Rehab7 Elec PDF
Rehab7 Elec PDF
Rehab7 Elec PDF
REHAB
THE
GUIDE
ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONICS
PATH (Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing) is a new private/public effort to develop, demonstrate, and gain widespread market acceptance for the Next Generation of American housing. Through
the use of new or innovative technologies the goal of PATH is to improve the quality, durability, environmental efciency, and affordability of tomorrows homes.
Initiated at the request of the White House, PATH is managed and supported by the Department of
Housing and Urban Development (HUD). In addition, all Federal Agencies that engage in housing research
and technology development are PATH Partners, including the Departments of Energy and Commerce, as
well as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA). State and local governments and other participants from the public sector are also partners in
PATH. Product manufacturers, home builders, insurance companies, and lenders represent private industry in the PATH partnership.
To learn more about PATH, please contact:
PATH
Suite B 133
451 7th Street SW
Washington, DC 20410
202-708-4250 (fax)
e-mail: [email protected]
website: www.pathnet.org
DISCLAIMER
The statements and conclusions contained in this report are those of Steven Winter Associates, Inc. and
do not necessarily reect the views of the Department of Housing and Urban Development. Steven Winter
Associates, Inc. has made every effort to verify the accuracy and appropriateness of the reports content.
However, no guarantee of the accuracy or completeness of the information or acceptability for compliance
with any industry standard or mandatory requirement of any code, law, or regulation is either offered or
implied. The products listed in the report are included only as examples of some available products. No
endorsement, recommendation, or evaluation of these products or their use is given or implied.
ELECTRICAL/
ELECTRONICS
VOLUME 7 OF THE REHAB GUIDE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
INTRODUCTION 4
ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONICS OVERVIEW 6
SERVICE PANELS 8
WIRING & RECEPTACLES 14
LIGHTING & CONTROLS 21
ELECTRIC BASEBOARD HEATING 30
PHONE/COMPUTER/TV CABLING 33
SECURITY SYSTEMS 36
Prepared for:
U.S. Department of Housing
and Urban Development
Ofce of Policy Development
and Research
Prepared by:
Steven Winter Associates, Inc.
Building Systems Consultants
Norwalk, CT
Contract DUIOOCOOOOO5956
April 2000
CREDITS
STEVEN WINTER ASSOCIATES, INC. STAFF MEMBERS
WHO WERE INSTRUMENTAL IN THE DEVELOPMENT AND
PRODUCTION OF THIS GUIDEBOOK INCLUDE:
Steven Winter
Principal-in-charge
Michael J. Crosbie, Ph.D., RA
Editor-in-chief and project manager
Masaki Furukawa
Illustrator
Christopher Demeter, Christoph Weigel, Jeff A.Goldberg, Pawan Kumar
Project team members
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT
OFFICE OF POLICY DEVELOPMENT AND RESEARCH, AFFORDABLE
HOUSING RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY DIVISION
David Engel
Director
Nelson Carbonell
Senior architect
GUIDEBOOK DESIGN
Andrew P. Kner
Art Director
Michele L. Trombley
Assistant Art Director
Elizabeth Rosen
Symbols
FOREWORD
President Clinton recognizes that research and technological innovation are crucial if America is to meet
its affordable housing needs. In 1998, the President introduced a major new initiative: The Partnership for
Advancing Technology in Housing (PATH). This initiative brings together leaders from the home building,
product manufacturing, insurance, and nancial industries, as well as representatives from federal agencies, to spur housing design and construction innovations.
Thanks to the development of new machinery and materials and the creation of new technologies and techniques, the construction industry has made great progress. But a breakthrough material, a
labor-saving tool, or a cost-cutting technique is only valuable if it is widely adopted, which means the construction industry must rst become aware of these new developments.
The Department of Housing and Urban Development can help. We have commissioned a set of
guidebooks that will present state-of-the-art techniques, materials, and technologies for housing rehabilitation. This volume, Electrical/Electronics, is the seventh of nine guidebooksknown collectively as The
Rehab Guide.
We are presenting these guidebooks because, like research and technological innovation, housing rehabilitation is an essential component of Americas commitment to provide affordable housing. I am
pleased to present this important publication in the hope that it will become a valuable resource that leads
to affordable, high quality rehabilitation, and thus to better housing for all Americans.
INTRODUCTION
This series of guidebooks has been produced by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
to keep the design and construction industry abreast of innovations and state-of-the-art practices in home
rehabilitation. As is too often the case, innovative techniques, materials, technologies, and products are
slow to make their way into accepted practice. It is evident that such innovations will not advance unless
the industry is made aware of them and they are tested. The Rehab Guide is intended to accelerate this
process by informing builders, architects, engineers, and other housing rehabilitation professionals about
such innovations and state-of-the-art practices.
The Rehab Guide was also prompted by the lack of a comprehensive publication to make the design
and construction industry aware of innovative and cost-saving developments in housing rehabilitation.
Professional trade magazines, conferences, and trade shows offer some dissemination of this information, but
they are rarely focused exclusively on housing rehabilitation, as this series is, nor are they comprehensive.
The focus of this series is on housing rehabilitation, which is different than home improvement.
Rehabilitate means to restore to good condition, not necessarily to improve to a state that is signicantly
different than the original. This is a ne line, but it distinguishes this series from home improvement
books written for the amateur. The Rehab Guide focuses on building technology, materials, components,
and techniques rather than projects such as adding a new room, converting a garage into a den, or
nishing an attic. Nor is The Rehab Guide intended to be a diagnostic tool; a number of such books are
already available to the industry.
The content for this guidebook, Electrical/Electronics, has been gathered from professionals in
the housing rehabilitation eld; manufacturers and suppliers of innovative technologies, materials, components, tools, and equipment; trade shows, conferences, reports, and publications considering such
issues; trade organizations; and building research centers.
A NOTE ON SOURCES
A variety of excellent resources exists for information on electrical and electronics for homes. Old
Electrical Wiring, published by McGraw-Hill, is an excellent book on wiring in existing homes and includes
historical information and a resource section. Basic Wiring and Advanced Wiring, both published by
Time-Life Books; Practical Electrical Wiring, published by McGraw-Hill; and Wiring a House, published
by Taunton Press, are all comprehensive guides to wiring a house. The Old-House Journal Guide to
Restoration, published by Dutton, provides a good history of wiring systems and tips for repair. Monthly
publications of interest include the Energy Design Update, Environmental Building News, Journal of
Light Construction, Home Energy, Old-House Journal, This Old House, and Traditional Builder.
Helpful information is also accessible via the Internet. Most equipment manufacturers and
monthly magazines have web sites where specic product information and past articles can be retrieved.
The Department of Energy provides a wealth of information on energy conserving techniques and technologies at www.eren.doe.gov/consumerinfo/.
The hazard of lead paint in houses constructed before the 1980s is not discussed in the The Rehab Guide
because there is extensive material available from HUD, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and
other sources. However, if you are a non-prot or rehab contractor rehabilitating pre-1978 housing for
sale or rent, or if you are a homeowner rehabilitating a home for your own use, you are strongly urged to
have the home tested for lead paint. This is especially critical if the home will be occupied by young children. Very small amounts of lead in paint or dust can poison children if swallowed or inhaled, causing
damage to the brain and other organs, resulting in health problems and reduced intelligence. If lead paint
is found, it is critical that all rehabilitation be done very carefully to reduce the possibility of lead poisoning to you or your workers. Proper work practices will minimize the risk of spreading lead contamination
and increasing occupant exposure.
One of the best and most recent sources on this subject is the HUD publication, Lead Paint Safety:
a Field Guide for Painting, Home Maintenance, and Renovation Work. Another good publication is the EPA
brochure, Reducing Lead Hazards When Remodeling Your Home. Both can be obtained by calling the
National Lead Information Center at 800-424-LEAD or by downloading from the web site of the HUD Ofce of
Lead Hazard Control, www.hud.gov/lea. A very comprehensive source is the HUD publication, Guidelines for
the Evaluation and Control of Lead-Based Paint Hazards in Housing, which gives guidance on controlling
lead hazards, lead paint and rehab work, risk assessment, monitoring, inspections, resident and work site
preparation, worker protection, and routine building maintenance. This publication is available through HUDUser; you can also download a copy of this document from the HUD web site at: www.hud.gov:80/lea/learules.html.
HUD has new regulations on lead-based paint hazards in federally owned housing and housing
receiving federal assistance. If you will be using HUD funds for rehabilitation through grants, insurance,
or other types of assistance, then there are protective procedures that must be followed. The Occupational
Safety and Health Administration web site at www.osha.gov has information on worker protection requirements. In addition, many states and localities have their own rules regarding lead-based paint, which
should be followed when undertaking rehabilitation.
ELECTRICAL/
ELECTRONICS
OVERVIEW
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Electrical systems that distribute power within a house must be safe, reliable, and efcient in the utilization of power. Defects in the performance of the system can result in damage to sensitive electronic equipment, electrical shocks, or re. Recent studies by the Consumer Product Safety Commission reveal that
res of an electrical origin damage more than 400 homes a day, sometimes causing injury or death.
Electronic detection devices such as carbon monoxide and smoke detectors are also important parts of
the electrical system, and must be reliable to warn house occupants of hazardous conditions.
This guide will provide an overview and a reference resource for information about electrical/electronic systems, subsystems, and materials; a review of current theory in terms of performance of
these systems; a discussion of new materials, techniques, or components that have recently been improved
or that represent totally new product lines; and state-of-the-art practice and new standards in cabling for
telephones, television, and computers. Because it is primarily about rehabilitation, this guide will cover
retrotting electrical systems to protect against hazardous situations. It will address problems with receptacles and controls to wiring and light xtures to security and detection devices.
In comparison with other house systems, such as framing or plumbing, the electrical system is
relatively new. From their infancy in homes a little over 100 years ago, electrical systems and materials have
gone through signicant transformations, all of which have contributed to improved safety. Most new product developments today are in low voltage wiring for electronics, communications, and control systems.
Because the electrical system in a home is old does not mean it needs to be replaced. Most older
electrical systems or components of the system are grandfathered in, permitted to remain in place and
continue to operate, unless the electrical inspector believes them to be unsafe. In remodeling, the general
rule of thumb is: if it is touched, it must be brought up to code.
Before beginning any electrical work, consult the National Electric Code (NEC), local building
codes, and the local building code ofcial. The NEC, rst developed in 1897, is a model set of electrical
safety requirements published by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) for building and insurance inspectors and electrical contractors. It has no legal standing of its own. Most towns or jurisdictions
simply adopt it, and are free to interpret or enforce it as they see t. Some localities also add their own
electrical code requirements.
One of the requirements often found in the NEC is that appliances or equipment on an electrical
circuit be listed. This means that the device has been certied by an independent testing laboratory. The
function of an independent testing laboratory, such as Underwriters Laboratory (UL), is to perform tests
on a product to make sure that it fullls the manufacturers claims and that it is safe. Without certication,
an installation may not pass the electrical inspection. In this case the eld inspection service of a Nationally
Recognized Testing Laboratory (NRTL) can perform a single unit investigation and certify the product.
FURTHER READING
Caring for Your Historic House, Harriet Whelchel editor, Heritage Preservation, 1998.
A Consumers Guide to Home Improvement, Renovation, and Repair, Enterprise Foundation, New
York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1990.
The Guide to Low-Voltage and Limited Energy Systems, National Electrical Contractors Association,
1999.
Home Repair and Improvement - Advanced Wiring, the editors of Time-Life Books, Alexandria, VA:
Time-Life, 1998.
Home Repair and Improvement - Basic Wiring, the editors of Time-Life Books, Alexandria, VA: TimeLife,1994.
Landeld Group archive of publicly available material: www.landeld.com.
National Electrical Code 1999, National Fire Protection Association, 1998.
Old Electrical Wiring Maintenance and Retrot, David E. Shapiro, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998.
The Old-House Journal Guide to Restoration, Patricia Poore, editor, New York: Dutton, 1992.
Practical Electrical Wiring, 17th Edition, Herbert P. Richter and W.Creighton Schwan, New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1996.
Renovating Old Houses, George Nash, Newtown, CT: Taunton Press, 1992.
Troubleshooting Guide to Residential Construction, the editors of the Journal of Light Construction,
Builderburg Group, Inc., 1997.
Understanding and Servicing Alarm Systems, Second Edition, H. William Trimmer, B.S., Butterworth
Heinemann, 1989.
Wiring a House, Rex Cauldwell, Newtown, CT: Taunton Press, 1996.
S E RV I C E PA N E L S
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
A residential service panel serves two functions. It is a master switch that can cut off all of the power in
the house, and it divides utility-supplied electrical power into branch circuits, which safely distribute
power throughout a house. The wiring of each branch circuit is protected by a fuse or circuit breaker,
which cuts off the power when a circuit is overloaded. Without adequate protection, overloaded wires heat
up. This damages the wires insulation and may eventually lead to a re. The National Electrical Code
(NEC) lists the specic fuse/breaker size and the wire gauge that it is meant to protect. For example, 12
and 14 gauge wire, which are commonly found in residences, require over-current protection of 20- and
15-amps, respectively.
There are several causes of circuit overloads. They may result from short circuits, ground faults,
or appliances drawing more current than the rating of the fuse/circuit breaker (Figs.1, 2). A direct short
circuit occurs when the hot and neutral wires are either directly or indirectly touching. A nail driven into
the wires would cause this type of short circuit. A ground fault occurs when a hot wire touches a ground
wire. An example is if the hot wire accidentally touches the grounded frame of a tool or appliance.
A fuse uses a fusible link to protect the circuit. When overloaded the fusible link melts, opening up
the circuit. There are two types of fuses: cartridge fuses and plug fuses. Cartridge fuses, which are no longer
common in residences, can still be found in older homes. Circuit breakers use a two-part system to protect
the circuit. For mild overloads, a bimetal strip heats up, bends backwards, and eventually trips the breaker.
For severe short circuits an electromagnet helps bend the strip faster, providing an almost instantaneous
response to the open circuit. In general, the higher the current, the faster the breaker trips.
FIGURE 1, 2
FUSE BOX
Whereas standard circuit breakers and fuses are meant to protect the wiring of a house, the
ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) is meant to protect life. There are two types of GFCIs available: circuit breakers and receptacles. The circuit breaker type (Fig. 3) was rst introduced around 1968, which
coincides with the year they were required by the NEC for underwater pool lights. Since then, the NEC has
gradually required their use in more and more locations until today, where they are generally required in
kitchens, bathrooms, garages, outdoors, and unnished basements or crawlspaces (Fig. 4). A GFCI works
by monitoring the current going to the load and comparing it with the current returning. If there is a difference between the two (up to four to six thousandths of an amp), current must be leaking out and the
FIGURE 3, 4
GFCI RECEPTICLE
GFCI will open the circuit. Therefore, if this leak is to the ground through a person holding a tool or appliance, the GFCI will open the circuit in between 1/25 and 1/30 of a second. A person may still receive a
shock, but it will last less than 1/30 of a second.
Until the late-1950s, fuse boxes dominated the residential service panel market. Circuit breaker panels were introduced around 1951 and became more popular, and by the 1960s circuit breaker panels surpassed fuse boxes in market share. Today, new residential fuse panels are difcult if not impossible to nd.
Service panels of older homes are often overloaded and require a service upgrade. Due to the
increasing number of electrical devices used in todays households, electrical demands have steadily
increased. In the early 1900s houses were usually equipped with 15-amp and 20-amp services. As electrical appliances became household necessities in the 1930s and 40s, 40-amp and 60-amp service
became common. Today 100-amp service is the minimum required by code for new construction.
Generally, if the existing service in a home is below 100 amps and additional circuits are required, the service will have to be upgraded. This is especially true if the service to the house and panel are 120-volt,
which cannot support an appliance requiring a 240-volt line, such as a clothes dryer.
The service disconnect indicates the size of the existing service. If there is no service disconnect, a
licensed electrician will have to determine the service by verifying the size of the service entrance wire and the
rating of the panel itself. Signs that may indicate an overloaded service panel include a frequently failing main
fuse or circuit breaker; no room left in the service panel for additional circuits; dual or half-size breakers
installed where they shouldnt be; two or more hot wires (each representing a circuit) connected to one
fuse/breaker. Fuses that exceed the maximum amperage allowed (15-amp fuses replaced with 30-amp fuses)
or lights dimming when such equipment as the furnace motor or refrigerator compressor turns on may also
indicate an overloaded service panel or circuit. However, the best way to determine whether the existing service panel or circuit is overloaded is to calculate the electrical loads according to NEC guidelines.
Loose connections and corrosion are other common problems found in service panels that may
require panel replacement. Corrosion can be a result of rain water entering the service panel by traveling
along the service entrance cable (Fig. 5), or from the service panel being in a damp location. A drip loop
or conduit weatherhead, along with proper sealants, will stop the former problem. The latter may require
eliminating the source of moisture or relocating the service panel. Corrosion negatively affects the performance of fuses and circuit breakers. Corroded fuse connections allow only partial voltage to be available to a circuit. Corroded circuit breakers create a re hazard by increasing the amount of current
required to trip a breaker. Loose fuse and circuit breaker connections also create a re hazard by causing arcing, burning, and overheating of the over current protection device, and sometimes the entire service panel. The smell of burnt insulation, a deformed bus bar, or the presence of heat can alert you to the
presence of loose connections in the service panel.
FIGURE 5
FIGURE 6
10
FIGURE 7
INSTALLING A SUBPANEL
DISADVANTAGES: Not all service panels are designed to accommodate dual and half-sized breakers.
Because of their small size these breakers can be difcult to install. This option is not available if the service panel is already at full electrical capacity.
FIGURE 8
FIGURE 9
others. Even though the cost of a GFCI circuit breaker 2 is about seven times the cost of a standard breaker,
most people would agree that this is a small price to pay for a device that may save a life.
ADVANTAGES: A GFCI circuit breaker will protect all receptacles on a circuit. For outdoor circuits, a circuit breaker-type GFCI will outlast a receptacle-type, which is affected by moisture.
DISADVANTAGES: Circuit breaker-type GFCIs are more costly than receptacle-type GFCIs. A circuit breakertype GFCI is less convenient than a receptacle-type because one has to go back to the main panel to reset
the breaker, whereas the receptacle type is reset at the receptacle itself. The circuit breaker-type GFCI cannot be used in old wiring systems that use shared neutrals; a receptacle-type GFCI should be used.
8. INSTALL AN ARC FAULT CIRCUIT INTERRUPTER (AFCI).
An AFCI is a newly introduced circuit breaker (Fig. 9) that detects electrical arcing by monitoring the wave
form of the voltage. Arcing generates high intensity heat, and expels burning particles that can easily ignite
combustible materials. Arc faults occur when electrical products or wires are damaged, aged, or improperly used. An example is an extension cord that is repeatedly closed in a door, or a wire punctured by a
nail or screw. Beginning 2001, the NEC will require that all bedrooms be protected with AFCIs.
ADVANTAGES: Provides additional protection against the risk of re. Provides great protection in old house
wiring where the condition of the wiring insulation is uncertain.
DISADVANTAGES: An AFCI is approximately eight times the cost of a standard breaker. It cannot be used
in old wiring systems that use shared neutrals (see Section 4: Wiring and Receptacles).
FURTHER READING
Panel Discussion: Assessing the Safety of Old-House Electric Panels, Sam Roberts, Old-House Journal,
January/February 1996.
The Electric Panel, Rex Cauldwell, Journal of Light Construction, October 1993.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
Cutler-Hammer, Pittsburgh PA; 800-525-2000; Advanced Power Center System; www.cutler-hammer.com.
Square D Company, 1415 South Roselle Road, Palatine, IL 60067; 847-397-2600; www.squared.com.
Siemens Energy & Automation, 3333 Old Milton Parkway, Alpharetta GA 30005; 770-751-2000;
www.siemens.com/en/home.
GE Electrical Distribution and Control, 41 Woodford Avenue, Plainville, CT 06062; 860-747-7111;
www.ge.com/indsys/components/serventrance.htm.
The Electrical Outlet, 800-227-5731 (obsolete breakers and other equipment).
Romac, 805-323-0896 (obsolete breakers and other equipment).
13
WIRING &
R E C E P TA C L E S
4.1
WIRING OVERVIEW
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Wire provides the means by which electrical current is conveyed from the point of generation to the point
of use. Wire types include transmission wires, service wires, branch circuit wiring, extension cords, and
appliance power cords. This chapter focuses on the rehabilitation of residential branch circuit wiring.
Wire is sized according to the amperage it is designed to carry. Codes specify the maximum current-carrying capacity that is safe for different size wires. Wire diameter sizes are measured using the
American Wire Gauge (AWG) system. In this system the bigger the number, the smaller the wire diameter.
For example, No. 14 wire, which is commonly used for general service wiring in a house, is larger than
No. 16. A problem in older houses is determining the size of existing wiring. Although the Code requires
wire sizes be continually marked on the wire insulation, it is often illegible. If this is the case, a wire gauge
or wire samples should be used to determine wire size.
Both sizes and composition of wiring systems have changed over the years. Knob-and-tube was the
rst widely used electrical system, prevalent from the 1890s to 1920. Knob-and-tube is a two-wire system in
which nonconducting porcelain knobs hold wire 1 off the surface of studs and joists; porcelain tubes protect wire where it penetrates framing or crosses other wire. Electrical connections were not required to be
made in an electrical enclosure. One wire was wrapped around the other and then the joint was soldered
and taped. Wires that terminated in outlets and switches were protected with a tube of woven fabric called
loom. This system contained no ground and the outlets were not polarized.
Less expensive than knob-and-tube, raceways made of wooden molding were used from about
1900 to the 1930s when they became illegal. In this system, wood moldings carried two or three wires in
a grooved strip that was attached to the wall, and covered with a cap. This system had two major aws:
wood is quite combustible and homeowners mistaking the molding for picture molding would drive nails
through it and the wires. If wooden molding raceways are encountered in rehab work they should be
removed. Metal raceways, once considered to be moldings, were rst recognized by the National Electrical
Code in 1907, and are still used today.
The development of Greeneldexible-steel conduit for holding wiresin the late 1890s
made it easier to snake conduit into walls and oors of houses. The exibility was accomplished by wrapping galvanized steel strips into a tube (Fig.1). The next development was armored cable or Type AC (also
called by its tradename BX) where wires were bound in a continuous spiral of galvanized metal.
Although it was recognized by the NEC in 1899, Type AC use did not become widespread until 1920, and
it did not achieve major popularity until the late-1920s. Early armored cable contained no ground; the
armor itself was used as a ground. Safety was signicantly improved in 1959 when the NEC required that
all armored cable contain a slender aluminum bonding strip as a ground. Moisture plagued all these
wiring products. In damp locations, rust would deteriorate the insulation and eventually lead to a ground
fault. This problem was solved with the introduction of vinyl insulation after 1940.
14
Nonmetallic sheathed cable (Fig. 1) or Type NM was rst recognized by the NEC in 1926. This
cable consisted of two rubber insulated conductors sheathed in cloth. In 1928, the NEC required that
ground conductors be installed in NM cable, however in some jurisdictions ungrounded NM continued to
be used until the mid-1960s. After World War II the conductor insulation changed from rubber to plastic;
the transition from cloth to plastic sheathing was completed in the early-60s.
The most common problems found in residential electrical systems are loose or broken connections and deteriorated insulation. Usually loose or broken connections occur in electrical enclosures,
and can easily be repaired. Knob-and-tube is the exception to this because wire splices occur inside walls.
Deteriorated insulation, which is found in many older electrical systems, may not be as easily repaired.
Deteriorating insulation has several causes, including the age and type of the insulation used, and its exposure to air, heat, or moisture. Rubber, the standard wiring insulation before 1930, has a life expectancy of
about 25 years. Because rubber deteriorates rapidly in open air, most of this exposed wiring will be
extremely brittle and potentially hazardous. In contrast, insulation on wiring in conduit or armored cable
may only be cracking where it leaves the enclosure to make connections to switches or outlets. Exposure
to the excessive heat from overloaded wires, or a wall or ceiling mounted light xture, can cook wiring
insulation, making it brittle. Wires that are overloaded will also stress the conductor, making it more likely
to break. Old wiring insulation exposed to moisture should be replaced.
FIGURE 1
of special adapters. Raceways are available in metal or PVC, the latter of which is available in white or wood
laminate versions. Models are available that also encase both electrical and communication wires (Fig. 4).
ADVANTAGES: Signicantly less costly than snaking wires through existing wall and ceiling cavities; accessible for future changes; locations of outlets and jacks can be easily changed. Outlets, jacks, and switches
of some models are located inside the raceway channel, not in full-sized obtrusive boxes.
DISADVANTAGES: May not be acceptable aesthetically.
FIGURE 2, 3
FIGURE 4
3. REPAIR INSULATION.
Crumbling insulation may often be repaired with one of several techniques: insulating varnish can be
applied over old rubber insulation; heat-shrink tubing can be installed; bare wires can be wrapped with
electrical tape. Where there is enough slack in armored cable, cutting 12 off the armor to expose wire
with good insulation is another solution. If there is not enough slack, the cable can be cut back 12, a
junction box installed, and a new armored cable spliced in.
ADVANTAGES: Signicantly less costly than rewiring; can add years to the life of the existing electrical system.
DISADVANTAGES: Solutions may not be acceptable to local code ofcials; a temporary x. Installation of a
new junction box may not be aesthetically acceptable.
16
FURTHER READING
Working with Old Wiring, David E. Shapiro, Fine Homebuilding, December/January 1999, pp. 112115.
Plug-In Electrical Testers, Rex Cauldwell, Journal of Light Construction, December 1995.
Rewiring Old Houses, Sean Kenney, Journal of Light Construction, April 1999.
Upgrading Kitchen Wiring, Sean Kenny, Journal of Light Construction, May 1997.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
Carlon, 25701 Science Park Drive, Cleveland, OH 44122; 800-322-7566 (surface raceways moldings).
Wiremold Company, 60 Woodlawn Street, West Hartford, CT 06110; 800-621-0049; www.wiremold.com
(surface raceways moldings).
4.2
ALUMINUM WIRING
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
When the price of copper soared in the early 1960s, manufacturers responded by making residential electrical wires out of aluminum. Between 1962 and 1972, nearly 2 million homes were wired with aluminum,
and many of these have not been upgraded. The hazard with aluminum wiring arises from two types of corrosion: 1) the connection of dissimilar metals, and 2) the oxidation of exposed aluminum. Both increase
the electrical resistance of the wiring, making it hotter when in use and therefore a re hazard. Also,
because aluminum expands and contracts signicantly more from changing temperatures than copper,
unless all connections are made very tightly, the wiring may pull loose as a result of the heat of resistance.
Aluminum wiring can be identied by the dull gray color of the wire or by AL on the sheathing. Receptacles and outlets used with aluminum wiring must be marked OC/ALR, which are designed
to prevent contact between dissimilar materials. Warning signs of problems include: warm cover plates,
devices that fail to work for no apparent reason, and strange odors or smoke.
by specially-trained electricians. This system is the only method considered by the US Consumer Product
Safety Commission (CPSC) to be a permanent repair. Its recommendation is based upon extensive testing.
ADVANTAGES: Avoids the expense of rewiring entire house and therefore is less costly.
DISADVANTAGES: System is not available in all parts of the country; installation requires specially-trained
electrician and specialty tools.
3. SPLICE WIRE USING SCOTCHLOK TWIST-ON CONNECTORS.
Pigtailing with certain types of connectors, although they might be presently listed by UL for the application, can lead to increasing the re hazard of the connection. Following special installation procedures,
the 3M Scotchlok connectors are considered by CPSC to be the best available alternative to the
COPALUM crimp. 3M Scotchlok has several features that make it safer than other connectors: a nonammable shell, a metal shell around the spring, and a heavier spring wire. In this system, the bare aluminum wire is abraded under a coating of non-ammable oxide inhibitor. The connector spring is then
lled with oxide inhibitor before the connector is applied to the pre-twisted wires. This work must be done
by a qualied electrician.
ADVANTAGES: Avoids the expense of rewiring entire house; Specialty tools are not required; availability is
not limited to certain parts of the country.
DISADVANTAGES: This system is only as good as the installation technique; installation requires a qualied
electrician.
FURTHER READING
The Aluminum Wire Information Website, www.mhv.net/~dfriedman/aluminum.htm.
Aluminum Wiring in Residential Properties: Hazards & Remedies, www.inspect-ny.com/aluminum.htm.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
AMP Inc., P.O. Box 3608, Harrisburg, PA 17105; 717-986-7777; 800-522-6752; www.amp.com
3M, 6801 River Place Blvd, Austin, TX 78726; 512-984-1800; 800-245-3573; www.mmm.com/elpd/index/.
4.3
RECEPTACLES
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
18
Receptacles (also known as outlets) supply power to portable equipment used in houses, such as oor
lamps, radios, and toasters. Up until the mid-1960s, ungrounded receptacles were installed in most houses
(Fig. 5). In older homes, these two-prong receptacles were not polarized. Grounding and polarization are
important features of an electrical system. Equipment grounding reduces the shock hazard from electrical
boxes or equipment that may become hot because of a conductor insulation failure or loose connection.
In this system each metallic, noncurrent-carrying part of the electrical system (electrical boxes, equipment
frames, appliances, motors, and conduit) is connected to the ground wires of each branch circuit; to the
neutral bar of the load center; and then to the earth. If a hot wire accidentally touches the metal housing of
an electric drill, the fault current will ow back to the service panel via the equipment grounding conductor, and the circuit breaker will trip. If this system was not in place, a person could receive a serious shock
from a faulty appliance if he or she were not insulated from the ground. Grounded receptacles are also
required for the proper functioning of plug-in surge protectors used to protect sensitive electronic equipment. Surge protectors work by directing excess voltages and currents into the grounding system.
Therefore, without a high quality ground in place, the surge protector is useless.
In an electrical circuit, keeping the hot and neutral separate is called polarization. It is achieved
by making the neutral blade of a plug and the neutral slot of a receptacle wider than their hot counterparts. This ensures that the hot and neutral wires of an ungrounded appliance cannot be reversed. If
polarity is accidentally reversed, the exposed socket of a properly wired lamp could deliver a shock even
when the switch is off. Reversed polarization does not occur in grounded appliances because the grounding pin forces proper polarization.
In most cases, non-operable receptacles can easily and inexpensively be repaired. Loose wire
connections can be tightened and failed receptacles can be replaced. The NEC requires that all new receptacles, whether for replacements or new installations, be grounded. This does not mean that existing twoprong receptacles in a house need to be replaced, although this would improve the safety of the existing
electrical system and therefore should be considered.
FIGURE 5
RECEPTACLES
DISADVANTAGES: Ground conductor may have to be run back to the service panel because it is less likely
to be disturbed there than if is is connected to another part of the grounding electrode system.
3. CONNECT RECEPTACLE TO THE GROUNDED RECEPTACLE BOX.
Where the existing receptacle box is grounded, a grounded receptacle can easily be installed by connecting a wire jumper from the receptacles grounding terminal to the back of the box. The absence of a copper grounding conductor does not mean that the box is not grounded. Where armored cable is used, it
does not have a separate ground wire because the steel jacket acts as the ground conductor. The addition
of a bonding strip in the armored cable, a 1959 NEC requirement, greatly improved this systems continuity to ground. However, it cannot be assumed that the presence of armored cable means that the receptacle box is adequately grounded. Both the box and armor need to be tested with a circuit tester or another
electrical device for continuity to ground.
ADVANTAGES: Easily and inexpensively accomplished.
DISADVANTAGES: Potential for the armor to rust and create a discontinuity, which would result in the false
impression of the outlet being grounded when it is not.
4. INSTALL A RECEPTACLE-TYPE GROUND FAULT CIRCUIT INTERRUPTER.
The NEC forbids replacing a two-prong outlet with an ungrounded three-prong outlet unless it is a GFCI
type. The reason is that although the GFCI is not grounded itself, it protects users by shutting off the current in the event of a ground fault. It also protects receptacles downstream. Therefore the code allows all
downstream receptacles to be replaced with non-GFCI three prong receptacles if they are labeled with a
sticker stating GFCI Protected. A new GFCI outlet produced by Leviton, called the Smart Lock GFCI, contains two new safety features: 1) the reset button is mechanically prevented from being reset if the GFCI is
damaged after a voltage surge, and 2) a diagnostic feature prevents downstream receptacles from operating if the GFCI outlet is wired incorrectly.
ADVANTAGES: Easy installation; inexpensive.
DISADVANTAGES: A surge protector plugged into this type of circuit is rendered useless. A ground is
needed to make the surge suppressors or line lters, which are commonly used to protect computer systems, effective.
FURTHER READING
Installing Electrical Boxes and Receptacles, Rex Cauldwell, Fine Homebuilding, June/July, 1996.
Converting 2-prong to grounded 3-prong receptacles, Redwood Kardon, www.codecheck.com/frame.htm
Dont Guess at GFCI Regs!, J. Michael Rhodes, Electrical Contractor Magazine, May 1996.
More Groundless Worries, David E. Shapiro, Electrical Contractor Magazine, April 1999.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
Pass & Seymour/Legrand, P.O. Box 4822 Syracuse, NY 13221-4822; 315-468-8430 (phone), 315-4688388 (fax); www.passandseymour.com/ (self-contained devices).
Leviton Manufacturing Co, 59-25 Little Neck Parkway, Little Neck, NY 11362; 800-229-4040; www.leviton.com/.
Eagle Electric Manufacturing Co., Inc., 45-31 Court Square, Long Island City, NY 11101; 800-366-6789;
www.eagle-electric.com.
20
LIGHTING &
CONTROLS
5.1
INTERIOR LIGHTING
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Lighting provides illumination for safety, security, and the performance of visual tasks. Electric lighting systems are comprised of two parts: the lamp or bulb and the light xture. About 95% of the lamps used in
older residential homes are incandescent, the rest are uorescent.
In general, an incandescent lamp works by passing electrical current through a lament which
heats up to the point where it produces light. The use of electric lighting became affordable and practical
when Thomas Edison invented the incandescent light bulb in 1879. The nature of these early lamps
became a critical inuence on the design of the xtures.
For nearly 100 years, prior to Edisons invention, gas was the primary lighting system in the U.S.
With the advent of the incandescent light bulb, gas began to lose its hold on the market. From the early
1880s until about 1910, electricity was not the most reliable energy source. As a result, early electric light
xtures were a combination of gas and electric: gas xtures upgraded with one or two electric arms.
Combination xtures remained in catalogues as late as 1912, but were sharing their pages with all-electric xtures by this time. After 1913 gas lost its dominance to electricity.
Early electrical xtures did not have shades because the modest light output was best left unobscured (Fig. 1). As the quality improved a new breed of all-electric lighting emerged free of accoutrements
of earlier gas light xtures. Three general illumination systems emerged: direct illumination, indirect illumination, and semi-direct illumination.
FIGURE 1
21
Although Edison patented a uorescent lamp in 1896, the rst commercial production of
uorescents was not until 1938. In general, a uorescent lamp works by sending an electric arc down a
phosphorous-lined glass tube, energizing the phosphors causing them to emit light. This is accomplished
with the help of two additional devices: a ballast and a starter. The ballast limits the current owing
through the lamp to a predetermined value, and the starter performs the preheat function used to light the
uorescent lamp. This preheat circuit is seldom used today, having been replaced by instant-start and
rapid-start circuits. The major advantages of uorescent over incandescent is that they produce two to four
times as much light, and can last up to 20 times longer. Long tube uorescents also have lower surface
brightness, producing less reected glare and shadow. Many improvements have been made to uorescents since they were rst introduced. Today the color rendition of uorescents can be almost the same
as incandescents, and many are dimmable.
The electrical parts of a light xture have a nite life. As mentioned in Section 4, incandescent
lights can heat up xture wires, causing insulation to deteriorate. This can also happen to wires near a
uorescents deteriorating ballast if it is not thermally protected. Poor contact between the bulb and the
xture is another problem: over time and through repeated lamp replacement, contacts can corrode or
lose their resilience and cause the xtures to function poorly or not at all. Fluorescent light xtures can
have malfunctioning starters and ballasts.
Beyond the functioning of xtures, a broader issue may exist. Existing xtures may not provide
sufcient light for contemporary tastes and needs. Lamps with higher lumen-output are not necessarily the
best solution. The xture may not be designed to handle the additional power and the heat generated by
a higher output lamp. A lamp that is too large, too bright, or too frosted will compromise the effect of a
period light xture. For instance, pan lights (ush mounted ceiling xtures with bare bulbs) were popular in bedrooms and less formal living rooms from about 1910 to 1930 and were designed for small round
globe lights in the 15- to 40-watt range. Installing a larger lamp may actually have a negative effect by creating glare.
22
ter light quality, and lower operating costs than traditional incandescent lighting. Halogen lamps are 50%
brighter per watt than typical light bulbs and last twice as long. The smaller size of some of these xtures
makes them useful in places where larger incandescent xtures will not t, such as under counters. A
transformer is required to convert the current from 120 volts AC to 12 volts DC. The transformer should
be out of view but easily accessible.
Dedicated compact uorescent light xtures provide three to four times more light output per watt than
traditional incandescent lighting. Although xtures can be considerably more costly than a comparable
incandescent, utility companies often provide rebates offsetting this added cost.
White LED (light emitting diode) lighting consumes less than a quarter of the electricity that uorescent
lighting does, and lasts about ten times longer. A 1.2 watt white LED cluster is as bright as a 20-watt incandescent lamp. Light quality is comparable to that of cool white compact uorescent lights (CFLs).
Currently considered expensive, look for their costs to come down as they become more popular and
more manufacturers begin to make them. LEDs are available for direct replacement of incandescent
lamps, as strip lights for installation under cabinets, and in custom arrays for custom-built down lights,
sconces, and surface mounted xtures.
ADVANTAGES: In historical applications, wall sconces and brackets will add to the light level without
detracting from historic ceiling xture. Additional light xtures can increase the quality of light within a
room and reduce glare.
DISADVANTAGES: Certain xtures can be expensive.
4. INSTALL A DIMMER SWITCH.
To reduce a light xtures glare, replace the existing light switch with a dimmer switch. A dimmer switch
allows one to simulate the low light levels of a historic light xture or run them at full output as required
for contemporary needs. Dimming a light xture saves electricity and extends the life of incandescent
bulbs.
ADVANTAGES: Relatively easy to install, and reasonable cost.
DISADVANTAGES: Dimmers reduce the efciency of incandescent lamps. They can produce an audible
buzzing sound, and put radio frequency interference (RFI) into a branch circuit.
FURTHER READING
White LED Lighting, Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing, Technology Inventory, www.nahbrc.org/homebase/xtechinv.html.
#1 Lighting, Home Energy Brief, Rocky Mountain Institute, 1994.
Dedicated Fixtures for Compact Fluorescents, Tim Maker, Journal of Light Construction, January 1994.
Lighting Your Life, a Home Lighting Guide, American Lighting Association, 1992; www.americanlightingassoc.com/life.htm.
Low Voltage Lighting, Jeff Ridenour, Journal of Light Construction, May 1996.
American Lighting 1840-1940, Nadja Maril, Schiffer Publisher, 1995.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
Old-House Journals Restoration Directory, Hanley-Wood, Inc., One Thomas Circle, NW, Suite 600,
Washington, DC 20005; 202-737-3409.
Midwest Lamp Parts Company, 3534 North Spaulding Avenue, Chicago, IL 60618; 377-539-0628 (replacement parts for old xtures).
B&P Lamp Supply, Inc., McMinnville, TN 37110; 615-473-3016 (replacement parts for old xtures).
23
W.N. de Sherbinin Products, Inc., POB 63 Hawleyville, CT 06440; 203-791-0494 (replacement parts for
old xtures).
Kim Lighting, 16555 E. Gale Ave., P.O. Box 1275, City of Industry, CA 91749; 818-968-5666.
The Lighting Resource, P.O. Box 48345, Minneapolis, MN 55448-0343; 612-939-1717.
Holly Solar Products, P.O. Box 864, 1340 Industrial Ave., Petaluma, CA 94952; 800-622-8716.
Automated Voice Systems, Inc., 17059 El Cajon Avenue, Yorba Linda, CA 92686, 714-524-4488; www.mastervoice.com.
LEDtronics, 4009 Pacic Coast Highway, Torrance CA 90505; 310-534-1505.
5.2
EXTERIOR LIGHTING
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
In its most practical sense, exterior lighting provides illumination for safety and security. It can illuminate
a safe path to the entrance of a house, or the grounds around the house so that any prowlers are visible.
Some of the same problems encountered in interior light xtures are encountered outside (see section
above). Additionally, because of their exposure to sunlight and moisture, exterior light xtures are susceptible to corrosion.
Exterior light levels at an existing home are often insufcient. Walking on an unlit path can be
difcult or even hazardous, especially at changes of grade. Too much light can create blinding glare, which
can also make it easier for a burglar to remain in the shadows unseen, defeating the purpose of security
lighting. In general, lower levels of light are preferable for both security and safety. Exterior lighting should
also provide a gentle transition from darkness outside to brightness inside, and vise versa, which is better
for older people who may have poor night vision and poor depth perception.
There are special requirements for running standard 120 volt wiring to a new exterior light
xture, such as a lamp post. Conduit is required to protect all wiring above ground, and is often necessary underground. It can be made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), thin-wall metal, or heavy-wall (rigid) conduit. PVC and thin-wall metal conduit are easy to work with, but must be buried at least 12 underground.
Rigid metal conduit is more costly and harder to work with, but it only needs to be buried 6 underground. If local codes permit, a heavily sheathed non-metallic cable called UF cable can be used instead
of conduit. It also needs to be buried at least 12 underground.
All exterior lamps and light xtures should be rated for outdoor use. Lamps should have a corrosion resistant nickel or copper-coated base and hardened glass bulb. Fixtures should be made of corrosion-resistant materials such as copper, brass, or aluminum and have watertight housings. Plastic
xtures can also be used but they may degrade from exposure to heat and sunlight. Fluorescent and high
intensity discharge (HID) lamps require additional current transformers called ballasts, which are integral parts of the xture and should also be rated for outdoor use.
FIGURE 2, 3
LED BULBS
ADVANTAGES: Consumes less than a quarter of the electricity used by uorescent lighting and lasts about
ten times longer.
DISADVANTAGES: Because white LED lighting is relatively new to the market place, few manufacturers offer
it; can be costly.
FURTHER READING
A Guide to Exterior Lighting, Martha Tuzson Stockton, Fine Homebuilding, February/March 1998.
Full Cut-Off Outdoor Light Fixtures, Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing, Technology
Inventory, www.nahbrc.org/homebase/index.html.
Outdoor Photovoltaic Lighting, Energy Efciency and Renewable Energy Network (EREN), U.S.
Department of Energy, www.eren.doe.gov/consumerinfo/refbriefs/db8.html.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
Old-House Journals Restoration Directory, Hanley-Wood, Inc., One Thomas Circle, NW, Suite 600,
Washington, DC 20005, 202-737-3409.
LIGHTING-INC.COM, 1236 Wood Station Place, St. Louis, Missouri 63021; 314-225-7042;
www.lighting-inc.com/searchman.html.
Nightscaping, 1705 E. Colton Ave., Redlands, CA 92374; 800-544-4840; www.nightscaping.com.
Solar Outdoor Lighting, Jade Mountain Inc., P.O. Box 4616, Boulder, CO 80306; 800-442-1972; www.jademountain.com/outdr.html.
5.3
CONTROLS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
26
Switches control the power used in an electrical circuit. A standard switch has two settings, on and off.
When on, electricity ows through the circuit from its source to a point of use. When off, the circuit is
opened, interrupting the ow of electricity. Most light xtures and many receptacles are controlled by at
least one switch. A dimmer has more than two settings. It is able to control the level of light from very dim
to bright by controlling the voltage of the electrical current reaching a light xture.
A key-type switch built into the xture operated early wall, ceiling, and table xtures. In 1890,
the push-button switch was introduced and remained the most popular switch used for the next 40 to 50
years. In order to minimize arcing, it was designed with springs that would snap the blades away from
the contacts quickly. This resulted in the switches distinctive snapping sound. For a quiet switch, mercury
switches were developed, with contacts made and broken at the boundary of a small pool of mercury.
There were no springs to fatigue or metal contact surfaces to fail. Mercury switches are still made but are
difcult to nd. Tumble switches were available around 1898, but did not become popular until after
alternating current became the standard.
Wall switches are one of the most reliable devices in the house. A good quality switch, under normal use, will last 20 years or more, but at some point its springs break or its contacts pit. The slight
mechanical movement caused by ipping the switch on and off can also loosen wiring connections.
Because replacing a switch is easy and inexpensive, the homeowner may want to replace the switch long
before it fails.
There are a few problems associated with dimmers: they reduce the efciency of incandescent
lamps, they often produce an audible buzz, and they may put radio frequency interference (RFI) into a
branch circuit. Any load on this branch circuit such as an AM radio, TV, or cordless telephone will receive
this RFI noise. This is not a problem where lighting and receptacle circuits are separate. Standard dimmers should not be used to control fans or any motorized device.
FIGURE 4
27
ADVANTAGES: Can be installed in a quarter of the time it takes to install conventional switches.
DISADVANTAGES: SCDs can only be used with grounded nonmetallic sheathed cable; this limits their use
to houses wired within the last 20 years.
5. INSTALL WIRELESS SWITCHES.
Where a switch needs to be added or relocated, wireless switching can be installed. Wireless control systems utilize infrared light or radio frequency signals to communicate with controls for lighting and electrical devices. A wireless three-way switching kit contains a battery-powered wireless wall switch, and a
receiver switch that replaces an existing switch. The wireless switch sends a signal to the receiver switch,
allowing a xture to be controlled from either location. Another system can control lamps or appliances
plugged into a receptacle through the use of a receptacle switch module.
ADVANTAGES: Substantial cost savings are realized because rewiring is not required to add a new light
switch. This system does not use existing house wiring as a means of communicating, and therefore is not
susceptible to other household product cross talk, which can create erratic behavior.
DISADVANTAGES: Can cause interference.
6. INSTALL A FIBER OPTIC SWITCH.
Installing a ber optic switch can eliminate the danger of operating a wall switch from a wet location such
as a bath or shower. In this system a light pulse is emitted from the switching module, travels along a ber
optic cable to an optical membrane wall switch, and is reected back. Pressing the wall switch breaks the
light pulse, activating the switching module.
ADVANTAGES: Fiber optic switches will not corrode and fail due to moisture. Eliminates the risk of electrical shock when operating a switch from a damp or wet location.
DISADVANTAGES: The distance between the switch and electrical device is limited to runs of about 100,
based on the ability of the ber-optic cable to conduct light.
FIGURE 5
28
MOTION-SENSOR SWITCH
FURTHER READING
Home Automation Systems, The Energy Efciency and Renewable Energy Network (EREN)/ U.S.
Department of Energy; www.eren.doe.gov/consumerinfo/refbriefs/ad7.html.
Sell Energy Technology to Reduce Long Term Costs, Paul Rosenberg, Electrical Contractor Magazine,
May 1995.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
Classic Accents, P.O. Box 1181, Dept. OHJ, Southgate, MI 48195; 313-282-5525 (push-button switches).
Lutron Electronics Co., Inc., 7200 Suter Rd., Coopersburg, PA 18036; 800-523-9466; www.lutron.com.
Fiberswitch Technologies, 2511 N. Plaza Drive, Rapid City, SD, 57702; 800-811-9370;
www.rapidnet.com/~berswitch.
Sensorswitch, Inc., 900 Northrop Rd., Wallingford, CT 06492; 203-265-2842.
Leviton Manufacturing Co, 59-25 Little Neck Parkway, Little Neck, NY 11362; 800-229-4040;
www.leviton.com.
Eagle Electric Manufacturing Co., Inc., 45-31 Court Square, Long Island City, NY 11101; 800-366-6789;
www.eagle-electric.com.
29
ELECTRIC BASEB O A R D H E AT I N G
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Electric baseboard heating has often been used in houses where installed cost was the primary concern.
It may be economical to use where little space heating is needed, such as in a cooling-dominated climate
or in a superinsulated house with a small heating load, or in regions with low electric rates. Its advantages
include low-cost installation, no indoor combustion, and fast response time to thermostat settings. Since
each room has an independent system with its own wiring and thermostat, zoning is exible. Good quality units are quiet (except for minor noise of expanding and contracting metal components), and usually
the only maintenance is occasional dusting. Some occupants may choose electric heat to eliminate the
possibility of indoor gas leaks.
If electric baseboard heating is used for such reasons as scarce fuel supplies or allergies, there
are other electrical resistance systems: (a) Electric thermal storage systems take advantage of lower offpeak electric rates. The storage unit recharges from 11PM to 7AM and provides heat when needed, with
potentially signicant energy savings. The units are more costly than electric baseboards; (b) electric radiant oors or ceilings include electric wiring embedded in integrated panels, exible mats, or nish materials. Panelectric and Suncomfort make gypsum boards with embedded wiring for radiant ceilings.
Electric radiant boasts immediate response time, but some complain of hot heads from radiant ceilings,
and radiant oor installation can be expensive; (c) modular electric radiant panels are usually installed
on walls or ceilings, but sometimes in a oor or kickspace. Attractive and convenient, they are more costly
than baseboards without saving energy; (d) electric hydronic baseboard heaters (Fig. 1) contain immersion heating elements in an antifreeze solution. Used chiey in commercial applications, their thermal
mass creates an energy-saving lag effect at shutdown but units are more costly; (e) electric space heaters
are usually supplemented by a fan. They move air quickly but are thicker and a bit more expensive; (f)
electric furnaces contain elements to heat air forced through ducts. The distribution can accommodate air
conditioning but the system cannot be zoned as conveniently as electric baseboards. The heating elements
are activated individually and sequentially, potentially saving energy during mild weather when full power
is not needed; and (g) electric boilers use heating elements to effect a hydronic distribution system. May
be more comfortable than electric furnaces due to the radiating nature of some hydronic systems compared to the drying-out effect of forced air. These systems dont accommodate air conditioning and
energy costs will be similar to electric forced air.
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 2
FURTHER READING
1996 ASHRAE Handbook, HVAC Systems and Equipment, Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE, 1996.
Simplied Design of HVAC Systems, William Bobenhausen, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1994.
This Old House: Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning, Richard Trewethey with Don Best, Little,
Brown, 1994.
Saving Energy with Electric Resistance Heating, Energy Efciency and Renewable Energy Network, US
Department of Energy; www.eren.doe.gov/erec/factsheets/elecheat.html.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
Electro-Heat, Inc., P.O. Drawer D, Hwy M-222, Allegan, MI 49010; 616-673-6688; www.accn.org/~
ehinc/nned.htm.
Radiant Electric Heat, Inc., 10866 West Wisconsin Ave., Wauwatosa, WI 53226; 800-774-4450; www.electricheat.com.
Markel Baseboard Heaters, 470 Beauty Spot Rd. East, Bennetsville, SC 29512; 803-479-4006; www.marleymeh.com.
Enerjoy by SSHC, Inc., PO Box 769, Old Saybrook, CT 06475; 800-544-5182; www.sshcinc.com.
Runtal North America, Inc., 187 Neck Rd., Ward Hill, MA 01835; 800-526-2621.
Cadet Manufacturing Co., P.O. Box 1675, Vancouver, WA 98668; 800-442-2338.
Q-Mark by Staley Electric Supply, 611 Fayette St., Conshohocken, PA 19428; 610-825-6482; www.membrane.com/philanet/staley/qmark.html.
32
PHONE/COMPUTER/
TV CABLING
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
A phone circuit consists of a low voltage electrical loop. A pair of wires running parallel are necessary to
accommodate single-line voice communication. Much of todays analog station wiring (residential
telecommunication wiring) of the plain-old telephone system (so-called POTS) consists of either two,
three, or four (so-called quad wire) insulated conductors running parallel, bunched together and jacketed (Fig. 1). These wires were designed to meet minimum analog voice requirements, but interference
from motors, power circuits, or crosstalk noise (hearing another phone conversation) is likely, caused
by the partial transfer within the cable of a signal from one circuit to another. With the proliferation of
phones and modems devices the telecommunications industry developed the economical, unshielded
twisted pair (UTP) concept to minimize interference. The paired conductors, usually #24 AWG or #26 AWG
(American Wire Gauge), are twisted together at regular intervals (Fig. 2). In a cable with multiple pairs,
this helps isolate and preserve the signals being sent. Some newer telephones and more sophisticated telephone systems will not work properly unless connected to a UTP type wire.
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 2
Each cable has a UL re rating for the outer insulation jacket (2 or 3). Level 2 is accepted for
residential use in many areas and level 3 complies with almost all local building codes. Consult with a
building ofcial for local requirements.
In response to the ever-growing wire market, the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)
and the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) established a standard for a generic cabling system that can
accommodate many applications. The different telecommunication wires (sometimes called JK) are rated
by category, specifying the number of twists each pair has per unit of length (CAT 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5e, 6). The
tighter the pairs are twisted together, the higher the performance and signal quality. Todays residential
phone systems usually share wires with home computers connected to the internet or LAN and therefore
not only have to accommodate new digital phone systems but also digital computer transfer signals (ISDN,
which will eventually be succeeded by ADSL).
The more bandwidth (indicated in megahertz [MHz]) a wire has the more data it can transfer.
Phone wire performance ranges from the common CAT 1 (1 MHz), and its popular 100 MHz successor CAT
5 UTP, all the way to the 250 MHz CAT 6, at the time this volume was prepared. Today CAT 5 is widely accepted
as the standard for most current and foreseeable residential communication needs. Compared to the four
megabytes per second data transfer of CAT 1, the 40% higher priced CAT 5 has a data transfer rate starting
at 100 megabytes per second (Mbps) up to over 150 Mbps, depending on the manufacturer. Some companies market signal enhancers and accelerators as an alternative to cabling upgrades. Such devices have been
proven ineffective, however. Shielded wires are not necessary as long as a minimum CAT 3 is used.
The search for the source of problems such as interference, static, etc. should start where the
phone cable enters the home, namely the NID (Network Interface Device). Cable from this device out to the
pole is the phone companys responsibility and is covered by the connection charges for having new or
additional service installed. If there is a dial tone at the NID, the phone company has met its obligation (for
test procedures and equipment, see PRODUCT INFORMATION). Cable from the NID to the telephone sets is
the responsibility of the customer, and it is at his or her discretion how repair work is accomplished. If wiring
and cabling problems persist most phone and TV cable companies provide a maintenance contract where,
for a monthly fee, the company takes repair responsibility beyond NID. Phone companies also answer individual service calls but usually bill hourly and may therefore not be as cost effective as a local installer.
In TV cabling, the common 20-gauge RG-59 coaxial cable (composed of two conductors and
several layers of insulation) served the industry when there were only Channels 2 though 13 in the TV
spectrum. RG-59 is being replaced by the better performing 18-gauge RG-6 coaxial cable (at the same
price). With todays high-frequency channels and the growing demand for Digital Satellite Systems (DSS),
High Denition Television (HDTV), and interactive services such as video-on-demand and WebTV, homes
need cable with greater bandwidth and dependability. RG-6 doubles the capacity of RG-59 and is usually
protected by four separate electronic shields (quad shielded) to ensure minimal signal loss and interference. The performance and reliability of RG-6 depends on the manufacturer. Typical aging problems, such
as brittle insulation or bare wire, are similar to phone, computer, and electrical wiring.
34
RG-59 for the same price. Selecting which wires and terminators in the home are to be updated is critical, since a phone and TV systems performance is only as good as its weakest component. For optimal
performance and re code compliance consult your local telecommunication and TV cabling expert.
It may be possible to use the existing wire as a guide to bring a new cable through the wall. If not,
the wire must be snaked through the wall and/or ceiling cavities. Due to possible transmission interference,
avoid running telecommunication wiring closer than 2 parallel to electrical wiring, do not cross wires at 90o
angles, and do not share bore holes or studs for outlets. If baseboards can be removed, wires can run within
the baseboard-wall cavity. Under certain circumstances wires can also be run underneath wall-to-wall carpet.
ADVANTAGES: Most effective short- and long-term x. Most wire problems are eliminated and performance is upgraded.
DISADVANTAGES: Rewiring within existing walls and ceilings is cumbersome and can be costly.
2. REWIRE USING CABLING RACEWAYS
Cabling raceways provide a way to rewire without having to snake through walls or ceilings. The raceways
are mounted on interior walls and can encase electrical and communication wires (Fig. 3) However,
telecommunication/TV cabling should not be run in the same raceway as electrical wiring unless the raceway has been designed for dual use. PVC raceways are available in white or wood laminate versions.
ADVANTAGES: Cabling raceways can simplify the task of rewiring and reduce wall penetrations that can
compromise a buildings thermal performance. Wiring in raceways is accessible for future changes; locations of jacks can also be changed.
DISADVANTAGES: Separate raceways for electrical and telecommunications/TV have to be installed unless
the raceways are designed to accommodate both. This x may not be aesthetically acceptable.
FIGURE 3
FURTHER READING
Residential Cabling System, P.O. Box 57, Ayer, MA 01432-0057; 978-772-5700; www.residentialcabling.com.
Wired For The Future, Builder, September 1998, www.remodeling.hw.net/hometech/wiring/1/.
Better Homes and Gardens Online Encyclopedia, www.bhglive.com/homeimp/wiring.html.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
Leviton Manufacturing Company Inc. 59-25 Little Neck Parkway, Little Neck, NY 11362; 800-824-3005;
www.leviton.com.
Residential Cabling System, P.O. Box 57, Ayer, MA 01432-0057; 978-772-5700; www.residentialcabling.com.
SECURITY
SYSTEMS
8.1
FIGURE 1
COMBINATON SENSORS
FIGURE 2, 3
SECURITY LOOP
4. REPLACE WIRING.
This is often feasible when the scope of home rehab involves cutting electrical lines. Incorrectly spliced
wire, without sufcient solder and electrical tape, is a common cause of false alarms. Attempting to salvage old lines may cost more in labor than installing new wiring. Replace wiring if the insulation is brittle, such as near the contacts where it is exposed. Concealed wiring may require some removal of interior
nishes; coordinate with drywall installation.
ADVANTAGES: Can reduce incidence of false alarms or activation failures.
DISADVANTAGES: Usually the most costly part of the system.
5. REPLACE ENTIRE SYSTEM.
This may be necessary when, for example, wireless components are installed, which often dont interface
with older systems. Systems older than the mid-1980s will need replacement; they used 3V to 6V drycell
batteries, whereas 12V rechargeable batteries are now used. The National Electrical Code has recently
been updated with respect to low-voltage and limited-energy systems. Installing a new security system is
an opportunity to integrate other home automation features. Although many installers routinely will run
four- or six-conductor cable, it is worth specifying as it provides added exibility at a small upcharge.
Installation contracts for $100 that come with a three-year, $30/month monitoring contract may be desirable. Without such a contract, installation may be $400+, with service calls at an hourly rate.
ADVANTAGES: Affords the opportunity for utilizing the latest security technology and integrating with other
advanced wiring systems. Deep discount if purchased with contract.
DISADVANTAGES: Contract payments may be costly.
FURTHER READING
Safe & Sound, Your Guide to Home Security, National Burglar and Fire Alarm Association.
To Foil a Thief, Consumer Reports, September 1998.
The Guide to Low-Voltage and Limited Energy Systems, National Electrical Contractors Association,
1999.
Residential and Light Commercial Installation Practices (TIA-570 Compliance), Leviton
Manufacturing Co., Inc., 1998; www.levitontelcom.com/pdf/strat_bk2.pdf.
Understanding and Servicing Alarm Systems, Second Edition, H. William Trimmer, B.S., Butterworth
Heinemann, 1989; www.bhusa.com.
Electronic Security Systems Pocket Book, Gerard Honey, Butterworth Heinemann, 1999.
Security Systems & Intruder Alarms, Second Edition, Vivian Capel, Butterworth Heinemann, 1999.
Security: A Guide to Security System Design and Equipment Selection and Installation, Second
Edition, Neil Cumming, Butterworth Heinemann, 1994.
Intrusion Detection Systems, Second Edition, Robert Bernard, Butterworth Heinemann, 1988.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
ADEMCO, 165 Eileen Way, Syosset, NY 11791, 516-921-6704.
AMP Incorporated, MS 258-15, PO Box 3608, Harrisburg, PA 17105-3608; 717-985-2355;
www.amp.com.
Applied Future Technologies, Inc., 6378 South Benton Way, Littleton, CO 80123; 303-403-0457;
www.appliedfuture.com.
38
Axlon Electronics Corp., 5F-5, 77, Sec. 1, Hsin Tai Wu Road, Hsi-Chi, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC, 866-226983336; www.axlon.com.
Caddx Controls, Inc., 1420 N. Main Street, Gladewater, TX 75647; 800-727-2339; www.caddx.com.
C&K Systems, Inc., 625 Coolidge Dr., Folsom, CA 95630; 916-985-0352 fax; www.cksys.com.
Digital Security Controls Ltd., 1645 Flint Road, Downsview, ON M3J 2J6, Canada; 416-665-8460 x442;
www.dscltd.com.
First Alert Professional Security Systems, 175 Eileen Way, Syosset, NY 11791; 800-793-5949;
www.rstalertpro.com.
Home Automation, Inc., 3900 Barrett Drive, Suite 206, Raleigh, NC 27609; 919-782-6961; [email protected].
Interactive Technologies, Inc., 2266 Second St. No., North St. Paul, MN 55109; 888-484-2806;
www.ititechnologies.com.
Napco Security Systems, Inc., 333 Bayview Ave., Amityville, NY 11701; 800-645-9445.
US TEC, 100 Rawson Road, Suite 205, Victor, NY 14564; 716-924-1740; 716-924-7498; e-mail:
[email protected].
X-10 (USA) Inc., 91 Ruckman Road, Box 420, Closter, NJ 07624-0420; 201-784-9700 x20; e-mail: [email protected].
8.2
SMOKE DETECTORS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Smoke and re detectors have saved thousands of lives since being introduced to the residential market
in the 1970s. In spite of the increase in the number of homes since then, the number of re-related deaths
has decreased steadily.
There are three types of detectors: photoelectric, ionization, and heat-sensing. Most photoelectric
devices work on the principle of detecting the presence of light due to its scattering by smoke particles. In
the absence of smoke, light from an LED passes right through the detection chamber (Fig. 4) without triggering a response from the light sensor. When smoke enters the chamber, the light scatters onto the photo
detector, triggering an alarm. This kind of detector is sensitive to slow smoldering res that produce largesized smoke particles. In another type of photoelectric device, the smoke entering the chamber also blocks
a light beam, but in this case the reduction in light reaching a photocell sets off the alarm.
Ionization smoke detectors sense res by relying on the atomic neutralizing property of smoke.
The ionization chamber (Fig. 5) has two plates with a small amount of voltage applied to them. One of the
plates has a hole with radioactive material on the other side (approximately 1/5000 gram of Americium
241). The alpha particles generated by the Americium ionize the oxygen and nitrogen atoms. These ionized atoms are attracted to the plates and generate electric current. Smoke particles ll the chamber and
attach themselves to the ionized atoms, thus neutralizing them. This disrupts the ow of current in the circuit, which is detected as smoke. This kind of detector is sensitive to fast aming res that produce smallsized smoke particles.
Heat detectors are available combined with a smoke detector or as a separate product. They are
useful where smoke detectors have false alarms, such as in kitchens, as well as areas too hot or too cold
for smoke detectors. Heat detectors depend on a fusible link made of lead that distorts with rising temperatures. There are two types of heat sensors. The xed temperature sensor triggers an alarm when it
detects a certain air temperature. This is the most common type for residential applications. Rate-of-rise
sensors depend on a thermostat which detects a percentage temperature rise over a few seconds. Heat
39
detectors either sound their own alarm or a central alarm if part of a system. Heat detectors must be very
close to a re to be set off, and are therefore not effective early-warning devices. Heat detectors are longlived (unless triggered), have few false alarms, and are relatively unaffected by cooking grease. However,
it is necessary to install a new unit after the device has sensed a single re.
Detectors are battery powered or hardwired, or a combination of both. Hardwired detectors are
either connected to a 120-volt home circuit in series or stepped down to low voltage in a home run to a
control box when interconnecting to a low-voltage security system. The National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) safety standard recommends at least one detector on each level of the house. Ideally,
each bedroom should have a detector, one outside the bedroom area, one in the living area, and one in
the kitchen. It is extremely important to locate the detectors properly to provide good coverage.
Although alarms for the hearing-impaired are not required for residences, the Americans with
Disabilities Act and the National Fire Protection Association suggest strobe light or vibration systems,
should they be installed. The vibration system works with a transmitter relayed at the re panel to send a
signal to a bedside receiver that vibrates the bed. Available for new systems or retrot to existing, vibration systems are more expensive but are considered more likely to wake residents than strobe lights.
Smart re detectors that minimize false alarms are now in development. Smart detectors use
a combination of detection methods and a microprocessor to decide when to alarm. The National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Building and Fire Research Laboratory has developed a ow
tunnel to test smart smoke detectors.
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5
40
material should not be opened or serviced. Even though there is a small amount of radioactive material
in the chamber and a sheet of paper can block the alpha particles generated by it, it is dangerous if inhaled
or swallowed. Follow manufacturers cleaning recommendations.
ADVANTAGES: Least expensive response.
DISADVANTAGES: Risk of old detector not performing properly, even after maintenance.
2. REPLACE EXISTING SMOKE DETECTOR WITH NEW UNIT.
The 1999 National Fire Alarm Code requires smoke detectors to be replaced every 10 years. During this
time they have gone through 3.5 million monitoring cycles and are more likely to fail in the case of a real
re. Although most home res respond to photoelectric sensors, a combination of sensor types is the best
strategy for covering all kinds of res and contingencies. Using both battery operated and 120-volt units
will detect res during a power outage and if there is a failed battery. It is also recommended that all
smoke detectors in a home be interconnected; in the event of a re in any part of the house, all alarms
will activate to alert the occupants. In a household with a hearing impaired person, visual alarms with
strobe lights should be additionally installed. According to the NYC Health Department Radiation Division,
there are no federal disposal precautions for ionization smoke detectors.
ADVANTAGES: Opportunity for reliable, properly-specied system.
DISADVANTAGES: More costly solution.
FURTHER READING
Cleaning and Testing Smoke Detectors, Security Professional, August 1999.
Guide to Low-Voltage and Limited Energy Systems. National Electrical Contractors Association,1999.
How Smoke Detectors Work, www.howstuffworks.com.
NFPA 72: National Fire Alarm Code, 1999 Edition, Chapters 1, 7, 8, National Fire Protection Association.
NFPA 101: Life Safety Code, National Fire Protection Association.
Safe & Sound, Your Guide to Home Security, National Burglar and Fire Alarm Association.
Understanding and Servicing Alarm Systems, Second Edition, H. William Trimmer, B.S., Butterworth
Heinemann, 1989, www.bhusa.com.
What You Should Know About Smoke Detectors, U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, January
1985, www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~ohioline/aex-fact/0690_1.html.
Working Knowledge: Smoke Detectors, Scientic American, April 1997, www.sciam.com/
0497issue/0497working.html.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
ESL/Sentrol, 12345 SW Leveton Dr., Tualatin, OR 97062-9938; 800-547-2556; www.sentrol.com.
System Sensor, 3825 Ohio Ave., St. Charles, IL 60174; 800-SENSOR2; www.systemsensor.com.
Gentex, 10985 Chicago Dr., Zeeland, MI 49464; 800-436-8391; www.gentex.com
Edwards Signaling Products, 90 Fieldstone Ct., Cheshire, CT 06410-1212; 203-699-3000; www.edwards
signals.com.
Kidde-Fenwal, Inc., 400 Main St., Ashland, MA 01721; 800-872-6527; www.Kidde-Fenwal.com.
MTI Industries, Inc., 31632 N. Ellis Dr., No. 301, Volo, IL 60073; 800-383-0269; www.safe-t-alert.com.
Vibration systems: Silent Call Communications Corp., 2220 Scott Lake Rd., Waterford, MI 48328; 800-5725227; www.silent-call.com.
41
8.3
FURTHER READING
NFPA 720: Recommended Practice for the Installation of Household Carbon Monoxide (CO) Warning
Equipment, 1998 Edition, National Fire Protection Association.
UL 2034-98: Carbon Monoxide Alarm (CO) Standards, Underwriters Laboratories, 1998.
GRI Technical Report: Performance Testing of Residential CO Alarms, Gas Research Institute, 1999.
42
PRODUCT INFORMATION
MTI Industries, Inc., 31632 N. Ellis Dr., No. 301, Volo, IL 60073; 800-383-0269; www.safe-t-alert.com.
Kidde-Fenwal, Inc., 400 Main St., Ashland MA 01721; 800-872-6527; www.Kidde-Fenwal.com.
First Alert, 3901 Liberty St. Rd., Aurora, IL 60504; 800-323-9005; www.rstalert.com.
BRK Brands, Inc. 3901 Liberty St Rd, Aurora, IL, 60504-8122; 630-851-7330; www.rstalert.com.
Macurco Gas Protectors, 3946 So. Mariposa St., Englewood Co 80110; 303-781-4062; www.macurco.com.
ESL/Sentrol, 12345 SW Leveton Dr., Tualatin, OR 97062-9938; 800-547-2556; www.sentrol.com
Aim Safety USA Inc., 8403 Cross Park Dr., #1A, Austin, TX 78754; 800-275-4246; www.aimsafeair.com.
8.4
LIGHTNING PROTECTION
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Lightning is a random, capricious phenomenon that results in more deaths than hurricanes and oods
combined and damages approximately 18,000 homes annually in the U.S. Lightning strikes the Earth up
to 100 times a second. Lightning can carry up to 400,000 amps, can produce up to 30 million volts, and
can reach temperatures of 50,000F. Lightning occurs when buildup of electric potential (usually negative
charge) in storm clouds sends downward leaders that connect with streamers sent up by ground
objects of positive charge. Direct effects of lightning are caused by resistance and include ohmic heating,
arcing, and res. Indirect effects are capacitive, inductive and magnetic behaviors occurring in certain
locations, causing electrical surges leading to re or breakdown of household electronic devices.
Properly designed protection systems (Fig. 6) have been documented by Underwriters
Laboratories (UL) to be over 99% effective in preventing direct damage by lightning. A system consists of
ve components: (1) collection devices to direct lightning away from the structure and into the ground
(these devices include lightning rods or air terminals, Faradays cages, shielding wires, etc., each made
for a specic purpose); (2) cables to interconnect collection devices and downlead conductor cables to
route lightning between collection devices and down to the grounding (any bends in the cable should not
be too sharp [Fig. 7] to prevent ashover of lightning to nearby objects); (3) interconnection to metal
parts on the roof or within the building; and (4) grounding rods to dissipate lightning into the earth once
it has traveled down the building. Single point (Fig. 8) or multiple point grounding systems can be used,
depending on ground resistance, water table and soil characteristics. Avoid placing multiple point grounding rods so close that they allow saturation of the groundUL requires minimum 10 separation between
multiple grounds. Preferably, each rod should have counterpoise (also called fork-type or crows foot)
radial branches to reduce impedance. The system should share common grounding with electric and telephone ground, and metallic water and gas pipe according to code; and (5) secondary lightning surge
arresters on the main electric panel, telephone line entrance, and radio and TV antenna lead-in.
Model and state building codes do not require the installation of lightning protection systems.
All lightning codes (Underwriters Laboratories UL96A, National Fire Protection Association Standard
NFPA780, and Lightning Protection Institute Standard of Practice LPI-175) function as guidelines.
However, some local codes, such as in Florida, are incorporating requirements for lightning protection to
reduce res resulting from lightning strikes.
43
FIGURE 6
FIGURE 7
FIGURE 8
SINGLE-POINT GROUNDING
FURTHER READING
NFPA78: Lightning Protection Code, National Fire Protection Association.
NFPA780: Standard for Installation of Lightning Protection Systems, 1997 Edition, National Fire
Protection Association.
45
PRODUCT INFORMATION
Independent Protection Company, 1603-09 South Main St., Goshen, IN 46526; 800-860-8388;
www.ipclp.com.
Advanced Lightning Technology, Inc., 122 Leesley Lane, Argyle, TX 76226; 800-950-7933; www.advancedlightning.com.
Automatic Lightning Protection, 7548 West Blueeld Ave., Glendale, Arizona 85308; 800-532-0990;
www.lightningrod.com.
Lightning Master Corp., 1920 Sherwood Street, Clearwater, FL 33765; 800-749-6800; www.lightningmaster.com.
Stormin Protection Products, 10749 63rd Way N., Pinellas Park, FL 33782; 888-471-1038; http://members.tripod.com/~storminprotection.
8.5
SURGE PROTECTION
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
46
Surges, or voltage transients, are very high pulses of voltage lasting less than a hundredth of a second.
Surges are caused by induction (internal or external) and by power line transients. Whenever an inductive
device, such as a motor, fan, air conditioner, or incandescent bulb is shut off, the electromotive force (EMF)
causes a voltage surge. Lightning strikes induce voltage surge by causing nearby metallic objects, wires, and
electronic equipment to generate voltage. A typical lightning strike 300' from a house will induce high transient voltage, and a strike near high-tension wires many miles away can surge into many homes. Also, normal utility operation carries surges from load uctuations, transformer blowouts, and other events.
Though surges and uctuations presented few problems until the 1980s, modern devices require
todays homes to be wired differently. In addition to personal computers (PCs), information technology is
being installed in many household devices, such as microwaves, vacuum cleaners, washers, dryers, telephones, and even alarm clocks. Though these microelectronics endow products with additional functions
and convenience, they are highly susceptible to common variations in voltage which can affect their performance and shorten their life.
Homes built before the early 1970s may not have three-prong grounded receptacles, or may have
three-prong outlets installed in a two-wire system (see Section 4.3: Receptacles). Many computers,
peripherals, and other electronics are designed to send surges through the third prong to ground; if that
path is broken, components can be damaged. The homes wiring may not be supplying power of correct
polarity. The ground for the homes wiring may have high impedance, improper neutral-ground bonds, or
ground loops that allow unpredictable voltages to remain on the grounding circuit. If any aspect of the
wiring is questionable, an electrician should inspect it. Local codes and regulations may inuence the
extent of surge protection in a rehab since the utilities have some responsibility for such suppression. For
example, the phone company should supply a properly-grounded network interface box.
Since appliances can also generate transients in a homes electrical system, some electricians
recommend keeping sensitive devices plugged into a different circuit than inductive equipment with
motors and high-amperage switching loads like portable heaters, electric frying pans, and toasters. A separate ground circuit for electronic equipment may need to be installed if the wiring does not allow separating them from inductive and switching loads.
Beyond the utilities efforts, transient control should be designed and installed in two stages to
suppress all surges. First, whole house surge protection, or breaker suppression, should be installed at
the circuit breaker box or distribution panel to eliminate most incoming surges. It should be able to shunt
surges away from power, telephone/modem, and cable lines. Alternatively, telephone surge suppression can
be installed as a separate unit, at the telephone connecting block outside the house or apartment building.
Second stage devices at plug outlets protect electronic circuitry from EMF induced inside the house wiring
or from other surges. Surge suppressors incorporate a small disc called a metal oxide varister (MOV) that
absorbs excess energy. MOVs are rated by diameter, which corresponds to their energy-absorbing ability.
The rated life of a cheaper surge suppressor, which may rely on only one or two MOVs, is limited to a few
years when exposed to most residential circuits, and less if a series of large transients or lightning occurs.
Better-quality units incorporate a more substantial combination of MOVs, zener diodes, avalanche diodes,
and/or gas tubes. Surge suppressors should meet UL 1449 Standard, second edition.
Frequently lightning damage comes through the phone line, and modems are especially vulnerable. The telephone company should have installed a properly grounded network interface box (NIB),
which contains a lightning protection device, outside the home. Plug-in communications surge protection
devices are available.
Most operational difculty, however, is caused by power interruptions, also called sags or
brownouts, and not power surges or spikes. These sags cause data corruption in PCs. Surge suppressors
do not protect against this largest problem in Internet connectivity, but battery-powered uninterruptible
power supply units (UPS) do. UPSs come in three general types: (1) double conversion UPSs continually
run the device through an output circuit converter, powered by a battery connected to line voltage; (2)
standby supplies connect the device directly to line voltage, which also keeps the battery charged. When
power is lost, the battery-powered inverter is switched on; and (3) a ferroresonant supply acts as a power
conditioner with a microprocessor-controlled transformer between the device and line voltage. When
power failure occurs, the inverter supplies power to the transformer.
FIGURE 9
47
FURTHER READING
NFPA 70, National Electrical Code Article 280: Surge Arresters, National Fire Protection Association.
UL 1449, Surge Suppression Standards, Second Edition, Underwriters Laboratories.
48
PRODUCT INFORMATION
Volt Guard Inc., 400 23rd St. So., St. Petersburg, FL 33712; 800-237-0769; www.voltguard.com.
Panamax Inc., 150 Mitchell Blvd., San Rafael, CA 94903-2057; 800-472-5555; www.panamax.com.
Advanced Protection Technologies, 14088 Icot Blvd., Clearwater, FL 34620; 800-237-4567; www.apttbss.com.
Square D Co., 2001 W. 10th Pl., Tempe, AZ 85281; 602-968-3101; www.protek-tvs.com.
Best Power, P.O. Box 280, Necedah, WI 54646; 800-356-5794; www.bestpower.com.
Stormin Protection Products, 10749 63 Way N., Pinellas Park, FL 33782; 888-471-1038; http://members.tripod.com/~storminprotection.
Control Concepts, 328 Water St., P.O. Box 1380, Binghamton, NY 13902-1380; 607-724-2484; www.controlconcepts.com.
Tripp Lite Power Protection, 1111 W. 35th St., Chicago, IL 60609; 773-869-1111; www.tripplite.com.
American Power Conversion, 132 Fairgrounds Road, West Kingston, RI 02892; 401-789-5735;
www.apcc.com.
Leviton Manufacturing Co. Inc., 59-25 Little Neck Parkway, Little Neck, NY 11362-2591; 800-323-8920;
www.leviton.com.
8.6
FIGURE 10
doors. Some remotes operate lights or appliances in addition to doors. Other remotes range up to 500
with a programmable delay so the driver can enter the garage without stopping. Retrot
transmitter/receiver kits are available that operate at the ick of a headlight. Remote indicators allow residents to see whether the door is open from elsewhere in the house. Some systems come with a vacation
lock switch to lock out all remote signals until the system is reactivated. Still others automatically push
the door back down if someone tries to pry it open. A pick-resistant keyswitch or electronic lock have an
extra measure of security beyond the standard door locking mechanism. Quantum doors are equipped
with a locking device that automatically slides into place once the door is closed.
Metal in the vicinity of the receiver can affect remote control performance. Short range is
becoming more prevalent, particularly as garage doors are now often steel, and insulation may have foil
facing. In addition, the FCC has reduced the range of remotes. Receivers should be located away from
metal. Another solution is to splice wire onto the existing antenna and have it protrude outside the garage.
External antenna kits are available for some models. Windows on the door can also be helpful.
50
FIGURE 11
FURTHER READING
UL 325 Standard: Federal Laws for Reversing Mechanisms and Sensing Edges, Underwriters Laboratories.
Notes on the Troubleshooting and Repair of ... Sci.Electronics.Repair Frequently Asked Questions,
Samuel M. Goldwasser, 1999, http://plop.phys.cwru.edu/repairfaq/REPAIR/F_appfaqb.html
PRODUCT INFORMATION
The Chamberlain Group, 2301 No. Forbes Blvd., Ste. 104, Tucson AZ 85745; 800-528-9131; www.chamberlaingroup.com.
The Genie Co., 22790 Lake Park Blvd., Alliance, OH 44601; 800-654-3643; www.geniecompany.com.
Allstar Corp., P.O. Box 240, Downingtown, PA 19335; 877-441-9300; www.allstarcorp.com.
Quantum, Wayne-Dalton Corp., 3395 Addison Dr., Pensacola, FL 32514; 800-479-2000; www.waynedalton.com.
51
APPENDIX
PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS AND RESEARCH CENTERS
AMERICAN LIGHTING ASSOCIATION
P.O. Box 420288, Dallas, TX 75342-0288
800-274-4484
www.americanlightingassoc.com
AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS INSTITUTE
11 West 42nd Street, 13th Floor
New York, NY 10036
212-642-4900
www.ansi.org
53
54
55
U.S.
DE
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RB
OPPORTUNITY
EQUAL HOUSING
April 2000
HUD-DU100C000005956
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Penalty for Private Use, $300
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