction.
More and more people ask themselves despondently whether
life has any sense or purpose. Many are tempted to believe that
man is an accident, left to grapple with his lonely fate on an
insignificant planet in a harsh and lawless Universe.
In a materialistic, scientific age many find it hard to accept
those religious beliefs that sustained their forefathers in times
which-to them-seemed as troubled and perilous as the present.
They would like to believe that man is no accident and that the
Universe in which he lives is one of law, order and purpose. But,
dazzled by the methods and triumphs of science, they are unwill
ing to take anything on trust; they demand some 'scientific' proof
or evidence.
Until some forty years ago this demand could not be met be
cause the necessary electronic instruments and techniques had
not been developed. When these became available, however, an
entirely new approach to the nature of man and his place in the
Universe became possible. For these instruments revealed that
man-and, in fact, all forms-are ordered and controlled by
electro-dynamic fields which can be measured and mapped with
precision.
Though almost inconceivably complicated, the 'fields of life'
are of the same nature as the simpler fields known to modern
physics and obedient to the same laws. Like the fields of physics,
they are a part of the organization of the Universe and are in11
A N A D V E N T UR E IN S C I E N C E
fluenced by the vast forces of space. Like the fields of physics, too,
they have organizing and directing qualities which have been
revealed by many thousands of experiments.
Organization and direction, the direct opposite of chance,
imply purpose. So the fields of life offer purely electronic, in
strumental evidence that man is no accident. On the contrary, he
is an integral part of the Cosmos, embedded in its all-powerful
fields, subject to its inflexible laws and a participant in the
destiny and purpose of the Universe.
This book is an account of the adventure in science-of the
long, step-by-step exploration-that wrested from Nature the
answer to the question which so many in these times are asking
so anxiously.
Electro-dynamic fields are invisible and intangible; and it is

hard to visualize them. But a crude analogy may help to show
what the fields of life-L-fields for short-do and why they are
so important:
Most people who have taken high-school science will remember
that if iron-filings are scattered on a card held over a magnet
they will arrange themselves in the pattern of the 'lines of
force' of the magnet's field. And if the filings are thrown away
and fresh ones scattered on the card, the new filings will assume
the same pattern as the old.
Something like this-though infinitely more complicated
happens in the human body. Its molecules and cells are con
stantly being torn apart and rebuilt with fresh material from
the food we eat. But, thanks to the controlling L-field, the new
molecules and cells are rebuilt as before and arrange themselves
in the same pattern as the old ones.
Modern research with 'tagged' elements has revealed that the
materials of our bodies and brains are renewed much more often
than was previously realized. All the protein in the body, for
example, is 'turned over' every six months and, in some organs
such as the liver, the protein is renewed more frequently. When
12
A N A D V E N T U R E I N S C IE N C E
we meet a friend we have not seen for six months there is not one
molecule in his face which was there when we last saw him. But,
thanks to his controlling L-field, the new molecules have fallen
into the old, familiar pattern and we can recognize his face.
Until modern instruments revealed the existence of the control
ling L-fields, biologists were at a loss to explain how our bodies
'keep in shape' through ceaseless metabolism and changes of
material. Now the mystery has been solved, the electro-dynamic
field of the body serves as a matrix or mould, which preserves the
'shape' or arrangement of any material poured into it, however
often the material may be changed.
When a cook looks at a jelly-mould she knows the shape
of the jelly she will turn out of it. In much the same way, in
spection with instruments of an L-field in its initial stage can
reveal the future 'shape' or arrangement of the materials it will
mould. When the L-field in a frog's egg, for instance, is examined
electrically it is possible to show the future location of the frog's
nervous system because the frog's L-field is the matrix which will
determine the form which will develop from the egg. (See
page 61.)
Inspection of L-fields is done with special voltmeters and elec
trodes-to be described shortly-which reveal different patterns
or gradients of voltages in different parts of the L-field.
To return to the cook, when she uses a battered mould she
expects to find some dents or bulges in the jelly. Similarly, a
'battered' L-field-that is, one with abnormal voltage-patterns
-can give warning of something 'out of shape' in the body,
sometimes in advance of actual symptoms.
For example, malignancy in the ovary has been revealed by
L-field measurements before any clinical sign could be observed.
Such measurements, therefore, could help doctors to detect can
cer early, when there is a better chance of treating it successfully.
(See page 54 and Dr. Langman's paper in Part II.)
Nature keeps an infinite variety of electro-dynamic 'jelly
moulds' on her shelves with which she shapes the countless diff
erent forms of life that exist on this planet. L-fields have been
detected and measured not only in men and women but also in
animals, trees, plants, seeds, eggs and even in one of the lowest
13
A N A D V E N T UR E I N S C I E N C E
forms of life, slime-moulds.

Of these L-fields, those of trees can tell something that others
cannot because trees do not move about, live to a great age and
can be hitched up to recording instruments for long periods of
time. For many years a maple tree in New Haven and an elm in
Old Lyme were continuously connected to recording voltmeters
-something which, obviously, cannot be done with men and
women.
These long records showed that the L-fields of trees vary not
only with sunlight and darkness but also with the cycles of the
moon, with magnetic storms and with sunspots. (See page 97 and
Mr. Markson's paper in Part II.)
If such extra-terrestrial forces can influence the relatively
simple L-fields of trees we would expect them to have an even
greater influence on the more complex L-fields of men and
women; and there is evidence that they do.
These sturdy Connecticut trees, then, have helped to answer
the question which philosophers have disputed for centuries and
which many ask so anxiously today. For they have shown that
life on this planet is not isolated from the Universe but a part of
it-susceptible to those irresistible forces that exert their influ
ence across the vast distances of space.
3
i-fields are detected and examined by measuring the difference
in voltage between two points on-or close to-the surface of
the living form. In men and women L-field voltages can be
measured by placing one electrode on the forehead and the other
on the chest or the hand. Alternatively, the index finger of each
hand is dipped into howls of saline solution connected to the volt
meter. In special cases voltage readings may be taken by apply
ing the electrodes to some specific organ or part of the body.
In trees, the electrodes are in contact through salt bridges with
the cambium layer, one about two feet above the other.
The.;e voltage measurements have nothing to do with the
alternating electrical currents which doctors find in the heart and
the brain. They are pure voltage potentials which can yield only
14
A N A D V E N T URE I N S C I E N C E
an infinitesimal amount of direct current. That is why L-fields

could not be detected before the invention of the vacuum-tube
voltmeter, which requires virtually no current for its operation.
An ordinary voltmeter needs so much current to swing the
needle that it would drain away the L-field potentials and make
any reading useless if not impossible.
When Sir John Fleming, an Englishman, discovered that elec
trons flow from a heated wire in a vacuum and Lee DeForest, an
American, found out how to use them with a grid, it is unlikely
that either of them ever imagined that the vacuum tube which
resulted from their discoveries would one day make possible a
new approach to the mystery of life. And it was many years be
fore the vacuum tube had been sufficiently perfected to make the
vacuum-tube voltmeter a reliable instrument.
In the early days of his researches, some forty years ago, the
author spent three years developing his own instruments. Today
highly sensitive and reliable vacuum-tube voltmeters are avail
able commercially and are to be found in most physics labora
tories and electronic factories.
There is nothing mysterious, then, about the instruments
required to measure L-field voltages. But these are harder to
measure than those of a. car or transistor-radio battery. Special
electrodes must be used and the methods outlined in Chapter 2
must be followed rigidly and explicitly for successful results.
But it will be no more difficult to train doctors and their assistants
to read and interpret L-field voltages than it was to train them
to use electro-cardiographs or electro-encephalographs.
Extensive medical use of L-field readings, however, may not be
seen for some time. For it took over thirty years before electro
cardiograph techniques were perfected to the point where they
were useful in doctors' offices.
4
In the case of L-fields there is no technical reason why their
use by doctors should take so long. Modern instruments are
reliable; and any intelligent man or woman can learn the tech-
15
A N A D V E N T URE I N S C IE N C E
niques of taking and interpreting L-field readings in a short period

of intensive instruction. It is to be hoped that many will do so
because L-fields can be helpful to doctors, psychiatrists and others
in various ways.
Immediate and practical results, in fact, can stem from this
adventure in science-quite apart from the assurance that human
life has purpose and that man is not isolated from the Universe
-which have made the adventure even more worthwhile.
As mentioned earlier, abnormalities in L-field voltages can give
advance warning of future symptoms before these are evident.
This does not apply only to the early detection of cancer. As more
research is done and L-fields are better understood, it is probable
that they will be used to give early warning of a variety of physi
cal problems in time to tackle these effectively. And they have
already been used to forecast certain psychological and psychi
atric troubles. (See page 18 and Dr. Ravitz' paper in Part II.)
Among the physical events which can be predicted by measur
ing the voltage-gradients is the precise moment of ovulation in
a woman. This is possible because ovulation is preceded by a
steady and substantial rise in voltage, which falls rapidly to nor
mal after the egg has been released.
Such measurements have revealed that some women may ovul
ate over the entire menstrual period, that ovulation may occur
without mestruation and menses without ovulation. The poten
tial importance of this knowledge to gynaecology, family-plan
ning and birth-control is obvious; and it helps to explain why the
'rhythm method' of birth-control is inadequate.
A patient of the author's, a married woman, made good use of
her L-field. For years she and her husband had longed in vain to
have children. So, over a period of weeks, she made regular visits
to the author's office and herself measured the voltages in her own
L-field by dipping her fingers into bowls of solution connected to
a voltmeter. When, one day, she saw her voltages rising rapidly,
she knew that ovulation was imminent and went to her husband.
A longed-for child was the result.
Wounds-even a small cut on the finger-will change the
voltages in the L-field and, as the wound heals, these will return
to normal. This offers surgeons a simple, reliable way to measure
16
AN ADVENTURE IN SCIENCE
the rate of healing, which will be specially useful with internal

wounds from operations. (See page 82.)
L-field measurements are not only useful in diagnosing local
conditions; they can also be used to assess the general state of
the body as a whole. For these pure voltage-differences-inde
pendent of any current flow or changes in skin-resistance-reveal
the state of the whole human force-field. Such conditions, then,
as ovulation or malignancy can be detected by measuring changes
in the L-field of the body at a distance from the affected organs.
And, as the force-field extends beyond the surface of the skin, it
is sometimes possible to measure field-voltages with the elec
trodes a short distance from the surface of the skin-not in con
tact with it. This shows that it is a true eld that is measured and
not some surface potential.

This, too, is additional evidence t hat L-eIds have the same
qualities as the mpler fields of physics because they can produce
an effect across a space or gap, without any visible intervening
means.
Since L-fields reveal the state of the body as a whole they
can be used to assess the general effects of drugs, sleep or hypnosis.
Dr. Leonard J. Ravitz, Jr., has not only measured the depth of
hypnosis with a voltmeter but has also found that strong emo
tions recalled during hypnosis can cause a voltage-rise of as much
as from 1 5 to 20 millivolts. (See page 87 and Dr. Ravitz' paper
in Part II.)
This suggests the fascinating possibility that psychiatrists of
the future will be able to measure the intensity of grief, anger or
love electrically-and as easily as we measure temperature or
noise-levels today. 'Heartbreak', hate, or love, in other words,
may one day be measurable in millivolts.
Good doctors have always known how important it is to con
sider the patient as a whole-to take into account his mental or
emotional state as well as his physical symptoms-because many
human ills have a 'psychosomatic' cause. Business worries or an
unhappy marriage are often the real cause of, say, headaches or
ulcers. Since L-field voltages reveal both physical and mental
conditions they can offer doctors a new insight into the state of
both body and mind.
17
AN ADVENTURE IN SC IENCE
When the effects on the human L-field of extraterrestrial forces

are established and understood, this knowledge will be important
in the study not only of human health and behaviour but also of
medical problems which may arise in long space explorations.
The fields of space may have unforseen effects on the L-fields of
astronauts if they are exposed to them for long periods.
5
This adventure in science promises still further 'dividends' in
the form of a better understanding of the human mind.
Dr. Ravitz has discovered that the voltages of the L-fields of
healthy people are not constant but vary in steady rhythms over
periods of weeks-whatever the cause may be. From plotting over
30,000 measurements on 430 human subjects he has found that
these rhythms show how the subjects feel. When they feel 'on
top of the world' their voltages are high; when they feel 'below
par' their voltages are low.
For healthy, normal people these voltage rhythms can be
plotted as steady regular curves which alter little over long
periods. From these curves, then, it is possible to predict in
advance when the individual will be at his best and when he will
be feeling 'below par'.
This knowledge could be of vital importance to those engaged
in hazardous duties, especially in the Armed Forces. If command
ing officers had advance knowledge of the 'low' periods of, say,
combat pilots, they could try to avoid sending them on dangerous
missions at times when their alertness and efficiency would be re
duced. If operational necessity made that impossible, at least this
knowledge might warn the men to use special vigilance and care.
Intelligently used, warnings offered by the state of the L-fields
could save valuable lives and equipment not only in the Armed
Forces but also in dangerous industrial occupations.
With emotionally-unstable people the voltage variations can
not be plotted as steady regular curves. They display an erratic
pattern which, in many cases, can be detected within a few days.
By purely objective, electronic means, therefore, it will be
18
possible for the Armed Forces quickly to detect and weed out
emotionally-unstable personnel before time and money are spent
on training them for duties for which they are not fitted.
Similarly, industry will be able not only to avoid hiring per
sonnel who might 'crack' under responsibility but also to find
those best qualified to assume greater responsibilities.
Since L-field voltages reflect mental and emotional states they
can also be useful in the handling of mental patients because
they offer doctors an objective measurement of progress. Thus
they can help to prevent the release of patients who might be a
danger to the public; they can also help doctors to decide when it
is safe to release others-with a great saving of hospital space and
taxpayers' money.
Voltage measurements used in this kind of psychological test
ing are completely impersonal and reproducible. There is no need
to question the patient; the technician who takes the readings
need not open his mouth.
In the medical laboratories of the future, it is probable that
trained technicians will take the voltage-readings and then sub
mit these to a doctor qualified to interpret them, in much the
same way as technicians take X-ray photographs and submit
them to a radiologist. 'Voltage-interpreters', however, need not
be as specialized as radiologists; and many doctors in the future
will be their own interpreters.
6
Since L-fields have been found in all living forms examined so

far, their potential usefulness is not limited to medical diagnosis.
In measuring the L-fields of plants, for instance, it has been
found that the change of a single gene in the parent stock
produces profound changes in the voltage-pattern. This phenom
enon could be of great importance in the study of genetics in
plan ts and in animals. (See page 70.)
By measuring the i-fields of seeds it is possible to predict how
strong and healthy the future plants will be. To have advance
knowledge of the future vitality of living forms could be useful
19
many fields. (See page 7 1 .)

Since the fields of life are dominant and control the growth and
development of all living forms, medical science may one day
find ways directly to treat the health of the patient electrically
before the onset of physical symptoms.
Agricultural scientists of the future may, perhaps, find ways
to stimulate the growth of crops electrically and to eliminate de
fects in their L-fields which render them prone to pests or diseases.
It has long been known not only that sunlight-a form of electro
magnetic radiation-is essential to the growth of most plant life
but also that different species require different 'dosages' of sun
light. It is known, too, that certain frequencies or colours of
light are beneficial in specific cases. I t may one day be dis
covered, then, that other and invisible electro-magnetic fre
quencies have beneficial effects on the L-fields of plants.
Since animals and plants possess-and are controlled by
their characteristic L-fields, like man they are an integral part of
the Universe and subject to its laws. So the human race and the
animal and vegetable kingdoms are component parts of the same
whole. You and I, our pets, our trees and our plants are all sub
ject to the same universal laws.
This is borne out by the mutual interdependence of species.
Plants depend for their existence on sunlight-an extraterrestrial
force; plants nourish man and animals; animals feed on each
other. So when we remember that we should starve without sun
light from some ninety-three million miles away, it is not hard
to accept tha t we are subject to the other great forces of space.
in
It has taken only a few pages to summarize some of the re

sults of this adventure in science for the benefit of the impatient
reader. But the adventure itself occupied many years because
Nature does not share human impatience and is in no hurry to
yield her secrets. Those, therefore, who expect instant answers
from Nature are likely to be disappointed.
Nature, too, does not effect instant improvements; she may
20
AN ADVE NTURE IN SCIENCE
take an aeon to evolve something better. And as we are all a part

of Nature and subject to her laws, those who expect an immedi
ate improvement of human nature or an instant answer to some
human problem are likely to suffer from acute frustration.
However impatient for results they may be, scientists realize
that they cannot impose their will or their desires on Nature;
they must follow her methods and meet her conditions. This may
explain why, in this age, science is usually more successful in
solving its problems than politics.
Perhaps, then, a description of this particular adventure in
science may serve a dual purpose: while it will give the evidence
that man is linked to the Universe and subject to its laws it will
also illustrate the scientific method by which the laws and secrets
of Nature may be discovered.
This has more than an academic interest at the present time
when respect for man-made laws is decreasing and many feel
that laws are made to be disobeyed. Natural laws, however, can
not be disobeyed; we cannot flout, for example, the law of
gravity. So the more we can find out about Nature's laws-and
also about how science discovers them-the easier it will be for us
to accept the need for laws and to realize that man-made laws
reflect-however imperfectly-the essential principles of a Uni
verse of law and order.
Unfortunately, there is much confusion about the meaning of
the word 'science'. The dictionary defines it as 'organized know
ledge'. But, beginning probably with Galileo, the experimental
method-with its enormous development since that time-has
revealed that it is not enough to describe and classify the Universe
in general and the earth in particular. It is also necessary to
attempt to find the meaning of all the facts that have been
accumulated.
This involves trying to understand the relation between the
component parts of the Universe-an understanding that must
always be developing and changing as the experimental method
uncovers more facts. All that can be done is to interpret the facts
as best we can, always bearing in mind that our knowledge is still
tragically incomplete.
Science, therefore, means not only the collection of facts and
21
AN ADVENTURE IN SC IENCE
the classification and description of the physical components of

the Universe but also a considera tion of the laws or forces which
govern the relation between these components.
This, of course, requires a primitive assumption : that the
Universe is a place of law and order which-it is to be hoped
can be understood by the mind of man.
There are many who maintain that the Universe is chaos,
that the only law and order in it are those which are imposed by
the mind of man-a far more primitive assumption. For, however
great our respect for the powers of the human mind, it is diffi
cult to see how man can impose the arrangements and move
ments of the stars in their courses or, as far as we on this earth are
concerned, the nature of the forces which define a living system.
It should be reasonably clear to any thinking person that noth
ing in the Universe could exist for a fraction of a millisecond if
there were not forces, laws and organization which determine the
relationship between the component parts of the Universe, all of
which-from a galaxy to the particles of an atom-are in con
stant motion. No living organism could exist if the process of
living were not regulated by meticulous and powerful forces,
about which it is obviously desirable to find out as much as we
can.
Our primitive assumption, then, that the Universe is a place
of law and order is justified by both observation and common
sense. The many successes of the experimental method also justify
the hope that we can learn more and more about the laws of the
Universe.
This has enormous implications for man because it follows that
man is not only in the Universe but also of the Universe, subject
to laws in the living world similar to those which can be
recognized and understood in the material Universe.
At once we are faced with a curious anomaly. Many people
object to the idea of law and order in the Universe on the ground
that it is authoritarian and impinges on man's free will to de
vel'1p his own ways of doing things on his own responsibility. Yet
these same people would not dream of defying the law of gravity,
which, so far as we know, is a universal property of the Universe,
22
and, in fact, are fully prepared to adjust to it-especially when

walking on an icy sidewalk.
Not only do we have to pay attention to the law of gravity but
also to learn as much about it as possible so that it can be put to
the service of man, whether in emptying a bathtub or for getting
astronauts safely back from space. This is true not only of the
law of gravity but also of all other natural laws that can be
discovered.
8
All this raises an important problem. Though many concede

that the Universe may be dominated by physical laws, they
maintain that man is not a part of this physical Universe but is a
separate, spiritual being, subject to spiritual law. This a t once
denies the unity of the Universe, for i t means that there are two
sets of laws, the laws of the material Universe and the laws of the
spiritual component of the Universe.
Physical laws, determined by experiment, can be validated and
can be found to be true not only in New York but also in Tim
buktu. Spiritual laws, on the other hand, which are inventions of
the mind of man, have one set of meanings in the Western hemi
sphere and a quite different one in the East.
This concept of two kinds of law make any generally-accepted
understanding of the nature of man and his part in the Universe
well-nigh impossible.
Spiritual laws, to be sure, are believed to have been validated
in the experience of man and, within certain limits, this is
probably true. But laws which have different meanings in differ
ent parts of the world-and, sometimes, different meanings to
different people in the same part of the world-are not com
patible with physical laws which are universally verifiable and
accepted.
This is the cause of the conflict between science and religion.
It is the basic argument of religion that the intuitive, creative
imagination of man can set up laws which transcend physical
law and which describe aspects of nature which, otherwise, can23
AN ADVE NTURE IN SCIENCE
not be validated. I t is the argument-or, perhaps, the hope-of

science that all aspects of Nature arc open to examination by the
experimental method. It is true that, for centuries, this method
has been limited to certain aspects of Nature. But it has been so
successful that science sees no reason why, eventually, it should
not be extended to all aspects.
Curiously enough, the scientific method is not confined to
science but is something by which most of us live all the time.
First of all we find out all we can about a problem as a basis for
its solution; and, in the process somewhere along the line, we
see some unsuspected relationships between the facts we have un
covered. Then we have a hunch, a guess, a dream or, to use a
technical term, a hypothesis, though nobody knows how these
crea tive ideas arise.
This hunch or hypothesis suggests some logical deductions,
which we can check in various ways to see if they offer a solu
tion to our problem.
In a physics laboratory it is not too hard to check a hypothesis
by rigidly controlled experiments and, if these support it, it is
generally assumed that it is correct. But when it comes to human
problems or the problems of other living organisms it is usually
much more difficult to check an hypothesis.
In any event we should not make the mistake of assuming that
because experiments support the hypothesis the latter is the
only one those experiments could support. This makes it difficult
to achieve any final, conclusive answer, which is probably just
as well because if it were easy to get unequivocal, demonstrated
answers to everything we would lose a lot of the fun of living.
This process-fact-finding, hypothesis, deduction and experi
ment-is one in which most of us engage all the time. For ex
ample, on the basis of our knowledge of the performance of the
horses running at Louisville, we make the logical deduction that
Northern Dancer will win the stakes and place our bet that this
will happen. If the horse wins we assume that our guess, hunch
or hypothesis was valid. If he loses, we have to accept that it was
not.
This is true not only of horse-races and ball-games but also of
almost every other aspect of the activity of the mind of man. An
24
A N A D V E N T UR E IN S C IE N C E
artist sees in the beauty of the world around him something

which he thinks is important and at once begins to depict it. An
author has an idea which he expresses in writing. The musician
conceives a piece of music and composes it. We all do the same
thing in our various forms of activity. But it is often difficult to
know if our original idea was a good one.
1 the picture is purchased, if the book becomes a best-seller
and if the music is played all over the country, the creators of
these things can assume-within limits-that their original flight
of imagination was worthwhile. But such confirmation is not
always available and, if i t is not, that does not necessarily prove
t hat the flight of imagination was worthless because many im
portant ideas have lain dormant or unrecognized for many years.
There is nothing mysterious, then, about the way in which
scientists attempt to discover natural laws. We all use the same
method but scientists enjoy an advantage over non-scientists : i t
is usually easier for them t o check their hunches b y experiments.
For both scientists and non-scientists, problem-solving must al
ways be a developing, growing process, subject to change as
knowledge and understanding increase. To say, therefore, that
something has been proven is often questionable, except in a few
cases, such as the law of gravity, which we can say have been
proven beyond question. To increase the number of things which
can be regarded as proven is, of course, the ultimate desire of all
students of the Universe, but that desire is not often achieved.
To some this may seem a pessimistic approach, depriving man
of his essential dignity. This is, of course, far from the truth be
cause the complexity of the Universe and its component parts is
so great that the mind of any individual can only analyse a few
of the complexities and interpret them in the light of such in
formation as may be available. A modest approach to an under
standing of the Universe does not impair human dignity-it
enhances it. Moreover, it is the only approach likely to succeed
because Nature seems reluctant to reveal her secrets to the in
tellectually arrogant.
These, then, are the methods and the approach which have
been adopted in the present adventure in science.
CHAPTER TWO
The Course and the Compass

1
In the previous chapter we outlined some of the results of this
adventure in science. But it should be emphasized that when we

set out we knew what we hoped to find but had no certainty of
finding it.
For science is a trip across uncharted seas to a goal which lies
beyond the horizon. We do not know the ultimate goal. All we
can hope for is that there is some goal which we ourselves can
reach or, if we cannot find it, that we can get near enough to it
to learn some more about it and to pave the way for others to
follow us.
Though he already knows some of the things we found, the
reader may be interested to know how we found them, as an
illustration of the scientific method, just as many are interested
to read an account of some expedition, of which they already
know the result.
However uncertain the ultimate goal, we could not, of course,
set sail at random. Like all explorers we had to have some idea
of what we were looking for, even though we realized tha t we
might not find it or might come upon something we never
thought of, like an early explorer who thought he was on the
way to China and found what today is Montreal.
As explained in the last chapter we had to assemble all the
facts we could, to seek some connection between them and then
to formulate a hunch or hypothesis which we hoped to prove by
our voyage of discovery.
Before we could set out, however, we had to look for the best
navigational instruments we could find to keep us on our pro
jected course.
26
T H E C O U R S E A N D T H E C O MP A S S
Since the time of Galvani there have been innumerable studies

of living organisms, all of which make it abundantly clear that
all living organisms possess electrical properties. In our own day
and generation, brain waves, heart waves, concomitants of ner
vous impulses, of m uscle contraction and of glandular activity
have filled the literature with a great deal of exceedingly import
ant information. The meaning of all these phenomena has been
worked out almost entirely on an empirical basis. Relations of
electrical phenomena with many biological functions in health
and in disease have been observed.
There has been no general underlying theory, however, of
the nature and the meaning of the recorded electrical changes,
except in so far as they can be explained by their consequences.
The reason for this is fairly obvious : Modern emphasis on en
tities, on fluid forms, atomicity and discontinuity, has dominated
biological thought.
Galileo had no sooner developed his physical and mechanical
theory of the inorganic universe, than Harvey proceeded to apply
physical and mechanical conceptions to living creatures in the
discovery of the circulation of the blood. Levoisier revealed the
chemical character of respiration in metabolism in living things
at the same time that he placed chemistry upon a secure founda
tion with the discovery of the principle of the conservation of
mass. Gradually, with Liebig and a vast army of physiological
chemists, the chemical nature of living creatures became more
and more evident.
It is to be noted that this is a distinctly modern emphasis.
Chemistry rests upon a discontinuous, atomic conception of
nature. Atomism, in its traditional interpretation, involved an
emphasis on entities, rather than upon structure, and on con
stituent elements, rather than on the whole. This attitude of
mind has gone all through biology even where no thought has
been given to the chemical nature of the processes or factors con
sidered. Practically a century ago, Schleiden and Schwann dis27
T H E C O U R S E AND T H E C O MP A S S
covered the cellular nature of plants and animals. Here, sup

posedly, was the ultimate biological atom. More recently, em
phasis has shifted from the cell to the gene, and from that to the
highly complex protein molecule capable of replication. But even
so, the emphasis is still on entities.
It is to be noted that this entire development involved the
carrying over into biology of a philosophical standpoint which
was discovered and clearly formulated first in physics and
chemistry. There can be no doubt of its success or its validity.
There is nothing to date to indicate that biologists should hesitate
to follow the lead which the mature and exact science of physics
gives them. But, if they are faithfully to follow this lead, it is
clear that a slight change of emphasis should corne into biological
theory. For in physics the former emphasis on entities rather than
on organization, upon discontinuity, rather than upon contin
uity, upon local systems, rather than upon their status in the
total field of nature as a whole, has been found to need a radical
and thoroughgoing supplementation.
The word supplementation is to be emphasized, for modern
standpoints have not rejected the former emphasis; it is merely
being amended. The amendment is so thoroughgoing, however,
as to amount to the placing of the Greek upon an equal footing
with the modern standpoint. Moreover, the concepts modified are
so primary, so important and so general and universal in their
application that every branch of human activity-and even the
very meaning and significance of any fact we observe or of any
experiment we perform-are affected. The elemental and essen
tial fact as it appears in physics can be stated very briefly.
Atomic physics has had to be supplemented with field physics.
The point to be noted is that the particle both conditions and is
conditioned by its field. Stated in more general terms, this means
that continuity, as well as discontinuity, is ultimate, that Nature
is both one and many. In short, any local system in part, con
stitutes-and, in part, is constituted in its behaviour by
Nature as a whole and the physical field in which it is embedded.
This rediscovery of the continuous field-or the one, as causal
factor conditioning the behaviour of the constituent particles or
the many-is a return to the Greek standpoint. But the particles
28
also determine the character of the field. This is the modern view
point. The reciprocal causal relationship between field and par
ticle amounts to the union of both viewpoints. This is the fact
that anyone with an eye to first principles can see standing out
amid all the complexities of the confusions of current discoveries
in physics.*
But this mere designation of the fact is not enough. We do not
possess science until our findings are formulated in terms of clear,
consistent principles. The modern conception of Nature as a dis
continuous collection of moving particles makes all order in
Nature a temporary effect, renders Nature as a whole a mere
aggregate and provides no meaning for the continuity as a prim
ary factor or for the field as a causal factor. The Greek conception
as formulated in mathematics and astronomy by Plato and
Eudoxius, or in biology by Aristotle, does justice to continuity,
unity and organization-and also to the field character of
natural phenomena-but at the cost of interpreting Nature as a
single substance or system.
It is clear, therefore, that before the doctrine of reciprocal inter
action between particle and field can be made significant a new
theory of the first principles of science must be developed. More
over, this new theory must combine the Greek and modern
conceptions of science which previously were supposed to be
incompatible. It is essential to realize the necessity of this theor
etical formulation before going further because, otherwise, the
electro-dynamic theory of life will appear merely as a new name
for traditional conceptions and i ts essential novelty and sig
nificance will be lost.
The theory, however, means more than this. The microscopic
physico-chemical constituents do determine in part the character
of the field. No one cognizant of modern physics and physiologi
cal chemistry can deny this, but this relationship between field
and particle is not, as tradi tional modern scientific theory has
assumed, an asymmetrical or one-way relation. The e:ld both
determines and is determined.
To understand that the field determines the behaviour of any
local process or constituent, it is necessary fundamentally to
* Cf. F. S. C. Northrop, 'Science and first Principles'.
modify modern science by revising our theory of first principles

in order to j ustify the unity of Nature as a causal factor. With
out this revision of our most elemental concept of Nature, as
conceived by science, all field theories, whether in physiology or
physics, are mere verbiage.
Einstein has shown that the apparently constant macro
scopic structure of space is the approximately constant micro
scopic structure of matter itself. The field is not independent of
matter, but an appropriate determinant of the behaviour of
matter. Thus, Einstein replaces Newton's three laws of motion
with a single law, that a body moves in a path in the space time
of the observer's frame of reference. But the general theory of
relativity also prescribes that the distribution of matter deter
mines the character of the field. Thus the particle both conditions
and is conditioned by the metrical field.
We can see the significance of this for biology if we reconsider
its most fundamental and perplexing problem, the problem of
organization. It is a commonplace that living creatures, not with
standing the modification in types in evolution, maintain a cer
tain constancy in structure through continuous changes of
material. The traditional modern doctrine, that the chemical
elements determine the structure and organization of the organ
ism, fails to explain why a certain structural constancy persists
despite continuous metabolism and chemical flux. This obvious
inadequacy led to the introduction of non-physical factors, such
as Driesch's entelechy, Spehmann's organizer, Child's physio
logical gradients, Weiss's biological field, all of which have cer
tain validity as descriptive terms.
It now appears, however, that the difficulty is not in the
failure of any possible theory, but in the inadequacy of tradi
tional theory. For-in spite of the mass of accumulated data con
cerning the development of the organism, in general, and of the
nervous system, in particular-no thoroughly satisfactory ex
planation has been given of the regulation of the control of
growth. Description of successive steps of development in a wide
variety of forms reveals little of the relationships which exist be
tween the steps or the factors which regulate the passage from
one to another. The very wealth of the accumulated facts tends
30
to obscure the underlying regulation and to defy analysis.

It was this difficulty that led Driesch to postulate a vital
force of entelechy. This brilliant hypothesis has never received its
j ust due. The whole theory is a very adequate description of an
extraordinary constant control and regulation of growth. Its
weakness lay in its assumption of an extra-biological agent in
capable of scientific description. The field theories of Spehmann,
Weiss, and Gurwitsch are also valuable attempts a t explanation
but, like the entelechies of Driesch, scientific analysis is well
nigh impossible.
It is well known to every biologist that each biologi
cal system seems to possess a dynamic wholeness, the main
tenance of whose integrity is a necessity of continued
existence. Virtually all the theoretical analyses stress this quality,
but no adequate definition of its dynamic agent or adequate ex
planation of its working has been offered. A considerable body of
information is available concerning the physical and chemical
structure of protoplasm, but we know little of the way in which
the elements are organized into a dynamic whole.
The cytoplasm of a living cell is not a formless conglomeration
of chemical substances, but is an integrated and co-ordinated
system. It is impossible to conceive a cytoplasm as a haphazard
arrangement of molecules. A definite pattern of relationships
must exist. We possess a modicum of knowledge of these relation
ships at any one moment, but we have no adequate theory of the
mechanism which maintains that pattern throughout the rapidly
changing flux in living systems. The d ifficulties suggested above
are no less apparent in the analysis of the development of the
nervous system. Its successive steps have been described by in
numerable workers. We lack any rational explanation of the
appearance of local regions of growth and differentiation and of
the final establishment of nuclear masses in fibre tract pathways.
31
THE C O U R S E A N D THE C O MP A S S
With the advent in physics of the field theory of the relation

ship between particulate matter, the resolution of the biological
theory becomes dear. We believed that the electro-dynamic
theory would satisfy this condition and if it could be demon
strated, would solve many problems of biology.
The theory is the result of many years of experimental in
vestigation of the mechanisms involved in the nervous system. *
In these studies it has been shownt that a n extremely important
factor in the organization of the nervous system is the rise and
fall of differential growth rates within the wall of the nemal
tube. Moreover, experimental work confirms the belief that the
direction of growth and the end station of differentiating nerve
fibres is related to these primary centres of rapid proliferation.
Since they seem to be potent factors in imparting the fibre pattern
of the nervous system, it is necessary to examine the agents
which could act to determine the locus areas and to regulate the
division rates within them. If these could be established it would
be possible to formulate an hypothesis as to the origin of pat
tern in the nervous system . Conceivably, this might provide a
due to the origin of the pattern in developing organisms and in
other living systems.
An increasing body of evidencet indicates that bioelectrical
phenomena underlie growth as well as many other biological pro
cesses. Numerous bioelectrical studies compel us to believe that
polar and potential differences exist in living systems. If t his is
true, it follows by deflnition that electro-dynamic flelds are also
present.
Their existence in the physical world is generally accepted.
Moreover, the interrelationship of particulate matter is, to a
considerable degree, a function of such fields. Thus the individual
* See papers by Burr, H. S., 1 9 1 6a and h, 1 920, 1 924, 1 926, 1 930,
l Q 3 2 . Details i n Appendix.
t Burr, H. S., 1 93 2 . Details in Appendix.
:t: Gurwich, 1 9 26; Ingvar, 1 920; Lund, 1922.
32
THE C O U R S E AND T H E C OMP A S S
characteristics of atomic matter are a result of the interdepend

ence of fields and particles. Pattern in physics, then, is determined
by the interplay of electro-dynamic fields and the particular
matter therein contained.
It is reasonable to extend this hypothesis into the realms of
biology. Potential gradients and polar differences exist in living
systems. Since this is so, then electro-dynamic fields are also
present.
The following theory may then be formulated. The pattern or
organization of any biological system is established by a complex
electro-dynamic eld which is in part determined by its atomic
physio-chemical components and w hich in part determines the
behaviour and orientation of those components. This eld is
electrical in the p hysical sense and by its properties relates the
entities of the biological system in a characteristic pattern and
is itself, in part, a result of the existence of t hose entities. It de
termines and is determined by the components.
More than establishing pattern, it must maintain pattern in
the midst of a physio-chemical ux. Therefore, it must regulate
and control living things. It must be the mechanism, the outcome
of whose activity is w holcncss, organization, and continuity.
The electro-dynamic field, then, is comparable to the entelechy of
Driesch, the embryonic field of Spehmann, and the biological
field of Weiss.
The Electro-Dynamic Theory of Life stated above was de
v eloped with the collaboration of Dr. F. S. C. Northrop, of Yale,
and was first put forward in a joint paper in 1 935'*
This theory yields a number of interesting implications for
embryology, only one of which can be considered here : An in
triguing problem in development of a tail is the establishment
of a longitudinal axis. This is a very real structure alignment,
although at early stages of development the cells which are re
lated to it are not specialized. For experimental rearrangment of
these cellular units does not change the axis, although they them
selves have their ultimate fate altered. Caudal cells may become
cephalic cells, right cells may become left cells with little serious
* Burr, H. S. and Northrop, F. S. c., Quarterly Review of Biology
1 0 :
322-3 3 3 , 1 9 3 5 .
33
THE COURSE AND THE COMP A S S
interference with the processes of growth. Yet in some way, the

constituent cells of the growing system have their state deter
mined and their behaviour and orientation controlled.
To Driesch we owe the brilliant observation that the fate of
any group of cells in an embryo is not only genetically condi
tioned, but is also the result of the position of tha t group of cells
in the biological whole. The mechanism by which position could
determine cellular potencies was explained by Driesch through
an assumption of an extra biological guiding principle, an en
telechy. It is a t this point that the electro-dynamic field theory
proposed above provides a significant explanation of the well
recognized facts. In the physical world, the nature of an atom is
dependent upon the number of entities which comprise it and
the field in which they lie, the position of the electron orbits
being of fundamental importance. So, in a very much more com
plex scale i n the biological system, the fate of any group of cells
is determined in part by the positions those cells occupy in the
electro-dynamic field in the embryo. It is clear, that if the above
is granted, three factors are present in the normal development of
an organism. The cells must possess a certain genetic constitu
tion, certain cellular environment, and certain positions in the
electro-dynamic field.
4
The theoretical considerations here presented led us to the
conclusion, reached by nearly all investigators, that pattern or
organization is a fundamental characteristic of biological systems
or of physical systems, or of the Universe. The electro-dynamic
theory provided a working hypothesis for a direct attack upon
this problem and we felt that it should be possible to determine
by objective experiment whether or not such fields exist; in other
words, that this theory could be put to experimental test. If
accepted, it could open up a wide field of study based on electro
metric methods. It could also make it possible to place the
investigation of the organization of living systems on the same
objective and physical basis as the analysis of their chemical con
stituents.
34
THE COURS E AND THE COMPAS S
It appeared, therefore, that an hypothesis of this type was

necessary to bring biological theory into line with physical
theory. Moreover, biological considerations themselves affirmed a
similar necessity and provided sufficient data to warrant putting
to Nature, by experimental and electric methods, the questions
which this theory raises.
These questions fall naturally into three categories. In the
first of these are questions as to the presence of potential and
polar differences in living systems. In the second, are the ques
tions dealing with the measurements of electro-dynamic fields
which accompany the potential differences. In the third category
are questions concerning the interrelationship between electric
fields of the environment and the fields of the developing mech
anism.
If the theory could be established, we felt it would be possible
to apply the mathematical methods developed for field physics to
biological material. This would place the study of biological
organization on a mathematical as well as on an experimental
basis.
The general statement of the field theory here presented re
quired that four questions be put to Nature : The first, Are there
potential and polar differences in living systems everywhere ?
The second, Do these potential differences exist in an organized
fashion, or are they chaotic and indeterminate ? The third, Are
the electrical measurements made in the laboratory a valid
measure of an electro-dynamic field ? The fourth, If the field
exists, does it control or determine the living process or is it a
consequence-or a mere accompaniment-of that process ?
We now knew what we were looking for, but before we could

set sail, we had to obtain a suitable 'compass' with which to
navigate these unknown seas. But, some thirty-five years ago
when this adventure was projected, no suitable 'compass'
existed.
Up to that time, all electrical measurements of living systems
35
THE COURS E AND THE COMPASS
had been made with instruments which were operated by the

electrical output of the system. Needless to say, this drained the
current from the system, which was badly disturbed by the
measuring.
The brilliant exception was Lund who, in his early experi
ments used an electrometer to study living organisms. But every
one who has worked with these instruments knows tha t they
are difficult to set up and to keep in good operating condition
for sufficiently-long periods to permit careful study of the living
organism.
Lund made another great advance by using zinc sulphate
electrodes in tap water or cell sap to make contact with the pro
toplasm itself. This technique avoided the unpredictable and un
reliable measurements made by others with metal electrodes in
contact with the protoplasm. Such contact always gives rise to
artifidal potentials not related to the system being measured :
and the resulting measurements are unreliable.
One has only to read Lund's papers to realize what an incred
ibly rigorous technique was demanded by his studies. He not
only used a Compton electrometer, which draws no current from
the system measured, but also reasonably-reversible electrodes.
And many of his earlier experiments were carried out under
stable environmental conditions with controlled stimuli of the
protoplasm. It seemed desirable to find an instrument easier to
use and more reliable over long periods.
At the outset, it seemed probable that if potential differences
could be measured in living systems they would be very small. An
a lternative to the electrometer, therefore, had to be devised which
would draw little or no current from the system being measured.
In other words, the instrument must not disturb the system. For
it seemed likely that the great confusion in biometric measure
ments of the past had been caused by the lack of any such instru
ment in biological laboratories.
A series of rather extensive specifications was set up. First, the
device must consist of an amplifier with a very high input im
pedance so that resistance changes in the system itself would have
little effect upon the measurement. Second, the instrument, or
amplifier, must be of sufficient sensitivity to record minor
36
THE COURS E AND THE COMPASS
changes in the electrical voltage gradients. Third, the device

must necessarily be stable so that random fluctuations would be
reduced to a minimum.
Another specification was tha t the amplifier and the system
being measured should not require external shielding. This meant
a high rejection-rate at the input to the amplifier. Finally, obvi
ously if a n instrument of this kind was to be used effectively in
biological studies, it should be portable and reliable and not too
expensive. This latter condition was met by using standard radio
parts, necessarily the best radio parts which could be found.
The original instrument, built in the 1 93 0S, following the de
sign of Dr. Cecil Lane of the Physics Department of Yale Univer
sity. used the then readily-available 1 1 2-A vacuum tube. In those
days, such tubes were excellent vacuum tubes but they were in
the process of development and it was difficult, therefore, to get
two tubes that were reasonably balanced. A mathematical theory
had been developed by Wynn-Williams for the theoretical balanc
ing of somewhat dissimilar vacuum tubes. The tubes used were
those having a large transconductance and were of the non-heater
type, with relatively low temperature filament and a low plate
impedance. This latter really defines the amplifier no t as an
amplifier, but as an impedance changer, converting the 1 0 mil
lion ohm input impedance to the relatively low ten thousand
ohm output impedance. The actual amplification factor of the
circui t was approximately one.
The tubes were so connected as to form two arms of a Wheat
stone network; the other two arms are ordinary ohm resistance.
Tube number one received the potential to be measured. Number
two acted as a dummy, the function of which was to balance out
the steady pla te current of the input tube so that-with no poten
tial difference impressed on the first tube-no current flowed
through the galvanometer in the plate circuit of the output tube.
Upon impressing a potential difference upon the first tube, the
effective resistance of this arm of the network is changed pro
portionally and a deflection of the galvanometer results. While it
is admitted that this analysis is little more than a rough approxi
mation, it has proved to be sufficient for the purposes h erein
37
described. It should be noted that a high transconductance is a

necessary requirement.
A very important contribution to the theory of these devices
was made by Wynn-Williams in the above-mentioned paper,
when it was shown that it is possible to compensa te automatically
for the effect of filament battery variation. By operating the two
tubes a t slightly different filament voltages, a condition can be
reached whereby a small fluctuation in the filament battery pro
duced no variations in the current to the galvanometer. This is
important: since any strong battery shows slight variations in
voltage, which in turn would lead to unsteadiness in the instru
ment zero.
The circuit described is of considerable value to the physicist
for certain work, but its usefulness to the biologist is minimal.
The principal reason for this lies in the fact that in all commercial
vacuum tubes a current flows in any external circuit connecting
the grid and the filament. This so-called grid current is independ
ent, within considerable limits, of the resistance in the external
circuit and, hence, will cause potential differences across resistors
in the grid circuit in proportion to the value of the resistors. It
is easy to see that if the specimen is connected across the input
terminals, a fictitious potential difference will register on the
galvanometer which may, in point of fact, be many times larger
than the true potential difference. This, of course, would in
validate completely any results so obtained.
In order to convert the Wynn-Williams bridge into a practical
biological instrument, it was obvious that the spurious grid
current should be eliminated. The method employed to balance
the grid current used the well-known principle of floating grid.
It is known that if the grid of a vacuum tube otherwise operating
normally is isolated from electric contact within the other ele
ment in the tube, the grid current will acquire a certain potential,
a floating grid potential. If the grid is now biased by means of a
battery to precisely this potential, it is found that the grid current
is eliminated. In order to achieve this practically a variable grid
bias on the input tube was employed in conjunction with the in
put switch. The value of the grid leak employed in the original
instrument was chosen to be 10 megohms. The actual dynamic
38
THE COURSE AND THE COMPASS
input impedance of the 1 1 2-A a t floating grid is probably several

times higher than this figure, but 1 0 megohms has proved itself
to be a good value in practice.
In the more than thirty years that these high input impedance
amplifiers have been used, improvements have been made chiefly
in the type of vacuum tube used. The basic circuit has not been
altered, except that it has been possible to eliminate the Wynn
Williams balance because modern tubes are constructed with
such rigorous controls that it is not difficult to get two tubes
that are reasonably well balanced. It is interesting that over the
last thirty years more and more amplifiers have been built with
high input impedances, many of which are well above the 1 0
megohms used i n this original and subsequent circuits. A s a con
sequence, the reliability of the measurement has been enhanced
very considerably. *
Once we had a reliable instrument to measure the very min
ute electrical voltages in living systems, the problem of connect
ing the instrument to the system became a matter of prime
importance. For it was dear that in order to evaluate the potential
gradients of a living system, an electrical circuit must be estab
lished in which only potentials arising in the system could affect
the measuring instrument.
It is impossible to measure bioelectric potentials with any elec
trode in direct contact with living tissue, because an electrode, if
reversible, has a potential conditioned by the connection of a
particular ion or, if not reversible, has a potential of an unknown
or uncertain magnitude. Electric contact can be made with a salt
solution, however, if the salt be physiologically balanced with
the ionic concentration of the system being measured, thus re
ducing to a minimum any potentials arising from a dissimilarity
of fluids at the point of contact, or, if the salt solution be a nor
mal environment, the contact potentials are, indeed, a part of the
total bioelectric potential.
* Today sensitive and stable vacuum tube voltmeters are com
mercially available. A suitable American instrument for measuring
L-fields is the Hewlett Packard DC Vacuum Tube Voltmeter Model
4 1 2A. See illustration. No doubt there are excellent E uropean
equivalen ts.
39
THE COURSE AND THE COMPAS S
Of the known electrodes reversible to the ionic constituents of

Ringer's solution, for example, only those reversible to the
chlorine ion have been developed to the perfection demanded by
this technique. For the range of chloride ion concentration found
in solutions that are in physiological equilibrium, the silver
chloride electrode is much more reproducible than the earlier
much-used zinc electrode and can be used in the same solution
that makes electrical contact with the living system, thereby
avoiding liquid junction potentials. Silver chloride electrodes have
been used by physical chemists in many exact electromotive
force determinations and have been found to be stable and repro
ducible to within ten microvolts or better, when directly com
pared in the same solution.
The original electrodes were designated as Type Two by
Harned and consisted of silver obtained by heating silver oxide,
supported on a platinum wire, and silver chloride formed by
subsequent electrolysis in a hydrochloric acid solution. These
were complicated to make, cumbersome and difficult to apply
practically in the field. Moreover, the original requirement that
we should be able to measure voltage gradients down to a sensi
tivity of roughly ten m icrovolts, proved to be unimportant. In
the beginning, however-since it was not clear from the liter
ature just what magnitudes of the standing potential in living
systems might be expected-it was necessary to aim at maximum
sensitivity. Subsequently, however, many hundreds of thou
sands of determinations have made it abundantly clear that i n
most living systems, except perhaps the very small unicellular
systems, the voltages developed are of the order of millivolts.
The current technique used to make electrodes to bridge the
gap between protoplasm and amplifier was devised with the aid
of a physical chemist, Dr. Leslie E. Nims, formerly of Yale and
now of Brookhaven. Fine silver wire or rod of any suitable dimen
sion is either chlorided by electrolysis in He} or KCI solution or,
following the recommendation of Shedlowsky, is dipped into
molten silver chloride which can be obtained at most manufactur
ing chemists. Usually, it is necessary to make many electrodes
and to pair them up so that between any two electrodes there is a
minimum of self-potential.
40
THE COU R S E AND THE COMP A S S
In the early experiments the electrodes were placed in a physio

logical salt solution in reasonable ionic balance with the salt
content of living systems and connected the living protoplasm to
the electrode chamber by a salt bridge. For precision work, this is
probably the method of choice, but since the magnitudes are in
the order of millivolts, the whole procedure can be simplified very
considerably by using an inert salt paste.
For this purpose, the Parke-Davis 'Unibase', developed as a
foundation for most of the skin creams, can be utilized if, to it,
is added sodium chloride. The concentration of sodium chloride in
the 'Unibase' paste does not seem to be greatly important for
ionic balance between the paste and the protoplasm can be
reached in a reasonable time. As a matter of interest, electrodes
imbedded in a 'Unibase' salt paste and placed in chambers in con
tact with the cambium of trees have been used for more than
two decades, with considerable success. Most of these electrode
placements will remain adequate over long periods of time--
weeks and months-but they can be replaced so readily that it
is not difficult to continue long-time studies using this technique.
Since the type of measurement being made sets the conditions for
the type and dimensions of the electrodes, and since the areas to
be measured in a living system are limited only by the surface
area of the organism, specific directions for making electrodes and
electrode chambers can be omitted.
With properly designed electrodes, measurements can be made
all over the surface of any living organism from slime mould,
through experimental animals, to and including man, with more
than adequate reproducibility. The ingenuity of the investigator
is the only limit on either the type of electrode to be used or the
placement of the electrode. In general, the electrode that is con
n ected to the ground lead of the amplifier is usually put some
where on the Hving system at some distance from the area which
is being under investigation. The so-called 'hot' electrode, then, is
placed as dose as common-sense dictates to the area under in
Ves tigation. What is recorded, therefore, is not specifically a value
or a magnitude that is in itself important, but the relationship
between any two values measured by the instrument. This makes
41
THE COURS E AND THE COMPAS S
it clear that we are dealing with relatednesses, rather than abso

lute magnitude.
It has been known since the time of Willard Gibbs that it is
impossible to assign a given magnitude to a potential of any
part of the material included between the two electrodes, or to
any phase boundary involved between the two electrodes. One
can only say as mentioned above, that we are dealing primarily
with a difference, a relatedness between the two points under
consideration reached by the two electrodes. Most specific phase
boundaries can be identified as the source of the voltage gradient.
There are innumerable such phase boundaries in any living
system, each of which is an adequate source of a voltage gradient.
All tha t we can record is the difference between the potential a t
one point and that of another point in the living system.
Since we are dealing with relatednesses, the whole poin t of
the technique described here is the change in this relatedness with
time. Moreover, since all living systems are individually unique,
differing from all other organisms of the same type, each indi
vidual system being measured has to serve as its own control. This
points again to the importance of change in the relatedness with
the passage of time. This does not hold that the potential differ
ences observed are without significance but simply that we are
unable with our present techniques to assign a value to a poten
tial difference a t any point.
Needless to say, one of the standard questions raised by all
this procedure is the source of the potential differences which
establish the field in the living system. It is perfectly clear from
all that we know about physical chemistry of solutions, even the
complex ones of living systems, tha t the measured electro-motive
force is derivable from inheren t phase boundaries* to be found
whenever two or more states of matter exist side by side.
It must be emphasized, however, that the methods of measure
ment used in our laboratories over the past thirty years,
must be followed rigidly and explicitly. After all, one is balanc
ing electron flow in one vacuum tube against an electron flow in
another, in a bridge arrangement. This means that one is dealing
* The term 'phase boundary' designates the line of contact between
two dissimilar m aterial substances.
42
with measuring devices akin to balancing a mercury drop on the

point of a needle. In our laboratory, this technique has worked,
but it has been clear tha t unless it is followed certainly and care
fully, variations will be found which are inexplicable and which
upset the validity of the measurements.
6
With our 'navigational instruments'-a high impedance am

plifier and silver-silver chloride electrodes working through salt
bridge in contact with living systems-we have been able to de
velop a technique which gives reliable results. With this i t soon
became clear tha t every living system possesses an electrical field
of great complexity. This can be measured with considerable cer
tainty and accuracy and shown to have correlations with growth
and development, degeneration and regeneration, and the orienta
tion of component parts in the whole system. Perhaps more inter
esting that any one thing, this field exhibits remarkable stability
through the growth and development of an egg.
It was a basic requirement of this field theory that i t be
assumed to he a primary characteristic of Nature, in general, and
of living systems, in particular. It possesses many, if not all, of
the properties necessary to control movement and position of all
charged particles within this system. It has those necessary
vector or directional properties which are of vital necessity for
any understanding of how growth and development can occur
under careful, rigid control.
The electrical phenomena associated with the field must be
considered to be a primary attribute of Nature, a cause of the
arrangement of all the component parts in Nature, not only
living but also non-living systems. In other words, the working
hypothesis of the studies to be reported here is tha t the Field is
basic with the necessary power and directional properties to de
termine the processes inherent in the growth and developmen t of
any living system.
The field is primary and from it stem all the myriads of con43
sequences which are to be seen in Nature. The specific data which

so strongly support this assumption, at least insofar as our present
knowledge goes, will be presented in detail in the following pages.
44
CH A PTER THREE
The Female Field

1
We were ready to set sail. We had developed the navigational

instruments and techniques to guide us over uncharted seas to
wards a hypothetical goal.
But these seas we hoped to explore-the electro-dynamic fields
of life-would not yield their secrets if we disturbed them by our
passage. So we had to use not a vessel that ploughed through their
surface but rather a hovercraft that does not disturb the terrain
over which it passes. In other words, our instruments and tech
niques were designed to measure and map the electro-dynamic
fields with the minimum disturbance of their electrical poten
tials.
With our instruments we could measure the voltage gradients
of l iving systems which are quite independent of changing
current and resistance. It must again be emphasized tha t our
measurements are as near as possible pure voltage measurements.
To be sure this probably can never be done with absolute
accuracy. But, for all practical purposes, in our measurements the
current drain from the system being measured is reduced to the
minimum. Hence we do not disturb the living system while the
mCJsurements are being made. All the necessary energy to keep
the instrument in operation or, if you like, our hovercraft hover
ing, is derived from external sources, not from the system being
measured. This is imperative.
The beginning of our voyage is in a land-locked harbour where
there is a certain amount of information about the harbour and
its surrounding terrain. We know that living systems have elec
trical properties. Examples are the electro-cardiogram, the electro
encephalogram , the action current potential of nervous impulse,
45
THE FEMALE FIELD
electrical changes which are associated with muscle contraction

and, in all probability, the changes which occur during the
activity of glandular secretions.
These are all well-recognized phenomena, but so far there has
been no general principle which would explain their existence.
It has usually been assumed that all these changes in the electri
cal properties of a living system are the consequence of biological
activity. But it is our hunch that a primary electrical field in the
living system is responsible. The reason for this should be clear.
When we pick up heart waves and brain waves from living
systems the pick-up electrodes are never, or very rarely, in
direct contact with the system under measurement. This means
there must be some forces in operation which transmit the
activity of muscle, or nerve, from the organ itself through the
tissues of the body to the electrode wherever it may be. One arm
and one leg, in the case of the cardiogram, or on the scalp in the
case of the Berger rhythms, or brain waves.
It is generally accepted that the changes in the electro-cardio
gram, for example, which can be recorded from one arm and one
leg, are the result of some kind of transport, possibly of charged
ions. But the fact is clear to anyone who has examined these in
detail that the speed of the transmission is far too rapid to be
explained by the movement of a charged particle from cardiac
muscle to the far-distant leg. The assumption of a field, however,
gives an adequate foundation for the recording at the periphery
and at some distance, of the phenomena associated with a basic
biological property.
With our craft hovering above the surface of the sea, and
thereby causing no wash or ripple in the sea itself, we leave the
harbour towards the distant buoy. This buoy is an unknown
differentiation on the surface of the sea. When we find it we must
tackle the question that this discovery poses : Is it really true
that all biological systems exhibit a significant set of electrical
properties ?
The first thing to be done, therefore, is to try to determine by
measuring of a variety of systems whether there are always
electro-metric properties in a living organism. So, over the last
thirty years, almost every form of living organism has been
46
THE FEMALE FIELD
studied, some of them quite cursorily and others in more detail,

from bacteria up to and including man. And so far as our present
information goes, there is unequivocal evidence t hat w herever
there is life, there are electrical properties.
But again, it must be stressed that these electrical properties,
measured under the conditions of this trip, are voltage gradients,
not current movement, not changes in resistance to the passage of
current.
These electrical voltage gradients in the living systems are the
logical consequences of the Electro-dynamic Theory and only to
be expected. But we must go beyond theory : its logical con
sequences must be put to experimental tests to develop what
Northrop has called epistemic correIa tions or what Margenau
has called the correspondencies between the logical conclusions
from the Theory and the findings in an experimental laboratory
where adequate controls can be instituted.
2
If there are electrical gradients-voltage gradients-in living

systems, what are their essential characteristics ? They must have
magnitude and, since they are electrical, they must have direc
tional properties; in other words, polar properties, a positive and
a negative aspect.
To learn more about these gradients one of the first things
undertaken in the laboratory was-naturally enough-to
measure human beings. At first sight, this could be an exceed
ingly complicated problem, but with the advice of Professor
Leslie Nims, a very simple approach was adopted.
With our silver-silver chloride electrodes in a common physio
logical salt solution, the known self-potential in the electrode
w as reduced by selection to a minimum, usually not greater than
one-half a millivolt. Then with two cups available, one electrode
Was introduced into the salt solution of one cup and another
electrode into the salt solution of a second cup. It was a simple
m atter, then, to dip the finger of the hands into these cups; the
index finger of the left hand into the left-hand cup, and the index
47
THE FEMALE FIELD
finger of the right hand into the right-hand cup. This com
pleted the external circuit in the measuring device.
Immediately it was clear that t here was a voltage gradient
between the left nger and the righ t nger. This could be checked
readily, for all that was necessary was to move the right-hand
finger into the left-hand cup and vice versa. If the readings were
valid, the magnitude should be the same in the second series
of measurements as in the first. Normally, with our experiments
these measurements were repeated ten times, or until we had
reproducible, reliable results.
As soon as it was found that such measurements could be made
readily, the question arose whether there was any significant
difference between human beings and those measurements. As a
result a great many measurements were carried out in the
laboratory, using the personnel of the laboratory as subjects. We
found to our delight that the magnitudes of the potentials were
rarely less than two millivolts and often many times higher.
The spread-or magnitude-of the measurements was so great
that it was found possible to d ivide human beings into four
categories. Individuals with low voltage gradients between the
right and left forefinger; at the other extreme, individuals with
voltage gradients between the right and left forefinger of some
thing in the order of ten millivolts. In between, there was a third
group, a low-high group, around five or six millivolts, and a
fourth high-low group around two to four millivolts.
Interestingly enough, these were quite consistent during the
period of measurement but, what is more remarkable, they were
quite consistent with the passage of time. These experiments were
carried out over many days to be sure that the results were re
liable. If the electrical gradients in the living system were the
result of the chemistry of the organism, the constancy which we
recorded would simply not be possible.
We could not see any significant relationships between the
individuals with low potential gradients and those with high
potential gradients by any techniques which we were able to
devise. The subjects were all males, and it was suggested that
there might be an electrical difference between males and females.
Hence, measurements were made on female members of the labor48
THE FEMALE FIELD
atory group, day after day, week after week, and month after
month.
We found to our astonishment that during the course of a
month's measurements the female voltage gradients showed re
markable increases, a sharp rise, for a period of twenty-four
hours. This occurred on many occasions and gave us reason to
wonder as to the possible origin of this phenomenon. Examina
tion of the personal records of the females involved made it clear
that these rises in voltage gradient occurred during the approxi
mate middle of the menstrual cycle. Needless to say, this sug
gested at once that the rise m ight be associated with ovulation,
since the endocrinologists have been telling us for years that
ovulation occurs in the middle of the menstrual cycle and is, in
all probability, the cause of the onset of the menses.
This was an exciting event, for now we could see beyond the
first buoy a second buoy in the distance : a change in voltage
gradient associated with fundamental biological activity. Atten
tion must be called, however, to the fact that the change was
one of magnitude, not of the polarity of the measurements.
Since not all mammals have the same history, it was necessary
to seek an animal in which the time of ovulation could be pre
dicted. Fortunately, the rabbit is such an animal. Proper stimula
tion of the cervix in the female rabbit results, under normal
conditions, in the appearance of ovulation some nine hours after
stimulus.
The following experiment, therefore, was set up : A rabbit was
stimulated, and nine hours later anaesthetized. Its abdomen was
then opened and a salt-filled chamber was placed around the
ovary. The cold electrode was attached to the animal's body, and
the 'hot' electrode, connected to the grid of the first tube, was
placed in the salt-filled chamber not too far away from the ovary
itself. Then, with a m icroscope, the surface of the ovary was itseH
continuously examined while the changes in voltage gradient
between the two electrodes were recorded on the recording gal49
THE FEMALE FIELD
vanometer. It was thus possible to see the event of ovulation

through the microscope and, simultaneously, the recorded
changes in voltage gradient on the recorder.
To our delight the moment of rupture of the follicle and the
release of the egg was accompanied by a sharp c hange in the
voltage gradient on the electrical recorder. This experiment was
carried out enough times until it was perfectly clear that there
could be little or no question that the electrical change was
associated with the event of ovulation.
If, in an experimental animal, electrical changes were seen to
coincide with ovulation, then it might be possible to assume that
the observed voltage-gradients in women might serve to time ovu
lation in human beings. This is a very important problem, for the
exact time when eggs are released from the human ovary has not
been really determined. As these voltage gradients occur during
the middle of a menstrual cycle then, if the Knaus theory is
correct, ovulation occurs in the middle of the cycle, and therefore
the electrical changes in the human female should indicate the
time of ovulation in that particular individual.
This is not an easy experiment to perform on humans but,
through a fortunate set of circumstances, it was possible for us to
do a study on one girl. It was necessary for her to have an elective
laparotomy and she was willing to corne into the hospital and
have the operation performed at a time when our electrical
records indicated that it was the right time to do it. She was in
the hospital for fifty-six hours before the operation and during
that time was continuously measured by the recording galvan
ometer. There were times, of course, when shor t gaps occurred in
the record for a variety of physiological reasons, but the fact
remains that there was a rather astonishing consistency in
the electric measurements.
The measurements were made between the central abdominal
wall, as a reference electrode, and the wall of the vagina in the
vicinity of the cervix, as the active electrode. When the electrical
records showed this marked change in voltage gradient in the
patient, she was moved to the operating room and, under the skill
ful hands of Dr. Luther Musselman, a laparotomy was performed,
50
THE F EMALE F I E LD
an ovary uncovered, and a recently ruptured follicle noted. This,

obviously confirmed the findings in the rabbit.
A t this point occurred one of the most interesting events of

this adventure in science :
Dr. John Rock, of Brookline, Massachusetts, head of a gynae
cological hospital, evinced interest in the techniques and under
took to develop the procedures in his hospital. We gave him all
the advice and help tha t we could, and eventually he set up a
number of measurements a t that hospital. He reported in a paper
some ten or more instances of ovulation occurring in the middle
of the menstrual cycle as indicated by electrical measurements.
He completed these experiments, or at least the first of them, how
ever, before we had been able to find a suitable patient for our
work in New Haven. Like the gentleman he is, he withheld publi
cation of his findings until after we were able to publish ours.
Subsequently, he continued these experiments and confirmed our
original findings.
An accident occurred, however, when a house officer inad
vertently made some measurements on a female patient not in
the middle of the menstrual cycle. He found to his dismay-and
that of the rest of the observers-that these electro-metric
c hanges did not always come in the middle of the cycle.
It will be recalled that the Knaus theory holds that ovulation
occurs in the m iddle of the menstrual cycle. This theory was
based on statistical measure of pregnancies following returning
soldiers during the first World War; and there is probably little
question that the statistics are valid so far as groups are con
cerned. Unfortunately, that does not demonstrate beyond per
adventure tha t in every individual ovulation must necessarily
occur in the middle of the menstrual cycle. Dr. Rock felt, how
ever, that the statistical evidence was valid; and therefore any
changes i n electro-metrics of the living patient, not in the middle
of the cycle, could not be related to ovulation. This terminated
51
THE FEMALE FIELD
Dr. Rock's experiment, much to our dismay, but we persisted,

nevertheless, in our study.
With the help of Dr. Dorothy Barton, an extended study
was Illade of a group of women in the New Haven Hospital,
most of whom were nurses living a fairly rigorous existence, with
more regularity than most of us undergo. These women included
subj ects of all ages. Some of them were post-menopausal.
One of the interesting consequences of this study was the fact
that about thirty per cent of the women seemed to ovulate in the
middle of the cycle, granting the validity of the electro-metric
technique. But in all probability-according to electrical measure
ments-twa-thirds of the women ovulated over the entire men
strual cycle, even during the menses. This was at variance with
the endocrinological theory of ovulation and was difficult for
many people to accept.
Women over the menstrual period and in the non-fertile
period and those in the so-called menopause, showed no such
electro-metric changes with the passage of time. This was true
whether the menopause was the natural one or one resulting
from surgery of the generative tract.
For a number of years measurements were made on patients,
sent in by surrounding doctors, to time ovulation in their par
ticular instances. One of the patients sent to us was one who had
been married for a number of years without issue. The question
was raised, of course, as to the reason for the infertility. Though
all the known techniques of that time were employed no signifi
can t fact was uncovered to explain why there was no fertile result.
The patient was taught to make the measurements herself and
did them religiously once a day, day-after-day, for many months.
At n o time was there any evidence of voltage variations. Subse
quen tly, when a laparotomy was required, it was found that the
patient had atrophied ovaries, apparently caused by their early
involvement in tuberculosis. At no time had she ovulated and
there were no electro-metric changes.
This raises the question of the necessarily causal relationship
between ovulation and the onset of menstruation. In the group
of patients studied, moreover, while the great majority showed
fairly regular menstrual periods of the average length, there were
52
THE FEMALE FIELD
a number whose menstrual histories were very irregular. One

patient in particular exhibited menstruation only three times in
a year, and yet during tha t year there were three instances where
there was a marked electro-metric change unrelated to the onset of
menstruation itself and suggested that ovulation had occurred.
The evidence is clear. Like brain waves and heart waves, electro
metric changes occur during ovulation and can be recorded in
the living subject. Furthermore, the results show that ovulation
may take place at any time in the menstrual cycle, although in
the majority of women studied the ovulation record showed the
usual mid-cycle peak. It is equally clear that there is no necessary
relationship between ovulation and menstruation, for either may
exist without the other; ovulation may occur without menstrua
tion and menses without ovulation.
Published reports of our experiments with women were read

by the distinguished obstetrician and gynaecologist, Dr. Louis
Langman, of New York University and Bellevue HospitaL As a
result, he carne to the writer's laboratory and discussed the ques
tion of whether or not the electro-metric timing of ovulation
could be used in connection with artificial insemination. More
over, because the reports indicated that electro-metric records
suggested relationship between the developing ovaries and its
follicle, he further questioned whether or not they might not be
used to detect cancer. The result was a rewarding and very fruit
ful association over a number of years.
S tarting with the assumption that the electro-metric peaks
occurring during the menstrual cycle of normal women indicated
ovulation, Dr. Langman decided to use the technique as a means
of determining when best to employ artificial insemination. As
a result, he was equipped with the necessary technical apparatus,
including the electrode, the high input impedance amplifier and
the G. E. photoelectric recorder.
Since Dr. Langman had had indifferent success in a series of
ten cases, using other timing procedures, artificial insemination
53
THE F EMALE FIELD
was a ttempted in those instances when the electro-metric shift

indicated that ovulation had recently occurred. To h is and our
delight, the average of successes was considerably higher using
the electro-metric technique than that employed by other
methods of timing ovulation.
I t seemed clear, however, that Dr. Langman's main interest
was not only in the timing of ovulation, but also in the problem
of malignancy in the generative tract in women.
Fortunately, through a grant, and with the cooperati on of the
Bellevue Hospital Gynaecological Service, more than a hundred
patients were examined electro-metrically. The records were
kept carefully and a marked voltage gradient between cervix of
the uterus and a reference electrode on the ventral abdominal
wall often appeared on the recording galvanometer
After a sufficient number of tests had been run to make sure
we were dealing with a valid finding, Dr. Langman and his
assistant examined something in the neighbourhood of one
thousand patients. These patients were on the wards of the
hospital and were subject to a variety of syndromes. They in
cluded fibromas, as well as the usual run of pathological events
in the generative tract of these women. In those that showed a
marked change in the voltage gradient between the cervix and
the ventral abdominal wall, careful watch was kept through sub
sequent laparotomy.
There were a hundred and two cases where there was a sig
nificant shift in the voltage gradient, suggesting malignancy.
Surgical conrmation was fo und in ninety-ve of the hundred
and two cases.
The actual position of the malignancy varied all the way from
the fundus, to the tubes and to the ovarian tissue i tself. It is
interesting to note that the electro-metric evidence of sharp volt
age change occurred in m alignancies found not only in the im
mediate vicinity of the cervix but also through all the rest of
the generative tract, including the ovary itself. Thus we had an
astonishingly high percentage of successful identification of
r:J.alignancy in the generative tract, confirmed by biopsy.
The fact tha t malignancy in the ovarian tissue was recognized
electro metrically, and confirmed by biopsy-even though the
.
54
THE FEMALE FIELD
malignant tissue was several centimetres distant from the active

electrode in contact with the cervix-is in line with the distan t
readings o f the EKe a n d EEe. The order o f magnitude o f these
changes in voltage gradient was such that the possibility of
changing pH of the generative tract could be ruled out.
Surprisingly enough, these findings were never picked up in
the literature and have not been extended further or repeated
under other condi tions. This probably is because it is difficult for
people to recognize that these changes represent changes in the
eld of the system; and, therefore-as in the case of the EKe and
the EEe-the active electrode need not be in direct contact with
the tissue which is showing the greatest changes in voltage
gradient.
It took over thirty years before the EKe was perfected to the
poi n t where it could become a useful adjunct in the clinician 's
office. By that time the empirical results were so clear-cut that
the value of the electro-cardiogram could not be questioned. The
explanation of EKe, however, has never been really unravelled
satisfactorily. The fact that the electrodes do n o t have to be in
contact with the heart, that the change is exceedingly rapid and
cannot be explained by electro-phoresis or any of the other simple
answers to the transmission of changes of voltage gradient, was
finally ignored because of the value of the empirical results.
Similarly, in the case of the electrical ovulation changes and
the malignancy cha nges in the generative tract of women, it is
not necessary for the electrode to be in direct contact with the
tissue showing the grea t change. But the voltage-change is trans
mitted over a distance promptly and in such a form that at
present the only successful explanation is that the electro
metric ch aracters of tissue, in general, and of the generative
tract, in particular, are transmitted by the primary electro
dynamic field.
6
The results reported above suggested that the relationship be
tween ovulation and menstruation was not on quite such a firm
55
THE F EMALE FIELD
foundation as had been generally assumed. There can be no ques

tion that the chemistry of the endocrines is an important factor
in these activities of the generative tract. Primarily, however,
the chemistry provides the energy necessary for these activities,
and it has been almost entirely overlooked that the chemistry
involved in any physiological process must, necessarily, have
direction.
The source of this direction can be assumed safely to be the
result of the activity of the nervous system and there is plenty
of evidence in the literature to suggest that in the hypothalamic
region of the brain there are nuclear masses which are concerned
primarily with the onset of ovulation, its completion and, also,
that another set of neural mechanisms has equal control over the
menstrual cycle.
While experiments on ovulation in humans were going on,
parallel studies were carried out on experimental animals. With
the co-operation of the distinguished gynaecologist, Dr. Luther
Musselman, also Dr. Dorothy Barton, Dr. John Boling, and Dr.
Vincent Gott, and numerous patient and cooperative subjects,
studies were carried out on rats, in particular, on rabbits, cats,
and so on. Various stages in the oestrous cycle in animals were
found to have electro-metric correlates which are valuable indi
cators of the kind of physiological processes which are going on
during menstruation, and during the whole cycle of oestrous
phenomena. In addition to the original findings on the rabbit,
Dr. Gott, in particular, extended them to the ovulation phenom
ena in monkeys.
As a result of the very generous cooperation of Dr. Gertrude
Van Wagenen. it was possible for Dr. Gott to study the ovulation
problem in a group of Rhesus females. Five animals, for a total of
twelve menstrual cycles, were studied. It was found that in ten
out of twelve cycles there was a significant and consistent peak
of negative voltage that was higher than any other peak in the
cycle and. because of its distinctive pattern, may be distinguished
from any other peaks in the cycle. This distinctive peak occurred
in every cycle between the eleventh and fourteenth day, and this
is the period in which most of the ovulations are known to occur.
It is believed that this distinctive and reproducible peak is the
56
THE FEMALE FIELD
electrical concomitant of ovulation.

Possibly the two cycles without a significant peak, between
the eleventh and fourteenth days, are anovulatory cycles which
are fairly common in the monkey. Bi-weekly or weekly records
of the abdominal vaginal potential difference were made in two
monkeys from the date of conception until delivery six months
later. In other animals, records were taken from the second
month of pregnancy to the date of delivery.
The records tend to level out somewhat as pregnancy pro
ceeds, so that by the third month the graph is almost a horizontal
line. The cervix remains negative after the second week of preg
nancy until the beginning of the third month, except for rare
instances when it becomes positive. By the third month, the
voltage has dropped to near the zero line where it hovers until
delivery.
Despite these characteristics which differentiate pregnancy
from the menstrual cycle, there are no significant and consistent
changes during the first month of pregnancy that might permit
the detection of pregnancy a few days after conception.
These results, together with the findings of Dr. John Boling
in the oestrous cycle of the rat, make it quite clear that electro
metrics of the field characteristics of the living organism can
provide useful information about the whole physiology of the
generative tract.
Since all of these experiments stemmed from the basic assump
tion tha t the living organism possesses an electro-dynamic field
as a whole, with constituent and subsidiary parts or local fields,
which are specific components of the living system, the well
controlled experimental findings confirmed the general validity
of the primary assumption.
Any individual component of the whole system has, of course,
i ts own characteristic field which is a part of the field of the
whole organism. Any variations which may occur can be assumed
to be variations in the flow of energy in the system, a flow of
energy which arises first of all in chemistry and is controlled and
directed by the electro-dynamic field of the whole organism.
57
T H E F EMA L E F I E L D
The experiments which had shown the positive correlation

between the electro-metrics of the generative tract in women and
the presence of malignancy throughout the tract led at once to a
further examination of the possibility of electro-metric correlates
of malignancy elsewhere.
In the growth and development of every living system there
is obviously some kind of control of the processes. In the midst
of incredibly complex flux, direction is available for the control
of this growth and for differentiation. As a distinguished zoolo
gist once said, 'The growth and development of any living system
would appear to be controlled by someone sitting "on the
organism" and directing its whole living process.'
One of the few things we know of in the Universe that has
direction are the electrical properties of thin gs in general. The
Field Theory suggested that i t should be possible to determine
the polari ty and direction of the flow of energy transformations
in the living system. The organism, as a whole, depends on such
directives for its continued existence; so also does atypical
growth.
Energy, however, is a basic requirement, indifferent to the
direction in which it flows. It is important, therefore, to realize
that in the development of growth and development of the
organism there are forces in addition to the undirected properties
of chemical changes, factors which give direction to the flow of
energy.
It cannot be denied that morphogenesis is directed. This is true
of the whole organism and also of its constituent parts. Moreover,
the very direction of development implies a necessary relation
ship between the units of which the system is composed, a re
lationship which imparts to the organism that quality which
makes the whole greater than the Sllm of its parts.
Considera tions such as these led to an examina tion of the
electrical properties of cancer-susceptible mice. The experiments
v. ere designed to determine whether or not the polarity vectors
were altered in atypical growth.
58
,
THE F EMALE FIELD
Through the courtesy of Dr. L. C. Strong and Dr. G. M. Smith,

a considerable number of mice from the colonies of Dr. Strong,
were studied weekly. There were four groups of such mice :
A. normal control, B. a strain of mice known to have a high in
cidence of mammary cancer occurring spontaneously, C. a strain
of mice prone to atypical growth following the administration of
carcinogens, and D. a number of mice from a strain which readily
accepted implanted malignant tissue.
Comparison of the groups made it clear that statistically the
control group showed a different electrical pattern from that
found in the animals with spontaneous breast cancer, malignancy
produced by carcinogens, or the atypical growth of transplants.
There were also statistically significant differences between spon
taneous carcinogenics and the transplanted growth. While day
by-day variations in both magnitude and polari ty occurred there
was sufficient variability to make it difficult to show a direct ane
ta-one relationship for any individual animal. Clearly enough,
there are other factors in the presence of a typical growth re
sponsible for the variability.
To carry out an experiment it is necessary to control conditions
of food, water, and temperature. A few preliminary experiments
indicated that the individual variability could be reduced sig
nificantly. All the evidence so far collected makes i t necessary to
study them under more controlled laboratory conditions.
Through the generous cooperation of Dr. H. S. N. Greene,
some three hundred mice were intensively studied following
the implantation in the breast region of the C 38 strain of mice.
The implantations were made by Dr. Greene in the right axilla.
They were from malignant tissue labelled 4578B-PXB-PX and
MTH. In addition, foetal and visceral implants were made from
normal animals.
Measurements were made between the right axilla and the left
axilla in unanaesthetized mice. The common reference point for
the potential differences between the axillae was the placement of
an electrode in the mouth of the animal. Since the left side of
the animal was not involved i n implantation, it served to some
extent as a control for the operated side.
The results of the experiment were surprisingly consistent.
59
THE F E M A L E F I E LD
Twenty-four to twenty-eight hours after the implantation

changes were to be observed in the voltage gradients. This differ
ence increased steadily and quite smoothly to reach a maximum
of approximately five millivolts on or about the eleventh day,
following which it decreased.
In the animals with the foetal implant representing, therefore,
a rapidly growing mass of embryonic tissue, the difference began
to appear a little later, and reached a peak on approximately the
sixth day, following which the potential difference dropped to
zero and reversed its polarity until the end of the experiment.
In the slow-growing tumours potential differences began to
emerge on the third or fourth day but reached their maximum
of approximately three millivolts on the tenth or eleventh day.
From there, until the end of the experiment, the differences in
potential fell steadily to zero. The control, and those without
growth, showed a variable between the two sides of less than a
millivolt for the entire experiment. In all of these measurements,
the axilla containing the implanted foreign material was negative
to the opposite axillary region.
It is cIear from these findings that the crest of atypical growth
in the host organism produced measurable and reproducible
electro-metric correlates. The rapidly growing tumours devel
oped higher potentials more quickly than the slow-growing im
plant. The foetal tissue started off rather promptly but early
reached an electro-metric peak and thereafter declined to zero,
subsequently to appear as a polar reversal which, in turn, re
turned to zero. The slow-growing implants started late but ex
hibited an electro-metric curve paralleling the essential slope
of the rapidly growing tumours, but reached their lower maxi
mum at approximately the same time as the rapidly growing
tumours.
These experiments on mice, of course, offered valuable con
firmation of our findings that atypical voltage-gradients in the
fields of women are associated with malignancy.
60
C HAPTER FOUR
The Ubiquitous Field

1
While we were carrying out experiments on men and women we

were also exploring the electro-dynamic fields in other forms of
life because we wanted to assure ourselves that these fields are
a universal property of all living forms and are not confined to the
higher forms of life.
We explored the fields of a frog's eggs-as mentioned in the
first chapter-not only to satisfy ourselves that something so
small and relatively simple possessed a field but also to find sup
port for our theory that the field controls the growth and de
velopment of the form.
Using micro-pipettes filled with salt solution and connected to
the voltmeter we found different voltage gradients across differ
ent axes of the eggs. We marked the axis of the largest voltage
gradient with spots of Nile blue sulphate and later found, as the
eggs developed, tha t the frog's nervous system always grew along
the axis with the highest voltage gradient. This was an indication
that the field is primary-the matrix that shapes the living form.
Next we looked for a living system with some unquestioned
design or pattern, the field of which could be examined through
growth and development. The nervous system of a vertebrate
offers a pattern which can be analysed and which, we hoped,
would yield some clues to the nature of the forces or laws which
determine the pattern.
Our choice fell on salamanders for our experimental animals
because they are easily obtained and can be observed from the
egg stage up to adult form; and the changes in the form as i t
grows and develops can be observed and described with great
accuracy.
61
THE U B I Q U ITOUS F I E L D
Amphibia, too, are admirably suited to the experimental

analysis of the growth and development of the nervous system.
They are vertebrates and, therefore, have a head and tail axis,
a bilateral symmetry, a right side and a left side, a dorsal and
ventral side. This is the most elementary aspect of the pattern
of organization of the vertebrate nervous system.
Moreover, by using microsurgical methods, it is possible to
perform operations on the nervous system, to remove parts of
it and to observe the consequences to its development. Pieces
can be transplanted from one part of the nervous system to an
other in order to examine the results.
Finally, salamanders are easily raised in the laboratory, with
no serious problems of care. No anaesthetics are necessary and
they are abundant in the spring of the year.
We were reinforced in our choice of salamanders by the evid
ence, slowly increasing over the years, that they possess certain
electrical properties.
We started with numerous experiments on the developing

embryos of salamanders, because an analysis of the embryology
of the nervous system promised data to support our Field Theory.
In the first place, as the embryo is an aquatic animal, i t was
necessary to determine whether or not there were any significant
electro-metrics of the embryo. Potential measurements were
made, therefore, in the embryo from a point in the cephalic
region, and another in the caudal region. These were studied over
periods of time and showed characteristic changes with the
growth and differentiating of the embryo itself.
It soon became clear that there is an electro-metric correlate of
the longitudinal axis of the salamander nervous system. There
is also a bilateral symmetry between the righ t side and the left
side of the axis, as might be expected from everything else we
know about the developing organism.
To run down this problem a little further, measurements were
made of the unfertilized egg of a salamander, using the animal
62
THE UBIQUITOUS FIELD
pole as a reference point, and a moving electrode around the

equator of the egg in the four quadrants of the development. It is
well known, of course, that the salamander egg at this stage is a
sphere, showing little or no differentiation grossly except the
difference between the animal and vegital pole. But there is no
differentiation, so far as can be observed, in the quadrants of
the sphere. Measurements were made, therefore, in the unfertil
ized egg between the north, or animal pole, and four points on
the equator.
It was found from these measurements that there was one point
on the equator which showed a marked increase in the voltage
drop between the reference electrode and the point. The latter
was marked with a spot of Nile blue sulphate so that it could be
followed through the subsequent period of development. It was
found-as our theory had suggested-that the point on the
equator which marked the greatest voltage drop from the animal
pole marked the head end of the developing salamander.
A longitudinal axis of the developing nervous system was then
established in the unfertilized egg. This maintained itself
throughout the succeeding growth period and, surprisingly
enough, there was no significan t change in the electro-metrics of
the unfertilized egg after fertilization.
This is astonishing, because fertilization is supposed to be a
critical point in development. But apparently-in the sala
mander, at least-the electric field properties of the egg are
established quite independently not only of the fact of fertiliza
tion but also of the plane of ingress of the sperm head into the
egg. This suggests, at once, that the design of the living embryo
is an electro-metric correlate which can be recorded objectively
during the process of growth and development and turns out to
be one of the constant factors during this whole process of
development.
One of the strange things about developmrnt that has always
been known is the extraordinary constancy in which the direc
tion of development moves. As a distinguished friend of mine
once said, 'The growth and development of an embryo would
seem to be the result of the fact that some kind of a factor sits
on the embryo during its ntire development and gives direction
63
to it.' From the evidence a t hand, up to date, it would seem

fairly obvious that the one constant factor in growth and develop
ment-which include not only the increase in the numbers of
cells, but also their differentiation-is the field of the organism.
All these measurements were made using silver-silver chloride
electrodes immersed in micropipettes and connected to the high
input impedance of a suitable amplifier with a galvanometer or
a recording galvanometer in the output. At the suggestion of
one of my early colleagues, Dr. Leslie F. Nims, now a t Brook
haven Laboratories, on Long Island, it was noticed that as the
micropipette electrodes were pulled away from the surface of the
embryo, a voltage gradient could still be recorded. In fact, drop
off of voltage gradient carried on as far as one or one and a half
millimetres from the embryo.
This is truly extraordinary, for it makes it clear that the field
properties of the embryo radiate through the medium of the

liquid environment in w hich the embryo lives.
Now this could occur only if the source of these potential
gradients was the result of field activity. As a matter of fact, if
one s tops to think about it, if one puts a battery of any kind in a
conducting medium, the battery very soon is exhausted, since
the external medium acts as a low resistance shunt across the
positive and negative poles of the battery. But in the embryo,
although we have the same kind of voltage gradient as is present
in the ba ttery-at least so far as the measurable characteristics
are concerned-nevertheless the field properties of the embryo
do not short out in the liquid.

These experiments led to a further analysis of the field proper
ties. It was suggested that if an embryo were rotated mechanic
ally underneath two micropipette electrodes, there should be a
constant rise and fall in voltage gradient as the head and tail axis
of the embryo passed underneath the micropipette electrode.
This experiment was set up with a mechanically revolving stage
on which was placed a half-grown salamander embryo and the
recorded output of the high input impedance amplifier trans
mitted to a G-E photoelectric recording galvanometer.
The result was extraordinary, for there was a sine wave out
put from the revolving embryo, the frequency of which, of
64
THE UBIQUITOU S F I E L D
course, was a function of the speed with which the embryo

revolved. Moreover, it was clear that the field axis was a constant
to the whole procedure and resulted in a very interesting sine

wave output from the embryo i tself. This meant, too, that the
micropipette electrodes were recording voltage gradients well
away from the embryo i tself.
As a control, an inert glass rod was revolved under the same
experimental conditions and produced a straight line on the
recording galvanometer. To make a further check, a 'robot' was
made of a piece of copper rod with a blob of solder a t one end.
Such a rod, under normal conditions, produces a voltage gradient,
because of the bi-metallic components. This also was revolved in
the same way as the embryo and produced the same kind of sine
wave, the only difference being that, in time, the bi-metallic
chemical voltage gradient decreased.
Similar experiments were made with a full-grown salamander
floated in a circular dish of salt solution in which, at opposite
ends of a diameter, were immersed the electrodes, connected to a
recording galvanometer.
The dish was then slowly rotated and, since the salamander
possessed a field with a positive and negative pole, it acted like
the armature of an electrical generator. In consequence, as i t
rotated between the electrodes, it set u p a tiny alternating
cnrrent of very low frequency, which was recorded as a true sine
wave.
One day, perhaps, some enterprising experimenter will float a
man or a woman in a rotating swimming-pool to demonstrate
that there really is such a thing as a 'human dynamo' ! But the
author's la boratory offered neither space nor facilities for such
an experiment.
3
The experiments described above made i t clear that, using proper
electro-metric techniques, recorded voltage gradients without
current drain from the system measured are a valid expression
of the basic, primary electro-dynamic field. Since the experiments
65
also indicated that direct contact with the livi ng organism was
not necessary to measure a volt-age gradient, a rigorously-con
trolled exp eri ment was set up, using the sciatic nerve of a frog,
with the help of another colieague, Dr. Alexander Mauro, now
at the Rockefeller Institute in New York. This experiment was
designed to explore the field properties of a small part of a living
system.
The beautifully-precise formulation by Lorente de N6 of fields
in an infinite-volume conductor accompanying the neural im
pulse, travelling along the sciatic nerve of the frog, demanded
that a search be made for experimental evidence of the existence
of a quasi-electrostatic field in the air surrounding a nerve
trunk.
A preliminary report of such a study is here presented. The
existence of an electro-static field has been demonstrated. How
ever, an analysis of the nature of this field is far from complete
and much further study will be required.
By an ingenious technique developed by Dr. Mauro, the re
sults of the activity of the sciatic nerve of the frog were studied,
using a thousand-megohm input-impedance preamplifier, fol
lowed by suitable amplifiers with an output to a cathode-ray tube.
It was possible to study the transmission of a single stimulus
throughout the substance of the segment of the nerve under
study, not only when the electrcdes were in direct contact, but
also when they were at a measurable distance outside the nerve.
The evidence resulting from these experiments gives further
enlightenment as to the nature of the field irr living systems. It is
becoming increasingly clear that these fields are in fact quasi
electro-static fields. Originally, the term 'electro-dynamic field'
was used to describe, in the most general way, the nature of the
fields in living organisms, but it is now possible to give a more pre
cise definition. Measurement of such fields indicates that forces
exist not only in b u t also otltside of t h e nerv e dmill g exci tation.
Thus, to the study of steady state parameters of these fields

that have been recorded in amphibia and-as we shall see
plants, must be added these records of the changing properties
of electrical fields in association with biologic activity. To be sure,
the EEG and the EKG are instances of the same phenomenon
66
THE UBIQUITO U S F I E LD
and in a sense the observations recorded here are no more than

might be expected. All of them are the direct consequences of
field properties of living systems.
None of this implies that the field is conceived of as some
mysterious property of living things. It is not another name for
elan vital or entelechy. It is a definable concept capable of pre
cise measurement and is to be thought of in the same terms as
fields in the non-living Universe.
Electric fields in physics are not only widely accepted, but
technologies based upon them have been extraordinarily pro
ductive. In non-living ma tter, fields are definable in terms of
forces between charges. They are, in part, a measure of the re
lationships between entities. In living systems, therefore, since
the entities of which they are composed are the same entities as
are to be found in non-living matter, the same forces between
the units may be presumed. The basic difference between the two
lies in the enormously i ncreased complexity of the necessary re
latednesses in living organisms.
It would seem reasonable to assume, therefore, that the rela
tionship of entities in living organisms may be measured by field
properties j ust as successfully as in a toms or between atoms.
It should be noted tha t the electro-static fields do not exist
in the absence of charges nor charges in the absence of fields.
They are both fundamental properties of matter. In living
organisms it can be said that chemical components, wherever they
possess charges, cannot exist without fields nor can fields be
found except in the presence of charges.
It is equally dear that the business of living is not a static
affair; it is a moving, dynamic process. For this energy is required
and it is the chemistry of biological systems which provides i t.
But energy is a scalar property and is. itself, indifferent to the
direction in which i t flows. In general, it is the second law of
thermodynamics which directs the flow in such a manner as to
increase the entropy of the system.
It seems from our observations that this direction is also
characterized by electrical gradients, much as though the second
law was augmented by electrical signposts. Moreover, these
electrical signs have an astonishing constancy in spite of the
67
THE U B IQ U ITOUS F I E L D
enormously complex chemical flux. Such constancy of directional

control, in fact, is one of the s t riking attributes of the developing
organism. Quasi-electro-sta tic fields, although changing slowly,
persist in time and can, perhaps to some approximation, be con
ceived as providing the necessary direction.
The experiments reported by us in collaboration with Dr.
Mauro provide additional evidence of the validity of the original
assumption.
Pursuing our exploration of fields in widely-different living

forms, we made a study of the voltage-gradients in the marine
animal, Obelia, a polyp. These experiments were carried out
through the courtesy of the late Dr. F. S. Hammett, of the
Marine Experimental Station of the Lankenau Hospital Research
Institute. They were made on animals collected at the experi
mental station at Truro on Cape Cod.
A series of measurements of the voltage gradients of definitive
stages in the life cycle of an Obelia hybrid was carried out. These
trace a rising curve of graded intensity parallel with the growth
from the anlagen to the complete functioning animal. The values
reach their peak in the feeding animal and then drop off as re
gression to the senile state begins. With the attainment of
senility and its consequent catabolic dissolution the direction
of the voltage gradient is reversed.
Fluctuations in voltage gradien t parallel the fluctuations in
developmental growth, as it progresses from an undifferentiated
to the differentiated state. The conclusion was made that the
growth and life cycle of an Obelia is characterized by definitive
and progressive changes in voltage gradient correla ted with the
morphogenesis of the animal. There are a number of implications
cf this study wh i ch deserve fu r th er examination.
In the extremely short life-cycle of Obelia it is possible to
cover the entire life span of the living organ ism in a rela tively
short time. During the early growth and d ifferentiation of the
animal, increasing voltage gradients were recorded until a peak
68
was reached a t the time when the animal was fully developed and
feeding.
As is well-known, after this the activity of the animal begins
to decline and a regression occurs with senility until the so
called death of the particular hydranth. The electro-metric
correlates of this regression were clearly evident.
This tends to confirm some observations made in the study of
mice that there is a fairly regular pattern of growth and de
velopment up to the eventual death of the living system. During
the first third of the animal's life, voltage gradients increase fairly
steadily. During the middle third, voltage gradients tend to
level off and form a plateau. The last third of an animal's life
shows evidence of regression with a consequent falling off of
voltage gradients until death itself ensues.
All of these experiments show a relationship between the
growth and development of a living system and its electro-metric
correlates. One of the important consequences of the field theory,
however, is that the electro-metric characteristics of the system
in some way control the pattern of organization or, if you like,
the design of the system.
With the generous co-operation of the late Professor Edmund

W. Sinnott, a study was made of the electrical patterns in cucur
hits. In this field, Dr. Sinnott, an expert, has called attention to
the fact tha t the shape of gourds is not a function of the morpho
logical characteristics of the cellular components. The cucurbits
all have a characteristic building block, and yet the shape of the
gourd made with these building blocks differs. Just as one can
build a house with bricks of a uniform size and shape, the design
of the whole results in quite different external characteristics.
Using cucurbit fruits, provided by Dr. Sinnott, electro-metrics
were made. In this study, potential differences were measured
along the axial and the equitorial diameters of young ovaries
a nd developing fruits of three races of wcurbita pe:po, differing
markedly in shape and designated as elongated, round , and flat.
69
The size of the potential differences bears little relation to the

absolute size of the dimensions along which they occur, but the
ratio of the potential differences is closely correlated with
the ratio of the d imensions.
As the fruit grow larger, the potential gradients tcnd in all
races to decrease, but the ratios between the gradients and the
true dimensions tend to increase in the elongate, to decrease in
the flat, and to be unchanged in the round race.
To explain these various facts, it is tempting to suggest that
the pattern of potential differences here described may have some
causal relation to the morphological pattern which appears as the
fruit develops. The evidence here presented is in entire agree
ment with that obtained in animal material and may be inter
preted in the same way. The data offers for the consideration of
students of plant morphogenesis a series of new facts from a
field which, if well cultivated, may become very fruitful.
The association with Professor Sinnott was extraordinarily
fruitful. Many suggestions were made as to the kind of electro
metric studies which could be made on growing systems. Two of
these were furthered. The first of these, following Professor
Sinnott, was carried out with the help of Oliver Nelson, at that
time a student in the Graduate School of Yale University, De
partment of Botany, and closely associated with the Connecticut
Agricultural Experiment Station. The suggestion was made that
electro-metric studies be made of a single seed. The choice was
necessitated largely by practical considerations and fell on corn
kernels-sweet corn kernels.
With the co-operation of the Connecticut Agricultural Experi
ment S tation, it became possible to study the electrical patterns
in several pure and hybrid strains of sweet corn. These seeds had
been under study for some time. The strains differ considerably
in genetic constitution and in the degree of hybrid vigour shown
in crosses between them. Four inbred strains were studied and
three hybrids. One of these was a mid-season yellow sweet corn,
an inbred of unknown origin. Another was a semi-dwarf mutant
of P-39; it is normal in appearance but much reduced in size. It
has been shown by Singleton that they differ by only one gene.
In this material, therefore, we had four stable pure strains of
70
THE UBIQU ITO U S FIELD
significantly different properties with which to correlate electrical

patterns. The three hybrids show a gradation of hybrid v;gour.
If the electrical patterns have any significance, the electrical
correlates of these differences should be manifest. A statistical
analysis shows that the mean potential measured between the
attached end of the corn kernel and its opposite pole gave h ighly
significant results.
Aside from the generally different mean, however, the most
striking finding was a very great difference between the mean of
the single gene mutant and the parent s tock. It is remarkable that
the change of a single gEne in the parent s tock should produce
such profound and significant change in the over-all pattern of
the voltage difference. The conclusion seems to be inescapable
that there is a very close relationship between the genetic con
stitution and the electrical pa ttern. If further studies should
confirm this conclusion, it seems very probable that one of the
ways the chromosomes impart design to protoplasm is through
the medium of an electro-dynamic field.
In these studies of voltage gradients in maize kernels, the
longitudinal gradient between the germinal end and the micro
polar end of the seed was used as a test measurement. Under the
couditions of the experiment there appeared to be, first of all, an
immediate potential, which was called the prime potential.
Moments after this prime potential was determined, the voltage
gradient nearly always dropped to a much lower value and re
mained remarkably stable for the minutes during which the
observations were made.
The prime potentials apparently show a high correlation
wi th the seeds' viability, but have no particular reference to
plant growth. The equilibrium potential, on the other hand, is
not correlated with seed viability but rather with the inherent
genetic constitution of a plant, since by use of the potentiometer
and equilibrium potential determinations, one can segregate from
a given population t h ose seeds with superior growth characteris
tics. Further, these poten tial differences hetween seeds have been
highly correlated with the growth of progeny for one generation
removed. For these reasons the potentiometer may prove to be
a useful tool for the plant breeder.
71
T H E U B I Q U I T O U S F IE L D
Electro-metric data from maize

relation with growth potentials in
significant relationship to genetic
raise the old q uestion of which is
constitution of a living system, or
lives ?
seeds show remarkable cor

the corn kernel, as well as a
constitution. These findings
more i mportant, the genetic
the environment in which it
As a contribution to this problem, a study was made of the

reactions to a stimulus of the sensitive plant, Mimosa. It is well
known, of course, tha t a branch will collapse when touched. Its
electrical correlates, therefore, a t the collapse of the branch pro
vide a clue as to the importance of the changing physical en
vironment of a living system and its electrical correlates.
It is well known, too, that in all biological systems there
exists a multiplicity of phase boundaries. The existence of a
potential difference across the phase boundaries is generally
accepted. It is commonly held tha t the membrane potential a t a
phase boundary is a consequence of a difference in concentrations
of electrolytes on opposite sides of the boundary. In the non-living
system this potential approaches zero as ionic equilibrium is
reached. It has been more or less logically concluded, therefore,
that the existence and variation of potential difference can be
expla ined by the known initial differences in concentrations with
consequent movement of ions across the boundary.
The living system , on the other hand, differs somewha t from
the physical chemical situation in that the potential differences,
instead of approaching zero with time, are maintained at a n
astonishingly stable level. The maintenance o f this level o f poten
tial difference presupposes constant recruitment a nd it is n atural
to assume tha t this recruitment comes in large measure from
chemical activity. Moreover, it is not a t all impossible tha t one of
the mechanisms regulating and controlling chemical activity is
resident in the potential difference.
In other words, if this problem is looked at from a slightly
different angle, it is legitimate to make the assumption that in
72
a living system the total energy intake appears, in part, in the

chemical flux of metabolism and, in part, in stored energy in
potential differences. If this assumption is true, it follows, then,
that by studying potential differences during rest a nd during ac
tivity a record could be made of a general level of immediately
available energy, as represented by algcbraicIy-summated bound
ary potentials.
In the face of the demand for activity this reservoir of poten
tial energy could be tapped. When the biological system is at rest,
the potentials could be recorded as DC potentials, but when
protoplasm is thrown into any kind of activity, such as neural
transmission, muscle contraction and similar events, the first sign
of tha t activity would lie in the sudden withdrawal from the
reservoir of electrical energy. In other words, a drop in potential
differences. Then, mobilization of chemical properties might
be expected to re-establish the original level of the potential
difference.
Through studies of both DC and AC phenomena in the living
system, it should be possible, therefore, to obtain straightforward
records of fundamental biological activity. Since in a complex
animal organization this is exceedingly difficult, not m uch pro
gress has been made. In plants, which presumably are much
simpler, the problem can be attacked more readily. For this
reason, therefore, the studies of the electrical response associated
with a stimulus to the sensitive plant, Mimosa, were made.
The most striking thing about the results is the very great
similarity between the electrical response of the stimulus reaction
in Mimosa to the electrical records of propagated electrical re
sponse of the action current in vertebrate neurones. The magni
tude of the response is, of course, very much greater, and the
time scale in seconds rather than in milliseconds.
Several seconds after a stimulus, whether a burn, a cutting or
crushing, or a shock from a 90 volt B battery, a wave of increas
ing negativity appears under the hot or peripheral electrode. This
peak arises to sixty or seventy m illivolts and then subsides to
the original voltage gradient and, though not always, often
crosses it. This record is very similar to that of the spike in
the neural action current. This spike lasts, however, from two to
73
three seconds to five or six seconds. In younger, more active

plants, the duration of the spike is apparently shorter than in
the older ones. Following the spike, there is a posi tive after-po ten
tial followed by an up ward swing of the potential difference
which establishes a new level of negativity, lasting from a few
minutes to several hours.
The whole wave form of this stimulus response is strikingly
like the wave form of a single axone response in the vertebrate
nervous system. Although the polarities differ, in all p rob
ability this is caused by a difference in the geometry of the
electrode placement. Attempts were made to relate this to the
anatomy of Mimosa, as it is well known in animals that the rate
of conductivity of a nervous impulse is a function of the diameter
of the axone. In Mimosa there are continuous fluid-conta ining
channels which , conceivably, m ight be likened to a nerve process.
These channels, however, are buried heneath the surface since
they are covered by many layers of cells. The electrodes, of course,
are in contact with the surface cells, n o t with the conducting
channels. The whole system, however, i s obviously conductive of
electricity and it m ay he that the records obtained are derived
from the longitudinal channels.
In Mimosa, the longi tudinal channels vary in size, have thick
walls, and are arranged in quadrants. They arc centrally situated
and covered by many layers of cells. In the rachis, the channels
are more deeply placed peripherally and tend to scatter towards
the circumference as the s tem is approached. There does not seem
to be any marked change in the size of the canals. In the stern
the number of conductive systems increases markedly with
a concomitant enlargement. Also, they lie nearer the surface and
there are fewer layers of cells covering them. The d ifference in
size of the channels may bear some significant relation to the
electrical records if it should appear that the conducting canals
are involved in the propagation of the stimulus.
The study here reported suggests that with Mimosa-as in the
nervous system of animals-the rate of conduction of impulse is
a function of the diameter of the channel. But this particular
aspect of the problem needs to be investigated further.
If the recorded standing-potential represents the measure of a
74
reservoir of electrical energy available for activity, then a stimu

lus such as that applied in Mimosa brings about a sudden with
drawal from that storehouse. The fact that a certain potential
gradient with the periphery positive to the central region is
necessary for the reaction, implies tha t unless the amount of
electrical energy stored is at a designated level, the reaction can
not go forward. If, however, the level is high enough, the
stimulus unlocks the storehouse and a wave of activity is propa
gated with a characteristic electrical correlate. It will be recalled
that these experiments with Mimosa led a distinguished East
Indian zoologist and philosopher to hold that such plants as
Mimosa and, by inference, all other plants, possess a soul, ex
emplified in particular by the reaction of the system to an ex
ternal stimulus !
The interesting thing about all these results to date makes it
dear that the electrical properties of a living system are directly
to be correlated with the genetic constitution of a living system,
on the one hand, and on the other hand are modified by changes
in the physical or chemical. The alteration, however, is not in
pattern but in the magnitude of the typical response. This does
not mean that there is a profound change in the electrical field,
but only that the electrical field can be modified by an appro
priate stimulus.
We had started our voyage of d iscovery by examining the most

complex electro-dynamic fields-those of the human organism.
We had also found fields in simpler forms of life-animals, eggs,
seeds and plants. So it seemed desirable to extend our hunt for
fields to the simplest living organization, protoplasm.
This was important, not only to m ake sure that everything
that is alive possesses a field bu t also because protoplasm is the
basic, formative material of animal forms. Wha tever may trigger,
too, the nervous system, a basic requirement is the energy made
available by the incredibly-complex chemical flux of protoplasm.
The more, then, that we can discover about the elementary
75
properties of protoplasm, the better we will be able to under

stand how the nervous system functions.
Again, at the suggestion of Professor Sinnott, an exa mination
was made of the electrical properties of a very simple protoplas
mic system, that of the slime mould, Physarum polycephalum.
This is a common mould which grows readily in the lahoratory
and exhibits characteristic patterns of growth and of fruiting.
Also, its protoplasm is in constant movement, oscillating from
one end of the system to the other. This streaming of protoplasm,
of course, is well known to botanists, and offers many oppor
tunities for investigation. The mould is a syncytium of proto
plasm with no cell boundaries but many included nuclei. Since
the material grows readily in quite adequate quantities, it makes
an ideal elementary protoplasmic system for a further study of
the electro-metric properties.
There were three primary objectives of this study : The first
was to determine whether or not, in the living plasmodium, in
constan t movement, there exists an electrical correlate of this
movement. Secondly, after the results of the Mimosa experiment,
it was interesting to examine the possibility of an electro-metric
response in the protoplasm to a variety of external stimuli, both
chemical and physical. Finally, a third possibility was to examine
the changes which might be found in the plasmodium when an
external field was applied to it. There is plenty of evidence in the
literature to show that changes in the electrical environment of
protoplasm do produce observable effects on the protoplasm itself.
Using silver-silver chloride electrodes, a high input impedance
amplifier and a recording galvanometer, many records were taken
of the changing potential in a strand, or vein, of the plasmodium
during the movement of the protoplasmic system itself. In the
laboratory, using moving picture records and electro-metrics, the
pulsating character of the growth of the slime mould was studied.
Under the microscope, it is simple to demonstrate that every
sixty or ninety seconds the protoplasm in the veins reverses the
direction of flow. The electrical pickup from the vein, comhined
with the moving picture, reveals that in the majority of instances
polar rev"rsal of the voltage occurs before there is a directional
change of the plasmic flow, but also there are many instances
76
THE U B IQUITOUS F I E L D
where the change in both phenomena seem to occur simul

taneously. This, undoubtedly, needs further study.
It is highly important, of course, to determine whether or not
the change in potential is the result of the protoplasmic flow or
the reverse of this. There is no evidence in the litera ture as to the
nature of the forces which bring about this change in proto
plasmic flow. Undoubtedly, this is involved in the growth of the
whole system and is concerned, apparently, in part, with the
search of the plasmodium for energy sources or food.
The rate at which the protoplasm moves undoubtedly is a
function, to some extent, of temperatures in the environment.
Although there are no exact records of these relationships, the
fact remains that lowering the temperature does tend to slow up
the flow of protoplasm. Certain conditions make it possible, more
over, to seek any electrical changes at times when the protoplasm
is not flowing; and there have been records made in the labora
tory which show that an electrical change in polarity in the
plasmodium vein may occur in the absence of visible protoplas
mic movement. There has not yet been observed, however, any
lack of electrical correlates when protoplasm itself is moving.
That changes in the electrical environment have an effect
upon the electrical properties of protoplasm, is well known from
the studies of Lund and his associates, and more recently by
Anderson. In this laboratory, Anderson's experiments were re
peated, using the technique we have employed in our search for
more information, and show that the reversal of polari ty in the
mould, by changing the external electrical environment, mark
edly inhibits the spread of the plasmodium. The direction in
which the plasmodium grows, moreover, can be altered by, again,
imposing an external electrical field on the primitive protoplasm.
In every instance, the growing plasmodium could be made to turn
towards the negative side of an imposed electrical environment.
In other words, in the slime mould, changing the electrical en
vironment can, under certain conditions, modify the direction in
which energy flows in the protoplasmic system.
The third question-what is the electrical correlate of an ade
quate stimulus to the plasmodium-was studied using a
cathode-ray tube as recording instrument, with photographic re77
production. Here, again, it was demonstrated that any change in

the physical environment of primitive protoplasm results in an
adeq uate stimulus to the protoplasm itself. For a single vein of the
slime mould, suspended between two silver-silver chloride elec
trodes, showed a remarkable electro-metric response to such a
stimulus as a tap on one of the electrodes.
Unlike the nervous system, however, there seemed to be a
fairly close correlation between the strength of the tap and the
electro-metric response of the protoplasm. A weak tap produced a
relatively small change in voltage gradient, whereas a heavier
one increased the magnitude of the electrical response. There was,
however, obviously, a plateau of the response beyond which the
protoplasm showed no further increase in voltage output. This, of
course, is unlike the all-or-none phenomena to he found in neural
protoplasm.
Records of this sort reinforce the concep t that one of the
simpler forms of protoplasm exhibits properties very like that to
be found in the nervous system. This might be suspected, of
course, since both neurones and the slime mould are built of the
same basic stuff, protoplasm. Even the most primitive protoplasm,
in order to maintain i ts existence, must be capable of responding
to the changing physical and chemical environment, of transmit
ting the stimuli throughout its extent and after some kind of
correlation or coordinating or integration of all the stimuli, of
producing some kind of describable response. These basic prop
erties of protoplasm, after all, are to be found enhanced enorm
ously, specialized and increased in efficiency through the differ
entiation of the nervous system.
No less important are changes in the chemical environment.
For example, if a drop of 2 % procain is placed on a vein, the
immediate effect of the application of the drop-and this is true
also of water-is a stimulus response usually in the opposite
polarity to the tap stimulus. After a matter of a few minutes,
however, the tap will produce a much reduced and flattened re
sponse; the magnitude is lessened and a return to the baseline is
slow.
If the: procain is washed off with a fine spray of tap water,
within another five minutes a reasonably characteristic response
78
is obtained, but much enhanced over the pre-test situation. It

should be noted that the vein hangs s uspended i n the air over a
moist chamber and the pro cain can be ei ther adsorbed to the
s urface of the protoplasm or pass through the phase boundary
i n to the protoplasm itself. The promptness of the recovery act of
washing and the enhancement uf the response would seem to in
dicate that the adsorbtion to the surface was the more probable.
These experiments suggest that slime mould could become a
very valuable tool for the study of the elIect of changing chemi
cal environment on protoplasm. In general, the similarity in
electrical response of the slime mould to changes in the physical
and chemical environmen t shows a remarkable similarity to the
properties of neural tissue.
*
With the experiments described in this chapter we had covered

a wide range of living forms and in all of them we had found
electro-dynamic fields. But our adventure was to lead us to still
further discoveries.
79
CHA PTER FIVE
The Field as a Signpost

1
We had reason to believe that the electro-dynamic field could

serve as a signpost for a variety of conditions because our ex
periments had confirmed our basic assumption. This was that
the organism possesses a field as a whole which embraces sub
sidiary or local fields, representing the organism's component
parts. We assumed, then, that variations in the subsidiary fields
would be reflected in variations in the flow of energy in the
whole system-as we had found in ovulation and malignancy.
We decided, therefore, to look for further practical consequences
of the theory.
Working with Dr. Samuel Harvey and Dr. Max Taffe!, of
the Yale University School of Medicine, we initiated a study of
the rela tionship between the electro-metrics of the peripheral
nervous system and the physiological state of the system ex
amined. With the coopera tion of Dr. R. G. Grennel, we made a
special study of so-called surface potentials and peripheral nerve
injury.
In the course of these experiments, it was demonstra ted that
in experimental animals and man-surface potential differences
do reflect peripheral nerve activities. These potentials are not
affected by pre-ganglionic sympathectomy and seem to be inde
pendent of vascular and sweating responses.
We soon found a definite relationship between nerve and tissue
in the form of a potential difference, which can be used in quanti
tative tests of nerve function. These tests are simple enough for
routine clinical application. They show a dear-cut correlation be
tween the integrity of the peripheral somatic nervous system and
potential differences measured on the surface.
80
THE FIELD AS A SIGNPOST
Interference, pharmacological or traumatic, with normal func

tions of ulnar or sciatic nerve is reflected in an al tered s tanding
potential between a reference electrode and a moving electrode in
contact with the area supplied by the nerve in question. The
mechanism by which this correla tion is brought about is im
portant. Complicity of the vascular bed might exist but the lack
of any significant change in the pattern following sympathec
tomy makes this unlikely. However, the sympathectomies were
all pre-ganglionic and hence further work must be done in order
to clarify the matter.
It has been found tha t rapidly shutting off the blood-flow in
the forearm and hand by means of a blood pressure cuff on the
arm , as well as a sudden return of flow on releasing the cup, does
not significantly alter the potential difference. In other words,
altering the normal functioning of the vascular bed does not
affect the standing potential.
Furthermore, since the microvoltmeter is relatively unaffected
by changes in resistance in the system being measured, 'skin re
sis tance' and sweating, as reported by Richter and his associates,
are not involved in the potential changes. In the light of these
findings it would seem unlikely that the sympathetic nervous
system is the mediating factor. Nevertheless, the data show tha t
in unila teral sympathectomy there is a d ifference in the standing
potential on the operated and unoperated sides. These measure
ments, then, form the basis of a simple, quantitative test of
peripheral function, independent of sweating or of vascular re
action.
These ventures into the unknown of the electro-metrics of
liv ing organisms were often prompted by a search for answers to
practical questions. An example of this are the electro-m etrics
of wound healing.
The late Dr. Samuel Harvey and Dr. Max Taffel had been
studying wound healing in experimental animals and in man;
and had called atten tion to the fact that the strength of a heal
ing wound is probably caused in large measure by prolifera tioilS
of fibroblast. This means, of course, that there is a great deal of
mitotic activity going on and, since an increase in the number
of cells is a vital bi ological property-and since other experiments
81
to be reported later show a close correlation with growth-these

studjes by Taffe! and Harvey showed an increase in tensile
strength correlated with the passage of time.
This inCTcase varies, for the most part, during the first eight or
ten days following the incision. This tends to be modified in
vitamin C deficient animals. But the increase of tensile strength
must involve at least two processes : one of cell proliferation and
one of cell differentiation. In normal development, the two events
do not occur in the same cell simultaneously. Each cell takes
part in the generalized mitosis of a group of cells-probably
fibroblasts-for a period of time, after which , with other cells, i t
undergoes a period o f differentiation. As growth proceeds, new
cells go into mi tosis and then in to differentiation adding thereby
to the new structure. There are no known methods for differenti
ating these two processes excep t by microscopic examination.
The elcctro-metric technique offers the possibility of discriminat
ing be tween the two.
2
It seemed advisable, therefore, to investiga te the nature of
bioelectric ph enomena i n wound healing and to discover any
possible relationship between bioelectrics and tensile strength and
also between bioelectrics and growth or differentiation.
The experimental animals used for the laboratory were guinea
pigs, one group of which were fed a con trolled diet. Another
group were fed a form of laboratory diet. In both sets of studies
an area of skin was bared and measurem ents taken between the
cephalic end of the bare area, and another at the caudal end of
the area. Wherever incision was to be made between the two, a
control point was taken.
After the preliminary measurements were mad,:, the skin and
subcutaneous fascia were incised and suturerJ, following which
another set of examinations were made. These were continued
daily for the next two weeks or until the wound was healed. In
some inances, the healing was so complete as to make it difficult
to determine the site of the wound.
82
THE F I E LD AS A S IGNPOST
The data showed a marked change of potential gradient be

tween the normal skin and the area of injury. Perhaps the most
astonishing finding was that the site of injury was not consist
ently negative to the normal tissue, as would be expected by the
theory of inj ury potentiaL On the contrary, for the first twenty
four or twenty-eight hours after the injury, the wound area was
positive to the cephalic point in the normal skin. The potential
gradient between these two points tended to rise for twenty-four
or twenty-eight hours and then rapidly to decline until the third
or fourth day when the wound became negative to the normal
skin. This negativity increased until the maximum was reached
on the eighth or ninth day. Following this, and lasting for
twenty-four to forty-eight hours, the potential gradient dropped,
to be followed on the tenth or twelfth day by another rise in
potential. This was repeated on the twelfth and fourteenth day.
On the fifteenth or sixteenth day the gradients returned to
approximately normal limits.
The comparison of the curves obtained by Harvey and Taffel
shows an interesting parallelism. The tensile strength measure
ments show a rapidly rising curve during the first eight days. The
bioelectric measurements show a similar change. After the eighth
day, the tensile strength seems to approach a plateau. The bio
electric determinations show alternating growth and differentia
tion after the eighth day. While examinations show rather slow
changes in the potential gradients, nevertheless, they are statistic
ally reliable.
In order to investigate this matter further, a second series of
animals was studied under somewha t different conditions. Thirty
guinea pigs from the laboratory stock were taken, ten of which
were placed on a controlled laboratory diet. It is to be noted that
this diet was different from that of the first series. These animals
received an incision on the right flank as described, and were
read daily.
The rise and fall of potential differences during this period
would seem to be correlated w i th the growth of fibroblasts. Then
followed a period of differen tiation represented by a clear-cut
increase in potential differences.
However, once started, the alternation of growth and differ83
entiation was strikingly parallel in both groups of animals.

TV.Tcnty of the a nimals were p u t on a vitamin C deficient diet
ten with no wo unds i n the ski n and ten with wounds. The poten
tial gradients in the opera ted and unoperated scorbutic animals,
a n a in the norrnals on a controlled diet, showed interesting
parallelisms.
In the case of unopera ted scorbutics a reasonably constant
baseline appeared through the period of the experiment. The
operated scorbutics, however, showed changes in the potential
differences which closely paralleled the normal a nimals, save that
the magnitude of the potential difference was less. In addition,
they showed the same delay in the onset of potential rise as was
seen in the operated animals on the normal diet. These observa
tions indicated that it is possible to measure with some certainty
bioelectric concomitants of growth and differentiation in the heal
ing of wounds in the guinea pig. They suggested that the growth
process is not a continuous one, except in the early stages, but
rather that, after the eighth day, it alterna tes with periods of
differentiation. Bioelectric correlates of growth in the animals on
a control diet seem to rise faster and reach a greater magnitude
than in the case of the scorbutic animals.
3
In cooperation with the above-mentioned surgeons, a further
experiment was m ade on wound healing in the human. Some
twenty-five instances of operative procedures, with uncompli
cated healing of the wounds, were selected for study. All these
healed without any evidence of infection. Determinations of the
potential gradient between two points-one in the immediate
vicinity of the wound, and another at some distance from it
were made daily, beginning on the day following the operation
and continuing until the patient was discharged from the hos
pital, usually after fourteen days. In each observa tion, sufficient
readings were taken to insure valid measurements.
It was at once apparent tha t there was, on the whole, a
definite trend. Comparison of individual cases revealed in many
84
instances wide discrepancies. Such variations have been found

to be consistently present in animals studied by the tensile
strength method. Similar variations were particularly character
istic of electro-metric technique a nd therefore many detennina
tiOIlS are necessary.
The results show that there is a phase of positive poten tial of
som e four days' duration corresponding to the so-called lag in
the tensile strength m ethod. This same phenomenon was ob
served in the guinea pigs and also in mice as an accompaniment
of a carcinogenic irritation. Following this, the wound passes into
a proliferated phase during which a negative potential is en
countered which reaches its height between the seventh and
ninth days. Here the maximum negative voltage is reached at
approximately the same time as the maximum tensile strength.
The increasing nega tivity suggests an homology with the rising
negativity observed in other animals and in cancer.
At the end of the tenth day the wound is usually healed and
from then to the end of the determinations the voltage gradients
gradually fall to the normal base-line. These observations of
electro-metric studies of the healing wound in man parallel those
made in experimental animals and give weight to the concept that
the process of healing in man is a phenomenon of growth.
4
Since these wound healing experiments on m an seem to indi
("ate a modification of the normal picture after surgery, it be
hooved us to find out what went on from day to day in normal
human beings with a reasonably normal existence. To this end, a
group of ten medical students were found to agree to do the
necessary examination to see what happened in the ordinary
day-to-day existence of such apparently normal subjects.
These were studied for a considerable period of time and it was
found, in general, that the students could be separated into three
groups as was mentioned in Chapter 3 : one, a group that showed
consistently high potential differences between the index fingers
of the two hands, another with a low potential difference, and a
85
THE F I E L D AS A SIGNPOST
third, an intermediate point.

There was, however, one particular student in the group who
consis tently showed a higher potential difference than all the
rest of the subjects. On investigation, it was found that this boy
had a history of emotional instability and. at the time he was
admitted, was admitted as an experiment. Before the end of the
year, however, the boy became definitely psychotic and had to
be remanded to an institution.
These findings suggested at once that deviations from a normal
behaviour, such as might appear in a psychotic, were worth in
vestigating further. With the cooperation of the late Dr. Eugen
Kahn in the Department of Psychiatry, a number of patients
who had been studied carefully by the psychiatric staff-were
selected and measuremen ts made on them daily for a considerable
period of time.
The psychiatrists were asked to divide the patients i nto three
groups-obvious deviates from normal behaviour, those tha t were
reasonably normal, and an intermediate group. The electro-metric
experiments were carried out in the services of the psychiatric
hospital without the electro-metric investigator knowing any
thing about the status of the individual.
At the conclusion of the electro-metrics the patients were
divided into three groups ; those with markedly changed electro
metrics, those with relatively little change, and an intermediate
group. Subsequently, the i ntermediate group was subdivided into
a high-low group and a low-high group.
At the conclusion of the experiment, the groups selected by
the psychiatrists were compared with the groups selected by the
electro-metric investigator, who-it should be emphasized
knew nothing about the psychiatric diagnosis. Results of t h e
study showed clearly enough that t h e group consisting o f those

markedly deviated from normal behaviour by psych ;atric ex
amination also s howed a similar deviation in electro-metric ex
amination.
The low group, likewise, paralleled each other perfectly. But
in the intermediate group, as might be expected. there was con
siderable vuiation in both the psychiatric reports and in the
electro-metric readings. This, of course, is very interesting and i t
86
J.'
J
;: : ==
S pecifi cat i o n s of H e w lett-Packard D . C . Vacu u m T u be V o l t meter Mod e l 41 2A
reco m m e n d ed by Dr B u r r to meas u re e l ectrod y n a m i c fi e l d s .
General
Voltmeter
Vo ltage Range: Positive a n d negative vol tages (rom 1
m i l l ivolt fu l l scale to 1 ,000 volts full scale i n thirteen
r anges.
A c c uracy : 1 % of fu l l scale on a n y range
I n p u t Resistance :
1 0 megohms
on
mY, 3 mY, and 10 mY ranges.
30 megohms
% o n 30 m V range.
1 00 megohms 1 % on 1 00 m Y range.
200 megohms 1 % o n 300 m Y range and above.
1 o
1
AC Rejection: A voltage at power l i n e or twice power

l i n e frequency 40 d B greater than fu l l scale affects read i n g
less than 1 % . Peak voltage m u s t n o t exceed 1 , 500 volts.
Voltagp.s and Currents:
Open Circuit
Volts
10 m V
1 00 m V
1 V
1 V
1 V
1 V
1 V
V
1 V
Range
Xl
Xl0
X l 00
X l 000
Xl0K
X l 00 K
X1 M
X l 0M
X l 00 M
Photo courtesy H e w l ett-Packard

Palo Alto, Cal ifor n i a and Slough, Bucks.
Meter: I n d i v i d u al l y cal i brated.

I solation Resistance: At least 1 00 megohms s h u n ted
by 0 01 J.1F between common te r m i n a l and case (power
l i ne) g r o u n d .
I s o l a tion : M a y b e o p e rated u p to 500 V d c o r 1 30 V ac
from grou n d .
P o w e r : 1 1 5 or 2 3 0 vo l ts 1 0%, 5 0 t o 6 0 H z . 3 5 watts.
Dimensions:
Short C i r c u i t
C u rrent
10 m A
1 0 mA
10 m A
1 mA
1 00 l A
1 0 lA
1 A
0 1 lA
0 , 01 lA
C a b i n e t M o u n t : 1 1 -.\-" high,
1 91
7TH
w i d e , 1 0H deep. ( 2 9 2 x
254 m m ) ,
Weight:
Cabinet Mount : Net, 12 I bs. (5 5 kg). S h i p p i n g , 14 I b s .
(6 4 kg ) .
Rack
Mount:
(9 0 k g ) .
Net, 1 2 I bs , ( 5 5 k g . ) S h i p p i n g. 2 0 I bs .
First public demonstration of subject going into trance connected to volt meter.
Photo-el ectric tracing s h owing various stages o f hypnosis and post-hyp notic
emotion.
/ .
suggested that the electro-metric technique might be useful in

the neurological and psychiatric fields.
This whole area has been extensively investigated by Dr.
Leonard J. Ravi tz, Jr. a t one time on the staff of the Department
of Psychiatry at Yale, and followed by him through appointments
in a number of other institutions. His results are striking and
extraordinary. Perhaps the most remarkable result obtained in
our laboratory by Dr. Ravitz was when he found a significant
electro-metric correlate of hypnotism tha t was astonishing to
watch : a continuously-recording voltm eter showed evidence of
m arhed changes in voltage gradient during the hypnotic process
This was not an event which m ight be related to the subjec
tivity of the operator, but could be recorded without argument
on the record ing galvanometer. If anyone needed objective evid
ence of the results of hypnosis, one needed only to look at the
charts recorded under these conditions. Needless to say, this sug
gests an enormous range of studies which could be made parallel
ing those of Dr. Ravitz and, wherever possible, extending them.
It becomes evident from Dr. Ravitz's examination that by
using electro-metric techniques on patients in psychiatric hos
pitals, patients-as a result of therapy, or changing circumstances
-could safely be discharged from the hospital when the voltage
gradi ent indicated a reasonable return to normal. Likewise,
electro-metrics could show clearly enough when certain patients
-no matter what the therapy was-could not be returned safely
to normal life outside of the institution. The value of this to the
institutionalized psychotic should he apparent at once.
Needless to say, a great deal m ore study is needed and much
more data must be collected. But Dr. Ravitz's striking results
are exciting enough to warrant the expenditure of the additional
time and effort to extend these studies further.
Such studies are all the more desirable because-as mentioned
in Chapter I -L-field measurements can serve as signposts to
emotional instability outside institutions and could therefore
serve as a valuahle tool to the Armed Forces and to industry.
Practical applications apart, there are also great psychological
and philosophical implications in the discovery that the state of
the mind is reflected in the state of the field. Another remarkable
87
.
T H E F I E L D A S A SI G N P O ST
experiment by Dr. Ravitz, too, i n which a n emotion of grief re

cal l ed under h y p no t i c regression caused a 1 4-m i ll i vol t rise for
twu-and-a-half m in u tes , suggests other p ossibil i ties . Already field
measurements can point to em o ti on a l conditions; in the future
they may also be used as a purel y o bjec tive , quantitative assess
ment of emotion.
It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the electro-metric
a ppr o ach to emotional dia gn osis can be completely impersonal
and objective. The electro-metric investigator of psychiatric
pati e n ts mentioned a short while ago did not know-and did not
need to know-the mental state of the patients. Yet his electro
mctric find ings tallied closely with the ps ych ia t ric diagnoses.
S i n ce the electro-metric t ests a re s i mple and since any com
petent technic ia n can quickly be trained to make them, in ma n y
cases they can be used to sa ve the time of b usy psychiatrists by
sorting out all but th e borderline cases. This can not only save
time but also a great deal of expense to th e pa tien t or ta xp ayer .
5
In th i s age, pr o ba bl y more people are subjected to emotional
stress-from environmental or other causes-than in any previ
ous one. Our bulging mental h ospitals are sufficient evidence of
this; and, outside our mental hospitals, more and more people
seem to feel the need for psychiatric h elp .
Modcrn psychosom a tic medicine has demonstrated that, un
fortuna tely, the effects of em o ti o nal disturbance are often not
confined to mental symptoms : many physical ills have a psy ch o
soma tic origin.

Faced with this vas t problem, we have to admit a dis tressi n g
h ck of knowled ge n ot only of the true nature of mind or emo tion
hut a lso of the m echan ism of the relationsh i p between mind and
body.
L-ficld measuremen ts, of course, cannot solve this prohlem.
But, it is sub mi tt ed , they can o ffer some n ew approaches to its
solu tion. They can give ea rly wa rnin g of emotional instabil ity
as we have seen-and one day, perh a ps , will offer a reliable m ea ns
88
THE FIELD AS A S IGNPOST
of measuring i ts intensity.
This could be useful not only to psych iatrists and psycholo
gists but also to practitioners of internal medicine. Wi th the in
tense modern pressures on the medical profession, the average
doctor simply does not have the time to elicit the emotional pres
sures which-he may suspect-are the real cause of h is patient's
physical problems, especially as many patients are reluctant to
d isclose them. If, however, electro-metric tests could quickly re
veal the existence of these pressures-they cannot, of course, dis
close their nature-they could he of material help to the doctor in
devising the best treatment for his patient.
As we noted in Chapter 1 , regular electro-metric tests of
healthy men and women could help them to avoid or to handle
dangerous situations. They could also help less emotionally-stable
people to avoid-at their 'low' periods-situations which might
subject them to intolerable emotional stress.
The relationship between the state of the electro-dynamic field
and abnormal physical conditions-of which the experiments de
scribed in the preceding pages afford abundant evidence-sug
gests the 'mechanism' of psychosomatic illness. For, since the
state of the mind is reflected in the state of the field, it is not too
hard to imagine how business worries or an unhappy marriage
can produce ulcers.
Last-but not least-the discovery that the state of the m ind
can affect the state of the field should induce a new sympathy for
the emotionally distressed. We should no longer be so ready to
brush off their m iseries with the remark : 'it's all in their imagina
tion. ' Perhaps it is. But if an emotion-even one recalled by
hypnosis-is able to affect a voltmeter it cannot be lightly dis
missed as a figment, whatever its origin. It has a definite reality.
As Dr. Ravitz has put i t :
'Both emotional activity and stimuli of any sort involve
mobilization of electric energy, as indicated on the galvano
meter. Hence. both emotions and stimuli evoke the same
energy. Emotions can be equated with energy.'
THE FIELD AS A S IGNPOST
Behaviour is the reaction of a living ystem to the co-ordina ted

and in tegrated stimuli resulting from changes i n the physical and
chemical environments. In the case of man, at least, to the
physical factors of environment the ideological environment
must also be added because an idea is j ust as valid a stimulus to
the nervous system as a kick in the teeth.
As a matter of fact, it can be shown, w i thout much question,
that ideas arc actually more important as stimuli to the nervous
system than any of the others. One needs only to look at the
history of the outstanding figures of the last two or three h undred
years who, rightly or wrongly, had ideas which profoundly
affected whole generations. This is true of dictators, politicians,
philosophers, religionists or military leaders.
As ideas are-or induce-em otions which evoke energy in
the nervous system , electro-metric studies of this phenomenon
seem relevant to the s tudy of human behaviour, even if they offer
no hope of improving it. At the least we may be able to learn a
little about how the machine works, even if we can not under
stand how the driving ideas originate.
Though man, over the years, has acquired an extraordinary
control over his physical environment, the p roblem of human re
lations remains unsolved. We seem to be no better off in dealing
with each other than were our remote ancestors. Part of the
reason for this, of course, is to be found in the enormous com
plexity of the nervous system of man and the lack of real under
standing of the way the protoplasm of nervous tissue operates.
So any approach to the problem of human behaviour should start
with a better understanding of the nervous system. For whether
it is an idea, an emo tion or a kick in the teeth which triggers the
activity of the nervous system, a basic requirement, needless to
say, is the storehouse of energy made availahle by the chemical
flux of protoplasm as noted in the previol1 s chapter.
Though the energy required to m ake an adjustment is derived
from this chemical activity, the direction in which the energy
flows, and the way in which it is used, is a consequence of the
90
pattern of organization of neural tissues. I t is not enough, there

fore, to know the details of the complex structures involved, but
rather to have some over-all grasp and understanding of the way
the nervous system works. Analysis of the units is of vital im
portance, even down to the sub-microscopic level, but equally
important is a grasp of the relationships between all the com
ponent parts.
Since behaviour, m oreover, is the result, in part, of the im
pact of one organism on ano ther, no real picture of the forces
which make man operate the way he does is possible without a
complete knowledge and understanding of the structure and
function of the nervous system.
The results of many years of study have tended to emphasize
certain rather stereotyped activities. As a result, the electrical
circuit analogies tended to lead investigators away from the basic
fact that each neurone is in itself a living organism. These elec
trical circuit analogies, partly impired by the modern computer,
are derivable directly from the fundamental property of proto
plasm, and more particularly, from the all-or-none response of a
nerve cell.
Even the simplest protoplasmic system can be stimulated by
changes in the physical, chemical and ideological environment,
can transmit these effects through its substance, can coordinate,
correlate and integrate all the varieties of stimuli and can , as a
result, make that adjustment necessary for the continued exist
ence of the system. The behaviour of even the simplest organism
is parodic in that it 'functions in accordance with i ts inherent de
sign'.* One of the greatest difficulties in assaying behaviour lies
in its complexity, in the lack of objective measurement and in
a very great influence of the subjective.
In the literature, the description of hehaviour of even the
simplest organisms is coloured by anthropomorphisms. The criti
cal study of behaviour, moreover, almost i nvariably involves
some disturbance in the organism under study. Ideally, any
measurement must involve no altera tion in the thing m easured
during the measurement. This is difficult to achieve even in
* King, 1 945.
91
THE FIE LD AS A S IGNPOST
physical systems. It is peculiarly difficult in biological systems

unless we em ploy the techniques described in the preceding pages.
Our experiments had offered some signposts to a better under
standi ng of the human nervous system. We had found with corn
kernels-it will be remembered-evidence of a close correlation
between a measurable, electro-metric characteristic and both the
genetic constitutions and also their subsequent productivity in
the field.
A study, too, of the sensitive plant Mimosa, had yielded evid
ence that in this particular living form, the protoplasmic mechan
ism showed characteristics very si milar to those found in the
nervous system. In other words, the nervous system in higher
forms and in a relatively-simple system like a plant had similar
electro-metric responses.
All this, admittedly, is a very modest approach to a better
understanding of the human nervous system. But, at least, it i s
a beginning a nd, a s Confucius said : 'The longest j ourney starts
with the first step.'
Perhaps the most important aspect of the first step is tha t L
field measurements make it possible to measure the effects of
various stimuli to the nervous system. For, in the history of
science, the ability to measure something has often-if not
always-been the foundation-stone of progress.
7
As everyone knows, there is speculation whether the Universe
is an expanding one or a closed system, whether it is governed
by a static set of laws or is a dynamic, active Universe in which
growth and development occur. It is clear enough that the laws of
the Universe, as we know them, are not happenstance phenom
ena hut are closely integrated in a u ni t.
The statement that the biologist makes, tha t the living organ
ism is more tha n the sum of its parts, applies equally to the
Universe. The living organism , al so, is a whole unit, no part of
which can go off on a tangent by i tself without disaster to the
living system. There is no reason to suppose tha t this same
92
general principle cannot be applied to human behaviour, for

human behaviour is not the result of the imposition of legalistic
and moral la ws on the biological laws of the organism, but rather
behaviour is the comeqence of the activity of the nervous system
of man. The nervous system of man is an organized, designed,
dynamic machine.
Many people object at once to this spuriously-labelled 'materi
alistic' approach to the Universe. But this is nonsense. The Uni
verse is not only a machine but also has certain qualitative
attributes. We talk about the beauty of the star-filled night,
the odour of a bed of lilies-of-the-valley; and we could go on
almost indefinitely listing the qualitative attributes of the things
that are common to our environment.
These qualitative characteristics do not control the physical
system but are attributes of it, and if our modern concepts are
anywhere near right, there is an interchange, which the experts
call 'feed-back relationships', between the qualitative attributes
of the physical system and the activity of the system itself. Just
how this is accomplished, we do not know. We ought to know,
and in time we probably will know.
In the meantime, we should remember the fact-pointed out
by Sir Charles Sherrington several decades ago-that the mind
of man does not exist in time, does not occupy space, and in
volves, so far as anyone knows, no energy transformations. But
the nervous system, through which the mind of man works, does
exist in time, does occupy space, and does require energy trans
formations.
Admittedly, this is a mystery. How can a non-material attri
bute such as the mind of man actually influence the organic
nervous system ? It can be argued that moral law is an example
of this kind of thing. Moral or spiritual laws do not exist in time,
do not occupy space and, so far as anyone knows, do not involve
energy transformations, and yet we have evidence, sketchy to be
sure, that the so-called spiritual side of existence, does influence
human behaviour. How this discrepancy between mind and
body achieves this, no one knows.
There is one profound difference, however, between natural
and moral laws. Moral laws are not laws operative in the Uni93
THE F I E L D AS A S IGNPOST
verse-the laws of Nature-but are sheer inventions of the mind

of man. Ma n, unfortunately, is an egocentric person. He is
primarily concerned with himself, his continued existence and
his sense of well-being as he adjusts to his physical and m ental
environment. Everything he docs, therefore, tends to be coloured
by his own personal stake in the matter.
No one of us has any personal stake in the law of gravitation;
we know it operates and we know we cannot get along without
it, unless we substitute other kinds of forces to counteract it. It is
a fundamental property of things. But there is nothing in any of
the spiritual or moral laws which has the same characteristic. It
behooves us to get on the ball and discover what we can, so that
a spiritual law which is good in New York and Boston and
Washington, is equally good in Hongkong, Bangkok and Tim
buktu. Only when we can find the fundamental properties of the
spiritual or moral law and, for that matter, of the legal laws, can
we hope to find any kind of satisfactory answer to the problem of
mankind.
The problem of human behaviour is still the greatest problem
that faces mankind. We have not solved it. As a matter of fact
we are really making no attempt to solve it. To be sure, many
dedicated people are endeavouring to find out the details of how
the nervous system works. in the hope that this will give some
clues as to how we can integrate and co-ordinate our human
attitudes to each other and to the Universe. Up to date, however,
the results have not been particularly fruitfuL
\Vhat we need to do is to apply the methods of science to the
problem of human interrelationships. The methods of science
have been deified in recent years because of the remarkable ad
vances which have resulted from their application to the study
of the physical universe.
As we mentioned in the first chapter the method of science
involves first of all a reasonable contact with the background of
the particular subject we are investigating, its natural history.
Out of this someone comes along with a creative mind and sees
unsuspected relationships in this background. This gives rise to
a hunch, a theory, an assumption. In physics and chemistry the
logical consequences of this assumption are then put to labora94
THE FIELD AS A SIGNPOS T
tory tests and if, in the laboratory, the results tend to confirm the
assumption , we generally bel ieve tha t o ur theory is correct. Th is,
of course, is not necessarily so because there m ight be other
assump tions for which this same data will be a valid result.
When it comes to applying this method to humans, we are
faced with the very real problem that control of the experimental
set-up of mankind is far from easy. We have not been able to
do it, but some day, someone with a creative mind will make it
possible for us to begin to use and apply the methods of science
to this problem. If we can do this, we probably can arrive at some
significant additions to its solution.
In the last analysis, the Universe is a unit, all of its parts are
related to the wholeness of the Universe, and there is necessarily
some interrelationship between the wholeness of the Universe
and the activities of its individual components. From the unified
theory of Einstein-even though it lacked final, complete valida
tion with respect to the law of gravity-it is clear that one of
the characteristics of the Universe are fields which can be
measured by instruments. It does not make any difference
whether you call it an electro-sta tic field, an electro-magnetic
field, or an electro-dynamic field. The name is always a conse
quence of the m ethods which were applied to its study. In other
words, there is one unifying characteristic of the Universe which
we have ignored, and that is its field properties. We should see,
therefore, if we can find some significan t characteristics of the
field properties of the Universe which can be put to use by man
kind in this incredibly difficult problem of human relationships.
There must be generalities in this field theory which can be dis
covered and which can be harnessed by mankind to help him
solve his own problems.
The electro-dynamic fields which control tI" e human organism
are signposts to the most promising trail tha t future explorers
can follow.
95
CHA PTER SI X
Antennae to the Universe

1
It was logical to deduce from the Field Theory that external
electrical fields would affect the fields of living organisms. For,
j ust as the overall L-field of the organism em braces and controls its
subsidiary fields, the electrical environment of the earth includes
-and can be expected to influence-the fields of the living forms
on this planet.
This was something we could not easily check with human
or animal subj ects because each organism is not only unique but
also constantly changing, as our experiments had shown. With
the rapidly-fluctuating voltage-variations in humans and animals,
it is extremely difficult to arrive at a steady baseline or norm from
which to measure the influence of external forces, which are
often slow in their cyclical varia tions.
It was most important, however, to try to detect the effects
if any-of external forces for three reasons. First, if we could
demonstrate experimentally a logical deduction from th e Field
Theory, this would offer the Theory additional support. Second,
if the electrical environment does affect the living organism, the
more we could find out about those effects the better. Third, if
we could establish tha t living forms are affected by their electrical
environment, this would show that man is an in tegral part of
the Universe and subject to the great forces that act across space,
just as the earth itself is.
For these reasons we decided to carry out a long-term study of
a living system which would be its own control, with the changes
in internal and external factors to be supplied by Nature. Our
aim was to examine, over a very long period of time, the electrical
properties of the system and their rela tionship to environmental
96
ANTENNAE TO THE U NIV E R S E
phenomena. The latter included, of course, temperature, hum

i dity, barometric pressure, sunshine and dark and any other
factors that we might be able to detect, measure and describe.
We chose a tree as the most suitable subject for this investiga
tion because, in many ways, a tree has enormous advantages. It
always stays put in a particular place; i t requires no special
feeding; i t does not have to be anaesthetized when making the
measurements; and there is no problem of cleaning up after the
experiments, as there is with animals in the laboratory.
We hoped, then, that trees would not only offer a steady and
reliable baseline from which to measure ordinary environmental
influences but would also serve as antennae-so to speak-to
pick up any extraterrestrial or Universal forces that might in
fluence the living forms of this planet.
Since the pioneer studies of Lund, it has been known that trees
exhibit electrical characteristics. So it was reasonable to expect
tha t we could measure these over long periods of time if we could
find a suitable way to place our electrodes permanently in contact
with the cambium layer-the growing area of trees-with a
'bridge' of physiological salt solution to avoid any side-effects
from the electrodes.
We anticipated no difficulty in measuring the potential gradi
ents in the tree at any given time. But, if we were to detect en
vironmental factors, we must prepare for the long haul and make
sure that our electrodes and recording instruments would remain
stable and reliable for many years.
If we could achieve this, we also hoped that our experiments
with trees would answer another question : There seemed to be
no doubt that the voltage gradients we had measured in living
forms were the result of an unequal distribution of charged par
ticles on either side of phase boundaries. This uneven distribution
might be caused, of course, merely by the constantly-changing
97
ANTENNAE TO THE UNIV E R S E
chemical flux of the protoplasm. But was this the sole explana
tion of the voltage gradients ? Only a long-term s tudy could
settle this question.
If chemistry is the only factor in voltage gradients, one might
expect wide varial"ions in voltage gradicnts, both in magnitude
and polarity as the chemistry of the organism changes from time
to time. A tree is a highly-organized living system in an environ
ment in which change is a constant factor and might therefore be
expected to have other significant voltage variations.
Our first 'antenna to the Universe' was a young maple tree
outside my house in New Haven, Connecticut, which could be
connected to recording instruments in the hOLlse. At first glance
this might seem a simple matter but, as we were trying som e thing
entire]y new, it took a long time and many experiments before
we developed a techn ique which proved satisfactory through
several decades.
The bark of the trce was carefully removed down to the
cambium layer and every effort was made to avoid injury to the
layer itself because it is well known that inj ury-potentials in
living organisms do occur. Fortunately, they do not last very
l ong and if, unavoidably, we injured the cambium the effects
would disappear in a short time.
After many months of careful experiment on a number of
different kinds of trees we found that the best technique was to
use small plastic containers with one open face, filled with physio
logi cal salt jelly in which the silver-silver chloride electrodes were
embedded. The open face of the plastic container was held, under
the bark, against the cambium layer.
It must again be emphasized tha t metallic electrodes in direct
contact with protoplasm in living organisms set up unpredictable
non-reproducible voltage gradients, which are caused by changes
in the propertics of the phase boundary between metal and proto
pla sm . As we have seen , however, if contact is made through a
salin e 'bridge' and with proper electrodes, reliable and repro
ducible voltage gradients can be recorded, with the aid of high
inpu t-impedance amplifiers.
After much experiment we found it best to place the con
tainers holding the electrodes on the trunk of the tree, one above
98
ANTENNAE TO T H E UNIVE R S E
the other, about three feet apart. The lower electrode was placed
high enough on the tree trunk to avoid interference by maraud
ing animals. The other electrode, three feet above, was reasonably
safe from interference.
From the very beginning consistent, continuous and relatively
steady standing potentials were recorded. Preliminary experi
ments were begun in 1 9 3 8 and almost continuous records were
kept up to 1 968.
Maple, elm and oak trees have been examined and it appears
evident that the faster-growing trees, such as the maple, exhibit
a somewhat higher potential than the slower-growing elm and a
definitely higher potential than the still slower-growing oak.
As a double check, we established another 'antenna' in the
form of an old, large elm tree outside my labora tory in the
country, at Lyme, Connecticut. Simultaneously, too, we carried
out similar experiments on an alligator pear in the laboratory.
With recording galvanometers drawing a trace of changing
voltage gradients in all three sets of experiments, it was possible
to determine to what extent a young maple tree in the city, an
old elm in the country and an alligator pear in the laboratory
might exhibit parallel changes.
3
It has long been known that there are diurnal rhythms in
living systems. Recurrent events occur i n living systems which
provide a rhythm, or a cycle, which seems to be related partly
to environmental circumstances and partly to others. There have
been a number of explanations of these rhythms; and the general
opinion seems to be that there are at least two factors involved.
One, of course, is the actual metabolism of protoplasm. This, how
ever, may or may not be a continuous source of energy. Much
more likely it is an intermitten t process.
On the other hand, it has been suggested that the changes in
measurable characteristics of living systems are caused by hyper
plasia, mitosis, or cell division. Mitosis goes on in the cambium
of the tree and results in the changing diameter of the tree, as
99
has been well established by numerous studies of trees under a

variety of circumstances. The growing tips of trees also show
mitosis, the result of which is a change in the length, for example,
of parts of the plant system.
Therefore, in the tree at Lyme, instruments were provided not
only to measure voltage gradients but also the changing diameter
of tne tree, all on a continuous basis. Tree-diameter was measured
by a dendograph loaned by Professor Lutz of the Forestry School
of Yale University.
The results, in the early stages of these experiments in measur
ing changing diameter and potential differences, were surprising.
Recurrent events in the changing potential were obvious. During
the hours from midnight to sunrise in the early morning, voltage
gradients were relatively low but constant. With the beginning
of daylight, a change occurred with a marked increase in the
magnitude of the potential differences, usually reaching a height
around noon. These changes were recorded over a three m onth
period in the summers of 1 943 and 1 944.
A number of interesting results were apparent. During the
early part of the summer and until September, there was a close
relationship between the rise and fall of potential and the chang
ing diameter of the tree. And at the time these records were made,
this seemed like an extraordinary correlation between the growth
of the cambium and the voltage gradient.
In September of 1 943 and again in 1 944, however, marked
changes in voltage gradient of a recurrent character appeared but
the diameter of the tree no longer changed.
This points up the fact tha t short-time studies of living systems
are often misleading. The apparently-beautiful correlation be
tween cambium growth and voltage gradient disappeared in a
long-range study. This implied that the voltage gradient was
not in i tself the consequence of mitosis in the cambium of the
tree. There must have been some other factor involved since it
was clear enough that these changes showed no necessary causal
dependency.
100
ANTENNAE TO THE UNIVERS E
4
That there are changes in the electrical characteristics of the
surround of the earth was shown long ago by the late Professor
Harlan Stetson, of the Cosmic Ray Terrestrial Research Labora
tory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He drew
attention to the fact that changes in the ionosphere significantly
affect radio reception; and this phenomenon, of vital importance
to the communication industries, has been studied extensively
ever since.
It seemed worthwhile, therefore, to design an experiment in
which continuous records of changing potential in a living
system were made synchronously with careful records of chang
ing temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, sun spots and
Cosmic rays. For we thought that a comparison of these simul
taneous records would enable us to determine whether any
correlates between any of these variables existed.
With the aid of a grant from the National Institute of Health,
a more elaborate experiment was devised to examine possible
interrelationships with the electrical environment, to be con
tinued over as long a period of time as possible. The experiment
included four reasonably simultaneous records of changing volt
age gradients in an Elm tree, a Maple tree, in the atmosphere
adjacent, and in the earth.
Since we had many years of records of pure voltage differences
in trees, there was available a valuable baseline of information
about the changing electrical properties of a living system during
the passage of time. As a result, we knew what to expect as a
result of changing seasons, lunar cycles and diurnal rhythms.
The two new records of variations in air and earth voltages could
add to this information about the trees, and could offer clues as
to the possible impact of the electrical environm ent on living
processes.
The instrumentation included four high input-impedance
amplifiers, two pairs of silver-silver chloride electrodes-a pair
for each of two elms-an atmospheric voltage probe supplied by
101
ANTENNAE TO THE UNIVERS E
Meteorologic Research of Pasadena, California-feeding into one

of the amplifiers (checked by their own meter)-and a pair of
monel metal rods, three feet apart on a north-south axis and
leading into one of the amplifiers.
The output from all four amplifiers was fed into a four
channel Leeds & Northrop recording meter. The latter prints a
dot, indicating a voltage magnitude, at appropriate intervals,
often enough to exhibit an almost continuous line. Needless to
say, such an interrupted record is not adequate for true simul
taneity of the four records, but for this study the rough approxi
mation proved sufficient.
From the beginning an extraordinary correspondence in the
four records appeared. The two trees, the air and the earth ex
hibited variations at approximately the same time. The magni
tudes differed, but all fottr showed increases in the positivity of
the 'hot' electrode at the same time.
The apparent simultaneity of two tree potentials, earth
potentials and air potentials raises an interesting question. The
short-time relationships between the onset of these changes in
all four of these records could be exceedingly important. None of
the equipment we had with us, however, made it possible for
us to investigate this particular aspect of the problem.
Conceivably, the changes in the electrical environment might
precede the changes in the electrical properties in the living
systems. This would give added weight to the evidence that there
is a significant relationship between endogenous electric charac
teristics of the two trees and the corresponding changes in the
electrical aspect of the environment.
These short-time measurements were, of course, stimulating
and interesting, but the really important question raised by this
whole study is : What happens in time, preferably long periods
of time?
A mathematical analysis of the diurnal rhythms made it clear
that we were not dealing with random numbers but with real
changes in the electric properties of a segment of the earth and
of the two living systems. It seemed reasonably safe, therefore, to
assume that both air and earth potentials were equally free from
random measurements.
102
The fact that all four sets of measurements exhibited changes at

the same time made it quite clear that a long-time study was
j llstified. Since preliminary studies of this sort were begun in
1 938, and reasonably continuous measurements made from 1 943
on, quite a span of time was available for analysis. In the early
days, mathematical theory was inadequate to study the changing
relationships with time; and the modern mathematical analytical
instruments were not available. The very considerable amount of
data collected over the years represents a source of numbers
which could be analysed very profitably.
Inspection of the potentials recorded on the long paper records

m ade it clear that no one of these four sets of measurements was
in dependent of t l1 e other three. A change in one was accompanied
by a change in aU the others.
This was an extraordinary finding. Every attempt was made to
cover the possible artifacts which might have produced these
results, but rigorous controls ruled out the possibility that the
results were accidental. It must be admitted that it was exciting
to see that the well-known diurnal rhythms of a biological system
of two trees also were paralleled by diurnal rhythms in atmos
pheric potential and earth potential. To be sure, we do not know
whether one or the other of these measurements precedes any of
the others, but the fact that the changes occur in all of them is of
prime importance.
Since Nature is the experimenter, changing the variables in
hoth the Jiving system and in i ts environment, long-term studies
should help us to understand to what extent there is an interrela
tionship between the electrical properties in the environment and
those of a living system. That they exist in day and night
rhythms, is clear. But it is also equally clear that there is a
repetitive cycle which has a period roughly approximating that
of the lunar cycle.
This does not mean that the moon affects the living systems,
as the old wives' tale held, but rather that both the moon and
103
ANTENNAE TO THE UNIVERSE
Jiving systems respond to some more primary characteristics of

the Cosmos. It is not surprising, therefore, tha t we detected in
our records the same twenty-seven-day-cycle of earth and air, as
well as trees.
Since these studies ran through many years, seasonal changes
-which we know exist in trees, for example-were also to be
seen in the winter and summer records of voltage gradients in
earth and air. These seasonal changes were so obvious that the
striking correlations between the living system and its environ
ment gave credence to the notion tha t the living system is im
bedded through its own electro-dynamic field in the field of its
physical environment.
But since the field of the environment is involved in such
things as lunar cycles, it is important to remember that the
electrical properties of the ionosphere are changed by sun spot
activity, as Stetson showed many years ago. The electrical charac
teristics of the ionosphere could, then, be correlated with lunar
cycles and diurnal rhythms.
A preliminary analysis, therefore, was made of the changing
potentials of the trees and sun spot activity as recorded in Zurich,
Switzerland. Here, again the correlation between the two sets of
measurements was extraordinary.
A great deal of further study will be required to determine
whether or not the changing sun spot activity preceded the
change in the electrical properties of trees. The graphs drawn
from these available numbers show a rather extraordinary paral
lelism with the changing electric potentials of the tree.
By implication, this could indicate that not only a tree--a
perfectly good living system-but in all probability aU living
systems, might show the 9ame dependency since they all possess
electro-dynamic elds.
There is a hint, furthermore-although this is by no means
valid and final evidence-that the changing potentials of the
tree follow, by a predictable amount of time, the changing rela
tive sun spot numbers. As the sun spot numbers increase, voltage
gradients in the trees increase. When the relative sun spot num
bers decrease, there is a corresponding decrease in the voltage
gradients in the trees.
1 04
ANTENNAE TO THE UNIVER S E
Since the plots are derived from numbers scattered over an

eleven-year cycle, and since there is good evidence to show that
these electro-metric numbers in living systems are not random
numbers but are valid evidences of changing electrical properties
of a living system, it would seem possible to conclude with reason
able assurance that there is a close relationship between the
electrical environment of the tree and the activities recorded
electrically in the trees themselves. These changes could not
possibly be the result of accidental correspondences. The num
bers recorded are too great over too long a period of time to be
chance observations.
It will be remembered that the primary assumption made at the
outset of this study was that the electrical properties of a living
system were evidence of an inherent electro-dynamic field. Since
it is common knowledge that one field cannot exist within an
other field without an interaction between them, and the field
properties of the ionosphere are modified by the bursts of sun
spot activity, the effect on the electrical characteristics of the
ciwironment of the earth are really no more than might be
expected.
It would seem reasonable to conclude, therefore, that a study
of longer duration with more sources of informa tion might make
it abundantly clear that the field properties, not only of living
systems but of the Universe, interact in characteristic fashions
and produce results of great significance.
6
All this is of prime importance since we are now exploring

space, whi ch also must possess field properties. This badly-neg
lected aspect of environment study should be explored inten
sively. There is no reason why future plans to put recording
instruments into space should no t include adequate measures of
field properties of the space through which the i nstruments pass.
This, of course, would require highly-sophisticated instrumenta
tion, very large sums of money and many studies.
But the evidence outlined above-while only a drop in the
105
bucket-nevertheless is h ighly exciting a nd interesting and g ives

us a clue to a hitherto-undrea med-of factor in the properties of
the ma terial Universe a nd of all living systems which exist with
in it. It may take many lifetimes, however, to come up with an
answer which has genuine val idi ty.
It can be argued tha t this is a n extrapolation beyond the evid
ence. This is admitted. But these field properties are not mysteri
ous phenomena; they are measurable characteristics not only of
the Universe but of the immediate environment of the earth.
Moreover, the evidence collected during the several decades of
study indicates that the behaviour, in particular, of living sys
tems is a consequence of the pattern of organization. And the
arrangement of the charged particles in living systems is a con
sequence of the inherent electro-dynamic field.
These phenomena can be measured; and whether or not i t is
felt that the extrapola tion suggested is bey ond the evidence, there
can be no question about the validity of the measurements.
These have been checked over and over again, subjected to care
ful and critical mathematical a n a lysis .* The present a n alysis
would seem to suggest that we are dealing with valid, measurable
interrelationships between the electrical properties of a living
system , of all living systems, and the field of electrical envir on
ment in which they exist.
It has been the habit, in the past, to assume that a living
system's behaviour is, in part, the consequence of chemical flux
of the tissue of which living systems are made. However, the
chemical flux is a widely and rapidly cha n gin g set of phenomena
and yet th rou gh o u t all these studies the constancy of the electri
cal phenomena is so great tha t they must be an evidence of some
constancy
' in the growth and developmen t of living systems.
It is as though there were in every living system some guidin g
factor which not only makes the acorn grow into the oak tree
but also induces a characteristic pattern of organization, of which
* Thron gh the in terest and diligence of Mr. R alph M <l rkson , a
ma thematical analysis of tree potentials was undertaken. With his
con sen t, the rel1lts Jrc prin ted in Part II st;JTting on page 1 66. They
add a very valuable and much n eeded m a thematical validation of
the important consequences of the Field Theory.
1 06
the physiological functional activities are known as behaviour.

To be sure the chemistry is of great importance, because this
is the gasoline that makes the buggy go, but the chemistry of a
living system does not determine the functional properties of a
living system any more than changing the gas makes a Rolls
Royce out of a Ford. The chemistry provides the energy, but the
electrical phenomena of the electro-dynamic field determine the
direction in which energy flows within the living system. There
fore they are of prime importance in understanding the growth
and development of all living things.
It must be remembered that this was an adventure into one

of the frontiers of modern science. There have been, over the
years, two major classical theories of modern science. One is best
described as particle physics, where attention was paid to the
u nitary elements involved in any system under observation. The
other can be subsumed under the general heading of field
physics.
This was clearly enunciated many years ago by Clark Maxwell
who, in his initial paper on electro-magnetic theory, noted that
whereas particle physics was concerned with unitary elements
or with what the Greeks called a toms, he called a ttention to the
fact that the relationships of the entities were quite as important
as the entities themselves.
As noted earlier, this was one of the reasons why we set out
decades ago to see if by using methods of modern electrical
measurement, we could examine these relationships as profitably
as a study of the component parts themselves.
One of the key problems of modern science is that of organiza
tion or of that design of living systems which make it possible
for us to define things in space and to describe the discernible
pa tterns to be seen in the world around us. We are all familiar, of
course, with the fact that descriptive science over the centuries
has concerned itself primarily with little more than the straight
description of the observable things on the face of the earth and,
1 07
to some extent, in the heavens. Any description of these things

in the world around us would not be possible if they were con
stantly changing their patterns.
Aristotle, moreover, called attention to the fact that an acorn
always grew into an oak tree and not into a fig tree. This, of
course, is the key biological problem. In other words, what is the
nature of the forces which guide the growth and development of
an acorn so that it ends up as a tree and not as a horse ? These
forces not only guide the growth of an acorn to an oak tree, but
also determine the uniqueness of any particular oak tree.
Since this demands forces which operate in time and also show
an astonishing constancy in spite of the chemical flux of metabol
ism, these must be studied from two points of view. One, of
course, is to describe or define the chemical components of the
biological system. Great strides have been made in the analysis
of the chemistry of protoplasm and its constituent parts, but the
rather extraordinary thing about it is that, fundamentally, there
are only four chemical substances involved in protoplasm
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen. To be sure, there are
additional trace elements in any chemical analysis of protoplasm,
but the fact remains that these four relatively simple chemical
substances can be arranged in incredibly complex sets of re
lationships.
Relationships must be the result of forces operating between
the chemical constituents. These forces determine the position
of these chemicals and their motion or movement in the process
of growth and development. They eventually exhibit perhaps one
of the most extraordinary aspects of this problem : they give
some kind of directive.
They are not j ust haphazard interactions between the com
ponent entities but forces which apparently are involved in a
directional control of growth and development. In other words,
the forces have vector properties.
They not only control the interrelationships between the
entities but they also control the direction in which the whole
living system progresses. Among the aspects of nature capable
of introducing direction are electrical properties-electro-mag
netic, electro-dynamic, electro-static. With these, there is always
1 08
a direction in which the particles move. The motion is always

between one pole and another of the environment.
This polar property and the control of the motion between
the component parts can best be examined by electrical measure
ments. If, then, the observed electrical properties of protoplasm
can give us a clue to the nature of the forces which impose organ
ization on living systems-and, quite probably, on non-living
systems-then a long-term study should offer at least some tenta
tive conclusions regarding the interrelationships between the
electrical properties of the living system, on the one hand, and
of the environment, on the other.
*
That was the reasoning which originally prompted us to em

bark on continuous studies which occupied three decades. It is
submitted that the exciting results obtained from our 'antennae
to the Universe' fully justified not only the initial assumption
but also this particular aspect of this adventure in science.
109
C H A PTER SEVEN
The Continuing Adventure

1
Though this adventure in science has occupied more than forty

years, we have merely reached 'the end of the beginning', in Sir
Winston Churchill's phrase. Each thing we have discovered in
our long quest has shown us how much more remains to be dis
covered about the fields of life.
Nobody has recorded the feelings of the ancient Vikings when
-after a long and arduous voyage-they came to the North
American Continent. But, as they skirted a seemingly-endless
coastline, it is safe to assume that their uppermost thought must
have been that even greater adventures awaited those who one
day would explore the vast territory they had found.
Similarly, the landfall we have made-for which we could
only hope when first we set sail-gives promise of a vast area of
virgin territory to be opened up by the scientists of the future.
For if-as all the evidence has indicated-the fields of life are
primary and control all living things we can set no limits to the
scope they offer for further exploration.
As the scientists of the future acquire a more comprehensive
knowledge of L-fields, they will gain a greater understanding not
only of man's body, mind and behaviour and of the workings of
all living things but also of the relationship between the fields of
l ife and the greater fields and forces of the Universe. As astro
physicists learn more about the latter, biologists and doctors will
be able to view the living things of this planet in a new and
broader perspective.
In this, as in other branches of research, the scope for explora
tion seems as large as the Universe itself. This is not only because
our knowledge of most things is deplorably incomplete but also
1 10
THE CONTINUING ADVENTURE
because the organization of the Universe does not preclude

change and development; on the contrary these seem to be in
herent in it. The U niverse is not static but almost inconceivably
dynamic with everything in it-from galaxies to atoms-in a
state of constant motion or change.
At the outset of this adventure we made the 'primitive as
snmption', based on all the evidence available, that we live in an
ordered Universe. We assumed that order is imposed on the
elementary components of Nature, whether particle or wave, by
means of definite arrangements or patterns of organization which
persist in time and which we can identify. We recognize these
as permanent elements in the environment; we recognize trees
and plants, birds and beasts, monkeys and man. If these patterns
did not persist any description of the things we see would have
no continuity.
On the other hand, we have only to look around to observe
that no particular design, pattern or arrangement of parts ever
appears at the outset full-blown or in its final form; there is
always a developing process. The acorn grows and develops into
an oak tree, never into a fig tree. It is obvious, therefore, that
the laws of Nature do more than develop a pattern : they also
determine the steps by which the pattern evolves, grows and
develops. In other words, there is nothing fixed about the Uni
verse; it is a growing active system.
It is a far cry from the most elementary living forms to the
highly complex systems which have evolved from them . There is
a great gap between the simple elements and the complicated,
iant molecules which have been developed from them not only
by Nature bu t also by man.
Man , in fact, imitates Nature in developing from the simple to
the complex. For instance, he started by cooking and keeping
himself warm with burning sticks; now he has the modern elec
trical ki tchen and automati c h eating systems. Simple screws and
bolts, gears and wheels are organized into the marvellous tools
and machines of today. And sure1y Henry Ford would he amazed
at the modern automobile which developed from his Model T.
We cannot foresee the ultimate outcome either of Nature's
developments or of man's. This makes the whole process of
111
examining every aspect of the Universe an alive, exciting and

adventurous exploration.
Yet, from time to time, some pundit will declare with solemn
finality that there is nothing more to be discovered in his par
ticular field of study. And almost invariably he will soon be made
to look foolish by some new discovery or breakthrough which
opens up new areas to explore. We can feel sorry for such self
satisfied people because these rash statements not only betray
their lack of imagination but also show that they have missed
one of the great adventures of life-examining a developing
Universe.
We have no right to assume that the present state of the Uni
verse is the final one, because all we know about it is that it has
grown and developed over a vast span of time. And there is no
reason to suppose that that development has come to an end
with our present environment.
We cannot know the final end of growth and development,
but at least we can be quite certain that it has an ultimate goal.
It is doubtful. however, whether this ultimate goal is a fixed and
final one; more likely, the goal i tself develops with time. Perhaps
the present is always moulding the future. For it is impossible to
imagine that any of the material units of our environment are in
final form, because everything we know is developing and grow
ing towards a more perfect realization of the operation of the
basic laws of the Universe. While we can make effective use of
our growing knowledge of these laws, we have no way of pre
dicting what the ultimate outcome will be.
2
In exploring a developing Universe, science's basic aim and

problem is to determine the origin of its design. Science now
knows a lot about the design i tself but how it started is still
shrouded in mystery. This central problem of science is of prime
importance, not for mere academic reasons but because if we
could know more about the origin of the Universe we might
know more about how to conduct ourselves and our affairs.
1 12
T H E CONT I N U I NG A D V E N T U R E
At the present time, in the hope of solving that mystery, we

are spending billions of dollars exploring space. The techniques
which have made s uch explorations possible are almost beyond
description. It is certainly a miraculous development, which may
yield products of practical utility to mankind and which, for
this reason, is quite possibly worth the money spent on it. But, so
far, it has contributed little to man's understanding of the world
in which he lives. And, as far as the basic problem of science is
concerned, we are no wiser than we were before the Russians
launched the first sputnik into space. The origin of the Universe
still eludes us.
Perhaps it always will. In the meanwhile, however, we can
learn more about something no less important-the forces which
control the unfoLding of the d esign of the Universe through
growth and development. Of these, the fields of life are perhaps
the most amenable to further study because-as has been shown
in the preceding pages-they exist in all living forms so far
examined and can be measured with great precision in controlled
and repeatable experiments.
L-fields, therefore, offer us a new and scientific approach to
some of the methods used by Nature to execute her designs.
By studying these m ethods we can hope to learn more about
the designs themselves, even if we remain unable to solve the
great mystery of their origin. We can hope, too, to gain a
greater understanding of how the designs fit in to the pattern of
the larger designs of the Universe. For, as we noted in the first
chapter, L-fields by their very nature must be influenced by the
all-powerful fields of the Cosmos and must therefore be an integ
ral part of its overall design.
Meanwhile, the fact that L-fields are a part of the Cosmic de
sign is compelling evidence that we live in a Universe of law and
order, because they impose design and organization on the con
stantly-changing material components of all living forms. They
compel an acorn to grow into an oak tree-and only an oak
tree; they co mp el a maize seed to grow into a corn-stalk and not
a stalk of wheat or barley. Anything that compels growth and
development in an organized way is irrefutable evidence of law
a nd order.
113
But the L-fields of this planet are themselves influenced by the

greater fields in which our world is enmeshed, as we found from
the effects of sun-spot activity on the fields of trees. They are
subject, then, to 'higher authority'-so to speak, which compels
them to change in various ways. And, no doubt, the fields that
surround this planet are themselves subject to the greater fields
of space.
In other words, L-dds are links in a 'chain of aut hority'. This
starts with the simplest living forms, runs upwards through all
the life on this planet to the most complex form we know-man
-and then extends outwards into space and upwards to an
innite, ultimate authority, about w hich we can only speculate.
This 'chain of authority', of course, does not apply only to the
fields of life. It must also extend from the heart of the smallest
atom to those gigantic forces which keep the planets in their
orbits, which govern the stars in their courses and which regulate
the feverish race of the most distant galaxies towards the outer
reaches of space.
In building living forms, the fields of life override the normal
laws of chemistry and physics. They compel atoms and molecules
to assume-and to retain through constant changes of material
-stable arrangements, which hreak down to simpler compounds
after the death of the form. If it were not for this 'overriding
authority' of the L-fields you and I could not exist in our present
form because the complex molecules of which we are composed
could not build themselves on their own-or by chance-and
could not retain their composition.
You and 1, then, are li terally held together by definable laws,
of which L-fields are a manifestation. Without these laws-or
if the Universe were really chaos-we could not exist for a
millisecond. Rigid, specific and exact forces control not only the
construction and maintenance of our component parts but also
their organization and interrelationship.
In short, we exist by virtue of inexora ble laws in a highly
organized Universe of law and order.
1 14
3
All this will not appeal to those who prefer to believe that the
Universe is chaos and man an accidental end-product of fortuit
ous chemistry. This view is enjoyed by those who like to imagine
that man can do j ust what he pleases and that there are no laws
to control his decisions to do this tha t or the other.
But, from the beginning of history, most of humanity has
realized, however dimly, that there is some kind of law and
authority in the Universe. This is shown by the fact that man
kind-not knowing what that authority is-has postulated
deities of many kinds and a Spiritual Universe in authority over
the Material Universe.
The material and the spiritual, the body and the mind, the
organism and the soul-these contrasting concepts represent a
prevalent attitude of mankind towards the Universe in which
he finds himself.
But is this attitude really justified ? Is it merely the result of
our lack of information about the true nature of things ? If the
Universe is one of law and order-as all the evidence indicates-is
it not more likely tha t there is really a 'unified authority' rather
than a 'divided rule' of the spiritual and material ? Webster de
fines universe as : 'All created things viewed as constituting one
system or whole; the creation, the cosmos.' The very word, then,
implies unity, not the 'dual control' of two kinds of authority.
If, too, we accept that the Universe is one of law and order, are
we justified in assuming that it includes some chaotic exceptions ?
Is it not more likely that such an assumption is merely a product
of our ignorance ?
The fields of life can offer us a new approach to these vital
questions. But, before we discuss this, it is necessary to dis
tinguish between the three kinds of laws tha t govern mankind :
First, there are Nature's laws, definable and reproducible,
which, as far as we know, are valid right through the Universe.
Though we can hope to learn more about them, it is certain that
we can nei ther alter nor repeal them.
Second, there are man-made written laws which vary from

country to country and from state to state. These-as we are
painfully aware at the present time-are not always enforced
or enforceable and can be argued, evaded or appealed ad nauseam.
While Nature's laws are precise, inflexible and permanent, man
made laws arc often fuzzy, pliable and variable. So much so, in
fact, that it is hard for many who are only familiar with man
made laws to realize that there can be a superior kind.
Third, there are the so-called moral laws. These, again, are
laws invented by the mind of man, nearly always with the hope
that they will improve man's attitude towards other men. Most,
if not all, of these laws are the product of the intuitive, creative
capacity of the mind of man-expounded by the philosophers
and prophets of past genera tions. They are valuable because, like
the written law, they are primarily concerned with controlling
behaviour and represent one creative activity of the mind of man.
But they vary from country to country and bear little-if any
relationship to the laws of the Universe.
Moreover they have been imposed on mankind by. tradition
and by past intuitions; and it is hard to believe that the elder
statesmen of two or three thousand years ago could present,
through intuition-valuable as it may have been-the answers
to all the questions which actually face the mind of man today.
Of the three kinds of laws, only those of Nature that we have
discovered can give us a feeling of certainty. At the sub-atomic
level, it is true, there is still some uncertainty. But once the sub
atomic entities arc agglomerated into a toms or molecules we
can recognize and validate primary laws and forces. We know,
for example, that there is a law of gravity. We also know about
electrical and magnetic forces, nuclear forces and contact forces.
The laws underlying such phenomena, in fact, are so well known
to scientists that they can be made to serve mankind. Our use
of these natural laws in the present age is miraculous. As a re
sult, we live in a much more comfortable world-at least in the
Northern Hemisphere-than mankind has ever known.
Those parts of the world which we choose to call 'primitive'
are so because their inhabitants have not yet learned enough
about the laws and forces of Nature to use them to their full ad1 16
vantage. Through the extraordinary development of science, the

Western world has put forces to work for its benefit in a n excit
ing and unprecedented way. This would not have been possible
if there were no natural laws and forces which the mind of man
could discover and-more important-understand.
To the precise laws of Nature, man's written and moral laws
offer a depressing contrast. The written law, formalized and
expanded by lawyers, is not necessarily the law by which men
live. The living law of human beings is mainly an unwritten
law but it controls the major part of our activities. In many ways,
most of us tend to ignore the written law and behave as we
think commonsense, as it is called, dictates.
Moral law is even more flexible-as we see in the current era
of 'permissiveness'. And it is always easier to tell the other man
what he should do than it is to do those things ourselves. Man
has an astonishing capacity to dodge the issues, to hide his real
drive behind a plethora of words which, in many cases, serve as
an excuse for what he thinks should be done or perhaps, more
accurately, for what he wants to do.
lt is an extraordinary fact that over the past few thousand
years man has developed an astonishing capacity to use the laws
of Nature for his benefit but, as far as one can see, he has not
made a comparable advance by his use of the written or moral
laws.
Most of man's troubles are spawned in the swamps of his own
desires. And his written and moral laws have no relation to the
laws of Nature. As a result, conflict, frustration and anxiety rule
the minds of many, because they cannot reconcile their written
and moral laws with the laws of Nature.
We will not be able to get rid of a great many of our troubles,
therefore, until we attempt to relate the written and moral laws
to the laws of the Universe. And if we spent the same amount of
time and money on resolving the discrepancies between the man
made laws of the legalists and moralists and the laws of the
Universe, there is no reason why our advances should not be as
m iraculous as those in our material environment. We need to
devote the same kind of effort and thinking which is a t present
applied to space exploration to revise man-made laws and to
1 17
harmonize them as far as we can with what we know about the

laws of Nature.
4
No doubt i t will take a very long time before we can make
man-made laws more compatible with those of Nature. But it is
important to make a start because the sooner we can do this,
the sooner we can begin to resolve some of our problems and
frustra tions.
This task, of course, should be attacked from as many useful
angles as we can think of. But in this book we can only consider
the ways in which a further study of the fields of life can con
tribute to the greatest problem that faces mankind-human be
haviour.
An immediate-and important-contribution which a know
ledge of L-fields can make is the certainty that there an natural
laws to which mankind is subject for us to discover and under
stand. We are not chasing a mere will-O'-the-wisp because we
have found that the L-fields which control man are themselves
subject to the greater fields of the Universe.
For us to get any real understanding of the nature of man and
why he behaves as he does, it is necessary to find natural factors
which, like the law of gravity, are valid everywhere and not only
in the western, eastern or southern hemisphere. L-fields offer us
a starting clue in this search because-as we have seen-the state
of the human field reflects the state of the mind. As L-fields are
subject to universal forces . opera ting everywhere, it seems reason
able to suppose that the latter have some planet-wide influence
on the minds of men.
As extraterrestrial forces, such as solar flares and sun-spot
activity, influence the L-fields of trees it seems most unlikely that
human L-fields are unaffected by such forces. For instance, as
this is written, we are approaching the peak of the current cycle
of sun-spot activity. Is it coincidence that in the past few years
there have been unusual world-wide unrest, riots and di sturb
ances of various kind s ? We do not know whether it is coincid1 18
ence or not. But if we could establish by further experiment and

analysis that mankind tends to be more excitable during increas
ing sun-spo t activity, this knowledge, obviously, would be of the
utmost value to world leaders.
No doubt other factors are involved in the present world-wide
unrest but it would be helpful if we could recognize and isolate
one of them.
The Foundation for the Study of Cycles, of Pittsburgh, Penn
sylvania, has accumula ted impressive statistical evidence that
the affairs of man-from wars to hog-priees-seem to follow
rhythmie cycles, though the Foundation has not yet discovered
the cause.* Dr. Ravitz-as we noted in the first chapter-has
found that the voltage gradients in the human i-field fluctuate
in rhythmic cycles.
Are these phenomena in some way related to external forces
influencing hum an behaviour through the i-field ? Again we do
not know but it would be useful to find out whether or not this
is so. If it is-though we cannot control these external forces-it
would be helpful to be able to predict periods when mankind is
likely to be susceptible to wars or depressions.
Dr. Ravitz has shown that a study of voltage-rhythms in the
i-fie1d of the individual makes i t possible to predict those times
when his vitality and alertness are at a low point-times when
he should avoid hazardous occupations as far as possible. Surely
* Since this was written, the Foundation for the S tu dy of Cycles
has rep ubli shed (Cycles. January 1 97 1) a paper, 'Physical Factors of
the Historical Process' by Professor A. 1. Tchijevsky, translated by
Vladimir P. de Smitt. The paper was presented at the annual meet

ing of the A m erican Meteorological Society in December 1 926.
Professor Tchijevsky was Assistan t, Astronomical Obs erv atory;
Collaborator, Institute of Biological Physics, and Fellow Archaeol
ogical Society, Moscow.
This scholarly paper deals with the influence of su n - spo t activity
upon human beh<lviour and the whole historical process; and gives
some s11 ggestive d<lta <lnd graph. The E d i tor of Cycles describes it
as a landmark i n the literature. He comments that no conclusive
case. pro or con, has been developed but th;tt the task of establishing
any r elationship between sun-spots and human excitability is one
of the more important unfinished projects of the Foundation.
1 19
it is not beyond the bounds of possibility that mankind-what

ever the cause-is subject to collective 'lows' and 'highs'. If it
could be determined that this is so, leaders would be able to
know in advance those periods when they should exercise
special caution, particularly in international relationships.
In these dangerous times, we cannot afford to overlook any
thing that might help to reduce risks. For this reason, a further
study of these possibilities would seem to be j ustified. And with
modern computers and techniques of statistical analysis such
research should not be as expensive or difficult as further ex
ploration of outer space and, quite possibly, might be of greater
benefit to mankind.
Though it is important to learn more about the behaviour of

mankind as a whole, i t is no less important to study the human
individuaL For, however inconvenient it may be to theorists and
bureaucrats, Nature has arranged that each of us is a unique
individual. This cannot be too strongly emphasized in an age
in which there is an increasing tendency to treat the essential
individual as a mere statistic.
To anyone who has studied the human nervous system, how
ever, it is clear that its nature is such that the incredibly-com
plex permutations and combinations of neurones result in many
unique patterns of neural design. These neurones are located in
particular parts of the nervous system and send branches to
other parts of the nervous system.
Before the existence of L-fields was established it was hard to
understand why a particular group of neurones should be lodged
in the grey m atter of the cortex and not in the spinal cord; and
why the branches of the neurone-the dendrites and axones
apparently move to their ultimate destinations without mistake;
normally, the neurone fibres which run to the ear never end in
the littl toe. The arrangements, therefore, of the neural parts
is determined by forces which, we now know, are the eJectro
dynamic L-fields.
1 20
If this is accepted, the importance of field factors in the develop

ment and differentiation of the nervous system is evident. And i t
i s no longer hard to understand how a neuroblast, developing and
differentiating, should be located in a particular place in the
primitive neural tube and why and how i ts branches should grow
and be directed to an ultimate destination. It is not by accident,
then, that the human nervous system, highly organized and very
complex, should have such precision in its growth and develop
m en t and such uniqueness as its final result.
All this is of great importance to students of human behaviour
because it shows that it is not a consequence of local phenomena,
nor the result of an endocrine or gastric function , nor of any
other of the physiological properties of the living organism.
Chemistry, whatever its origin, is a consequence-and not the
cause-of behaviour.
To be sure, defects in behaviour can be recognized; this is well
known. But chemistry can no more change an inferior nervous
system into a better one than high-tes t gasoline can convert a
Ford into a Rolls-Royce. Chemistry supplies the energy but it is
the L-field which gives direction to the energy flow, the result of
which is a pattern of organization.
Unfortunately, we know much too little about the conse
quences of the pa tterned neural mechanism in human beings. We
know a little about the gross anatomy of the nervous system but
we know behaviour only through individual acts. This leads to
confusion in our understanding of the nervous system. We can
only be certain that we are what we are not by accident but by
a patterned organization or design, unique to each of us, which
is regulated by a field.
It is true that there are certain patterns of behaviour and auto
matic responses common to all mankind, just as there are parts
of the human nervous system to be found in other highly
organized nervous systems. Apart from these common factors,
however, we are all different and behave differently.
Moreover, the mind of man has an unholy capacity to fool
itself. We tend to see what we want to see, to hear wha t we want
to hear. The raw data of sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell and
so on reach the nervous system and become involved in the in121
tricate organization of a linking and chaining together of nerve

cells in the nervous system. These, as we know, number at least
ten billion units and therefore provide an astronomical number

of possible permutations and combinations.
These permutations, activated by stimuli from the outside
world and also, unfortunately, from the inside world, determine
in the last analysis wha t you and I do. This means, of course, that
ideas are as powerful stimuli to the nervous system as the physical
events in the immediate enviJOnment. These ideas have to be
integrated with the raw data of sensation and also related to
memory of past events before they result in overt activity.
Nearly everyone, when faced with the resulting problems
wants someone to tell them the answers. This is not possible; no
one else can tell you the answers which are right for you, though
he may be able to help you, through ideas, to find the right
answer for yourself. We should not and must not force our solu
tions on others, because each individual is different. We can only
try, with suggestions, to help them to reach conclusions or solu
tions which are appropriate to their uniqueness.
Since we know no way to modify the field that determines
the pattern of the human brain and the infinite permutations of
neural response, there are definite limits to what we can hope to
achieve in influencing human behaviour. EnviJOnment-a fash
ionable term at the present time-can undoubtedly be an ex
tremely important factor. But it is clear that wha tever we do to
the human nervous system we cannot change its individual and
inherent design deter ined by the field. Each individual is likely
to react differently, even to the same enviJOnment.
Chemistry cannot help us. It is true that we can destroy-or
produce a malfunction of-parts of the nervous system by means
of drugs. They can often modify behaviour to some extent but
this is only because they knock out one component so that an
other component can take over.
Similarly, certain operations on the brain can remove or short
circuit abnorma l con d i tions and thus restrict undesirahle be
haviour. But they ca n n o t alter the design. As a matter of fact,
it is difficult for a b ra i n surgeon to tell, merely by looking at the
brain, what kind of person his patient is. There are some racial
1 22
T H E C ON T I N U I N G A D V E N T U RE
and age differences, to be sure, and brains vary in their size and
weight. But no really sign ificant differences have been found in
the finer linking and chaining together of the neuroncs. This is
not because they do not exist but because our present techniques
are not adequate to unravel the complexities.
All this shows tha t-with our present knowledge at least
there are no instant cures for the defects of human behaviour.
In other words we cannot hope to change human nature over
night, as wise men have always realized. Though this may seem
to some a depressing conclusion it is better to realize our limita
tions than to entertain false hopes and to waste our energies in
the wrong directions.
It is best, too, for educationists to realize that they cannot
make a silk purse out of a sow's ear-that they cannot make a
Beethoven or an Einstein out of a sow's-ear type of nervous
system. The basic problem is to find out the capabilities of a par
ticular nervous system and, by practice and experience, help it to
develop into the most efficient apparatus possible for that par
tindar and unique type.
All this is also relevant to the current demand-or hope-for

unified religion. Those who think this is possible are doomed to
disappointment because we are all different and respond differ
ently to the ideas which others suggest to us.
Religion can never be an organized set of regulations. It is a
purely personal matter, depending on the human individual's re
actions to his r eli gious upbringing or teaching and to the ideas
which may originate in his own mind about his relationship to
what he believes to be the Designer, Organizer or Operator of the
Universe.
It makes little difference what you call this qnalitative attribute
of the Un iverse wh ether YOll call it God. or the Universal Mind
or some thing else. The fact is tha t your rel a tion ship and m ine
with this thing outside ourselves-something which is greater
than ourselves-is a purely personal matter between us and it,
a
123
which cannot be organized or legislated by religious groups or

in courts of law.
Since nobody knows the origin of the Universe, an infinite
variety of opinions about its Originator is inevitable. Hence
the enormous number of religious faiths and groups around the
world, some of which appeal to vast numbers of individuals and
some to a mere handful. It is often djfficult to get general agree
ment on the interpretation of a set of facts. When there are no
facts-in the accepted sense of the word-to interpret, it is obvi
ous that general agreement among large numbers of different
individuals is impossible.
Each individual, then, has to solve the problem of his relation
ship with the Originator for himself in order to reach a con
clusion which is satisfying to him. There may be others who
reach the same conclusions and also find them satisfying. But
these should not be imposed on those who do not because, in the
long run, each individual has to solve his own problems.
Nature revels in infinite variety. Far from trying to impose uni
formity on mankind-or on anything else-she makes every
thing different. Our brains and bodies are all a little different
from every other brain and body in the world. Even our finger
prints are different; among the many millions of fingerprints on
file around the world, no two identical ones have ever been found
-even among the many thousands of prints of 'identical' twins.*
Lfields are the tools which Nature uses to indulge her zest for
variety; and we know no way to blunt them. In dealing with
human nature, therefore, we should temper our idealism with
realism and-like the wisest politicians-should confine our
selves to 'the art of the possible'.
In our modern civilization, of course, a certain amount of
uniformity-in laws, regulations, procedures, printed forms and
so on-is both necessary and unavoidable. But if we are to har
monize man-made laws with Nature's, we should neither seek
-nor hope for-greater uniformity in regulating human con
duct but should do our utmost to keep it to tbe minimum and,
where possible, to reduce it.
It is the aim of some of the theorists and most of the dictators
* Confirmed by the F.B.1.
1 24
of this age to regulate the human race down to a dreary con

dition of mediocre uniformity. Perhaps, then, one of the most
important things we can learn from the fields of life is that in
Nature precise organization and infinite variety can and do go
together.
We are likely to get further faster in the solution of our
problems if we strive to imitate Nature, however difficult that
may be.
7
Nobody knows what those early Vikings really expected to

find when they set sail across the Atlantic. Perhaps they dreamed
of fabulous and mysterious territory to conquer. But when they
landed they found nothing too mysterious or unfamiliar-just
a large and obvious continent to explore.
It has been much the same with our voyage of discovery. What
ever we expected to find out when we started, we have found
nothing mysterious-nothing that need surprise us.
We knew before we started that, in the non-living world, fields
and atoms are related attributes of matter and that neither can
exist without the other. It was reasonable to suppose, then, that
living systems-composed as they are of atoms and their fields
-should contain electrical fields capable of determining the
pattern of the structure and of maintaining it through constant
changes of chemical flux.
This seemed the more likely because the electro-encephalo
graph and the electro-cardiograph had established the existence
of electrical phenomena in living systems. And physicists know
that wherever potential differences exist in conducting media
currents flow and fields are the inevitable result.
The existence of L-fields, then, seemed as logical and probable
as the existence of new lands across the ocean must have seemed
to the Vikings. But, as with them, the problem was how to find
the hoped-for goal. As with them, too, the goal was invisible. But
here we had an advantage over the Vikings : we are accustomed
in this age to dealing with the invisible.
We cannot see electro-magnetic fields but we not only know

they exist but also put them to work for us in various ways. We
have never seen electrons but we know how to use them. We
know, too, that they are present in the nucleus of the atom; and
it is perfectly clear that the properties of the atom are, in part
interaction between the electrons and the whole atom and, in
part, the contact which the atom has with other atoms. So, in
contrast to the Vikings, we expected the result of our quest to
be invisible.
Like them, however, we had to devise suitable equipment
for our voyage of discovery. They had to build new ships to
plough through stormy seas. We had to find new means to ex
plore an ocean without causing any ripples on its surface-in
struments which would draw no current from the organisms
measured. As related earlier, this took three years; and it would
be interesting to know if the Vikings were able to equip them
selves more rapidly !
Though our goal seemed reasonable and attainable, it should
be stressed that, when we started out we had no certainty of
reaching it. However logical an hypothesis may seem, one can
never be sure that it can be validated by experiment. The ships
of scientific exploration can founder in the seas of experimental
problems as easily as longboats can sink in the North Atlantic.
But it is this element of uncertainty that gives zest to any voyage
of discovery because, without it, there could be no hope of find
ing the unexpected.
Though, in any exploration, the unexpected is always wel
come and exciting, the more clearly one can visualize in advance
what one hopes to find, the easier it is to devise the right kind
of experiment to vali date the hypothesis. If one knows what one
is looking for, too, there is less risk of wasting time down blind
alleys.
We were fortunate, then, that our original hypothesis was
sufficiently close to experimentally-demonstrable fact to save us
from m uch wasted time and effort. We were lucky in the fact
that science had reached a stage which j ustified the belief that
electrical measurements of living forms could be made, that they
1 26
would exhibit pattern and would serve as at least one measure of

a controlling electrical field.
Over the years-as related in these pages-this belief has been
justified by experiment. Wherever we made electrical measure
ments of living systems we found voltage gradients; and in all our
experiments we found that the voltage gradients in living systems
w itho u t any exception are organized in patterns. And the re
sults of these m any years of experimentation leave no reason
able doubt that the eld characteristic of a living system is a basic
property o f life.
Moreover, since the field of a living system is an ordered pat
tern, it must be a part of the overall or general pattern which
represents the Universe. It can be argued, therefore, that the
U niverse is an electrical field and that everyth ing tha t exists in
it is a subsidiary or component part of the total field.
This, of course, is not new. 'Vlhat is new is that it is now pos
.sible to m ake valid, repeatable measurements of the subsidiary
fields which are associa ted with living forms. This shows that
living systems are not some special creation-introduced into the
Universe at some particular time or place-but are an integral
part cf the pattern-that is, of the law and order-of the
Universe.
Someone once asked the question : 'What is this electricity
which constitutes a field ? '
A distinguished physicist gave the best answer that the author
knows : 'Electricity is the way Nature behaves.'
This electricity, then, which can be measured and shown to
have order and pattern, is not some strange and separate phenom
enon but an essen tial characteristic of the Universe.
Numerous names have been given to these electrical fields.
We refer to electro-magnetic fields, electro-static fields, and
electro-dynamic fields and it used to be assumed that these are
different and separate. This is not so. The various names derive
from the instruments used to measure the fields. Thus, instru
m ents which depend on magnetic forces would define the field
as electro-magnetic, electro-static measuring instruments would
define it as electro-static; those used i n connection with the
dynamic changes in living forms measure electro-dynamic fields.
1 27
The field, of course, is much more important than the instru

ment used to measure parts of it. It is a source of energy which
can be visualized as controlling the organization of the Universe.
Its electrical properties not only have magnitude but also direct
ing qualities which determine the position of all the charges
and give direction to the flow of energy.
8
When the ancient Greeks posed the question : 'Why is it that
an acorn always grows into an oak tree and not into a fig tree ? '
they hit on the central problem of biology, which remained un
solved until modern instruments made it possible to measure the
fields of life.
It had long been obvious to many biologists, of course, that
evolution in general and particularly the evolution of the nervous
system have had direction towards some ultimate end. One does
not have to know very much about the human nervous system to
realize that evolution has developed a responding system which
is unique and which has the capacity for a high degree of dis
crimination.
If we consider the different levels of control of behaviour, it
becomes clear that much of our behaviour is quite automatic,
determined by the inherited pattern of the nervous system. This
is true not only of neuromuscular mechanisms but also of those
chemical activities of the body which are involved in the whole
process of metabolism, both anabolism and catabolism.
On another level, there is the control of motor activity which
can become automatic, as when we walk without thinking how
we do i t or use our arms and hands in various ways. Probably
none of us really learned all that is involved in instructing our
fingers to pick up a pencil and write a symbol on a piece of paper.
In fact, if we stop to think about some action which has become
automatic, such as tying a tie, we may bungle it. We acquire
these skills by practice and experience and very soon they be
come automatic in the sense tha t they no longer require the
conscious voluntary control of each muscle.
1 28
At the highest level there is a discriminative control-unique

for each individual which, if he is reasonably 'normal', enables
him to behave in what mankind chooses to call 'a rational way',
and which is built almost entirely on discrimination of past and
present experience. The human organism is unique on this planet
because it possesses this highly-developed ability to discriminate.
It is impossible to imagine that the stage-by-stage develop
ment of the nervous system has happened by chance and without
direction because t h e abili ty to discriminate is -the natural enemy
of chance. This highly-evolved ability, then, is further proof that
you and I, as living organisms of the human type, are not what
we are by accident.
If our nervous systems have not come into existence by acci
dent, then they must have been developed by direction and
organization. The experiments described in this book have
demonstrated that field forces have the necessary qualifications
for this task. We have seen, for instance, that they determine
along which axis of the egg the frog's nervous system will grow
and determine whether a seed will develop into a vigorous plant
or otherwise. We have seen, too, that field-changes precede physi
cal and mental conditions. All this is evidence of their organizing
qualities, as there can be no organization without anticipation.
It is submitted, therefore, that we are fully justified in regard
ing the fields of life as the instruments of physical evolution, of
which--on this planet at least-the human nervous system is
the masterpiece. So, the more we study them, the more we can
hope to learn about the nature of mankind.
You and I, then, are the products of a pattern of organization,

or, to put it another way, the consequence of design. Alid it is
very difficult to think of a piece of apparatus of any kind
whether it be an electric iron or an atom-smasher-that is not
the product of the mind of a designer. Since, therefore, the Uni
verse exhibits a design, it is not too much of a jump into outer
space to assume that it is the product of a Designer.
1 29
As it is impossible to believe that the Universe has more than

one Designer, the U niverse is-as the word implies-a unit, set
up and maintained by its electrical field. This all-embracing field
is the creation and instrument of the Designer. You and I are
part of that field and that design and not-as some like to sup
pose-accidental agglomerations of chaotic components.
With our limited knowledge of the field and our ignorance of
its Designer it would be foolish to speculate about their nature. It
is for each individual to reach a personal understanding of these
things which satisfies his own unique requirements.
The primary value of the field concept is that it gives meaning
for the Universe to you and me because design and organization
imply not only direction but also purpose. This concept, too,
offers a picture of the Universe which should be as acceptable as
the law of gravity to many of different faiths, whether in the
United States or Central Asia.
It in no way conflicts with any of those religions which teach
that there is only one God. On the contrary, it reinforces their
teaching by eliminating the need for two sets of laws in the
Universe, material and spiritual. If we can accept that there is
one Designer and one overall field, to which all humanity is
subject, there is no longer any necessity to postulate one law for
the material and another for the spiritual.
If the idea of two sets of laws could be eliminated, it should
be easier for the human race to resolve some of its problems and
disagreements. There is general agreement in all civilized
countries about the law of gr'lvity and other natural laws. But
there are numerous-and sometimes violent-divergencies of
opinion across the world about spiritual or moral laws; as this is
written, for instance, there are religious riots in Northern Ireland.
If it could be more widely acceped that the entire human race is
subject to the same laws of the Universe and is a part of its
purpose and destiny, it is at least possible that these disagree
ments would gradually diminish.
Even the laws devised by lawyers, which ostensibly reflect the
'conscience' of the community, may one day be brought into
closer relation with the laws of Nature as that 'conscience' be
comes less confused and variable.
1 30
This brings up the grea t problem of good and evil because

lawyer-made laws are usually designed to maintain order and to
control 'wrong-doing'. We know so little that we still have to
think of good and evil as two opposite things; and we nearly
always come a cropper when we try to define what is good and
true and beautiful. Probably the only solid definition of what is
'good' is something that is valid or demonstrably true-some
thing which is in harmony with known natural laws.
For instance, the law of gravity is demonstrably true and there
fore legally and morally right. We accept that; and we do not
regard it as 'evil' Or to blame if a man defies it and falls off a
cliff. Admittedly this is a first approximation to the problem. But
it suggests the need to re-calibrate our concepts of 'good' and 'evil'
by relating them to natural laws as far as we can.
Why is it that some of us do not conform to the environment
in which we live and do things which are called bad or evil ? We
do not know the answer but, as we have seen, the design of the
human nervous system permits incredibly-complex permutations
and combinations, and it is activated by ideas, external and in
ternal, which induce a great variety of responses.
Consider, for instance, the different neural responses to a
beautiful piece of silver in a jeweller's window by two men,
equally impoverished and in need of cash. One will wistfully
admire its beauty and walk on; the other will smash the window,
grab it and run to the nearest 'fence' to have it melted down.
Their nervous systems have responded differently to the same
stimulus.
Perhaps, as we learn more about the relationships between the
L-field and the mind we may gain some insight into why people
respond so differently to the same idea or impulse. Meanwhile,
We can at least be certain that what we call 'good' and 'evil' are
an inherent part of the design of the Universe-for what purpose
we do not know-because there can be nothing outside that
design.
1 31
10
Let us look over the log of our voyage of discovery and see
what its results mean to you and to me :
Since you and I are components of the field of the Universe,
we are all tied together in the same bundle of field properties.
None of us can ever be independent of the universal field or of
our own individual fields.
We are part of a designed whole which is not chaos but organ
ized in law and order and which, over untold centuries, has
slowly evolved the design and differentiation of the human nerv
ous system. There is no reason to suppose that this is not also
true of the Universe itself. It is extremely doubtful that it was
created with one big bang and highly probable that it is still in
the process of growth and development.
This is a slow process and we cannot hope to convert the
Universe to our hopes or desires by tomorrow morning. We our
selves are the products of this slow process of growth and de
velopment and neither the great religious leaders, nor the great
authors of pragmatic law nor any other factors that we know of
can change or hasten it.
Though neither you nor I know the ultimate goal of the Uni
verse in general or of man in particular, we can at least be certain
that growth and differentiation are going on everywhere and all
the time and that this process is not chaotic but has direction and
an ultimate goal.
This gives meaning to our existence because we are a part of
this process and because the process must have some purpose,
even though we cannot discern what it is or see the end result.
Perhaps the purpose of the Designer is to observe, by experi
ment, the results of the reactions between field forces and material
things, just as human organisms have to learn by experience and
experiment. If this is so there is probably no such thing as an
absolute set of values. The Universe is developing and so are
we; and man's sense of values is likely to change as the Universe
changes. What is true to the man of today will not necessarily
be true to the man of tomorrow.
1 32
This seems the more likely when we remember tha t man's

sense of values, of right and wrong, has always changed from
generation to generation and from place to place.
It is exciting to reflect that life and the Universe are not static
but active-evolving and searching for better ways to do things.
And it is fortunate for mankind that there are no hard and fast
answers to the problems of humanity. On the contrary, man has
infinite scope to learn more about Nature's laws and to apply
them to a better understanding of human behaviour.
*
The experimental findings recorded in these pages are the

first stepping-stones on a long journey into the unknown
guide-posts for further adventures in science.
They indicate that the Universe is an ordered system, the
human organism an ordered component. Law and order prevail
from the biggest to the smallest; and to suggest that there is any
chaos is merely to display our lack of information.
In short, the Universe has meaning and so have we. Though
we do not understand it, the meaning is there. The continuing
adventure of science and of ourselves is to seek, through the
Field Concept, an ever-greater understanding of the changing,
growing meaning of life.
133
PART I I
Selected Papers
The Implications of the Electro-metric Test in Cancer of the
Female Genital Tract . . . Louis Langman, M.D., F.A.C.S.
Electro-magnetic Field Monitoring of Changing State-Function
Including Hypnotic States . . . Leonard J. Ravitz, M.S., M.D.
Tree Potentials and External Factors . . . Ralph Markson, M.A.
The author wishes to express his thanks to the authors listed

above for their kind permission to publish their important papers
in this book.
Appendix
Bibliography of H. S. Burr.
THE I M PLICAT I ONS OF THE

ELECTRO -METR I C TEST IN CANCER OF
THE FE M ALE GEN ITAL TRACT *
Louis Langman, M . D . , F . A . C . S.
(An investigation made in the Department of Obstetrics and

Gynaecology, New York University, College of Medicine;
Obstetrical and Gynaecological Service of the Third (N.Y.U.)
Surgical Division, Bellevue Hospital)
In a former publication a technique ( 1) was described for measur
ing field forces in the intact human being. The hypothesis that
cancer is fundamentally the result of an alteration of the organ
izational field forces in the living system was advanced. It was
demonstrated tha t when measures of these field forces are
properly made, obvious differences in the field properties of
patients, with and without malignancy, can be determined. A
polar reversal of the field forces between the cervix and the ven
tral abdominal wall was shown to exist in most patients with
malignancy involving the female generative tract. Atypical
growth in this system is accessible, it occurs all too frequently,
and the diagnostic procedures while not perfect are reasonably
adequate for recognition of cell morphology.
The technique as reported in an earlier paper made it possible
to record the changes in voltage gradient which exists between
the human cervix uteri and some indifferent point on the sur
face of the body, such as the skin of the lower abdomen. Thus,
electrical changes in the intact organism with minimal disturb
ance in normal physiologic processes could be recorded.
* The gratitude of the author is hereby expressed to Professor
Seb astian B. Littauer, Department of Industrial Engineering, Colum
bia University, New York, who was responsible for the statistical
analysis of the findings presented in this paper.
1 37
S E L E CTED P APERS
The technique in brief consisted of a micro-voltmeter (a

vacuum tube Wheatstone Bridge) connected through silver-silver
chloride electrodes in physiological salt solution, on the one hand
to the patient and on the other leading to a General Electric
photoelectric recorder.* The reference or 'cold' electrode is held
by a suitable bandage on the lower abdominal wall; the active
or 'hot' electrode is introduced into the vagina until the tip comes
to rest in the posterior fornix. The standing potential between
these two leads appears on the recorder as a movement of the
pen, either to the right or to the left of an arbitrary selected zero
point. To the right indicates that the active electrode is positive
to the reference electrode, movement to the left that it is nega
tive to the reference electrode.
In a preliminary report (2) approximately half of the 30 cases
reported were women with clinical evidence of malignancy, con
firmed by pathological examination, and in whom a characteris
tic negativity of the cervix with respect to the lower abdominal
wall was recorded. The remainder of the cases consisted of non
malignant conditions of the female generative tract including
fibromyomata uteri, ovarian cysts, pelvic inflammatory disease,
chronic cervicitis, and uterine bleeding due to a variety of causes.
In contrast to the malignancies, all but three of this latter group
showed a significant positivity of the cervix with respect to the
lower abdominal walL
In the more recent paper (1) the electro-metric observations in
428 women were reported. In 7 5 patients with known cancer
of the female generative tract, 98'7% showed the cervix to be
consistently electro-negative to the ventral abdominal wall. In
3 5 3 patients suffering from non-malignant conditions, 289
showed the cervix to be positive with respect to the abdomen
(8 1 '9%)
It was suggested that the electro-negativity of the cervix
observed in the 64 patients with non-malignant conditions may
represent an organizational weakness in the controls of growth
* Since this investigation was made more modern instruments
have become available as described elsewhere in this book. These
will m ake it easier to apply the electro-metric techniques described in
this paper, as an aid in understanding cancer.
1 38
SELECTED PAPERS
and differentiation in the organism in whom any one of a wide

variety of stimuli may be sufficient to initiate atypical growth.
The correlation of negativity with ovulation has been previously
reported (3) so that if eight cases believed to be influenced by this
process are excluded, this latter group can be reduced to 56.
SOURCE OF MATERIAL IN P RESENT S TUDY :
The results of a continuation of this study extended to a

larger group of women (860) have continued to show the same
electro-metric difference between patients suffering from benign
and malignant pelvic disease and suggests the possibility that
this technique may be of value as a screening method in the
detection of early malignancy in the pelvic organs of the female.
A consideration of this possibility forms the basis of this com
munication.
The observations were made on women admitted to the
Gynaecological Service in Bellevue Hospital and comprise suc
cessive admissions to the wards over a period of one and a half
years. Some were admitted for diagnostic reasons, in others the
diagnosis was clinically obvious. Nearly all had some gynaeco
logical complaint. An attempt was made to study the electro
metric pattern in all women admitted with malignancy or
suspected of having malignancy. Cases for study in the non-mal
ignant group were selected at random. Normal women summar
ized in Table IV, represents a group of individuals comparable to
those in a non-hospital population with no gynaecological ab
normality. Medical technicians and a few of their friends com
prise approximately 1 5 % of this group.
Table I shows the observations on patients with pelvic malig
nancy according to age groups.
In an these cases the diagnosis of cancer was made after care
ful histological studies. During the period reported, electro
metric studies were made on nearly all patients admitted with a
diagnosis of cancer or suspected of having cancer, regardless of
the stage of the disease and in many instances, prior to the
pathological diagnosis.
As is readily seen in Table I, a nega tive potential was recorded
in all patients with malignancy excep t in five, for which no
1 39
S EL E CTED PAPERS
TABLE
ELECTRO-METRIC OBSERVATIONS IN PELVIC MALIGNANCY

DIAGl'iOSIS
AGE
AGE
AGE
AGE
2 1 -30
3 1 -40
41-50
5 1 -60
POS NEG
Intra-cpi thelial*
Stage I
Stage II
Stage III
Stage IV
Adenocarcinoma
Carcinoma of Fundus
Carcinoma o f Ovary
Carcinoma of Vagina
Carcinoma of Vulva
Sarcoma of Uterus
Metastatic Carcinoma
0
0
I
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
I
0
I
0
0
0
0
pas NEG
0
0
3
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
3
0
2
2
0
0
1
0
POS NEG
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
I
0
0
0
0
1
3
5
8
0
3
2
0
0
I
0
AGE
(i 1 and
pas NEG
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
3
5
4
4
0
7
3
0
0
0
1
TOTALS
over
POS NEG
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
6
8
7
6
3
I
2
0
2
7
8
19
26
22
* Two additional cases of i n tra-epitheliaI carcinoma of the cervix have

been studied electro-metrically subsequent to the cases recorded in this table.
A positive potential was observed in one, and a negative potential in the
other, so th a t in eight out of nine instances of intra-epithelial cancer a
negative potential was recorded.
explanation is offered. Unusual malignant neoplasms are present

in this group including one case of carcinoma of the bladder
thought to be primary, one granu10sa cell tumour of ovary, one
dysgerminoma and a squamous cell carcinoma arising in a der
moid cyst, in all of whom a negative potential was observed. Of
the five patients in whom a positive potential was observed, three
were in women with epithelioma of the cervix, stage I and II,
and two with ovarian carcinoma, one of which was recurrent,
the other, involving both ovaries with marked ascites. The diag
nosis of malignancy was clinically apparent in all five of these
patients. The fact that a negative potential was found in all of
t h e cases diagnosed as intra-epithelial or preclinical cancer of the
cervix except one, would seem to be of real significance.
Disregarding the exceptions noted above, the results suggest
that the technique may be of value as an aid in the early detec
tion of malignancy in the cervix uteri, or in selecting those
patients in whom further study to exclude the presence of malig
nancy seems indicated.
1 40
18
13
1
2
2
SELECTED PAPERS
TABLE II
T ABLE SHOWING ELECTRO-METRIC FlNDINGS IN BENIGN CONDITIONS
WITH
D1AGNOSIS
AGE
AGE
AGE
AGE
10-20
2 1 -30
3 1 -40
41-50
POS NEG
POS NEG
POS NEG
Fi [noids
Pid
AGE DlSTlU 13UTION
POS NEG
17
17
1
0
1
AGE
POS NEG
59
28
58
3
2
0
14
18
35
2
AGE
5 1 -60 6 1 :lI,d over
2
0
Pregnancy
Cervicitis
7
2.
38
2 2.
Ilcnign Ovarian Cysts
3
2
2.9
6
7
0
33
2
0
2
0
0
0
20
22
17
4
8
0
2
1
0
0
2
3
5
0
1
1
Omlation
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
1
3
0
3
0
1
0
0
0
0
2
Cervical P ol yps
Lndometrial Polyps
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
Nogyn Pathology
Proliferative or Secretory Endometrium

Hyperplasia of
Endometrium
Endometritis
Post Menopausal
0
lndomctriosis
G r,IlHllolUil of External
0
G en i ta li a
Fi stulae
0
G ranuloma of Cervix
Atrophic Vaginitis
: i e m a t rome tri a
Leu(oplakia
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
43
0
0
3
0
0
5
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
POS NEG
10 1 0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
I
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
In considering the findings in patients with benign conditions,

Table II, it should be understood tha t the diagnosis in all cases
was based on histological examination of tissue. Attention has
been called to the findings of negative potentials similar to the
observations in cancer, which have been observed in women with
post-menopausal bleeding in whom no morphological evidence of
cancer was found. The next most frequent finding of negative
potentials occurred in patients with chronic cervicitis where
squamous metaplasia, marked i n some, was reported. It is signi
ficant that in this group of pa tien ts, as in post-menopausal bleed
ing cases, the recording of neg] tive potentials was more frequent
in the older age groups where the incidence of cancer is greater.
Increasing knowledge of the behaviour of various types of
tissue indicates that invasive cancer does not result from a s udden
141
TABLE III
ELECTRO-METRIC OBSERVATIONS AFTER OPERATION OR TREATMENT

PATIENTS WITH FOLLOW-UP
ORIGINAL
No.
FW
41
EMF FINDING
1.
'2 / 5 / 48 Neg.
TREATMENT
DIAGNOSIS
Chr. cystie eery.

squamous metap.
with
EMF FOLLOW-UP
'2 / 16 /48 Vag. Hyster.
6 / '2'2 / 48 Pos.
7/'23 /47 Neg.
Chr. eery. with squamous

metap.
7/ 1 5 /47 Total Hyster. Bilat.

Salpingo-oophor.
1 '2/ 16/47 Pas.
HH
36
3. 1 / '28/47 Pos.
Chr. endocerv. with squa

mous metap.
1 1 3 1 /47 Total Hyster.

Salpingo-oophor.
n / 1 1 /47 Pos.
AH
48
4. 10/ '20 / 47 Neg.
Chr. endocerv.
10/ '2'2 / 47
Stump
BM
43
5. 10/ 16/47 Neg.
Carcinoma of Cervix
10/ 17/47 Radical Hyster. Bilat.

Salpingo-oophor.
Wertheim
Radium 67'20 hr.
6 / 2 3 /47 Neg.
KC
6. 10/'27/47 Neg.
Squamous cell carcinoma.

Stage III
1 1 / 1 '2 / 47 1 800 Units

Radium 3 3 60 mg. hr.
6 / '2 3 / 48 Neg.
7. 3 / 4 /47 Neg.
Carcinoma of cervix Stage

II-III
Wertheim 5 / '26/47 X-ray 1800

Units. Radium colpostals and
cork. 4320 ng. hr.
5 / 1 / 47 Neg.
7 / 7 1 47 Neg.
9/ 1 '2 /47 Neg.
2 / '26/48 Neg.
8. 1 l / 1 9 /47 Neg.
Squamous cell carcinoma.

Stage II
Total Hyster. Post radiation.

Atrophy of cervix. 1 / '2'2/47
'2 1 4/47 Neg.

( 1 2 days after
hyster.)
ES
34
'2.
46
MG
34
LT
51
D&C
Bilat.
Removal of
1'2/47
5 / '2'2 / 47 Neg.
compo
MT
1 / 20/48 Neg.
CA of Fundus
Total Hyster. Bilat. Salpingooophor 4 / 2 /48
5 / 1 3 / 48 Neg.
BM 10. 10/8/48 Neg.

48
Sarcoma of Uterus
Supra-cerv. Hyster. Bilat. Salpingo-oophor 10/ 1 5 / 48
1 2/ 1 0/48
AT I I . 8/'1.1 /48 Neg.
Intraepithelial
CA of
Cerv. Stump following
Supra-cerv. Hyst. Bilat.
Salpingo-oophor 6 / 28 / 47
Xray 8 / 1 8/47 6900

Radium '1.760 mg.
R. units.
9 / 29 / 47 Pas.
Fibroids
Total Hyster. Left

oophor. 5 / l 'l. /48
Salpingo
5 / 1 8 /47 Pas.
6 / 1 6 / 47 Pos.
Total Hyster. Bilat. Salpingo

oophor. 5 / 14/48
5 / 26 / 48 Pas.
50
28
AS
n.
n / 2 2. / 47 Pos.
33
RP 1 3 . 5 /6/48 Neg.
Intra-epithelial
MW 1 4. 4/ 19 /47 Neg.
Intra-epithelial
CA
Total Hyster. 4 / 2 5 / 47
BL 1 5. 4/8/48 Neg.
Intraepithelial
CA
Total Hyster.
oophor.
CA
50
Left Salpingo-
2 / 1 0/49 Pas.
S E L E C T E D P AP E R S
metamorphosis, but is the result of a developmental process. The

relationship squamous metaplasia has to carcinoma of the cervix
uteri is currently controversial, so that the evaluation of the
electro-metric findings with this condition cannot be definitive at
the present time. Recent evidence (4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 2, 1 3,
ancl 1 4) indicates a localized phase of several years duration before
cancer of the cervix becomes invasive. The observation of
negative electro-metric findings in patients with squamous meta
plasia of the cervix suggest the need for extended follow-up
studies. Since the evidence suggests a significant correlation be
tween negativity and malignancy, then all patients with nega
tive polarity should be suspect and followed with great care.
For experimental purposes a correspondingly large group of
cases with positive polarity should be observed over the same
period in order to ascertain whether there is a significant differ
ence between the two groups in the developmental rate of malig
nancy. Correlation of potential findings with morphological
studies for a period of at least five years where no treatment has
been instituted may determine the value of the electro-metric
technique in anticipating those cases which will develop cancer.
The findings in patients who have had follow-up electro
metric studies (Table III) indicate tha t a reversal in polarity
from negative to positive occurs after total hysterectomy for
intra-epithelial carcinoma of the cervix. This reversal is not found
in cases with more advanced stages of cervical carcinoma (Stages
II and III), who have had either a radical operation or radium and
X-ray therapy. Following a total hysterectomy, women in whom
a diagnosis of squamous metaplasia of the cervix had been made
pre-operatively, show a similar reversal in polarity.
These findings suggest that the electro-metric correlates result
from causes inherent in the tissue involved and if the involved
tissue can be removed in its entirety reversal in potential occurs.
Conversely reversal does not occur when all the tissue involved
is not removed by operation.
This finding may be of more than academic interest and may
prove useful as one of the criteria for estimation of a cure. How
ever, it is felt that sufficient follow-up studies have not been made
both in number of cases followed and length of follow-up to
1 44
SELECTED PAPERS
TABLE IV
SI-IOWING ELECTRO-METRIC FINDINGS IN WOMEN WITH NO GYNAE
COLOGlCAL CONDITION AND AGE DISTRIBUTION
POSlTIVE
AGE
1 (}-20
NEGATIVE
0
5
43
14
2 1 -30
3 1 -40
41-50
5 1-60
61 plus
Totals
0
0
1
7
3
2
74
TOTAL
5
43
14
8
5
3
78
TABLE V
MALIGNANT CONDITIONS
AGE DISTRIBUTION : ELECTRO-METRIC FINDINGS
AGE
POSITIVE
10-20
21-30
NEGATIVE
0
24
25
3 1 -40
4 1 -50
5 1-60
61 plus
2
0
Totals
TOTAL
0
5
25
26
29
36
31
118
1 23
36
TABLE VI
BENIGN CONDITIONS
AGE DISTRIBUTION : ELECTRO-METRIC FINDINGS
AGE
POSlTIVE
NEGATIVE
TOTAL
1 0-20
2 1-30
3 1 -40
41-50
5 1 -60
61 plus
40
46
229
194
1 16
29
27
2 56
Totals
29
223
140
24
29
11
611
1 26
73 7
58
14
establish final conclusions. The problems inherent in follow-up

studies on patients cared for in Bellevue Hospital necessarily
limited the number that could be observed after discharge.
The significance of electro-metric recordings as a screening
method in large groups of normal women-better defined as
1 45
S ELECTED PAPERS
women presenting no gynaecological symptoms-becomes more

apparent when we analyse the findings in women with no gynae
cological condition, Table IV. I n this group, 94.8 % positive
potentials were observed in striking contrast to women with
malignancies in whom 9591'0 negative potentials were recorded.
(Table V.)
These observations indicate the necessity for further study
with the identical technique for a large-scale type of experiment
wherein electro-metric observations would be recorded on large
groups of apparently healthy women-comparable to the women
presenting themselves for examination in a cancer prevention
clinic. The statistical analysis contained in this report substan
tiates the validity of such an experiment, in an attempt to estab
lish the screening-value the technique may offer in women
distributed in the general population.
While no definitive explanation for the findings presented in
this paper can be offered at this time the fact remains that elec
trical correlations in malignant and benign conditions have been
discovered. The application of this discovery as a screening
technique in women with cancer of the generative tract is indi
cated from an analysis of the other observations made thus far.
The results of preliminary studies on cancer of the breast have
shown similar electro-metric correlations and warrant further
investigation. Similar studies in gastric malignancy (1 5), may
prove of inestimable value in differentiating benign and malig
nant lesions in the stomach.
The technique should also be applied in an investigation of the
prostate gland. Should such an investigation give 1 to 1 correla
tions in malignancy of the prostate similar to the findings in the
female generative tract, a potentially valuable diagnostic aid in
detecting early cancer of the prostate gland would be available.
No other way of accomplishing this exists at the present time.
STATISTICAL DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS :
An ideal medical test-procedure consists of a definitely specified

sequence of acts such that the observations resulting can be un
ambiguously classified into a small number of distinct groups.
A unique relationship between paired observations as exists, for
1 46
TABLE VII
COMPARING ELECTRO-METRIC FINDINGS WITH CYTOLOGICAL STUDIES

IN IDENTICAL PATIENTS WITH MALIGNANCY
PTS.
CELL STUDIES
ELECTROMETRIC
DIAGNOSIS
POTENTIAL
AF.
C.S.
22. E.M.
23. M.R.
14. A.J.
2 ) . L.V.
Normal cells
Cancer cells
Cancer cells
Normal cells
Cancer cells
Cancer cells
Normal ceUs
Cancer cells
Cancer cells
Cancer cells
Cancer cells
Normal cells
Cancer cells
Cancer cells
Normal cells
Cancer cells
Normal cells
Cancer cells
Normal cells
Cancer cells
Normal cells
Normal cells
Cancer cells
Normal cells
Ca ncer cells
Negative
Positive
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Positive
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Positive
Negative
Negative
Negati v e
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Positive
Negative
26. AP.
Normal cells
Negative
27. S.G.
28. Y.F.
29. M.D.
30. C.B.
3 1 . B.D.
32. D.L.
3 3 - S.S.
34. M.Mc.
3 5. M.S.
36. M.L.
37 A.P.
Normal cells
Cancer cells
Cancer cells
Normal cells
Normal cells
Normal cells
Normal cells
Can cer ceUs
Normal cells
Atypical
Atypical
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
1. Y.A.
2. 0.H.
3. L.M.
4. V.O.
5. R.W.
6. R.P.
7. E.D.
8. B.L.
9. Q.G.
1 0. F.W.
11.
1 2.
P.S.
M.E.
1 3. AH.
14. AD.
1 5. B.M.
16. R.T.
1 7. G.c.
18. W.E.
19. AF.
20.
21.
Carcinoma of Cervical stump. stage III

Carcinoma of Cervix, stage II
Intra-epithelial Carcinoma of Cervix
Carcinoma of Cervix. treated. stage II
Intra-epithelial Carcinoma of Cervix
Carcinoma of Cervix. stage IV
Carcinoma of Cervix. stage I
Carcinoma of Cervix. stage I
Carcinoma of Cervix. stage III
Carcinoma of Cervix. stage II
Carcinoma of Cervix, stage III
Intra-epithelial Cancer of Cervix
Carcinoma of Cervix. treated
Carcinoma of Cervix. treated
Carcinoma o f Cervical Stump
Carcinoma of Ovary
Carcinoma of Ovary with extension
to vagina
Squamous cell carcinoma in dermoid
cyst of Ovary
Granulosa cell tumour of Ovary
Adenocarcinoma of Corpus Uteri
Carcinoma of Vagina
Carcinoma of Bartholin's Gland
Endocerv icitis
Chronic Cervicitis
1 47
S E L ECTED PAP E RS
example, in the presence of Koplick spots in the mucous mem

brane of the mouth prior to the skin eruption in measles is only
too rare. Again the relationship from the Ascheim-Zondek test
as an aid in the determination of pregnancy is so consistent
(although not unique), that for all practical purposes, diagnosis
can be made as though test results and the state of pregnancy
were unique.
It is suggested that, similarly, a highly-consistent relationship
exists between the state of tissue in the female generative tract,
and the polarity revealed in the electro-metric test described
above. The state of tissue as determined by morphological study
of biopsy material is admittedly accurate. Were there a reason
able doubt in the interpretation of a sizeable percentage of such
biopsies, then diagnosis could not be said to be reliable and the
search for an adjuvant test would be meaningless. Hence infer
ence about the reliability of the electro-metric test as an indicator
of the presence of neoplastic tissue in the female generative tract
is concerned only with the correlation between the polarity deter
mined and the clinical and morphological diagnosis.
Electro-metric findings have been compared with cytology
studies of smears from the cervix in the same patients, Table VII.
This group is comprised of cases diagnosed morphologically as
cancer, and consists of twenty-three cervical cancers; three of
which were intra-epithelial or pre-invasive; four ovarian cancers,
and six adenocarcinomas of the corpus uteri. Electro-metric ob
servations and cell studies are consistent with the expected find
ings in malignancy in eleven cervical cancers, one ovarian car
cinoma with extension to the vagina, two fundal carcinoma, and
one primary cancer of the vagina. In three instances of cancer of
the cervix a positive potential was recorded and cancer cells found
on cytology study, while in nine cervical cancers a negative
potential was observed and normal cells reported after cytology
study. Negative potentials were recorded in four adenocarcin
omas of the fundus in which normal cells were reported after
cytology studies.
The evidence from this small group of cases indicates that
electro-metric findings compare favourably with cytology studies
as a means of detecting the presence of cancer in the cervix
1 48
S EL E CTED PAPERS
uteri and may offer a more sensitive technique in uncovering

cancer of the corpus uteri and ovaries.
Interpretation of the paired test results-clinical and electro
metric-is statistical. All measurements of human characteristics
vary from person to person, although an examination of many
observations shows that the 'thing' measured has a characteristic
form, size, colour, or the like. That is, the 'thing' is identifiable, in
spite of the fact tha t it varies from person to person.
Some human attributes are almost invariable, as for example
the number of fingers on the hand, while yet the ratios of
lengths of corresponding digits of the hand vary considerably.
Height to weight ratios seems to show some consistency within
a well established pattern of variation. Were, however, routine
diagnosis decision-making are necessary if diagnosis is to be
then a definite criterion statistically arrived at would be required.
For it is obvious, indeed, that convincingly-verifiable criteria for
diagnosis decision-making are necessary if diagnosis is to be
made from the results of simple tests. I t must be borne in mind
also, that no matter how many people are subjected to a given
test, they remain but a sample of the total population. Some
assurance must be provided for the validity of the use of the test
on the remainder of the popula tion.
In order to infer a working principle from experimental evi
dence we require an accepted criterion of action. Suppose we
state one of the results given above in the form of a working
principle as follows :
Under conditions of the electro-metric test described above,
negative potential is recorded in cases of malignancy involving
the uterus or ovaries.
The statistical procedure followed in confirming such prin
ciples takes account of the sampling fluctuations of the observa
tions. A provision is made for calculating the probability that, if
the working principle be true, the observed results would be
obtained, where the differences in the results are accounted for
only by the random selection of persons to be tested.
For example, in the present case patients selected from a hos
pital population were chosen for electro-metric test. To be sure
many of these patients possessed ailments of the generative tract,
1 49
S E L E CTED P A P E RS
Extended data (All these tables have

was applied)
D.F. and Yates
corr.
TABLE VIII
MALIGNANT-BENIGN AGAINST POLARITY FOR ALL AGE GROUPS
MALIGNANT
Positive
Observed
(Expected)
Negative
Observed
(Expected)
TOTAL
TOTAL
BENIGN
6 1 1 (b)
(527-9)
6 1 6 (a + b)
(88_1)
1 1 8 (c)
( 3 4 -9)
1 26 (d)
(209 - 1 )
244 (c+d)
1 23
(a)
73 7
(a + c)
(b+d)
860 (n)
Chi-Square ; 3 1 8- 5 1 1 5
TABLE
IX
MALIGNANT-BENIGN AGAINST POLARITY FOR AGE GROUPS 2 1 -60

MALIGNANT
BENIGN
TOTAL
Positive
Observed
Expected
5
65-25
568
507-25
573
Negative
Observed
Expected
82
21 .75
1 09
169-25
191
TOTAL
87
677
764
Ch i-Square ; 1 7 1 . 2262
TABLE
M ALIGNANT-BENIGN AGAINST POLARITY FOR AGE GROUPS 2 1 -40

BENIGN
TOTAL
2
25
423
400
425
Negative
Observed
Expected
28
5
56
79
84
TOTAL
30
479
5 09
MALIGNANT
Positive
Observed
Expected
Chi-Square ; 1 3 I . l986
1 5
SELECTED PAPERS
TABLE XI
MALIGNANT-BENIGN AGAINST POLARITY FOR AGE GROUPS 41-60

MALIGNANT
BENIGN
TOTAL
Positive
Observed
Expected
3
33
1 45
115
148
Negative
Observed
Expected
54
24
53
83
: 07
TOTAL
57
198
255
Chi-Square : 80.6839
but there was no way of knowing in advance what the recorded

potential might be. Furthermore, the clinical examination and
findings were made by physicians unaware of the results of the
test so that no unconscious biasing of results was possible. What
the statistical criterion does is to rule on whether the correlation
between malignancy and negative potential is real and not the
result of chance variations in the sign of the potential recorded.
The analysis of the results in Tables V and VI is made as fol
lows : first they are transferred to Table VIII. In this table which
contains the results of 860 tests on patients in all age groups,
comparison is made of the distribution of polarity between malig
nant and benign groups and that in the total group. That is, the
total group of 860 patients consists of 1 2 3 cases diagnosed as
malignant and 737 found to be benign. We can also look upon
this group of data as consisting of 6 1 6 positive potential record
ings and 244 negative recordings.
The question to be answered is, 'is the potential recorded re
lated to the condition of the patient, or is it distributed by
chance ? '
If the potential recorded from electro-metric test had nothing
to do with malignancy of the fundus, cervix, or ovaries, then the
expected number of negatives observed in the total group would
depend upon the ratio of the number of negatives observed in the
total group of 860 patients. According to Table VIII the ex
pected values of malignancy showing positive should be 88 1
while those showing negative l.hould b e 34'9. O n the other hand
151
S E L E C T E D P AP E R S
the observed results show that 1 1 8 of the malignancies recorded

negative potentials. Similar observations can be made on the
benign cases.
We can look upon these results another way : The population
of 860 cases can be grouped in two ways : according to the
existence of malignancy or not and according to the polarity re
corded from the electro-metric test. Then the question is raised,
are the two groupings independent of one another ? If the
assertion that the two groupings are independent is shown to be
highly improbable, the conclusion can be safely reached that
there is a significant correlation between negativity and m alig
nancy.
The criterion for this is the chi-square statistic calculated from
Table VIII as follows :
chi-square =
( I ad - bc I - n / 2)2n
(a + b) (c + d) (a + c) (b + d)
If the two groupings were independent then the ratio a : c = b : d

and ad - bc = 0, and under these circumstances chi-square for a
given set of observations could take on different positive values as
the result of chance. The value 3 1 8'5, however, could occur by
chance less than once in a million trials, whence i t is argued that
potential polarity and morphology of tissues are correlated.
The importance of these results lies in their use as a screening
test. It is admittedly a time consuming and expensive task to
make clinical examinations which include microscopic examina
tion of biopsy material. The electro-metric test can be recorded
routinely by qualied. technicians, at the rate of ve per hour per
instrument. Large scale testing can be planned at a low unit cost.
The present results strongly indicate that the presence of neo
plastic tissue can be discovered in a large proportion of patients.
Many of the negative potentials recorded will not mean malig
nancy, but 9 5 % of the malignancies should be uncovered as the
result of finding negative potentials.
Hence we have this situation, which we can conclude from the
results : in testing the general female population, most cases of
malignancy of the generative tract will be discovered, while a
1 52
S E L E CT E D P A P E R S
large fraction of the cases recording negative potential will be be

nign.
If the coverage of the general population is the ideal desired
the present test promises to reduce the requirement of highly
specialized examinations to a small fraction of the total popula
tion.
Let us now consider the strength of the correlations. This ques
tion is not answered in a definitive way in current statistical
methodology but in the present case the correlation is so marked
that simple statistical tests can be applied to indicate the degree of
correlation quite accurately.
In the present study, * unless we are the victims of a rare event,
in nine out of ten cases of malignancy, negative potential has
been recorded.
This is not the place to go deeply into the consideration of
statistical tests. We do, however, offer Tables IX, X, XI and the
chi-square values calculated therefrom which show conclusively
that whatever age groups we chose, the correlation is definitely
significant.
Use of the electro-metric test on a large scale should be made
only after a careful statistical design. It is necessary that such
an investigation permit quantitative evaluation of the results.
Such a statistical design is currently being planned.
REFERENCES
1 . Langman, Louis, and Burr, H. S. Amer. J. Obst. and Gyn.,
1 949, 57 : 274
2. Langman, Louis, and Burr, H. S. Science, 1 947, 1 05 : 209.
3. Langman, Louis, and Burr, H. S. Amer. J. Obst. and Gyn.,
1 942, 44 : 2 3
4 Graves, Wm. Surg., Gyn. and Obst., 1 93 3 , 56 : 3 1 7.
5. Pund, E. R., and Auerbach, S. H. J. A . M. A., 1 946, 1 3 1 : 960.
6. S tuddiford, Wm. E. Personal Communication.
7. Taylor, H. c., Jr., and Guyer, H. B. Amer. J. Obst. and Gyn.,
1 946, 52 : 45 l .
* The assistance of Miss Hannah Oren and Dr. Leon N. Greene

is acknowledged with thanks.
153
S ELECTED PAPERS
8. Goldberger, M. A., and Mintz, N. J. Mt. Sinai Hasp., 1 947,

1 4 : 784.
9. Te Linde, R. W., and Galvin, G. Amer. J. Obst. and Gyn.,
1 947, 48 : 784.
1 0. Knight, R. van Dyck. Amer. J. Obst. and Gyn., 1943, 46 :
3 3 3
I I . Rubin, I. C. J. Mt. Sinai Hosp., 1 945, 1 2 : 607.
1 2. Smith, G. van S., and Pemberton, F A. Surg., Gyn. and
Obst. 1 934, 59 : 1 .
1 3 . Stevenson, C. S., and Scipiades, E., Jr. Surg., Gyn. and Obst.,
19 38, 66 : 822.
1 4. Younge, P. A. Arch. Path., 1 9 39, 27 : 804.
1 5. Goodman, E. N. Personal Communication.
1 5' 4
ELECTRO- MAGNET I C FI ELD MON I TORI NG

OF CHANG ING STATE-FUNCTION,
INCLUD I N G HYPNOTI C STATES
Leonard J. Ravitz, M . S . , M . D . , F.R.S.H. t
1
The abysmal lack of growth, particularly in the United States,

of true scientific breakthroughs in the social sciences may perhaps
be related to a neglected historic fact : no basic scientific ad
vances have stemmed from any pragmatic emphasis either on
directly sensed natural history data or on directly sensed opera
tional procedures. Yet if one is to gain any glimmer of under
standing of man, it would seem proper first to ask fundamental
questions of Old Mother Nature. Contrary to basic assumptions
implicit in most of the currently fashionable approaches, man
is part and parcel of nature, a meticulously designed product
exhibiting the same inorganic constituents found in nature. The
glob of protoplasm that develops into the optic nerve, for
instance, seldom loses its way to end up at the big toe. To
* Condensed from a paper presented at Vth International Congress
for Hypnosis and Psychosomatic Medicine, Johannes Gutenberg
University, D6soo Mainz/ Germany, May 22, 1 970. Published in
Journ al of American Society of Psychosomatic Dentistry and

Medicine, Vol. 1 7, NO. 4, 1 970.
t Diplomate, American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology;
Special Medical Consultant, Frederick Military Academy; Con
sultant, Virginia Department of Health; Fellow, New York
Academy of Sciences; Fellow, American Psychiatric Association;
Charter Fellow, American Society of Clinical Hypnosis, President,
Virginia Section; Fellow, American Association for the Advance
ment of Science. Fellow, Royal Society of Health. Graduate of
Western Reserve, Wayne, and Yale Universities; formerly on
faculties of Yale, Duke, and University of Pennsylvania Schools of
Medicine. Member, Sigma Xi; President's Committee for Handi
capped.
S E LECTED PAPERS
be sure we have facile explanations in terms of conventional

mechanical and chemical tropisms. And did not Bergson and
Driesch coin Clans vitals and entelechies-supernatural agents
defying scientific analyses which could sit on top of cells and tell
them what to do ? Cells belonging to special creations, in this
universe but not of it, obeying their own special manmade laws,
expanded by Freud into complex pluralistic interactions of
mystical mental parts and mental forces.
Yet true knowledge of any subject matter cannot progress
either by shifting terminology or creating supernatural factors
whose very existence is guaranteed only by sheer acts of faith.
As Dr. Burr has described in the preceding pages, instruments
have found what he and Dr. Northrop postulated over thirty
years ago. Countless experiments have demonstrated that the
electric fields they d iscovered serve basic functions, controlling
growth and morphogenesis, maintenance and repair of living
things. Naturally, these differ from the alternating-current elec
tric output of the brain and heart, as well as from the epiphenom
enal skin-resistance, serving rather as an electronic matrix to keep
the corporal form in shape.
Obviously such studies throw a wet blanket on scientific dogma
currently in vogue. which still asserts that the special human
body is principally a chemical product deriving from mystical
activities of the DNA molecule. However disquieting, chemistry
represents a scalar property-the downhill flow of energy-re
quiring some vector force to give it direction. According to Dr.
Henry Margenau, Eugene Higgins Professor of Physics and
Natural Philosophy at Yale University. of all the known forces
it is only electro-magnetic, or electro-dynamic, fields which can
act as signposts to direct such continuous chemical, metabolic, or
molecular transformations in the system-fields which. in fact,
appear to underwrite the development of structure even prior
to any known chemical reactions. That such field measurements
can be related to energy seems obvious, natural energy which
directs and/or misdirects the behaviour of living systems in a
continuous stream of flux and reflux.
*
SELECTED PAPERS
As an objective, reproducible, quantifiable, measurable clue to

basic biologic processes seemed to be at hand, operating independ
ently of current flow or resistance changes, it was logical to
extend such experiments to longitudinal studies of human sub
j ects in health and disease, experiments which through use of
this new amplifier could also possibly shed light on the heretofore
inexplicable phenomena of 'hypnosis'. Despite the profound
physiologic changes in the system that can obtain from hypnotic
states, hypnosis had continued to elude any objective, quanti
fiable, reproducible measure, even with the EEG and with
secondary skin-resistance changes, notorious for their general
irreproducibility and unreliability.
2.
On April 24, 1 948, at Yale University School of Medicine,

hypnosis was electro-metrically recorded for the rst time and
compared with eld shifts during other state changes. As hyp
notic states themselves involve electro-magnetic flux and reflux,
Maxwell's equations can be blamed for inadvertently resurrect
ing that much maligned ghost, Mesmer's 'animal magnetism',
now more suitably based on the laws of modern field physics.
Soon afterwards another noteworthy discovery was made. De
spite the numerous variables indigenous to living things in
general and human beings in particular, long-range studies on
human subjects showed electro-cyclic phenomena identical to
those of trees and other forms of Ufe, but introducing a fort
nightly rhythm.
From over 50,000 field determinations on some 500 human
subjects at several locations, including Yale, Duke, and the
University of Pennsylvania schools of medicine, it has been evid
ent since 1 948 that such periodic movements provide objective
profiles of variations in feeling and behaviour states which often
transcend observable criteria. Despite the naIvete of applying
linear-dimensional statistical analyses to non-linear organisms
operating on multidimensional continua of uniquely determin
able, continuously unfolding states, the highest known correlates
1 57
S ELECTED PAPERS
have been obtained between any physiologic measuring tech

nique and estimates of symptoms. Ranging from states of excita
tion to states of exhaustion, electro-cyclic phenomena also open
the door to both long- and short-range predictions.
With regard to human experimental studies in which sub
jects serve as their own controls, one of the initial approaches
compared shifts in individual states before and after hypnosis
along with effects of hypnosis as recorded and studied. Hypnotic
and posthypnotic changes were then compared with correspond
ing field alterations. Disquietudes of all sorts induced in so doing
have been studied electro-metrically and compared with those
arising spontaneously both in waking and in hypnotic states. Fur
ther, changes have been measured before, during, and after vari
ous drugs and placebos, and proper dosages to achieve effects
correlated with field intensities and polarities at given times.
Similar experiments have likewise been conducted on effects of
subjecting controls and patients to several therapeutic pro
cedures.
In brief, subjects in trance states, induced or spontaneous,
show a smoothing of the field recording and usually a slow de
crease, although sometimes an increase, in intensity. At trance
termination dramatic voltage shifts occur, the time before the
record returns to that of the waking state depending on the
rapidity with which the subject returns to the waking state. Sub
j ects who have been aroused from trance states, but who actually
are only partially aroused or return to the trance state though
superficially appearing 'awake', show field correlates with such
state changes, either by using pen-writing photo-electric re
corders or cathode-ray oscillographs attached to the m illivolt
meters, now commercially manufactured. (This was first publicly
demonstrated at the Second Annual Scientific Assembly of the
American Society of Clinical Hypnosis in 1 959.) Waking states
show almost continuous, slow variations, usually at higher in
tensities than during hypnosis.
I t follows that hypnotic depth can now be dened electro
metrically, t he 'depth', however, having nothing w hatever to do
with abilities to develop various complex hypnotic phenomena.
S E LE CTED PAPERS
3
It is important to note carefully the neuromuscular and other
changes in subjects characteristic of trance states, which Dr. Mil
ton Erickson has emphasized and to which few have paid any
attention. Ocular fixation, pupillary changes, sclerae alterations,
altered eye-blink reflexes, muscular rigidity, including set facial
expressions, have been noted to occur spontaneously in numer
ous individuals a t certain times, persons who disclaimed ever hav
ing been 'hypnotized'.
The measurement of such persons after such physiologic al
terations have been noted has without fail produced field records
indistinguishable from trance states induced by a so-called 'hyp
notist'. Almost invariably such individuals, when questioned, in
dicated that they were thinking about something at the time.
This suggests, at the very least, that individuals go into trance
states spontaneously and automatically during certain stages of
intense concentration without necessarily recognizing them as
such. Also, as Erickson long has claimed, carrying out post
hypnotic suggestions re-establishes the trance state as electro
metrically measured.
Such findings are of crucial importance in experimental work
claiming to study ostensibly erudite groupings of 'scientifically
observed' subjects supposedly hypnotized versus those who, be
cause they have not been subjected to some ritualistic induction
procedure, are thought to be in waking states. The spuriousness
of such 'scientific' experiments is further evidenced when the
experimenters are not really conversant with all the observable
nuances of trance states, including the previously noted neuro
muscular changes. Recognition of such state changes is especially
important to those interested in obtaining waking-state field
records, as the voltage changes accompanying hypnosis may be
most profound.
This suggests a need to revise empiric definitions of hypnosis
to include state changes that are not necessarily dependent on
any 'hypnotist'-a fact with intrip;uing legal implications.
When they decrease in voltage, field records during sleep are
1 59
S ELECTED PAPERS
indistinguishable from those during hypnosis. However, EEG

changes are notorious for their absence during hypnosis, a pre
dictable fact if one considers that higher discriminatory function
ing can occur during hypnosis, whereas EEG alterations occur
during sleep.
In 1 958 the field basis of hypnosis was proposed by this writer,
a derivative construct based on knowledge of various states which
do and do not produce field variations, with or without con
comitant EEG changes. This knowledge suggests that hypnosis
represents a natural change in state function involving shifts in
the balance of the phylogenetically ancient basal ganglia with
respect to the phylogenetically recent cortex, in which field prop
erties of the entire body participate.
Electro-magnetic field correlates of somatic and emotional dis
turbances in both waking and trance states are identical. What
happens is in part a function of the state of the subject at any
given time. If the initial energy or voltage level is low, changes
may not be sufficient to be reflected to any great degree on the
body surface. Yet field correlates of difficulties in producing
hetero- or autohypnotic states at those periods when the variable
baseline states are at high intensities suggest why acutely dis
turbed persons in relative states of excitation are difficult to
hypnotize.
To summarize some of the other findings :

1 . Barbiturate narcosis evokes minimal field changes and maxi
mal EEG alterations, as do certain stimulants and depressants,
e.g., caffeine, alcohol, etc.
2. Somatic symptoms show correlates especially with the pol
arity quantity, the 'high-minus' field configurations notable also
in preadolescent and ageing adult groups. Certain periodic clini
cal conditions, e.g., peptic ulcer and allergies, show 1 : 1 correla
tions with the seasonal electro-cyclic shifts.
3 . In clinically diagnosed schizophrenic patients voltage pat
terns range from the highest to the lowest intensities found. The
160
SELECTED PAPERS
greatest field strengths, states of excitation, occur, regardless of

apparent duration of malfunctioning, until about middle age in
the forties. Improvement is preceded by, or correlated with, sus
tained voltage drops of greater stability, and polarity may also be
reversed. The lowest field strengths, states of exhaustion, are
usually observed in chronic inert patients. The most dramatic
voltage rises have preceded those rare occasions when torpid
schizophrenic behaviour shifts into animated, spontaneous func
tioning. Since exaggerated or inhibited behaviour is found with
high field intensifications and as exhausted behaviour may re
semble inhibited behaviour, the field profile is necessary to indi
cate objectively what is going on.
In 1 956, at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric
Association, the phylogenetic basis of behaviour disorders was
presented, a construct deriving from considerations of basic be
haviour changes paralleling the evolution of the nervous system.
Space will not permit even a statement of this theory here. Suffice
it to say, all behaviour disorders no t perverted by culturally false
notions of 'normal' reflect, by this construct, an imbalance in the
harmonious integration of the old and new parts of the brain.
4. Adult human subjects, as well as other forms of life, run
downhill electrically with age, undergoing polar reversals into
minus polarity, depending on the electrode placement, an en
tirely relative matter. Field profiles of infants and preadolescent
children likewise have shown predominantly minus polarity.
Typical Caucasian men during adolescence and early adulthood
tend to show moderately high intensities of almost uniformly
plus polarity. Caucasian women, on the other hand, dip minus
much earlier than men. Pilot studies suggest that, aside from the
unique design of each individual, inherent racial differences may
be of prime significance in determining intensity, variability, and
polarity at various ages. Orientals showing more minus readings
than Caucasians of the same age, Negroes exhibiting far greater
field intensification of plus polarity.
S ELECTED PAPERS
In summary, electro-dynamic field constructs add fuel to the

assumption unifying living matter harmoniously with t h e opera
tions of nature, postulating that each biologic thing is organized
by a total dynamic pattern, the expression of an electro-magnetic
field no less than non-living systems; and that as points on spec
trums, these two entities may at last take their positions in the
organization of the universe in a way both explicable and
rationaL Light has been shed on several heretofore elusive facts in
many realms of knowledge. A tenable theory has been provided
for emergence of the nervous system, developing not from func
tional demands, but instead deriving as a result of dynamic forces
imposed on cell groups by the total field pattern.
Living matter now has a definition of state based on relativity
field physics, through which it has been possible to detect a
measurable property of total state function. Since 1 948 this for
the first time has included an objective, reproducible, quantita
tive measure of hypnotic states which can and do arise spontane
ously, the depth of which can be objectively measured.
This has nothing to do with conventional depth scales. Hyp
nosis emerges as a natural field phenomenon which can be
independent of any 'hypnotist', occurring when anyone is con
centrating, thus discarding many experiments on hypnotized
versus non-hypnotized subjects that do not first ascertain
whether non-hypnotized subjects were in spontaneous hypnotic
states.
Irreducible factors in the causation of behaviour and somatic
disorders have been discovered, the behaviour perturbations
favouring the intensity factor, the somatic disorders emphasiz
ing the polarity vector. Hypnosis as well as health and disease
and ageing have thus been measured in terms of changing in
tensities and directions of natural energy, an approach fusing the
time-factor, or electro-cyclic phenomena, to the assessment of all
living things pervading the entire phylogenetic tree.
Thus, a significant wedge has been driven into the problem
of known periodicities in certain clinical conditions, as well as
1 62
SELECTED PAPERS
the obvious energy of youth, the profound and protracted dis

orders frequently arising in older-age groups, and the natural
essence of 'hypnosis' itselfDuring longitudinal studies of patients and controls several
infectious diseases h ave been monitored inadvertently, reinforc
ing the importance of the field quantity as a unique property for
each individual at any given time, continuously changing in
accord with specific electro-cyclic periods. It appears, therefore, as
though an objective measure of those properties of protoplasmic
organization which establish the essential attributes of feel
ing, behaviour, and thinking has emerged, based on non-mech
anistic causality principles.
As F. 1. Kunz, Editor of Main Currents in Modern Thought,
pointed out in his preface to a commemorative issue on the
Electro-dynamic Theory of Life in 1 962 :
The moment is propitious : we may be close upon the kind
of breakthrough in biologic science which has brought the
physical sciences to their present degree of control and refine
ment. If so, the implications for education, and indeed for all
socio-cultural aspects of human life, are without precedent.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A complete bibliography of the papers of H. S. Burr will
be found in the Appendix.
2. Erickson, M. H. Advanced techniques of hypnosis and
t herapy : selected papers of, J. Haley, Ed. New York and
London : Grune & Stratton, 1 967.
3. King, C. D. Electro-metric studies of sleep. J. Gen. Psychol. ,
1 946, 2 5 : 1 3 1 - 1 59.
4. Lund, E. J. Bioelectric elds and growt h (with a bibliography
of continuous bioelectric currents and bioelectric fields in
animals and plants by H. F. Rosene). Austin, Texas : Uni
versity of Texas Press, 1 947.
5. Main currents in modern thought. Vol 1 9. No. I Sept.-Oct.
1 962. Special commemorative issue on certain works of H. S.
Burr, F. S. C. Northrop, and L. J. Ravitz. The reality of the
non-material cosmos and its relation to the sensed world of
ordinary experience.
6. Margenau, H. Particle and field concepts in biology. Sc.
Monthly, 1 947, 64 : 225-2 3 1 .
7 . Margenau, H. Causality; 1 9'9, causation i n biology, 4 1 5-41 B.
In The nature of physical reality. New York : McGraw Hill,
1 950.
B. Nelson, O. E., Jr., and Burr, H. S. Growth correlates of
electro-motive forces in maize seeds. Proc. Nat!' Acad. Sc.,
U.S., 1 946, 3 2 : 7 3-84.
9. Northrop, F. S. C. The living organism. In Science and rst
principles, ch. 4. New York : Macmillan, 1 9 3 1 .
1 0 . Northrop, F. S . C . The method and theories o f physical
science in their bearing upon biological organization. In The
logic of the sciences and the humanities, 1 3 3-1 68. New
York : Macmillan, 1947.
1 1 . Ravitz, L. J. Electro-metric correlates of the hypnotic state.
Science, 1950, 1 1 2 : 341 -342.
1 2. Ravitz, L. J. Standing potential correlates of hypnosis and
narcosis. A.M.A. Arch. Neurol. Psy c hia t. , 1 95 1 , 65 : 41 3436.
1 64
I.
S E L E CTED P A P E RS
1 3. Ravitz, L. J. Daily variations of standing potential differences

in human subjects : preliminary report. Yale J. BioI. Med.,
1 9 5 1 , 24 : 22-25
1 4. Ravitz, L. J. Fenomenos electrociclicos y estados emocionales.
Arch. Med. Intern. Antibiot. Quimiot., 1952, 2 : 2 1 7-253 .
1 5. Ravitz, J. J . Electro-dynamic field theory in psychiatry. S.
Med. J., 1 9 5 3 , 46 : 650-660.
16. Ravitz, L. J. Comparative clinical and electro-cyclic observa
tions on twin brothers concordant as to schizophrenia, with
periodic manifestations of folie a deux phenomena. J. Nerv.
Ment. Dis., 1 9 5 5 , 1 2 1 : 72-87.
1 7. Ravitz, L. J. Correlation between DC voltage gradients and
clinical changes in a chronic schizophrenic patient, project
M-223 (film). Abstracted in The Scientifrc Papers of the
1 1 2th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Associa
tion in Summary Form : 28-C-4. American Psychiatric As
sociation, Washington, D.C., 1 956. Selected frames and com
mentary to be published.
1 8. Ravitz, L. J., and Cuadra, C. A. Phylogenetic and electro
cyclic implications of schizophrenic states. Ibid . 53. Com
plete text to be published.
1 9. Ravitz, L. J. Application of the electro-dynamic field theory
in biology, psychiatry, medicine. and hypnosis. 1. General
survey. Am. J. Gin. Hyp., 1 959 . 1 : 1 3 5-1 50.
20. Ravitz, L. J. History, measurement, and applicability of
periodic changes in the electro-magnetic field in health and
disease. In Rhythmic functions in tIl e living system. Annals
N.Y. Acad. Scs., 1 962, 98 : 1 1 44-1 20 1 .
2 1 . Ravitz, L. J. The danger of scientific prejudice. Am. J. Gin.
Hyp., 1 9 68 1 0 : 282-303.
22. Russell, E. W. The discoveries of Burr and Ravitz : A new
way to test personnel. The Pentagon Seminar 'Techniques of
Personn el Assessment', L. Meriden Ehrmann, Ed., 1 968, 1 2 1 1 25 . Washington, D.C. : Office of the Secretary of Defense.
2 3 . Russell, E. W. Design for Destiny. London : Neville Spear
man Ltd., 1 97 1 .
.
TREE P OTENTIALS AND EXTERNAL

FACTORS
Ralph Markson, M . A.
Following is a shortened version of t he original work w hich

was the author's Master's Thesis in the Meteorology De
partment at Pennsylvania State University in 1 967.
1
In 1 966- 1 967 the writer undertook a study of whether the geo

physical environment is correlated with the electric potential in
one form of living system, a tree.
Burr had shown that the electric field of living systems is re
lated to their biological activity and presented evidence that
indicated bioelectric fields to be a fundamental property of such
systems. With over 20 years of electrical potential measurements
made in trees, however, he was unable to associate specific en
vironmental factors with tree potentials. Systematic variations
related to temperature, humidity, pressure, rainfall, and illumin
ation were not evident in his record, although diurnal, seasonal,
and possibly monthly cycles could be seen.
It was suggested by Burr that the moon's synodic period as
well as the I I-year sun-spot cycle could be detected. But more
rigorous analysis of the data was needed in order to determine if
the geophysical environment was in fact influencing tree poten
tials.
Burr supplied his complete records for this purpose. They were
in the form of tabulated hourly values for two trees during the
period 1 9 5 3 through 1 96 1 . Subsequent data have not been re
duced but are available in the form of charts from a graphical re
corder. These records are continuous up to date and contain air
166
S E L ECTED PAPERS
and earth electrical potentials as well as those of two trees on the

same time scale. Future research should utilize these later data.
2
There are two possible sources of variation i n the relatively

steady electric potential in a living system; internal and external.
Some of the endogenous forces are well known. Brain waves,
heart waves, and the electrical correlates of nerve-muscle prepara
tions all show changes in electric potential associated with bio
logical activity of the system. In general, such measurements
can be made under essentially standardized conditions to pre
clude the influence of relatively slow changing environmental
factors. Since variations in continuous recordings of the endo
genous parameters are of short duration relative to the rate of en
vironmental changes, adequate control of the experiment is
possible.
It is known that factors such as barometric pressure, heat,
humidity, and light will influence these measurements. Prob
ably electro-magnetic radiation, cosmic rays, geomagnetism, and
the electrical characteristics of the atmosphere will do this also
to varying degrees. Control of all possible exogenous factors
would be extremely complicated, if not impossible.
In lieu of rigorously controlled laboratory experiments, Burr
took another approach. He chose a living system from which con
tinuous records could he obtained for many years. A large old
tree was ideal for this, in that the application of electrodes would
cause a minimum of disturbance of its normal functioning.* Also
it was expected that the tree would continue to live for a long
time, providing the same source for the measurement of an elec
tric potential difference.
Simultaneous records of temperature, humidity, barometric
*
Two electrodes were placed in th e tree trunk at heights of
and
4 feet from the ground. The upper one was connected to the positive
terminal of the voltmeter and the lower one to the negative terminal
and grounded. The electrodes wpre inserted through holes in the
bark in contact with the undisturbed cambium.
S E L E CTED PAPERS
pressure, sunlight, weather conditions, atmospheric potential

gradient, earth potential gradient, and cosmic rays were expected
to provide a basis for correlations with tree potentials. Over a
long period of time, it was reasoned, the external factor or
factors, that caused changes in the tree potential, would become
evident.
Burr thus instrumented two trees, a maple and an elm, on his
estate in Old Lyme, Connecticut, starting in 1 943. These pro
vided continuous records (except for brief equipment malfunc
tions). However, one of the trees died in 1 966. In addition, during
the early phases of this work, a maple tree was simultaneously
measured in New Haven, Connecticut, and provided a basis for
comparison between trees 40 miles apart.
Besides the tree potentials, Burr measured temperature, hum
idity, barometric pressure, and estimated cloudiness and weather.
He could find no relationship between the common meteoro
logical factors and tree potentials. The one exception was the
passage of some thunderstorms, when tree potentials exhibited
anomalous behaviour.* Simultaneous measurements between two
electrodes in the earth showed parallel anomalies, except the
earth potential graphical trace is 'noisy' for several hours before
passage of a squall line and quiet afterwards.
If more commonly considered meteorological variables did not
correlate with fluctuations in tree potential, Burr reasoned, one
should look a t other environmental factors such as atmospheric
electricity and possibly cosmic influences such as gravitational
tides, solar activity, and cosmic radiation. Accordingly, he in
stalled equipment to measure the potential between electrodes
in the earth (about 1 0 metres apart) and the potential gradient
of the air (using the standard electrometer-polonium probe instru
ment).
It was found that the air and earth potentials fluctuated
exactly in phase with the tree potentials. However, sometimes
only one (either one) of the trees would fluctuate. No explanation
* This may have been due to the tree going into corona and a
voltage drop occurring between the electrodes. Such an effect was
demonstrated by the author working at the Langmuir Laboratory,
Socorro, New Mexico, during the summer of 1965.
168
1I
19
20
2.1
22
Z3
20 MAY 66
00 I
2.
10
\I
12.
13
14
IS
\10
17
IS
Figure 1 . A typical days record of electrical potential difference

in the air, earth, maple tree, and elm tree.
19
20 21
22
23
S E L ECTED PAPERS
is available for this behaviour which remains one of the intrigu

ing questions emerging from Burr's data. Sometimes the air and
earth potentials temporarily go 1 80 degrees out of phase with
each other. Examples of these can be seen in Figure 1 In summary, i t is seen that the electrical environment correl
a tes with tree potentials while the more obvious meteorological
parameters such as light, temperature, and pressure do not in any
immediate sense.
The absolute range of Burr's tree potentials is 0 to 500 milli

volts. Sign is arbitrary and defined initially by Burr making the
upper electrode positive. Polarity can reverse with changes in
season or large perturbations in potential. Typical values until
1 963 were 20 to 1 00 mY, and subsequently 200 to 400 mv. The
reason for this increase is unknown.
The most obvious characteristic of tree potential records is a
diurnal cycle, easily seen by inspection. This cycle is typically a
minimum in the early morning hours and a maximum during
the afternoon. It may vary in magnitude and in phase from day
to day, while larger magnitude and phase differences are apparent
from season to season.
The range of diurnal variation of tree potentials during the
winter months is two or three times that of the summer. The
magnitude of tree potentials shows a yearly cycle, a minimum in
April, a maximum in September (see Figure 2). In considering the
significance of maxima and minima it is necessary to recall tha t
the upper electrode was arbitrarily assigned t o b e positive. S o i n
essence the seasonal (yearly) cycle shows two inflection points
around the time of the equinoxes.
Burr believed he could detect a m onthly periodicity in tree
potentials related to phase of the moon. Confirmation of the
validity of this finding awaited more extensive statistical analysis
\vhich will be discussed later in this report.
Analysis of all reduced data (a 1 5-year period) suggests that the
tree potentials are in phase with the sunspot cycle (see Figure 3).
1 70
+10 r----r----_r--r_--_,--._ -----_
+5
,....
>
"
I
I
I \
\
I
\\ II
I
I
"
,
Monthly Ave.
,
,
3-Month Running
Mean
- 10
.J
Months
Figure
2.
Tree potential monthly averages (1946-1 961).
+50
200
+40
180
+30
160
+20
Sunspots
140
..
+10
,....
>
E
....
..
.0
120
...
100
..
"
"
- 10 <II
80
-20
60
- 30
40
-40
20
...
. ...
Potential
Smoothed
50
... '-..
'--..L..- '-'---'---'-----1--'_'-..L..-.J
0 L--'---'--'-......"...
1946 47 48 49 !J) 5.1 52 53 54 55 56 57 58
59
60 61
Year
Figure 3. Yearly average tree potentials and sunspot numbers.

171
SELECTED PAPERS
Since one sunspot cycle lasts about I I years a longer time series
is necessary to establish the relationship more firmly. To investig
ate the possible importance of solar activity it was decided to
check the geomagnetic activity index against tree potentials.
This analysis will be described.
As noted above, during the early phases of his work, Burr
simultaneously measured two trees which were 40 miles apart.
Similarities in these records suggest that they were responding to
the same external force which was not local in nature.
Besides the diurnal variation, the other easily seen charac
teristic in Burr's tree pot-ential records occurs during the period
approximately from 1 0 p.m. to midnight until dawn, when
there is little variation (noise) in the record. Around dawn the
noise increases and continues until after sunset. The exact onset
and termination of the noisier period varies, and on some days
this effect is absent. There is no immediate explanation for the
phenomenon; it is not dependent on light or noise in the power
lines.
A day's record of tree potentials illustrating the midnight-till
dawn quiet period and typical characteristics of such records was
seen in Figure 1 .
Burr's work showed that the electric field of biological systems

was a sensitive indicator of biological activity. There were
indications that in some applications the electric field would be
used to predict biological activity before it happened. This was
evidence for the hypothesis that the electric field of a living
system regulated its structure and functioning.
The question then remained as to which factors in the en
vironment might modulate the electric field of living systems.
The commonly considered environmental parameters were found
not to have immediate influence, although they probably would
on a long-term basis, perhaps accounting (at least in part) for the
observed seasonal variations. However, less obvious environ
mental factors, the electric fields in the a tmosphere and earth, did
1 ]2
S E L E CT E D PAPERS
correlate with tree potentials and thus may influence biological

activity.
Burr also found indications that the moon's position and solar
activity influenced tree potentials. This may possibly occur
through their modulation of the electro-magnetic environment.
The use of the earth's magnetic field as a geophysical parameter
was suggested by the possibility that the magnitude of tree
potentials fluctuated with the I I -year sunspot cycle. The geo
magnetic field which undergoes variations following solar erup
tions provides the best long-term quantitative data for solar
terrestrial research.
The earth's magnetic field is continuously recorded at many
observatories throughout the world. Arbitrary scales have been
developed to express quantitatively fluctuations in the strength
and direction of the magnetic field. In the late 1 930S, Bartels
developed the A and K indices which have subsequently been
used throughout the world. These had the advantage over the
previous system of being objectively determined. The A index is
first obtained using linear measures of the magnitude and varia
tions of the graphic records. This is transformed to the K index
through an arbitrarily defined quasilogarithmic relationship. The
range of the A index is 0 to 400 while the range of the K index is
o to 9. The conversion table is given below.
K
15
z7
48
80
140
z4 400
Certain magnetic observatories report their eight daily values,

one each for 3-hour periods,which are averaged to determine the
planetary magnetic indices Ap and Kp. Normalizing factors are
applied to each observatory since magnetic fluctuations are
greater near the auroral zones. In investigating the possible re
lationship of tree potentials to geomagnetic activity, it was de
cided to use the Ap index because it is a linear measure and does
not overly weigh the weaker disturbances.
The technique of superposed-epoch analysis-sometimes
simply called 'epoch analysis'-was utilized to see if geomagnetic
1 73
S E LECTED PAPERS
activity was associated with fluctuations in tree potential.

Values of tree potential were tabulated for six days before to six
days after specific 'key days'. This 1 3-day span constitutes an
epoch.
Key days were chosen with no advance knowledge of tree
potentials by scanning daily Ap values. When a day was found
in which the index rose sharply to values at least twice as high
as previously-after periods of at least a week when the index
was relatively low and steady-such days were designated as key
days. During solar minimum the low and steady periods had Ap
values below 1 0, while near solar maximum low and steady Ap
values were about 1 5. Calling the key day the nth day, averages
were obtained of the tree potential values for each day from the
n - 6th to the n + 6th. This analysis was done separately for each
year studied. Approximately 20 key days per year were chosen
for the years 1 95 3 , 1 9 5 5, 1 95 7, 1 959, and 1961. These years span
one sunspot cycle from minimum to minimum.
Because the magnitude and variation of tree potentials change
for different seasons and years, it was necessary to normalize this
parameter. The original tree potentials were tabulated in 24hourly readings per day. Only the midnight values were used as
representative of each day, because this was a time of minimum
'noise' as seen in Figure 1 .
I f solar activity, as manifest b y the magnetic index, i s related
to tree potentials, one might expect to find anomalous tree poten
tials on the key days, or afterward if there was a lag in the tree's
response. The basic question one must ask in this form of analysis
is, 'How do you know an anomalous value of tree potential on
a particular day is associated with magnetic activity ? ' A causal
relationship between magnetic activity and tree potential cer
tainly cannot be implied if an abnormal fluctuation in tree poten
tial occurs before a solar outburst. However, even if a statistical
correlation were found, it would not necessarily imply causality;
both parameters could he controlled by some other variable(s).
1 74
S EL E CTED PAPERS
5
In order to formulate a reasonable hypothesis to test with
epoch analysis, it is necessary to consider how solar activity
modulates the earth's magnetic field. The sunspot index (Wolf
Number) is a crude measure of solar activity, determined simply
from the number and grouping of visually observed sunspots.
Areas of large sunspots often produce strong solar flares; but
flares can also occur in solar regions without sunspots.
Solar flares produce ultraviolet radiation and sometimes x-rays
and high-energy cosmic rays. These forms of radiation propagate
at or near the speed of light reaching the earth in about eight to
fifteen minutes, where they cause ionization and electric currents
in the ionosphere. In turn the ionospheric disturbances cause
variations in the magnetic field which, when strong enough, are
called 'magnetic storms'.
Flares also produce corpuscular radiation particles which pro
pagate more slowly, reaching the earth in about one or two days.
When these charged particles hit the upper atmosphere, they also
produce ionization. Some are trapped in the magnetosphere,
where they are temporarily stored. When sufficiently accelerated
in the magnetosphere, they may penetrate deep enough into the
a tmosphere to cause auroras. Perturbations of the earth's mag
netic field are associated, with these events.
Thus magnetic storms occur at two times : (1) Immediately
after a solar flare-due to wave radiation, and ( 2) Some time after
the solar flare (generally two to four days)-due to corpuscular
radiation.
Although it is known that solar particles take about two days
to reach the earth and magnetic storms often commence at that
time, R. Reiter* has found that the Kp index becomes a maximum
on the fourth day following a solar flare. Magnetic storms gener
ally last several days and should not be considered as single
events. Additional bundles of solar particles may reach the upper
* Reiter, Reinhold. Relationships between atmospheric electrical
phenomena and simultaneous meteorological conditions, Air Force
Cambridge Research Lab. No. 41 5. Vol.
1,
1 6 9- 1 7 1 , 1 9 60.
1 75
S E L E CTED PAPERS
atmosphere over a period of several days following a solar erup

tion. Thus the magnetic disturbance is perpetuated with one
magnetic storm superimposed upon the next. The total period of
enhanced magnetic activity is typically two or three days and
sometimes longer. Therefore, a lag of four days between solar
flares and maximum of the magnetic index is not inconsistent
with the model.
We can therefore answer the question of what day or days in
an epoch might display anomalous tree potentials if they are
associated with magnetic activity. Assuming little or no delay in
the response of the tree itself, the maximum deviation of tree
potentials should occur on the key day which was chosen as
having a large increase in magnetic index. Some of these days
would correspond to the class of magnetic storms caused by wave
radiation and occur shortly after a flare.
According to Reiter's results one would also expect a second
ary peak in the tree potential curve on the (n + 4)th day. The nth
day (key day) effect should be strongest as all these days have
magnetic storms, while the (n + 4)th-day effect should be weaker
not being precisely timed, i.e., there is an enhanced probability
of magnetic activity on the (n + 4)th day, but only some of these
days would actually have magnetic storms.
Figure 4 is the result of the five years studied covering one sun
spot cycle and a total of 1 00 epochs. The maximum tree potential
variation occurs on the key day. It exceeds the average by 2 ' 3
standard deviations (the 98/ confidence level).
A secondary peak of about I standard deviation occurs on the
(n + 4)th day. While not statistically significant, this is the only
other maximum in the curve. Both maxima occur on the two days
postulated in the original hypothesis to fit the model.
We can conclude from the result of this analysis t hat tree
potentials respond either to geomagnetic activity directly, or that
both parameters may be under the inuence of some other geo
physical factor or factors.
1 76
_ _ _
-. ...-.
_ _
'"
......
'"'
Ii=:I
-,---
J..
,
:
_ _ _
:_
.---.. -. . - .. -..
+ . 05
t. - . 05
P..
__
i ..
I
_ . _. -
1 (f - - - - - - . 10 - - : . . . ... . ... ..
I
-. 5
I
-L _. .. _
1
2 (f - - - - - - I
_.
+4
+5--+:6:
- . 2L
6----
_ 5L----_j
4-----_
3----_2----_
1 ----+l-.------
Figure 4. Results of superposed-epoch analysis correlating tree potentials with
geomagnetic activity. Midnight values used for years 1 95 3 , 1 955, 1 957, 1 959.
and 1 96 1-total epochs studied 1 00.
=
(TP-TP) / s
Normalized Tree Potential Variation.
TP = Midnight tree potential

TP Monthly mean of TP
=
IT =
Standard devia tion of each epoch

Standard deviation of this curve
3S
"-l
00
.,
....
4J
c;
I<
'1/
14 n---r---r---------_,--,_--,_--,
---r_--_,
30 1h2
I-<
o
p...
U
....
'1/
2S lO
-;:: .?J20
.g
...
IS
4J
U
'1/
0.
C/l
)!J
b.
<
\
\
--_+_ --_.--+-
8 I--H'--V--I-
"
ic
Index
---..
----- --..-.--t-----.-_t_--_;
10
------L---O -
. 45
. 50
. 40
. 35
. 25
. 30
o
. 20
. 15
. 10
. 05
Frequency (cyc les per day)
Figure 5. Ap-magnetic index and midnight-tree-potential spectra. January 1 9 5 3

through December 1 960 (2922 days, 1 00 lags). Numbers at peaks are period of
harmonics in days.
S E L E CTED PAPERS
6
In order to test for possible periodicities in the tree potential
records that could be attributed to the solar-activity period of
2 7 ' 3 days or to the lunar synodic period of 29'5 days, spectrum
analysis was u tilized, with the aid of the IBM 7074 computer at
the Pennsylvania State University.
Such analysis would indicate what periodicities, if any, were
present in the tree potential. Both solar and lunar influences had
been suggested by Burr in his earlier work; spectrum analysis
might bring out the relative importance of each, and possibly
other, environmental influences.
Two time series were utilized; tree potentials at midnight and
tree-potential changes at dusk for 2922 days starting with the
year 1 9 5 3 . While no periodicity was found in the dusk tree
potential changes, significant periodicity appeared in the mid
night tree potentials. Figure 5 shows the Ap index and midnight
tree potential spectra. The 2 7-day sunspot period is clearly seen
in the former but is not present in the latter. Coherence between
the spectra is small and not significant. This does not mean that
there is no relationship between the magnetic index and midnight
tree potentials. Because the relationship between magnetic storms
and tree potentials is probably much weaker than the relationship
between sunspot position and magnetic storms, which is weak to
start with, it Would be expected that little coherence would exist
in cross-spectrum analysis between the Ap index and midnight
tree-potential spectra. For this reason, according to Brier, * the
superposed-epoch analysis is superior to spectrum analysis in
bringing out weak relationships.
The midnight tree-po ten tial spectrum shows peaks with
periods of : 1 2'5, 7 ' 1 5 , 4'76, 3 . 85, 3 '08, 2 . 6 3 , and 2 1 0 days. This
suggested that the peaks were the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, l o th, 1 2th ,
and 1 4th harmonics of a fundamental frequency near 27'3 or
29'5 days (sunspot repetition or lunar synodic periods). MultiplyBrier, Glenn. Statistics section. U.S. Weather Bureau. personal
communication.
*
1 79
S EL E CTED PAPERS
ing each peak period by its corresponding harmonic and taking

the mean, we find 29'5 days, the synodic period of the moon.
The question arises as to whether these peaks are really har
monics of some fundamental frequency. If so, a plot of the peak
frequency as ordinate against the harmonic as abscissa would
result in a straight line. Figure 6 shows such a plot which is close
to a straight line. The slope of the solid line, which fits the data
well, would be for the moon's synodic period of 29'5 days. The
dashed line was drawn by fitting the points using the method of
least squares and gives a period of 3 0 ' 3 days, close to the lunar
synodic period. The sunspot period is represented by the dotted
line and is well beyond the range of deviation of data points from
the line of best fit. This analysis points to the moon and not the
sun as influencing tree potentials.
I t is important to note that the fundamental period of the
moon is not present in the midnight tree-potential spectrum; only
the even harmonics are seen. This means the basic frequency is
really 1 4. 7 5 days or half the synodic period; implying a semi
monthly tidal mechanism. The same period was found by Brier
and Bradley* in their researches on lunar control of rainfall and
is also seen in ocean and atmospheric tides.
The tree-potential spectrum suggests a lunar gravitational
mechanism occurring twice a month when the moon is in con
junction and opposition with the sun. It is possible that the moon
is not directly influencing the tree potential with its gravitational
field but through the electro-magnetic environment which is
modulated by the tidal period.
Statistically, both t he sun and the m oon seem to inuence
tree potentials, the sun apparently through an electro-magnetic
mechanism, the moon through a gravitational or gravitational
electrical m echanism. The moon's effect is more easily detected.
It is possible that the lunar effect is not a gravitational one 'per
se', but one of modulation of the tree's electro-magnetic environ
ment.
* Brier, G., and Bradley, D. A . The lunar synodical period and

precipitation in the United States, J. Atmos. Sci., 2 1 , 386-3 9 5 , 1 964.
1 80
Lunar Syno d i c
--,.---'..-----,.-.
(29 . 5 )
.4
Sunspot
(27 . 3 )
-2
..
. .. .
. .'
.'
.'
'
.
/
/o 2
c.,.. //-<//
.'
...,
o
>.
u
C
<II
::J
g.2
...
rio<
.1
0.
'
..
. ' '7
.'
"
'/'
.'
. ' 'Y
. ' '/'
'Y
;;'. ' 'Y
,'
.....
:/
.....
:/
"/
"/
"/
'
..
/'
/'
/'
Lea s t
Squares ( 30 . 3 )
1
I
/ '"
I
I
...
00
...
__ _L..__-L.__<--.__.._j
.
_-'--_--'-__...I-_-'__-J ___'--_...1._
..L.
-L.__.L..-_...._
_
o 1.!'_
13
16
11
i5
14
10
12
9
8
6
6
5
4
3
2
1
o
Figure 6. Analysis of harmonics in midnigh t-tree-potential spectrum showing

lunar synodic period. Numbers in parentheses are periods in days which are the
reciprocal of the line's slope.
S E LECTED PAP E R S
This study has suggested further researches that could use

fully be pursued in the future :
Superposed-epoch analyses suggested response of tree poten
tials to rapid increases in the magnetic index. In future research,
the validity of this finding could be checked by utilizing the un
analysed data for 1 954, 1 956, 1 958, and 1 960.
The exact period present could also be obtained by superposed
epoch analysis, using a modified technique sllch as Brier's in
establishing the lunar periodicity in rainfall. The advantage of
the technique is that it makes possible high resolution of periodi
cities in a time series with only one value per day.
Spectrum analysis utilizing but one value per day and limited
to a maximum lag of 1 00 cannot pinpoint the exact period by
means of hourly values (which are available). If the tree potential
spectrum could be examined in high resolution for the range
between 27- and 30-day periods the exact period could be de
termined.
Prior to 1 962, Burr's data are available only in tabulated form
with hourly values. from 1 962 through 1 966, the original records
are available. One typical day is seen in figure 1 . Evaluation of
these records would allow for better statistical analysis. They
show restlessness in the trace as well as discontinuous changes in
mean tree potential. These transients may illustrate basic be
haviour of tree potentials, and may lead to an understanding of
the mechanisms by which tree potentials respond to the environ
ment.
The signal-to-noise ratio in these data is much higher than in
the earlier records. for some unknown reason, around 1 963
typical absolute magnitudes increased from below 1 00 mv. to
200-400 mv., which may allow environmental influences to be
isolated that were previously undetectable.
The typical tree potential records contain 'quiet time' periods
between about midnight and dawn. Some days do not display this
characteristic, and the onset and termination of this period is
182
S E L E CTED PAP ERS
variable. In the future, it would be of interest to analyse this

phenomenon in relation to meteorological, geophysical, and
seasonal variables.
Inspection of the later records clearly shows that tree poten
tials, air potential, and earth potential are generally exactly in
phase. However, sometimes only one tree responds or the air
anel earth potentials go to 1 80 degrees out of phase. Analysis in
regard to the meteorological-geophysical environment may ex
plain these phenomena.
In 1 966, the maple tree which provided the records used in this
analysis was dying. Finally it had to be cut down. Continuous
records are available for this tree from 1 962 on. Simultaneous
records are available for an elm tree which stood next to the
maple. It was noted that the magnitude of electrical potential in
the maple tree when it was dying remained the same as before,
but the characteristic fluctuations in the record (see Figure 1 ) be
came much smaller or ceased, while the healthy elm tree dis
played its normal fluctuations in phase or out of phase with the
air and earth potentials. This interesting phenomenon should be
analysed.
The effect of imposing electric, magnetic, and electro-magnetic
radiation fields on the electrical potential of living systems can
be studied in the laboratory, with fields of the order of those
occurring naturally. Animals and plants might be studied simul
taneously in order to determine whether or not different living
systems respond simultaneously to changes in the electro-mag
netic environment. Also, if electrical potential is a function of
the state of health one would expect to see characteristic differ
ences'in the electrical records of disturbed, sick, or dying systems.
Such responses might eventually serve as a diagnostic tool.
If the electric field of living systems is an indicator of biological
activity and possibly a regulator of it, then geophysical factors
may be of extreme importance for men venturing into space, so
that measurements of their electrical potential, along with other
biomedical parameters, might well have to be considered. Such
information may provide the answer to how man's geophysical
environment affects him and may give clues to the classical
1 83
S ELECTED PAPERS
mystery of biological clocks. The understanding and use of

electrical potentials in living systems may be an important part
of the new 'space age' science of exobiology.
APPENDIX
B I BLIOGRAP H Y OF
HAROLD SAXTON BURR
1916
1 . The effects of the removal of the nasal pits in Amblystoma
embryos. J. expo Zool., 1 9 16, 20 : 2757.
2. Regeneration in the brain of Amblystoma. J. compo Neurol.,
1 9 1 6, 26 : 203-2 1 1 .
1918
3 . Breeding habits, maturation of eggs and ovulation of the
albino rat. Amer. J. Anat., 1 9 1 8, 1 5 : 291-3 1 7.
1 920
4. The transplantation of the cerebral hemispheres of Ambly
stoma. J. expo Zool., 1 920, 30 : 1 59-1 69.
1 922
5. The early development of the cerebral hemispheres in Ambly
stoma. J. compo Neurol., 1 922, 3 4 : 277-30 1 .
1 924
6. An experimental study of the origin of the meninges. Proc.
Soc. expo BioI. (N.Y.), 1 924, 2 2 : 5 2-53 (with S. C. Harvey).
7. Some experiments on the transplantation of the olfactory
placode in Amblystoma. 1 . An experimentally produced
aberrant cranial nerve. J. compo Neurol., 1924, 37 : 455-479.
1 925
8. An anatomical study of the gasserian ganglion, with par
ticular refrence to the nature and extent of Meckel's cave.
Anat. Rec., 1 925, 29 : 269-289 (with G. B. Robinson).
APPENDIX
1 926
9. An experimental study of the action of hyoscine hydrobro
mide on the nervous system of Amblystoma. J. compo
Neurol., 1 926, 4 1 : 401 -421 .
1 0. The development of the meninges. Arch. Neurol. Psychiat.,
1 926, 1 5 : 545-565 (with S. C. Harvey).
1 928
1 1 . Certain factors determining the direction of growth of nerve
fibres. Science, 1 928, 74 : 604.
1 2. The central nervous system of Orthagoriscus mala. J. camp.
Neural.. 1 928, 45 : 3 3-1 28.
1 929
1 3. Jonathan Knight and the founding of the Yale Medical
School. Yale J. Biol. Med 1 9 29. 1 : 3 27-343.
.
1 9 30
14. Hyperplasia in the brain of Amblystoma. J. expo Zool., 1 930,
55 : 1 71 - 1 9 1 .
1 5. Disciplines. Yale J . BioI. Med., 1 9 3 0 , 3 : 1 5 1-1 5 7.
1931
1 6. The preclinical sciences and human biology. Yale J . Biol.
Med., 1 9 3 1 , 4 : 63-68.
1 7. Development of the meninges in the chick. Proc. Soc. expo
Bio!. (N.Y.), 1 9 3 1 , 28 : 974-976 (with S. C. Harvey).
1932
1 8. Determinants of organization in the cerebral hemispheres.
Res. Publ. Ass. nerv. ment. Dis., 1 932, 1 3 : 39-48.
19. An electro-dynamic theory of development suggested by
studies of proliferation rates in the brain of Amblystoma. J.
camp. Neural., 1 9 3 2 , 56 : 347- 3 7 1 .
1933
20. Development of the meninges. Arch. NeuraL Psychiat.,
1 9 3 3 , 29 : 683-690 (with S. C. Harvey).
1 86
APP ENDIX
1934
2 1 . The founding of the Medical Institution of Yale College.
Yale J. Biol. Med., 1 934, 6 : 3 3 3-340.
22. Some observations on the neural mechanisms of Opistho
proctus Soleatus Vaillant. Psychiat. neurol. Br., 1 9 3 4, 38 :
407-41 6 (with G. M. Smith).
23. Sympathetic components of the genito-femoral and obtura
tor nerves in the Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). Anat.
Rec., 1 934, 6 1 : 5 3-56 (with S. Zuckerman).
1935
24. A study of the effects o f intermedin and injury o f the hypo
physis on traumatic corial melanophores in goldfishes. Endo
crinology, 1 93), 1 9 : 409-41 2 (with G. M. Smith and R. S.
Ferguson).
25. The electro-dynamic theory of life. Quart. Rev. Bio!., 1 93),
1 0 : 322- 3 3 3 (with F . S . C . Northrop).
26. Electrical characteristics of living systems. Yale J. BioI. Med.,
1 9 3 5, 8 : 3 1 -3 ) (with C. T. Lane).
27. Detection of ovulation in the intact rabbit. Proc. Soc. expo
Bio!. (N.Y.), 1 9 3 5 , 3 3 : 109-1 1 1 (with R. T. Hill and Edgar
Allen).
1936
28. Electro-dynamic studies of mice with developing cancer of
the mammary gland. Anat. Rec., 1 9 36, 64 : 7-8.
29. A vacuum tube microvoltmeter for the measurement of bio
electric phenomena. Yale J. Biol. Med., 1 936, 9 : 65-76 (with
C. T. Lane and 1. F. Nims).
30. Bio electric phenomena associated with menstruation. Yale
J. BioI. Med., 19 36, 9 : 1 5 5-1 58 (with 1. K. Musselman).
-
1 937
3 1 . Experimental findings concerning the electro-dynamic
theory of life and an analysis of their physical meaning.
Growth, 1 9 37, 1 : 78-88 (with F. s. C. Northrop).
32. Bio-electric potential gradients in the chick. Yale J. BioI.
Med., 1937, 9 : 247-258 (with C. I. Hovland).
APPENDIX
3 3 . Bio-electric correlates of development in Amblystoma. Yale

J. Biol. Med., 1 9 37, 9 : 541-549 (with C. I. Hovland).
34. Medical fees in the colonial period. Yale J. Bio!. Med., 1 9 37,
9 : 359- 36435. A bio-electric record of human ovulation. Science, 1 93 7, 86 :
3 1 2 (with 1. K. Musselman, D. Barton, and N. Kelley).
36. Bio-electric correlates of human ovulation. Yale J. Bio!. Med.
1937. 1 0 : 1 5 5- 1 60 (with 1 . K. Musselman. D. Barton. and
N. Kelley).
1 938
37. Steady-state electrical properties of the human organism dur
ing sleep. Yale ]. BioI. Med . 1938, 1 0 : 271-274 (with D. S.
Barton).
38. Bio-electric properties of cancer-resistant and cancer-suscept
ible mice. Amer. J. Cancer, 1 938, 3 2 : 240-248 (with 1. C.
Strong and G. M. Smith).
39. Bio-electric correlates of the menstrual cycle in women.
Amer. J. Obstet. Gynec. 1 9 38, 3 5 : 743-75 1 (with 1. K.
Musselman).
40. Bio-electric correlates of methylcolanthrene-induced tumours
in mice. Yale J. BioI. Med., 1 938, 1 0 : 5 39-544 (with 1. C.
Strong and G. M. Smith).
4 1 . The relationship between the bio-electric potential of rats
and certain drugs. Yale J. BioI. Med., 1 9 38, 1 1 : 1 3 7-140
(with P. K. Smith).
42. The measurement of pH in circulating blood. Science, 1 9 38,
87 : 1 97-198 (with 1. F. Nims and Clyde Marshall).
43. Bio-electric correlates of wound healing. Yale J. BioI. Med.,
1938, 1 1 : 1 04-1 07 (with S. C. Harvey and Max Taffel).
1939
44. Evidence for the existence of an electro-dynamic field in liv
ing organisms. Proc. nat. Acad. Sci., 1 939, 2 5 : 284-288 (with
F. S. C. Northrop).
45. A preliminary study of electrical correlates of growth in
Obelia geniculata. Growth, 1 939, 3 : 2 1 1 -220 (with Fred S.
Hammett).
1 88
APPENDIX
46. Voltage gradients in the nervous system. Trans. Amer.

neuraL Ass., 1 9 39, 65 : 1 1- 1 4 (with P. J. Harman, Jr.).
47 Vocationalism in the university. Yale J. Biol. Med., 1 939,
1 2 : 1 99-204.
48. Animal electricity. Yale scient. Mag., 1 939, 1 3 : 5 .
1 940
49. Biologic organization and the cancer problem. Yale J. BioI.
Med., 1 940, 1 2 : 277-282.
50. Vaginal electrical correlates of the estrous cycle of the rat.
Anat. Rec., 1 954, 76 : 8 (With John Boling and D. Barton).
5 1 . An electro-metric study of the healing wound in man. Yale J.
BioI. Med., 1 940, 1 2 : 48 3-485 (with Max Taffel and S. C.
Harvey).
5 2. Harry Burr Ferris. Science, 1 940, 92 : 499-500.
5 3. Electro-metric studies of tumours induced in mice by the
external application of benzpyrene. Yale J. BioI. Med., 1 940,
1 2 : 7 1 1 -717 (with C. M. Smith and 1. C. Strong).
1 94 1
54. Factors associated with vaginal electrical correlates of the
estrous cycle of the albino rat. Anat. Rec., 194 1 , 79 : 9 (with
John Boling).
5 5 . Field properties of the developing frog's egg. Proc. nat. Acad.
Sci., 1 94 1 , 27 : 276-281 .
56. Changes in the field properties of mice with transplanted
tumours. Yale J. BioI. Med., 1 9 4 1 , 1 3 : 783-788.
57. An electro-metric study of uterine activity. Amer. J. Obstet.
Gynec., 1 94 1 , 42 : 59-67 (with 1. Langman).
58. Steady state potential differences in the early development of
Amblystoma. Yale J. Biol. Med., 1 94 1 , 1 4 : 5 1-57 (with T. H.
Bullock).
1 94 2
59. An electrical study of the human cervix uteri. Anat Rec.,
1 942, 82 : 3 5-36 (with 1. Langman).
60. Electrical correlates of growth in corn roots. Yale J. Bior.
Med., 1 942, 1 4 : 581-588.
.
APPENDIX
6 1 . Electro-metric timing of human ovulation. Amer. J. Obstet.

Gynec., 1 942, 44 : 22 3-230 (with 1. Langman).
1943
62. Neuroid transmission in mimosa. Anat. Rec., 1 943, 85 : 1 2.
63. Electrical correlates of pure and hybrid strains of corn. Proc.
nat. Acad. Sci., 1 943, 2 9 : 163-166.
64. Electrical polarization of pacemaker neurons. J. N e uro
p hysio!., 1943, 6 : 85-97 (with T. H. Bullock).
65. An electro-metric study of mimosa. Yale J. BiD!. Med., 1 943,
1 5 : 823-829.
1 944
66. Moon-madness. Yale J. BiD!. Med., 1 944, 16 : 249-256.
67. A biologist considers social security. Conn . St. med. J., 1 944,
8 : 1 65.
68. Potential gradients in living systems and their measurements.
Pp. 1 1 1 7-1 1 2 1 in Medical Phy sics. Chicago, The Year Book
Publishers, Inc. [Cl 944] .
69. The meaning of bio-electric potentials. Yale J. Bio!. Me.d .,
1 944, 16 : 3 5 3-360.
70. Electric correlates of form in Cucurbit fruits. Amer. J.
Bo tany , 1944, 3 1 : 249-25 3 (with E. W. Sinnott).
7 1 . Electricity and life : phases of moon correlated with life
cycle. Yale scient. Mag., 1944, 1 8 : 5-6.
1 945
72. Variables in DC measurement. Yale J. BiD!. Med. , 1 945, 1 7 :
465-478.
7 3 . Diurnal potentials in the maple tree. Yale J. BiD!. Med., 1945,
1 7 : 727-734.
1 946
74. Electrical correlates of peripheral nerve injury. A prelimin
ary note. Science, 1946, 1 03 : 48-49 (with R. G. Grenell).
75. Growth correlates of electromotive forces in maize seeds.
Proe. nat. Acad. Sci., 1 946, 3 2 : 7 3-84 (with Oliver Nelson,
Jr.).
APP ENDIX
76. Surface potentials and peripheral nerve injury : A clinical

test. Yale J. BioI. Med., 1 946, 1 8 : 5 1 7-525 (with R. G.
Grenell).
1 947
77 Tree potentials. Yale J. BioI. Med., 1 947, 1 9 : 3 1 1-3 1 8.
78. Electro-magnetic studies in women with malignancy of cer
vix uteri. Science, 1 947, 1 05 : 209-2 1 0 (with 1. Langman).
79 Field theory in biology. Sci . Monthly, 1 947, 64 : 2 1 7-225.
80. Surface potentials and peripheral nerve regeneration. Fed.
Proc., 1 947, 6 : 1 1 7 (with R. G. Grenell).
1 948
8 1 . A commentary on full-time teaching. Conn. St. med. J., 1 948,
1 2 : 937-940.
1949
82. Millivoltmeters. Yale J. BioI. Med., 1 949, 2 1 : 249-253 (with
A. Mauro).
83. A technique to aid in the detection of malignancy of the fe
male genital tract. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynec., 1 949, 57 : 27428 1 .
84. Electro-static fields of the sciatic nerve in the frog. Yale J.
BioI. Med., 1 949, 2 1 : 455-462 (with A. Mauro).
85. The Connecticut State Medical Society. Conn. St. med. J . ,
1 949, 1 3 : 950-955.
1950
86. Electro-metric study of cotton seeds. J. expo ZooI., 1950, 1 1 3 :
20 1-2 1 0.
87. Bioelectricity : potential gradients, Pp. 90-94 in Medical
Physics. Chicago, The Year Book Publishers, Inc., 1 950.
1952
88. Electro-metrics of atypical growth. Yale T. BioI. Med., 1952,
25 : 67-75
APPENDIX
1953
89 Electrical correlates o f ovulation in the rhesus monkey. Yale
J. Biol. Med., 1 9 5 3 , 25 : 408-41 7 (With V. 1. Gott).
1 954
90. Confusion or configuration ? The Astronomical League Bulletin, 1 9 54, 4 : NO 4
1955
9 1 . Certain electrical properties o f the slime mould. J. expo Zool.,
1 95 5 , 1 29 : 3 27-342.
92. Response of the slime mould to electric stimulus. Science,
1 95 5 , 1 22 : 1 020-1021 (with William Seifriz).
1 95 6
9 3 . Effect o f a severe storm o n electric properties o f a tree and
the earth. Science, 1 956, 1 24 : 1 204- 1 205.

Harold Saxton Burr - Blueprint For Immortality - Electric Patterns of Life (OCR) PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Harold Saxton Burr - Blueprint For Immortality - Electric Patterns of Life (OCR) PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Harold Saxton Burr - Blueprint For Immortality - Electric Patterns of Life (OCR) PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BLUEPRINT FOR

The Electric PanerJ)S of Ufc

Blueprint for Immortality

Harold Saxton Burr, Ph.D

First published in Great Britain 1972

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be

Set in II pt Tuli an a, I '2 pt leaded, and

The Course and the Compass

The Female Field

The Ubiquitous Field

The Field a s a Signpost

Antennae to the Universe

The Continuing Adventure

Harold Saxton Burr

Voltmeter recommended by the Author page 86

The Universe in which we find ourselves and from which we

We live in troubled and difficult times. There are wars and

Electro-dynamic fields are invisible and intangible; and it is

forms of life, slime-moulds.

an infinitesimal amount of direct current. That is why L-fields

niques of taking and interpreting L-field readings in a short period

the rate of healing, which will be specially useful with internal

not some surface potential.

When the effects on the human L-field of extraterrestrial forces

Since L-fields have been found in all living forms examined so

many fields. (See page 7 1 .)

It has taken only a few pages to summarize some of the re

AN ADVE NTURE IN SCIENCE

take an aeon to evolve something better. And as we are all a part

the classification and description of the physical components of

and, in fact, are fully prepared to adjust to it-especially when

All this raises an important problem. Though many concede

AN ADVE NTURE IN SCIENCE

not be validated. I t is the argument-or, perhaps, the hope-of

artist sees in the beauty of the world around him something

The Course and the Compass

In the previous chapter we outlined some of the results of this

adventure in science. But it should be emphasized that when we

Since the time of Galvani there have been innumerable studies

covered the cellular nature of plants and animals. Here, sup

modify modern science by revising our theory of first principles

to obscure the underlying regulation and to defy analysis.

With the advent in physics of the field theory of the relation

THE C O U R S E AND T H E C OMP A S S

characteristics of atomic matter are a result of the interdepend

THE COURSE AND THE COMP A S S

interference with the processes of growth. Yet in some way, the

THE COURS E AND THE COMPAS S

It appeared, therefore, that an hypothesis of this type was

We now knew what we were looking for, but before we could

THE COURS E AND THE COMPASS

had been made with instruments which were operated by the

THE COURS E AND THE COMPASS

changes in the electrical voltage gradients. Third, the device

THE COURSE AND THE COMP A S S

described. It should be noted that a high transconductance is a

THE COURSE AND THE COMPASS

input impedance of the 1 1 2-A a t floating grid is probably several