Hofstede's Six Dimensions of

Culture
Psychologist Dr Geert Hofstede published his cultural
dimensions model at the end of the 1970s, based on a
decade of research. Since then, it's become an
internationally recognized standard for understanding
cultural differences.
Hofstede studied people who worked for IBM in more than
50 countries. Initially, he identified four dimensions that
could distinguish one culture from another. Later, he added
fifth and sixth dimensions, in cooperation with Drs Michael
H. Bond and Michael Minkov. These are:
1.

Power Distance Index (high versus low).

2.

Individualism Versus Collectivism.

3.

Masculinity Versus Femininity.

4.

Uncertainty Avoidance Index (high versus low).

5.

Pragmatic Versus Normative.

6.

Indulgence Versus Restraint.

From Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov, "Cultures

and Organizations: Software of the Mind," Third Revised
Edition, McGrawHill 2010, ISBN 0-07-166418-1. Geert Hofstede
B.V. Quoted with permission. Note: the book features an alternative
version of the fifth dimension, which the authors call "Long-Term
Orientation."

Hofstede, Bond and Minkov scored each country on a scale

of 0 to 100 for each dimension.

When Hofstede analyzed his database of culture statistics,

he found clear patterns of similarity and difference along
the four dimensions. And, because his research focused
solely on IBM employees, he could attribute those patterns
to national differences, and minimize the impact of
company culture.

Tip:
By its nature, a theory like this only describes a central
tendency in society. Different organizations, teams,
personalities, and environments vary widely, so make sure
that you're familiar with cultural leadership
, intelligence and etiquette , and do extensive
research into the country you'll be working in
(our Managing in articles will help here).
Let's look at the six dimensions in more detail.

1. Power Distance Index (PDI)

This refers to the degree of inequality that exists and is
accepted between people with and without power.
A high PDI score indicates that a society accepts an
unequal, hierarchical distribution of power, and that people
understand "their place" in the system. A low PDI score
means that power is shared and is widely dispersed, and
that society members do not accept situations where power
is distributed unequally.
Application: According to the model, in a high PDI country,
such as Malaysia (100), team members will not initiate
any action, and they like to be guided and directed to
complete a task. If a manager doesn't take charge, they
may think that the task isn't important.

PDI

Characteristics

Centralized
organizations.

More complex
hierarchies.

Large gaps in
compensation, authority
and respect.

High PDI

Low PDI

Flatter organizations.

Tips

Acknowledge a
leader's status. As an
outsider, you may try to
circumvent his or her
power, but don't push
back explicitly.

Be aware that you

may need to go to the
top for answers.

Delegate as much as
possible.

Ideally, involve all

those in decision
making who will be
directly affected by the
decision.

Supervisors and
employees are
considered almost as
equals.

2. Individualism Versus
Collectivism (IDV)
This refers to the strength of the ties that people have to
others within their community.
A high IDV score indicates weak interpersonal connection
among those who are not part of a core "family." Here,
people take less responsibility for others' actions and
outcomes.
In a collectivist society, however, people are supposed to
be loyal to the group to which they belong, and, in

exchange, the group will defend their interests. The group

itself is normally larger, and people take responsibility for
one another's wellbeing.
Application: Central American
countries Panama and Guatemala have very low IDV
scores (11 and six, respectively). In these countries, as an
example, a marketing campaign that emphasizes benefits
to the community would likely be understood and well
received, as long as the people addressed feel part of the
same group.
IDV

Characteristics

High IDV
Low IDV

High value placed on

people's time and their
need for privacy and
freedom.
An enjoyment of
challenges, and an
expectation of
individual rewards for
hard work.

Tips

Acknowledge
individual
accomplishments.

Don't mix work life

with social life too
much.

Encourage debate
and expression of
people's own ideas.

Respect for privacy.

Emphasis on building
skills and becoming
master of something.
People work for
intrinsic rewards.
Maintaining harmony
among group members
overrides other moral
issues.

Wisdom is important.

Suppress feelings
and emotions that may
endanger harmony.

Avoid giving
negative feedback in
public.

Saying "No" can

cause loss of face,
unless it's intended to

IDV

Characteristics

Tips
be polite. For example,
declining an invitation
several times is
expected.

3. Masculinity Versus Femininity

(MAS)
This refers to the distribution of roles between men and
women. In masculine societies, the roles of men and
women overlap less, and men are expected to behave
assertively. Demonstrating your success, and being strong
and fast, are seen as positive characteristics.
In feminine societies, however, there is a great deal of
overlap between male and female roles, and modesty is
perceived as a virtue. Greater importance is placed on good
relationships with your direct supervisors, or working with
people who cooperate well with one another.
The gap between men's and women's values is largest
in Japan and Austria, with MAS scores of 95 and 79
respectively. In both countries, men score highly for
exhibiting "tough," masculine values and behaviors, but, in
fact, women also score relatively highly for having
masculine values, though on average lower than men.
Application: As we've highlighted, Japan has the highest
MAS score of 95, whereas Sweden has the lowest
measured value of five. Therefore, if you open an office
in Japan, you should recognize you are operating in a
hierarchical, deferential and traditionally patriarchal society.
Long hours are the norm, and this, in turn, can make it

harder for female team members to gain advancement,

due to family commitments.
At the same time, Japan is a culture where all children
(male and female) learn the value of competition and
winning as part of a team from a young age. Therefore,
female team members are just as likely to display these
notionally masculine traits as their male colleagues.
By comparison, Sweden is a very feminine society,
according to Hofstede's model. Here, people focus on
managing through discussion, consensus, compromise, and
negotiation.
MAS

Characteristics

Money and
achievement are
important.

Relationship
oriented/consensual.

More focus on
quality of life.

High MAS
Low MAS

Strong egos
feelings of pride and
importance are
attributed to status.

Tips

Be aware of the
possibility of
differentiated gender
roles.

A long-hours culture
may be the norm, so
recognize its
opportunities and risks.

People are motivated

by precise targets, and
by being able to show
that they achieved
them either as a group
or as individuals.

Success is more
likely to be achieved
through negotiation,
collaboration and input
from all levels.

Avoid an "old boys'

MAS

Characteristics

Tips
club" mentality,
although this may still
exist.

Workplace flexibility
and work-life balance
may be important, both
in terms of job design,
organizational
environment and
culture, and the way
that performance
management can be
best realized.

4. Uncertainty Avoidance Index

(UAI)
This dimension describes how well people can cope with
anxiety.
In societies that score highly for Uncertainty Avoidance,
people attempt to make life as predictable and controllable
as possible. If they find that they can't control their own
lives, they may be tempted to stop trying. These people
may refer to "maana," or put their fate "in the hands of
God."
People in low UAI-scoring countries are more relaxed, open
or inclusive.
Bear in mind that avoiding uncertainty is not necessarily
the same as avoiding risk. Hofstede argues that you may

find people in high-scoring countries who are prepared to

engage in risky behavior, precisely because it reduces
ambiguities, or in order to avoid failure.
Application: In Hofstede's model, Greece tops the UAI
scale with 100, while Singapore scores the lowest with
eight.
Therefore, during a meeting in Greece, you might be keen
to generate discussion, because you recognize that there's
a cultural tendency for team members to make the safest,
most conservative decisions, despite any emotional
outbursts. Your aim is to encourage them to become more
open to different ideas and approaches, but it may be
helpful to provide a relatively limited, structured set of
options or solutions.
UAI

Characteristics

Tips

High UAI

Conservative, rigid
and structured, unless
the danger of failure
requires a more flexible
attitude.

Many societal
conventions.

Be clear and concise

about expectations and
goals, and set clearly
defined parameters. But
encourage creative
thinking and dialogue
where you can.

People are
expressive, and are
allowed to show anger
or emotions, if
necessary.

Recognize that there

may be unspoken
"rules" or cultural
expectations you need
to learn.

A high energy
society, if people feel
that they are in control
of their life instead of
feeling overwhelmed by

Recognize that
emotion, anger and
vigorous hand gestures
may simply be part of
the conversation.

UAI

Characteristics

Tips

life's vagaries.

Low UAI

Openness to change
or innovation, and
generally inclusive.

More inclined to
open-ended learning or
decision making.

Less sense of
urgency.

Ensure that people

remain focused, but
don't create too much
structure.

Titles are less

important, so avoid
"showing off" your
knowledge or
experience. Respect is
given to those who can
cope under all
circumstances.

5. Pragmatic Versus Normative

(PRA)
This dimension is also known as Long-Term Orientation. It
refers to the degree to which people need to explain the
inexplicable, and is strongly related to religiosity and
nationalism.
This dimension was only added recently, so it lacks the
depth of data of the first four dimensions. However, in
general terms, countries that score highly for PRA tend to
be pragmatic, modest, long-term oriented, and more thrifty.
In low-scoring countries, people tend to be religious and
nationalistic. Self-enhancement is also important here,
along with a person's desire to please their parents.

Application: The U.S. has a normative score. This is

reflected in the importance of short-term gains and quick
results (profit and loss statements are quarterly, for
example). It is also reflected in strong normative positions
politically and socially.
PRA

Characteristics

Behave in a modest
way.

Thrift and education

are seen as positive
values.

Avoid talking too

much about yourself.

People are more

willing to compromise,
yet this may not always
be clear to outsiders;
this is certainly so in a
culture that also scores
high on PDI.

Sell yourself to be
taken seriously.

People are less

willing to compromise
as this would be seen as
weakness.

Modesty.

Virtues and
obligations are
emphasized.

People often want to

know "Why?"

Strong convictions.

As people tend to
oversell themselves,
others will assess their
assertions critically.

Normative

People often wonder

how to know what is
true. For example,
questions like "What?"
and "How?" are asked
more than "Why?"

Pragmatic

Tips

Values and rights are

emphasized.

Flattery empowers.

6. Indulgence Versus Restraint

(IVR)
Hofstede's sixth dimension, discovered and described
together with Michael Minkov, is also relatively new, and is
therefore accompanied by less data.
Countries with a high IVR score allow or encourage
relatively free gratification of people's own drives and
emotions, such as enjoying life and having fun. In a society
with a low IVR score, there is more emphasis on
suppressing gratification and more regulation of people's
conduct and behavior, and there are stricter social norms.

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Application: According to the model, Eastern European

countries, including Russia, have a low IVR score. Hofstede
argues that these countries are characterized by a
restrained culture, where there is a tendency towards
pessimism. People put little emphasis on leisure time and,
as the title suggests, people try to restrain themselves to a
high degree.
PDI

Characteristics

High
Indulgenc
e

High
Restraint

Note:

Optimistic.
Importance of
freedom of speech.

Tips

Don't take life too

seriously.

Encourage debate
and dialogue in
meetings or decision
making.

Prioritize feedback,
coaching and
mentoring.

Emphasize flexible
working and work-life
balance.

Avoid making jokes

when engaged in formal
sessions. Instead, be
professional.

Only express
negativity about the
world during informal
meetings.

Focus on personal
happiness.

Pessimistic.
More controlled and
rigid behavior.

Visit Hofstede's website for a list of dimension scores for

each country, and for more detailed information about his
research.
To reflect upon your personal cultural value preferences,
take the Culture Compass. And, to learn more about
Hofstede's dimensions, particularly how they work in
combination, follow this e-learning program.

Key Points
Cultural norms play a large part in interpersonal
relationships at work. When you grow up in a certain
culture, you take the behavioral norms of your society for
granted, and you don't have to think about your reactions,
preferences and feelings, provided that you don't deviate
too much from the central tendency in your society.
However, when you step into a foreign culture, things
suddenly seem different, and you don't want to cause
offense. By using Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions as a
starting point, you can evaluate your approach, your
decisions, and your actions, based on a general sense of
how people in a particular society might think and react.
Of course, everybody is unique, and no society is uniform,
but you can use this model to make the unknown less
intimidating, avoid making mistakes, and to provide a
much-needed confidence boost when you're working in an
unfamiliar country.

Apply This to Your Life

Take some time to review your own country's scores, and
those of the countries or cultures that you deal with
regularly. Think about some interactions you've had with

people from those countries. Were you involved in critical

events, and do they now make more sense, given your
additional insights?
Challenge yourself to learn more about one culture in
particular, compare Hofstede's scores with what you
discover, and determine their accuracy and relevance for
yourself.
The next time you work with a person from a different
culture, make notes about your approach, what you should
be prepared to discuss, and why you feel the way you do.
Also, read specific information about that culture (the
"Culture Shock!" books and recommended reading
section of this article will help). Afterward, evaluate your
performance and carry out further research for next time.
Above all, make cultural sensitivity a daily part of your life.
Learn to value people's differences, and how to respect the
things that make people who they are.

With Thanks To:

The source of this article is www.geert-hofstede.com, a
website operated by Hofstede's recommended training and
consulting organization, itim International. Bob Waifisz,
co-founder of itim International, has kindly acted as coauthor of this article.
This site teaches you the skills you need