A REPORT OF 6-WEEKS INDUSTRIAL

TRAINING AT
CONTINENTAL AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE
SYSTEMS (I) PVT. LTD.
01-06-2015 to 15-07-2015
Submitted in the partial fulfilment of the award
of degree of
Bachelor in Mechanical Engineering

SUBMITTED TO,

SUBMITTED BY,

MR. AMIT SINGLA

RISHABH JAIN

HOD (ME)

UID: 13BME1349
B.E (M.E.)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY
GHARUAN, MOHALI (PUNJAB)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DESCRIPTION
CERTIFICATE
Acknowledgement
List of Tables and Figures
Company Profile
Introduction To Department
Work Assigned
Project Study
Bibliography

Page
No.
i
ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Practical training is an integral part in an engineering course. In connection to
the project subject, I personally feel that it was a great experience and challenge for
me, the entire scenario was new but incorporated a great learning curve.
CONTINENTAL is the leading Multi-national Company & top in the automotive
component manufacturing segment. At the onset, I profusely thank CONTINENTAL
MANESAR, for providing a platform to me here for this academic exercise.
CONTINENTAL ambition is to enhance the quality of life with solutions that are both
innovative and beneficial. I took my task as a challenge and remained dedicated to
the work.
I would like to bid a very grateful thanks to the Plant Head Mr Paramjit Singh
Chadha and Mr Lalit Mishra (H.R. Manager) who played a vital role in providing me
this golden opportunity, of pursuing vocational training from such an esteemed
organization. I also thank him for explain various concepts of quality assurance and
taking a keen interest in my project.
I express my heartiest thanks to Mr Mayank Shinde (Manger) and Mr
Sandeep Chawla (Sr. Engineer) for his immense support and aid in clearing my
concepts about drum brake components.

RISHABH JAIN
13BME1349

LIST OF TABLE AND FIGURES

Description

Page No.

Continental, Manesar

1.1

Rivet

1.2

Circlip

1.3

Bleed Screw

1.4

Abutment

1.5

Rivet pin

1.6

Arrangement of Hydraulic Braking System

10

1.7

Hydraulic Brake

12

1.8

Booster and T.M.C.

13

1.9

T.M.C

14

1.10

Disc Brake

14

Fig.
No.

2.1

15

2.2

DRUM BRAKE
Back Plate

2.3

Wheel Cylinder

17

2.4

L.H.D & R.H.D.

21

ABS

22

3.1

How ABS works

23

16

COMPANY PROFILE

Fig-1
Continental develops intelligent technologies for transporting people and their
goods. As a reliable partner, the international automotive supplier, tire manufacturer,
and industrial partner provides sustainable, safe, comfortable, individual, and
affordable solutions. In 2014, the corporation generated sales of approximately 34.5
billion with its five divisions, Chassis & Safety, Interior, Powertrain, Tire, and
ContiTech. Continental currently employs approximately 200,000 people in 53
countries.
The Chassis & Safety division develops and produces integrated active and
passive driving safety technologies as well as products that support vehicle
dynamics. The product portfolio ranges from electronic and hydraulic brake and
chassis control systems to sensors, advanced driver assistance systems, airbag
electronics and sensors as well as electronic air suspension systems all the way to
windscreen washer systems and headlight cleaning nozzles. The focus is on a high
level of system competence and the integration of components into the safety
concept ContiGuard. Chassis & Safety employs more than 38.000 people worldwide.

Information management and Intelligent Transportation Systems are at the

very heart of the Interior division, which provides a broad range of products for very
different vehicles. The product portfolio includes instrument clusters, multifunctional
displays and head-up displays, control units, electronic car-entry and tire-information
systems, radios, infotainment systems, input devices and control panels, climate
control units, telematics solutions and services, software as well as cockpits. Interior
employs worldwide more than 36.000 people.
The Powertrain division develops and produces innovative and efficient
system solutions for vehicle powertrains. The comprehensive range of products
includes gasoline and diesel injection systems, engine management and
transmission control, including sensors and actuators, exhaust after treatment
technologies as well as fuel supply systems, and components and systems for hybrid
and electric drives. Powertrain employs worldwide around 34.500 people.
Continental Automotive Brake Systems (I) Pvt. Ltd. is part of Continental AG,
one of the world's top five automotive parts suppliers. Continental began operating in
India in 2008 with headquarters in Bangalore. Today, the company has four
manufacturing locations, Bangalore, Gurgaon, Manesar and Pune, located
strategically in the automotive hubs of the country.

With three automotive divisions, Interior, Powertrain and Chassis & Safety
represented by 14 strong business units, each with an extensive product portfolio,
Continental Automotive Components India develops and manufactures a wide range
of electronic products in its Bangalore plant including engine management and
power steering ECUs, immobilizers, body control modules and instrument clusters
for all vehicle segments. It also manufactures actuation drum brakes, calipers,
Powertrain and Chassis sensors, fuel supply modules and fuel rail assemblies in its
other locations in India. In addition, the company supplies ABS, airbag electronics,
pumps, injectors and sensors to its customers in India from its global plants. With a
specialized R&D team dedicated to Interior Electronics in Pune, the company also
offers integrated interior electronics solutions to its customers.
Continental Automotive Components India has a customer base spanning all
major local and global OEMs in India. In its endeavour to provide best in class
support to its customers, the company has invested in an in-house test & validation
lab for its Engine Systems and Fuel Supply business units in India.

Besides supplying to the domestic market, the company set up a highly

advanced engineering centre, Tech Centre India (TCI), in Bangalore in 2009. TCI
delivers high quality and cost effective support to Continental globally. It works on a
hybrid concept, combining the strengths of an in-house development centre, with
offshore development centres operated by partners. The company also has an
engineering joint venture, Automotive Infotronics, with Ashok Leyland to focus
exclusively on the development of interior electronics for commercial vehicles.
Continental is committed to India and has focused on localizing its entire
value chain in the country, starting from local business development to engineering,
from local purchasing to manufacturing. With around 1700 employees employed in
the Automotive Group in India, Continental continues to grow significantly year on
year.

WORK ASSIGNED
To draw various components of drum brake like circlip, web, abutment, bleed screw
etc using CATIA.

Rivet
Fig-1.1

Circlip
Fig-1.2

Bleed Screw
Fig-1.3

Abutment
Fig-1.4

Rivet Pin
Fig-1.5

PROJECT
To study working of drum brake and its different components
BRAKING
Braking is the use of friction to slow the motion of body, bring it to a halt, or
hold it in a standing position. Braking action on wheeled vehicles is the use of a
controlled force to hold, stop, or reduce the speed of vehicle.
Most commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though
other methods of energy conversion may be employed. Almost all wheeled vehicles
have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and shopping carts may have them
for use on a moving ramp. Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the
drum brake or disc brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When
travelling downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake. When the brake
pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed, ultimately a piston
pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slow the wheel down. On the
brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum
which also slows the wheel down.

FUNCTIONS OF VEHICLE BRAKING

There are two main functions of brakes:
(a) To slow down or stop the vehicle in the shortest possible time at the time of need.
(b) To control the speed of vehicle at turns and also at the time of driving down on a
hill slope.

PRINCIPLE OF VEHICLE BRAKING

Braking of a vehicle depends upon the static function that acts between tyres
and road surface. Brakes work on the following principle to stop the vehicle:

The kinetic energy due to motion of the vehicle is dissipated in the form of
heat energy due to friction between moving parts (wheel or wheel drum) and
stationary parts of vehicle (brake shoes).
The heat energy so generated due to application of brakes is dissipated into
air. Brakes operate most effectively when they are applied in a manner so that
wheels do not lock completely but continue to roll without slipping.

CLASSIFICATION OF BRAKES
On the Basis of Method of Actuation
(a) Foot brake (also called service brake) operated by foot pedal.
(b) Hand brake it is also called parking brake operated by hand.
On the Basis of Mode of Operation
(a) Mechanical brakes

(b) Hydraulic brakes

(c) Air brakes
(d) Vacuum brakes
(e) Electric brakes.
On the Basis of Action on Front or Rear Wheels
(a) Front-wheel brakes
(b) Rear-wheel brakes.
On the Basis of Method of Application of Braking Contact
(a) Internally expanding brakes
(b) Externally contracting brakes.

Types of Braking System:a. Hydraulic Brakes

Hydraulic brakes is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake
fluid, typically containing ethylene glycol, to transfer pressure from the controlling
unit, which is usually near the operator of the vehicle, to the actual brake
mechanism, which is usually at or near the wheel of the vehicle.
b. Mechanical Brakes
Internal expanding shoe brakes are most common, to transfer pressure from
the controlling unit, which is usually near the operator of the vehicle, to the actual
brake mechanism, which is usually at or near the wheel of the vehicle only used in
automobiles. In an automobile, the wheel is fitted on a wheel drum. The brake shoes

come in contact with inner surface of this drum to apply brakes. This type of brakes
are mostly used in two wheelers vehicle like scooters and motor bike etc.
c. AIR BRAKES
Air brakes are applied by the pressure of compressed air. Air pressure
applies force on brakes shoes through suitable linkages to operate brakes. An air
compressor is used to compress air. This compressor is run by engine power.
d. VACUUM BRAKES
Vacuum brakes are a piston or a diaphragm operating in a cylinder. For
application of brakes one side of piston is subjected to atmospheric pressure while
the other is applied vacuum by exhausting air from this side. A force acts on the
piston due to difference of pressure.
e. ELECTRIC BRAKES
In electrical brakes an electromagnet is used to actuate a cam to expand the
brake shoes. The electromagnet is energized by the current flowing from the battery.
When flow of current is stopped the cam and brake shoes return to their original
position and brakes are disengaged. Electric brakes are not used in automobiles as
service brakes sure. This force is used to operate brake through suitable linkages.

HYDRAULIC BRAKES
The brakes which are actuated by the hydraulic pressure (pressure of a fluid)
are called hydraulic brakes. Hydraulic brakes are commonly used in the automobiles.
The invention of hydraulic brakes in 1918 by Malcolm Loughead proved to be a real
breakthrough because hydraulics allowed the brakes to be applied by fluid pressure.
Because fluids are incompressible, force applied by a piston to a fluid will be
transmitted equally to pistons located at each wheel brake. This eliminated the rods,
levers and cables that were previously needed to work the brakes, which greatly
simplified the job of providing, balanced four wheel braking.
The hydraulic brake system is consist of several parts like booster, drum brake, disc
brake, hoses (pressurized pipes), and valves. Fig (a) shows the complete
arrangement of hydraulic braking system.

Arrangement of Hydraulic Braking System

FIG-1.6
PRINCIPLE
Hydraulic brakes work on the principle of Pascals law which states that
pressure at a point in a fluid is equal in all directions in space. According to this law
when pressure is applied on a fluid it travels equally in all directions so that uniform
braking action is applied on all wheels.
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF HYDRAULIC BRAKES
When brake pedal in pressed, the force is transmitted to the brake shoes
through a liquid (link). The pedal force is multiplied and transmitted to all brake shoes
by a force transmission system. Fig (b) shows the system of hydraulic brake of a four
wheeler automobile. It consists of a master cylinder, four wheel cylinders and pipes
carrying a brake fluid from master cylinder to wheel cylinder applied on all four
wheels.

Fig- 1.7 Hydraulic Brake

Hydraulic Brake Components

1. BRAKE BOOSTER
Brake Booster (servo Vacuum Master) is a major component of braking
system which is used to enhance the brakes and reduce the human efforts while
applying the brakes of a vehicle. Fig-1.8 shows the booster assembly.

Booster and T.M.C.

Fig-1.8
There are two main parts of SVM
A. Booster
B. T.M.C (Tandem master cylinder)
A. Booster:
Principle: It works on the principle of vacuum and differential pressure and
converts the pressure energy into mechanical effort and hence reduces the human
efforts. The booster is fitted in between the brake pedal and the master cylinder.
Working of Booster: The main part of the booster is diaphragm. The larger
this diaphragm, the greater the servo assistance provided. A vacuum is allowed to
act on both sided of the diaphragm when the brake pedal is in its rest position. When
pedal force is applied to the piston a valve cuts the vacuum connection to the rear
chamber and allows air at atmospheric pressure to enter. This causes a force to act
on the diaphragm so assisting with the application of the brakes.

B. Tandem master cylinder:

Tandem master cylinder or Master Cylinder is a type of hydraulic pump
operated by the output push rod of the brake booster. It is the heart of the hydraulic
system. A fluid reservoir is fitted on Tandem master cylinder. It converts the force
exerted on the brake pedal into hydraulic pressure that applies the brakes.
Depressing the brake pedal moves a push rod in the master cylinder. Mounted on
the push rod are a pair of pistons (primary and secondary) in tandem (one after the
other) that exerts the force against the fluid in the master cylinder bore. This creates
pressure, which along with the fluid thats displaced by the piston is routed through
the brake lines to each of the wheel brakes. So as the pistons in the master cylinder
push against the fluid, it flows on the firewall, directly in front of the drivers seat.
A typical master cylinder is actually two completely separate master cylinders in
one housing, each handling two wheels. This way if one side fails, you will still be
able to stop the car. The brake warning light on the dash will light if either side fails,
altering the problem. Master cylinders have become very reliable and rarely
malfunction; however, the most common problem that they experience is an internal
link. This will cause the brake pedal to slowly sink to the floor when your foot applies
steady pressure. Letting go of the pedal and immediately stepping on it again brings
the pedal back to normal height.

T.M.C
FIG-1.9

DISC BRAKE
A disc brake is a wheel brake which slows rotation of the wheel by the friction caused
by pushing brake pads against a brake disc with a set of callipers. The brake disc (or
rotor in American English) is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be
made of composites such as reinforced carboncarbon or ceramic matrix
composites. This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To stop the wheel,
friction material in the form of brake pads, mounted on a device called a brake
calliper, is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically
against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or
stop. Brakes convert motion to heat, and if the brakes get too hot, they become less
effective, a phenomenon known as brake fade. Modern motor cars are fitted with
disc brakes instead of conventional drum type brakes. In Santro car and Maruti-800,
front wheels are provided with disc brakes whereas rear wheel are provided with
drum brakes. A disc brake consists of a rotating disc and two friction pads which are
actuated by hydraulic braking system as described earlier. The friction pads remain
free on each side of disc when brakes are no applied. They rub against disc when
brakes are applied to stop the vehicle. These brakes are applied in the same manner
as that of hydraulic brakes. But mechanism of stopping vehicle is different than that
of drum brakes.

BRAKE DISC
The brake disc is the disc component of a disc brake against which the brake pads
are applied. The design of the disc varies somewhat. Some are simply solid cast
iron, but others are hollowed out with fins or vanes joining together the disc's two
contact surfaces (usually included as part of a casting process). The weight and
power of the vehicle determines the need for ventilated discs. The "ventilated" disc
design helps to dissipate the generated heat and is commonly used on the moreheavily-loaded front discs.
Many higher-performance brakes have holes drilled through them. This is known as
cross-drilling and was originally done in the 1960s on racing cars. For heat
dissipation purposes, cross drilling is still used on some braking components, but is
not favoured for racing or other hard use as the holes are a source of stress cracks
under severe conditions.

Discs may also be slotted, where shallow channels are machined into the disc to aid
in removing dust and gas. Slotting is the preferred method in most racing
environments to remove gas and water and to deglaze brake pads. Some discs are
both drilled and slotted. Slotted discs are generally not used on standard vehicles
because they quickly wear down brake pads; however, this removal of material is
beneficial to race vehicles since it keeps the pads soft and avoids vitrification of their
surfaces.
As a way of avoiding thermal stress, cracking and warping, the disc is sometimes
mounted in a half loose way to the hub with coarse splines. This allows the disc to
expand in a controlled symmetrical way and with less unwanted heat transfer to the
hub.
On the road, drilled or slotted discs still have a positive effect in wet conditions
because the holes or slots prevent a film of water building up between the disc and
the pads. Cross-drilled discs may eventually crack at the holes due to metal fatigue.
Cross-drilled brakes that are manufactured poorly or subjected to high stresses will
crack much sooner.

Disc Brake
Fig-1.10

DRUM BRAKE
A drum brake is a brake that uses friction caused by a set of shoes or pads
that press against a rotating drum-shaped part called a brake drum.
The term drum brake usually means a brake in which shoes press on the inner
surface of the drum. When shoes press on the outside of the drum, it is usually
called a clasp brake. Where the drum is pinched between two shoes, similar to a
conventional disc brake, it is sometimes called a pinch drum brake, though such
brakes are relatively rare. A related type called a band brake uses a flexible belt or
"band" wrapping around the outside of a drum.
Drum brakes consist of a backing plat, brake shoes, brake drum, wheel cylinder,
return spring, parking lever and an automatic or self-adjusting system. When we
apply the brakes, brake fluid is forced, under pressure, into the wheel cylinder which,
in turn, pushes the brake shoes into contact with the machined surface on the inside
of the drum. When the pressure is released, return springs pull the shoes back to
their rest position. As the brake linings wear, the shoes must travel a greater distance
to reach the drum. When the distance reaches a certain point, a self-adjusting
mechanism automatically reacts by adjusting the rest position of the shoes so that
they are closer to the drum.

DRUM BRAKE
Fig-2.1

PARTS OF DRUM BRAKES

A. Back Plate
The back plate provides a base for the other components. It attaches to the axle and forms a
solid surface for the wheel cylinder, brake shoes, and assorted hardware. Since all braking
operations exert pressure on the back plate, it must be strong and wear-resistant. Levers for
emergency or parking brakes, and automatic brake-shoe adjuster were also added in recent
years. Back plate made in the pressing shop.

Back Plate
Fig-2.2
B. WHEEL CYLINDER
One wheel cylinder operates the brake on each wheel. Two pistons operate the
shoes, one at each end of the wheel cylinder. Hydraulic pressure from the master
cylinder acts on the piston cup, pushing the pistons toward the shoes, forcing them
against the drum. When the driver releases the brakes, the force of the brake shoe
return springs returns the piston to its original position. The parts of the wheel
cylinder are as follows:

Wheel Cylinder
Fig-2.3

C. BRAKE SHOE
Like the disk pads, brake shoes consist of a steel shoe with the friction material
or lining either riveted to the lining table or attached with adhesive. Also like disc
pads, the linings eventually wear out and must be replaced. If the linings are allowed
to wear through to the bare metal shoe, they will cause severe damage to the brake
drum. All the application force of the wheel cylinder is applied through the web to the
lining table and brake lining. The edge of the lining table generally has three Vshaped notches or tabs on each side called nibs (shown in Fig). The nibs rest
against the support pads of the backing plate to which the shoes are installed. Each
brake assembly has two shoes, a primary and secondary. The primary shoe is
located toward the front of the vehicle and has the lining positioned differently than
the secondary shoe.

Materials which make up the brake shoe include, friction modifiers (which can
include graphite and cashew nut shells), powdered metal such as lead, zinc, brass,
aluminium and other metals that resist heat fade, binders, curing agents and fillers
such as rubber chips to reduce brake noise.

D. Parking lever
The parking lever or the parking brake for system controls the rear brakes
through a series of steel cables that are connected to either a hand lever or a foot
pedal. The idea is that the system is fully mechanical and completely bypasses the
hydraulic system so that the vehicle can be brought to a stop even if there is a total
brake failure. On drum brakes, the cable pulls on a lever mounted in the rear brake
and directly connected to the brake shoes. This has the effect of bypassing the
wheel cylinder and controlling the brakes directly.
E. AUTOMATIC SELF-ADJUSTER
The self-adjuster is used to adjust the distance between the brake shoe and the
drum automatically as brake shoes wear.

Self-adjusting system: As the brake linings wear, the shoes must travel a greater
distance to reach the drum. When the distance reaches a certain point, self-adjusting
mechanism automatically reacts by adjusting the rest position of the shoes so that
they are closer to the drum. Here, the adjusting lever rocks enough to advance the
adjuster gear by one tooth. The adjuster has threads on it, like a bolt, so that it
unscrews a little bit when it turns, lengthening to fill in the gap. When the brake
shoes wear a little more, the adjuster can advance again, so it always keep the
shoes close to the drum.
F. Return Springs
Return springs pull the brake shoes back to their rest position after the
pressure is released from the wheel cylinder. If the springs are weak and do not
return the shoes all the way, it will cause premature lining wear because the linings
will remain in contact with the drum. A good technician will examine the springs
during a brake job and recommend their replacement if they show signs of fatigue.
On certain vehicles, the technician may recommend replacing them even if they look
good an inexpensive insurance.
G. BRAKE DRUM
The brake drum is generally made of a special type of cast iron that is heatconductive and wear-resistant. It is positioned close to the brake shoe without
actually touching it, and rotates with the wheel and axle. When a driver applies the
brakes, the lining pushes against the inner surface of the drum, generating friction
heat that can reach as high as 600 F (316 C).

Working of drum brake

When the brakes are applied, brake fluid is forced under pressure from the
master cylinder into the wheel cylinder, which in turn pushes the brake shoes into
contact with the machined surface on the inside of the drum. This rubbing action
reduces the rotation of the brake drum, which is coupled to the wheel. Hence the
speed of the vehicle is reduced. When the pressure is released, return springs pull
the shoes back to their rest position.

SELF-APPLYING CHARACTERISTIC
Drum brakes have a natural "self-applying" characteristic, better known as "selfenergizing." The rotation of the drum can drag either one or both of the shoes into
the friction surface, causing the brakes to bite harder, which increases the force
holding them together. This increases the stopping power without any additional
effort being expended by the driver, but it does make it harder for the driver to
modulate the brake's sensitivity. It also makes the brake more sensitive to brake
fade, as a decrease in brake friction also reduces the amount of brake assist.
Disc brakes exhibit no self-applying effect because the hydraulic pressure acting on
the pads is perpendicular to the direction of rotation of the disc. Disc brake systems
usually have servo assistance ("Brake Booster") to lessen the driver's pedal effort,
but some disc braked cars (notably race cars) and smaller brakes for motorcycles,
etc., do not need to use servos.

DRUM BRAKE DESIGNS

L.H.D & R.H.D.

Fig-2.4

Drum brakes are typically described as either leading/trailing or twin leading.

Rear drum brakes are typically of a leading/trailing design (for non-servo systems),
or primary/secondary (for duo servo systems) the shoes being moved by a single
double-acting hydraulic cylinder and hinged at the same point. In this design, one of
the brake shoes always experiences the self-applying effect, irrespective of whether
the vehicle is moving forwards or backwards. This is particularly useful on the rear
brakes, where the parking brake (handbrake or footbrake) must exert enough force
to stop the vehicle from travelling backwards and hold it on a slope. Provided the
contact area of the brake shoes is large enough, which isn't always the case, the
self-applying effect can securely hold a vehicle when the weight is transferred to the
rear brakes due to the incline of a slope or the reverse direction of motion. A further
advantage of using a single hydraulic cylinder on the rear is that the opposite pivot
may be made in the form of a double-lobed cam that is rotated by the action of the
parking brake system.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HYDRAULIC BRAKES

Advantages
(a) Equal braking action on all wheels.
(b) Increased braking force.
(c) Simple in construction.
(d) Low wear rate of brake linings.
(e) Flexibility of brake linings.
(f) Increased mechanical advantage
Disadvantages
(a) Whole braking system fails due to leakage of fluid from brake linings.
(b) Presence of air inside the tubing ruins the whole system.

BLEEDING OF BRAKES
When air enters, into the brake system and any brake line is disconnected, bleeding
of brakes has to be done. Since air is compressible so any presence of air inside
brake lining does not allow to transmit brake force to apply brakes. Therefore, the
system must be free from presence of air. Bleeding is the process of removal of air
from the braking system.
BLEEDING PROCEDURE
Following steps are followed for bleeding of brakes:
(a) Remove all dirt from the master cylinder filler plug. Then fill the master cylinder
upto lower edge of the filler neck by removing the filler plug.
(b) Clean all the bleeding connections provided on all wheel cylinders.
(c) After this bleeder hose and fixture is connected to that wheel cylinder which has
longest brake line. The other rend of bleeder hose is placed in a glass jar, and
submerge this end in the brake fluid.

(d) How bleeder valve is opened by half to three quarter turn.

(e) Then press the foot pedal and allow it to return back slowly.
(f) This pumping action must be continued till all the air along with some brake fluid
comes out through bleeding hose.
(g) After this bleeding operation is carried out on all wheel cylinders. This completes
the bleeding operation. At the end master cylinder is filled with brake fluid to required
level.

ANTILOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

An ABS system consists of the following components:

Some wheel speed sensors

Brake caliper
A hydraulic motor
Some pressure release valves

A quick thinking computer (or control module) which coordinates the whole process
Fig (a) shows the 1: Brake caliper (1) and wheel speed sensor (2)

ABS
Fig- 3
How ABS works?
When the driver hits the brakes this pressurizes a hydraulic system which
causes the brake pads to squeeze against the discs which causes the car to slow
down. If the ABS system detects that one wheel is slowing down more rapidly than
the rest (a symptom of wheel-lock) it automatically reduces the brake pressure on
this wheel by opening a pressure release valve in the hydraulic system. ABS also
has the ability to build the pressure back up via the hydraulic motor. The system
reacts remarkably quickly, and compared wheel speeds many times a second. ABS
systems can act on just the front wheels (which do most of the braking work), or all
four depending on which car you are driving.
Fig (b) shows the Wheel speed sensor (A), ABS control module (B),
Hydraulic motor and pressure release valves (C), Brake pipe leading to caliper (D)

How ABS works

Fig 3.1
ABS in detail
Diagram 1 (above) shows the whole process in more detail. The four wheels
shown are braking heavily as a result of heavy brake pedal application and the green
wheel is about to lock up due a low friction surface such as ice. The ABS control
module (B) detects the onset of a skid through the sensor (A) in this wheel and
reacts by releasing the brake pressure slightly by rapidly opening a pressure release
valve (C). This lowers the pressure in the brake pipe (D) which causes the brake
caliper to loosen its grip on the brake disc on the locking wheel. If this corrects the
locked wheel, the hydraulic motor (C) will build up the pressure again to the optimum
braking force and the valve will revert to the closed position.
We ever seen a car with ABS operating, we notice that the wheels appear to
lock and release in jerky movements, this is because there is such a fine line
between grip and traction loss in these conditions, and the system constantly tries to
keep the pressure at the point just before lock up (which is the most effective
pressure for slowing down).

Three versus four channel systems

There are two main types of modern ABS systems: three and four channel. Three
channel systems controls the braking pressure on both front wheels independently,
but control the rear wheels together as a single unit. Four channel systems control
the brake force on independently. In three channel systems, although both rear
wheels are monitored by sensors, if wheel lock if detected on a single wheel the
hydraulic braking pressure is reduced equally on both wheels. This does not provide
the level of control of a four channel system, and thus three channel versions are
compromised and usually only fitted to cars to save on cost. Most modern cars now
use a four channel ABS systems which provide greater safety in emergency braking
conditions.
Why disc brakes mainly on front and drum brakes on rear?
Weight transfer increases the load on the front wheels while the load on the rear
wheels is reduced. So torque requirement at front is more than rear.
As highway speeds, size and weight of vehicles increases, front drum brakes
were
unable to transfer the heat generated during repeated braking. Larger swept area of
rotor of disc brake allows heat generated at front to be transferred more rapidly for
better cooling at front.
A disc brake compared to a drum brake of similar diameter has a greater ability to
give required braking torque and resist fade. (Generally front brake torque
requirement is more.)

Brief comparison of Disc brake and drum brake:

S.No Disc brake

1
Friction surfaces are

Drum Brake
Friction occurs on internal

directly exposed to cooling

surfaces, heat dissipated

air.

only by conduction

Pad flat-wear uniform and

through drum.
Curved linings- wear is

subjected to bending.
No loss of travel due to

not uniform
As drum becomes hot,

rotor expansion.

expansion of drum-leads

Better anti fade

to more pedal travel.

Comparatively less ability

characteristics.
No self-energizing or servo

to resist fade.
with self-energizing or

action
Consistency of braking

servo action
Less stability

(stability)
Simple design, less

More number of parts with

number of parts
costly

complex design.
Drum brake in rear due to
cost effectiveness.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R.K RAJPUT A TEXTBOOK OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING, Laxmi

Publication.
HIETNER A TEXT BOOK OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING.
V. GANESHAN A TEXTBOOK OF I.C ENGINE.

R.S KHURMI & J.K GUPTA THEORY OF MACHINES.