TRANSPIRATION INTRODUCTION Though large quantities of water is absorbed by the roots

from soil, but only 2-5% of it is utilized by plant and rest 95-98% is lost in form of transpiration.
Definition :- The loss of water from the aerial parts of plant in the form of vapours is called
transpiration. The instrument used for measuring transpiration is potometer. Transpiration is an
essential evil - by Crutis. Transpiration is an unavoidable evil - by Steward. The minimum
transpiration is found in succulent xerophytes and no transpiration in submerged hydrophytes.
Maximum transpiration is found in mesophytes. Significance of transpiration : [1] In regulation
of temperature : Cooling effect on the surface of leaves is produced by the process of
transpiration, due to which temperature remains constant in plants. The plant are protected from
the burning of heat due to transpiration. Evaporation of water produces cooling effect. [2] In
mineral absorption : Mass flow of water is found during the passive absorption of water. Hence it
is assumed that minerals enter the roots through the water. [3] In ascent of sap [4] In water
absorption [5] Distribution of absorbed salts [6] Gaseous exchange [7] Control of hydrological
cycle TYPES OF TRANSPIRATION (A) Lenticular transpiration : Loss of water through
lenticles (pores found in epidermis of mature stems, some roots & some fruits) It results in 0.1%
of water loss out of total transpiration. (B) Cuticular transpiration : 10% of total transpiration
occurs from surface, outer wall of epidermis of aerial parts. The outer wall has cuticle which
affects diffusion of water. It is inversely proportional to thickness of cuticle & amount of water.
Cuticle minimize stomatal transpiration. (C) Stomatal transpiration : Loss of water through
stomata (small opening on the epidermis of leaves). 90% of total transpiration occurs through
stomata. The water lost from leaves is called foliar transpiration.
Important,chapter,notes,Transpiration,Class,11,biology STOMATA The name stomata was
given by Malpighie. Stomata was discovered by Pfeffer. Stomata cover 1-2% of leaf area. Algae,
fungi and submerged plants do not possess stomata. Structure of stomata :
Important,chapter,notes,Transpiration,Class,11,biology Stomata are small elliptical pores found
on the epidermis of plant leaves. The size of the pore varies from plant to plant for e.g. - In maize
the size of pore is 4 wide to 26 long. This pore is surrounded by kidney shaped or bean shaped
epidermal cells called guard cells. Guard cells are living & have nucleus, chloroplast, vacuole
and cytoplasm. Chloroplast is functionally active only in dicots. In monocots it is either
rudimentry or absent or functionally inactive. Inner wall is thick & less elastic and outer wall is
thin & more elastic in guard cells. Guard cells are surrounded by specialized epidermal cells
called subsidiary or accessory cells. The pore opens or closes by the movement of guard cells. In
the inner tangential walls of guard cells micro filaments of cellulose are present in circular form
called as radial micellation. The air cavities to which the stomata opens are called as substomatal
cavity. Distribution of stomata : In monocots, stomata are uniformly distributed and are present
on the upper and lower surface of the leaf. In dicots, stomata are unevenly distributed and are
present more on the lower surface. In dicots guard cells are kidney shaped, reniform or bean like.
In monocots, guard cells are elliptical or dumbell shaped which are called as Graminaceous
stomata. In xerophytes stomata are situated in a groove and are thus called as sunken stomata.
Types of Stomata : On the basis of distribution : 5 types
Important,chapter,notes,Transpiration,Class,11,biology
Important,chapter,notes,Transpiration,Class,11,biology Stomata in Gymnosperms : (i)
Syndetochielic - When subsidiary cells & guard cells originate from single cell. (ii) Haplochielic
- Both cells arises from separate cells. MECHANISM OF TRANSPIRATION This involves 3
steps : Osmotic diffusion of water in the leaf : Inside the leaf mesophyll cells are in contact with
xylem & also with inter cellular spaces above the stomata.Mesophyll cells draw water from the

xylem which makes the cells turgid. Their diffusion pressure deficit and osmotic pressure
decreases and in turn they release water in the form of vapours in intercellular spaces close to
stomata by diffusion. After releasing water the O.P. & D.P.D. of mesophyll cells increases &
hence they draw water from xylem again. Opening & closing of stomata : When guard cells
becomes turgid stomatal pore opens, while when they becomes flaccid stomatal pore closes.
Stomata generally open during the day and closed during the night except in CAM plants. The
important theories of stomatal movements are as followsTranspiration (1) Photosynthesis in
guard cell hypothesis : This theory was proposed by Schwendener and Von mohl. According to
this theory guard cell chloroplast perform photosynthesis during the day time. This produce
sugars in guard cell which increases the O.P. of GC, compared to adjacent epidermal cells
(subsidiary cells). Water enters in guard cells form subsidiary cells by endosmosis, due to this
guard cells become turgid and stomata will open. Objections - (i) In CAM plants stomata open
during dark/night. (ii) Chloroplast of monocot guard cells are non-functional (inactive)
photosynthetically. (2) Starch Sugar interconversion theory : This theory was proposed by Sayre
(1926). First of all Lloyd stated that amount of sugar in GC is increases during the day time and
starch in night. Detail study of this change was done by Sayre & given starch hydrolysis theory.
According to Sayre, starch converts into sugar during day time when pH of guard cell is high.
Sugar changes into starch during night at low pH in guard cells (Supported by Scarth). Sayre
clarified that CO2 reacts with water during night. Due to accumulation of H2CO3, pH in guard
cell is decreases. Hanes - Stated that this change takes place by phosphorylase enzyme. Yin &
Tung reported the presence of phosphorylase enzyme in guard cells. Starch + ip Day ph 7.5
NPihgohst pphHo-r y4l.a5s-e5 Glucose-1, P conc. of GC increased Entry of H2O in GC GC Turgid Stomata open. Stewards modification - According to Steward (1964) appreciable change
in O.P. of GC is possible after the conversion of glucose - 1 P into Glucose & ip (inorganic
phosphate) (i) Glucose-1, P M utase Glucose-6P (ii) Glucose-6, P P hos pha ta se Glucose + iP
Conc. of GC increased osmotic entry of H2O GC-Turgid open. (iii) Glucose + ATP H ex okin a
se Glucose-1, P Starch Stomata closed Objections - (i) Starch is absent in GC of some monocots
like onion. (ii) Formation of organic acid is observed during stomatal opening. H+ exchange
theory or active proton pump mechanism-(3) Active K+ Given by Levitt (1973-74). This is
modern and most accepted theory for stomatal opening and closing. First of all Fujino observed
that influx of K+ions in guard cells during stomatal opening. (Supported by Fisher and Hsiao).
Detail study of this phenomenon was done by Levitt, who proposed this theory. According to
him stomata opens by following mechanism. (i) Cabohydrates Enzymes PEP + CO2 PEP
Carboxylase OAA (ii) O.A.A. Malic Acid H+ K+ ATP Malate (iii) Malate + K+ K-malate Conc.
of GC increased Entry of H2O in GC GC turgid Stomata open Closing of stomata :Important,chapter,notes,Transpiration,Class,11,biology Plant hormone ABA-acts on guard cells,
which interfere the exchange of of guHa+r dio cnesl lisn igsu draedc rceealslse,
rdeusruinltgsK+ pH ninig rhetv, ewrsheic ohf fraxvno. uorfs ospteonminagta ol fc
slotosimnga.ta, hence stomata closed. The ions accumulate in the vacuole of guard cells,
lowering the water potential and thereby increasing water uptake and subsequently opening the
stomata (PEPcase = Phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase) High concentration of K+ ions in guard
cells is electrically balanced by uptake of Cl and malate ions in guard cells. (4) Ca-ABA second
messenger model - Given by Desilva & Cowan (1985) this is modern explanation of stomatal
closing only. Ramdas & Raghvandra suggested that ATPs for stomatal movement comes from
cyclic ETC. Bowlings : Malate switch hypothesis. Raschke : K+ ions in guard cells comes from
subsidiary cells. Stomata opens during the night in succulent plants and closed during the day.

This nature of stomata in opuntia is called Scotoactive stomata. In CAM plants organic acid is
formed during night which broken down during day and CO2 is liberated which is used in
photosynthesis. FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF TRANSPIRATION Factors affecting
stomatal opening and closing : [1] Light : In most of the plants stomata open during the day
except succulent xerophytic plants and close during the dark. Opening of stomata completes in
the presence of blue and red light. Blue light is most effective and causing stomatal opening. [2]
Temperature : Loft Field show temperature quotient of opening of stomata is [Q10] = 2 [3] CO2
concentration : Stomata opens at low concentration of CO2 while closed at high concentration of
CO2. [4] Growth Hormones : Cytokinin hormone induce opening of stomata. It increase the
influx of K+ ions and stimulate the stomata for opening. While ABA stimulate the stomata for
closing. This hormone oppose the induction effect of cytokinin. ABA effects the permeability of
the guard cells. It prevent the out flux of H+ ions and increase the out flux of K+ ions. Because
of this pH of the guard cells decreased. Cl ions also plays important role in stomatal movement.
Above mentioned effects also found in high amount of CO2 ABA is formed due to high water
stress in chloroplast of leaves. [5] Atmospheric humidity : Stomata opens for long duration and
more widen in the presence of humid atmosphere, while stomata remains closed in dry
atmosphere or partial opening at higher atm. humidity transpiration will be stop but stomata
remains completly open. Factors affecting the rate of transpiration : Factors affecting the rate of
transpiration are divided into two types : [A] External Factors (Environmental factor) [B]
Internal Factors [A] EXTERNAL FACTORS (Environmental factor) [1] Atmospheric humidity :
Relative humidity This is the most important factor. The rate of transpiration is higher in low
atmospheric humidity while at higher atmospheric humidity, the atmosphere is moistened,
resulting decreasing of rate of transpiration. Therefore, the rate of transpiration is high during the
summer and low in rainy season. [2] Temperature : Temperature The value of Q10 for
transpiration is 2. It means by increasing 10C temperature, the rate of transpiration is
approximately double. (By Loftfield) Water vapour holding capacity of air increased at high
temperature, resulting the rate of transpiration increased. On contrary vapour holding capacity of
air decreased at low temperature so that the rate of transpiration is decreased. [3] Light : Light
stimulates, transpiration by heating effect on leaf. Action spectrum of transpiration is blue and
red. Rate of transpiration is faster in blue light than that of red light. Because stomata are
completely opened as their full capacity in the blue light. [4] Wind velocity : Tr Wind velocity
Transpiration is less in constant air but if wind velocity is high the rate of transpiration is also
high,because wind removes humid air (saturated air) around the stomata. Transpiration increases
in the beginning at high wind velocity [30-50 km./hour] But latter on it cause closure of stomata
due to mechanical effect and transpiration decrease. [5] Atmospheric pressure : The speed of the
air increase at low atmospheric pressure, due to this rate of the diffusion increase which increase
the rate of transpiration. The rate of transpiration is found maximum in the high intensity of light
at high range of hills. Traspiration ratio (TR) : Moles of H2O transpired/moles of CO2
assimilated. Ratio of the loss of water to the photosynthetic CO2 fixation is called TR. TR is low
for C4 plants (200-350) while high of C3 plants (500-1000). It means C4 conserve water with
efficient photosynthesis. CAM plants passes minimum TR(50-100) [6] Anti transpirants :
Chemical substances which reduce the rate of transpiration are known as antitranspirants. Anti
transpirants are as follows- Phenyl Mercuric Acetate (PMA), Aspirin, (Salicylic acid), Abscisic
acid (ABA), Oxi-ethylene, Silicon oil, CO2 and low viscous was. PMA closed the stomata for
more than two weeks partially. Antitranspirants are used in dry farming. [B] INTERNAL
FACTORS : These factors are concerned with structure of plants. These are following types : [1]

Transpiration area : Pruning increase the rate of transpiration per leaf but overall reduce the
transpiration. [2] Anatomical characteristics of leaf and leaf orientation : Several structures of
leaf effect the transpiration as follows :- Stomatal characteristics : Transpiration is effected by the
structure of stomata, position of stomata, distance between the stomata, number of stomata per
unit area and activity of the stomata. By Salisbury - Stomatal Index (SI) = E S SI = Stomatal
index S = Number of stomata/unit area E = Number of epidermal cells in same unit area. [3]
Water status of leaves [4] Root - Shoot Ratio : The rate of transpiration decreases with decrease
in root-shoot ratio. The rate of transpiration increases with increase in root-shoot ratio. The
following characteristics are found in leaf to reduce the transpiration. (i) Leaves modify in
spines. (ii) Leaves transformed into needle e.g. Pinus (iii) Folding and unfolding of leaves by
bulliform cells. eg., Amophilla, Pea etc. (iv) Small size of the leaves. (v) Presence of thick waxy
layer on leaves. eg., Banyan tree. :: SPECIAL POINTS :: Transpiration in old stems and fruits
occurs through lenticels. The loss of water through transpiration in increasing unit dry weight of
the plant is called transpiration ratio. The quantity of water transpired by unit area of leaf surface
in unit time is called transpiration flux. The diurnal periodicity was diagrammatically represented
by Von mohl. Fresh weight of a plant would be maximum in the morning and minimum in the
afternoon. The main reason of osmotic pressure for stomata is potassium chloride or potassium
malate. Porometer is used to find out the area of stomata on the leaf. Transpiration measuring
instrument is called Potometer. The rate of absorptioon of water is measured through this
instrument. In potometer rate of water absorption is proportional to the rate of transpiration.
Cobalt-chloride test : This method is used for the comparision of transpiration at both the surface
of the leaves. It is first of all shown by Stall. Stomata covers 1-2% of total leaf area. Size of
stomata is 10-40 (width)(Length) 3 12 The photophosphorylation process in the guard cells
is a energy metabolic process, not CO2-metaboic process. The rate of transpiration of C4 plants
is less as compared to C3 plants. In CAM plants minimum transpiration occurs. Distribution of
stomata on leaf surface : Auxins which increases metabolic activities of the cells stimulate
absorption of water. Wilting Coefficient : The amount of water expressed as percentage of dry
weight of soil, which is left in soil at the time of permanent wilting is called wilting co-efficient.
Value of Tensile strength of xylem sap is upto 300 atm. The maximum value of transpiration pull
has been found to be 20 atm. 1 atm force can raise water upto 10 m height. Thus ascent of sap
can occur upto 200 meters height by transpiration pull. Besides the translocation of water
upwards, water is also translocated radially and downwards. Radial translocation is more
common. Cytokinin enhances opening of stomata while ABA induce closing of stomata. In moist
environment, stomata open more widely and for longer time & opposite is the case in dry
environment. The OP of guard cells when stomata open is 30-40 atm. During wilting rate of
photosynthesis also decreases. The no. of stomata per unit area of leaf is called stomatal
frequency. It depends on position of leaf, external enviromment ect. In a leaf, it increases from
base to tip and from midrib to lateral sides.
Ascent of Sap INTRODUCTION Upward conduction of water from roots to leaves through stem
against force of gravity is called ascent of sap. The inorganic substances dissolved in xylem
water are called sap. PROBLEMS RELATED TO ASCENT OF SAP (A) Path of Ascent of sap
(B) Mechanism of Ascent of Sap (A) Path of Ascent of Sap : The path of ascent of sap is xylem
though exact mechanism is not clear. Important evidences - (i) Ringing or Girdling Experiment
(ii) Staining Experiment (i) Ringing or Girdling Experiment :

Important,chapter,notes,Ascent,of,Sap,Class,11,biology Malpighi (1671), Stephen Hales (1731)

and Hartig (1837) proved by ringing experiment that ascent of sap not occurs through phloem or
food conduction occurs by phloem. When ring or girdle upto 2-3cm of Bark (Secondry Phloem)
is removed, the branches remain healthy. Ringing experiment cannot be performed in monocots
due to presence of scattered vascular bundles in stem. Conclusion - Phloem is food conducting
tissue or phloem is not water conducting tissue. (ii) Staining Experiment When a cut shoot of
Balsam plant is dipped in solution of Eosine, only xylem tissue is found stained. Blockage
experiment - By Dixon, xylem is blocked by wax. From above observations following
conclusions can be drawn- Main path for ascent of sap is through xylem cavities.
Important,chapter,notes,Ascent,of,Sap,Class,11,biology MECHANISM OF ASCENT OF SAP
Two types of theories have been proposed for the mechanism of ascent of sap. (i) Vital Force
Theory (ii) Physical Force Theory (i) Vital Force Theory : According to this theory ascent of sap
is due to vital activities of cells or living cells are responsible for ascent of sap. Main Supporters
of this theory are - Westermaier (1884) was of the opinion that xylem parenchyma is responsible
for ascent of sap. Tracheids and vessels only function as water reservoir. Godlewski (1884) gave
clambering force theory or relay pump theory : (i) According to this theory cells of xylem
parenchyma and medullary rays shows rhythmic changes in osmotic pressure which causes
upward movement of water. (ii) When O.P. value of parenchyma rises, they absorb water from
adjoining xylem vessel. Water rises up in parenchyma due to atmospheric pressure. J.C. Bose Pulsation theory : Important,chapter,notes,Ascent,of,Sap,Class,11,biology (i) According to which
innermost layer of cortex (=just outside the endodermis) is responsible for ascent of sap. (ii) He
concluded that these cells pulsate like heart and push water into the xylem cavity leading to
ascent of sap. (iii) He verified this with the help of electric-probe experiment. When electric
probe reached in innermost layer of cortex, vibrations in galvanometer were observed. (iv) Bose
performed his experiment in Desmodium gyrans (a member of Papilionatae). Strasburger (1891)
proved experimentally that living cells are not essential for ascent of sap. Ascent of sap can occur
even after making the live cells dead by poisoning them (using Picric acid, HgCl2 etc.) Root
Pressure Theory (By Priestlye) : Root pressure is respobsible for ascent of sap. Objections - Root
pressure is absent in woody plants, as secondry growth occurs in wood plant roots. When root
pressure is high, during night, then ascent of sap is low. (ii) Physical Force Theories : Supporters
of this theory are of opinion that forces responsible for upward conduction of water are physical
in nature and even dead cells can conduct water. Capillary force theory : - Proposed by Boehm.
Xylem vessels acts as capillaries and water rises up due to capillary action. Jamins Theory : Also known as chain theory. According to Jamin, there are alternate regular layers of water and
air in vessels. Ascent of sap occurs due to expansion of air. Imbibition force theory : Proposed by
Unger (1868) and supported by Sachs (1878). According to this theory imbibition by thick walls
of xylem vessels is responsible for ascent of sap. Sachs considered hydrophilic colloidal
substances present in cell wall of vessels to be responsible for this process. Transpiration pullcohesion force theory : This theory was proposed by Dixon and Jolly (1894). Most accepted or
universally accepted theory of ascent of sap. According to it three components are involved in
ascent of sap. (a) Cohesion : Mutual attraction between the water molecule is called cohesion
force, which helps in forming water coloum in xylem elements. (b) Adhesion : Attraction
between xylem walls and water molecules is called adhesion force, which helps in maintainance
of water coloumn of xylem. (c) Transpiration Pull : A tension or negative pressure develops in
xylem due to rapid transpiration in leaves (because of high DPD), this creates a transpiration
pull, which is responsible for the pulling up of water column in xylem. So ascent of sap is

constitutive effect of cohesion, adhesion and transpiration pull.

Important,chapter,notes,Ascent,of,Sap,Class,11,biology FACTORS AFFECTING ASCENT OF
SAP Amount of water in Soil Temperature Atmospheric humidity Atmospheric pressure
Movement of wind Number of stomata in leaves Besides them, all other factors which affects
root pressure and transpiration process, also affects ascent of sap directly or indirectly. FOOD
TRANSILOCATION IN PLANTS Food/organic material conduction in plants mainly occurs by
phloem. (Proved by Girdling experiment). Food conduction occurs in between source and sink.
Source is net exporter while sink is net importer. Generally green photosynthetic plant parts acts
as source like leaves while non photosynthetic parts like root, shoot, fruits acts as sink. Food
conduction may be in any required direction or bidirectional unlike the water conduction which
is a unidirectional process. Translocation of food mainly occurs in the form of sucrose or it is
non-reducing sugar and chemically inert in its pathway of conduction. Pressure flow/mass flow
hypothesis of food/sucrose translocation - Given by E. Munch (1930). This is the most accepted
theory of food conduction in plants. According to it food translocation occur in between source
and sink in order of turgor pressure gradient i.e., high T.P. to low T.P. Phloem loading/sucrose
loading at source - It is an active process occurs with expenditure of ATP and helped by carrier
molecules. At source due to phloem loading concentration of sieve cells increase, results in
increase in osmotic pressure and water will moves from nearby xylem into sieve cells results in
increase in turgor pressure (T.P.) and increase in water potential (W). It establish a higher T.P at
source end in sieve tubes. Sucrose moves from source in sieve tube towards sink from high T.P./
High to towards the low T.P./low W. Phloem unloading/sucrose unloading at sink . It is also
active process occurs with expenditure of ATP and helped by carrier molecules. At sink sucrose
is unloaded results in decrease in osmotic pressure (O.P.), it results in exit of water into near by
xylem leads to decrease in Turgor pressure (T.P.) and water potential (W) of phloem. In sink cells
the unloaded sucrose is either changed into starch (as starch not change O.P.) or consumed, to
maintain low O.P. and continuous unloading . The translocation of food between source and sink
end is passive process as occurs in order of T.P. or W gradient. So, the process of sucrose loading
at source and unloading at sink continues. This turgor pressure difference will maintained and
water will continue to move in at soure and out at sink. This mechanism was experimentally
demonstrated by Bimodel exp. of Munch. According to evidences of modern research phloem
conduction is an active process (only phloem loading and unloading) and it required metabolic
energy of phloem cells.

Water Relation PLANT WATER RELATIONS INTRODUCTION The study of various vital
activities and metabolism of plants is know as Plant physiology. Stephan Hales is known as
father of plant physiology. J.C. Bose is known as Father of Indian Plant physiology. Plants grow
in soil and absorb water and minerals, which are available in soil. So that water has great
importance for plant. Water forms 80-90% of fresh weight of plant body. The method or
technique, plant cells obtain water, comes under the heading of Water relation. To understand the
plant water relations, we should know the following process- DIFFUSION The movement of
molecules or atoms or ions of a materials from an area of higher concentration to an area of their
lower concentration is called diffusion. The diffusion is continue till the dynamic equilibrium is
established. At this stage the net movement of molecule is equal in both direction. The kinetic
energy, which is present in the molecules of material is distributed equally in their available

space by their nature. GasDiffusion rate > Liquid > Solid Diffusion pressure : The diffused
molecules or ions exert a pressure on the substance or medium in which diffusion take place,
known as Diffusion pressure. This is developed due to difference in the concentration of
molecules of the material. Diffusion pressure of a pure solvent (1236 atm) is always higher than
its solution. Water molecules moves from their higher concentration to the their lower
concentration in plants. The rate of diffusion decrease with increasing size of molecules. The
speed and direction of movement of molecules of substances depends upon the concentration of
the molecules. Due to the difference in the concentration of molecules, diffusion pressure results.
The potential ability of a substance to diffuse from an area of its greater concentration to an area
of less concentration, is called diffusion pressure. D.P. concentration of substance. Significance
of diffusion : Exchange of gases like CO2, O2 take place through the diffusion. The distribution
of hormones in the plants takes place through the diffusion. The process of transpiration is a
diffusion process. The evaporation of water from the intecellular spaces is linked with diffusion
during the transpiration. The ions of the minerals may diffused into the plant body. The process
of osmosis is a special type of diffusion of solvent molecules through semi-permeable
membrane. OSMOSIS Osmosis is defined as the special diffusion of solvent (water in this
context) from the solution of lower concentration to the solution of higher concentration when
both the solutions are separated by a semipermeable membrane. Osmosis was discovered by
Abbe Nollet. The detailed explanation of osmosis was given by Traube and Duterochat. Passing
of solvent through the semipermeable membrane is the example of osmosis. The water moves
into the cell during the osmosis is called endosmosis. Ex.: Grapes placed in water. When the
water starts moving out of the cell then it is called exosmosis. Ex.: Grapes kept in salt solution.
Types of membrane : The exchange of materials in and out through the membrane is called
permeability. The membranes are divided in the following types on the basis of permeability :(i) Permeable membrane : Such membranes are permeable for both - solutes and solvent. e.g. cell
wall, filter paper. (ii) Semipermeable membrane : Such membranes allow diffusion of solvent
molecules, but do not allow the solutes. e.g., artificial membrane like Cellophane and Copper
ferrocyanide membranes, parchment paper, goat bladder. (iii) Selective permeable membrane OR
differentially permeable membrane : Such membranes allow some selective solutes to pass
through them along with the solvent molecules. e.g., Cell membrane, Tonoplast, Organelles
membrane. These membranes are permeable for CO2, N2 O2 gases, alcohol, ether and water, but
impermeable for polysaccharides and proteins. (iv) Impermeable membrane : Rubber membrane,
Al-foil, Suberised cell wall, cork wall. Types of Solution : (i) Isotonic solution : If solution in
which a cell is placed, has equal osmotic concentration to that of cell sap, the outer solution is
called isotonic solution. (ii) Hypotonic solution : If the osmotic concentration of outer solution is
lesser than that of the cell sap, the outer solution is called hypotonic solution. If a cell is placed in
such solution endosmosis takes place, results, cell swells up. (iii) Hypertonic solution : If the
osmotic concentration of a solution is higher than that of the other (cell sap), solution is known
as hypertonic solution. If a cell placed in this type of solution, exosmosis takes place. It means
water of the cell sap diffused out into the outer solution, resulting cell become flaccid. e.g.,

Grapes placed in higher concentration of sugar solution becomes flaccid (contracts). Osmotic
pressure or O.P. : Osmotic pressure is the pressure developed in a solution when solution, and
water are separated by semipermeable membrane (given by Pfeffer) or O.P. of solution is equal
to pressure, which required to be applied on a solution in order to prevent an increase in its
volume due to tendency of solvent to enter in when the two are separated by a semipermeable
membrane. The osmotic pressure of pure water is zero. O.P. is due to presence of solute into the
solution. The osmotic pressure of solution is directly proportional to the concentration of solute
in it. The osmotic pressure shows maximum variation in the plants cells. According to Hariss the
osmotic pressure is highest in leaves and lowest in roots. The highest osmotic pressure is found
in the halophyte group. Atriplex confortifolia (202 atm). The lowest osmotic pressure is found in
aquatic plants or hydrophytes. Hydrophytes < Mesophytes < Xerophytes < Halophytes.
Generally osmotic pressure is lesser during the night and higher at noon. Osmotic pressure of a
solution is measured by osmometer. O.P. of cell is measured by incipient plasmolysis. First
osmometer was made by Pfeffer. The osmotic pressure can be measured by various methods. The
formula of Vont Hoff for measuring O.P. : OP = mRT Here m = Molar concentration R = Gas
constant [0.082 mole/molecules] T = Absolute temperature the osmotic pressure of 1 mole.
glucose solution at 0COP 22.4 atm., for non electrolytes.1 0.085 273 The O.P. of
electrolytes is find out by the following formula- OP = MRT I Where I is the constant of
ionisation of electrolytes. The osmotic pressure of electrolytes is higher than that of non
electrolytes. For example - solution of 1 M NaCl and 1 M glucose. The molar concentration of
both solutions are equal but O.P. of 1 M NaCl is higher than solution of 1 M glucose. Water
moves from lower O.P. towards the higher O.P. Significance of Osmosis / Osmotic Pressure :
Water absorption from the soil by the plants. Transport of water from cell to cell in plants. To
maintain turgor pressure. Origin of root pressure. Opening & Closing of stomata is affected by
Osmosis. TURGOR PRESSURE OR T.P. When a cell is immersed in water, then water enter
into the cell because osmotic pressure of the cell sap is higher. The cell content press upon the
wall or develop a pressure against the cell wall, which is called turgor pressure. Turgor pressure
is not applicable for free solution. This is only applicable for osmotic system of a plant cell.
Turgor pressure is also known hydrostatic pressure. The turgor pressure in encounter balanced by
an equal but opposite pressure of the thick cell wall on the enclosed solution or protoplasm is
known as wall pressure. It means whatever the amount of pressure exerted inner side on the
cytoplasm. Important,chapter,notes,water,RELATION,Class,11,biology TURGOR PRESSURE
Therfore, wall pressure and turgor pressure are equal to each other but W.P. is inward in
direction. TP WP Plant cell does not burst, when placed in pure water due to wall pressure, but
an animal cell burst when placed in pure water because wall pressure is absent due to absence of
cell wall. For example the consequence of endosmosis in animal cell can be demonstrated by
placing RBCs of human blood in distilled water. A flaccid cell has zero turgor pressure. The
highest value of turgor pressure is found in fully turgid cell and it is equal to the osmotic
pressure. Fully turgid cell has TP = OP The value of turgor pressure is normally from zero to in
between the osmotic pressure in plant cell. The value of turgor pressure is assumed as negative (

ve) during the plasmolysis of the cell. Significance of T.P. : Protoplasm of the cell attached with
the cell wall due to turgidity of the cell and cell is in stretched condition. It maintains the normal
shaped of the cell in which physiological processes are going on. The 3-D structure of
mitochondria, chloroplast and microbodies is maintained due to turgor pressure, which is
essential for their physiological activities.Turgor pressure is essential for maintaining definite
shape of delicate organs. Turgor pressure helps in cell elongation or growth of cell. Plant
movement like, movement of guard cells of stomata, wilting movements and seismonastic
movements etc. depend upon turgor pressure. Turgor pressure provides essential power to the
plumule to coming out from the soli and help in penetration of radicle into the soil. DIFFUSION
PRESSURE DEFICIT (DPD) OR SUCTION PRESSURE DPD : The difference between the
diffusion pressure of the solution and its pure solvent at particular temperature and pressure is
called DPD. or The DPD of any solution is the difference between the diffusion pressure of the
water, which is present in the solution and diffusion pressure of pure water. The term Diffusion
Pressure deficit (DPD) is used by B.S. Mayer. Renner named as Suction Pressure (S.P.) in cell.
DPD determines the direction of osmosis and it is the power of absorption of water for the cell
(Suction Pressure) concentration ofThis is also known as demand of water in cell. DPD
solute. The diffusion of water takes place from the region of lower DPD to the region of higher
DPD in the process of osmosis. Lower DPD SPMO H2 Higher DPD Normally, osmotic pressure
is greater than the turgor pressure in a cell. The difference between osmotic pressure and turgor
pressure is called suction pressure or DPD. DPD = OP TP The DPD of any free solution is
equal to the osmotic pressure of that solution. DPD = OP (i) DPD in partialy turgid or normal
cell : DPD = OP TP (ii) DPD for fully turgid cell : When a cell is placed in pure water or
hypotonic solution then water enter into the cell, results turgor pressure develop in the cell. The
cell starts swelling due to the turgor pressure. Simultaneously, concentration of cell sap decreases
due to continuous inflow of water. Therefore OP is goes on decreasing and T.P. increase due to
this, when value of TP will be equal to the OP then DPD will be zero. At this stage cell becomes
fully turgid. Therefore in a fully turgid cell. DPD = OP TP When, OP = TP or OP TP = O So
that DPD = O (iii) DPD in flaccid cell : If, the cell is in flaccid state then its T.P. or WP would be
zero and value of DPD would be equal to O.P. TP or WP = O Therefore, DPD or S.P. = OP If a
flaccid cell placed in water then waters enter into cell because DPD of the cell sap is higher. (iv)
DPD for plasmolysed cell : Sometimes the value of turgor pressure is negative as in plasmolysed
cell. In this state DPD = OP TP [TP = Ve] DPD = OP [ TP] = OP + TP So that the DPD
of the plasmolysed cell is greater than osmotic pressure. It means - DPD = OP + TP Demand of
water = Plasmolysed cell > Flaccid cell > Partially turgid cell > Fully turgid cell The demand of
water in plasmolysed cell is highest. It means, when the osmotic pressure and turgor pressure
will be equal, then the DPD will be zero. Water will not enter in this type of cell and cell become
fully turgid. But, when turgor pressure is lesser than the osmotic pressure, in normal cell then
some DPD will be definitely present in the cell and water would enters into the cell. For Ex. A Cell B - Cell TOPP == 1205 aattmm DPD = 15 atm TOPP == 2350 aattmm DPD = 5 atm W
The difference betweenGreater DPD H2O Lesser DPD WATER POTENTIAL OR the free

energy of molecules of pure water and free energy of the solution is called water potential of the
system. Now a day according to concept of free energy and thermodynamics DPD of a solution
is also represented by water potential. (Given by Taylor and Slatyer) The water potential of pure
water is maximum the pure water has greater free energy. The free energy, lower down by
addition of solute. Water always flows from higher water potential to lower water potential.
Water potential is represented by Greek word (Psi)/ W and it is measured in bars or Pascal (Pa).
Water potential is equal to DPD, but opposite in sign. Its value is negative. Water potential has
following components : 1. Osmostic potential (s) : Osmotic potential or solute potential
represents the concentration of the solutes. Water potential (W) is negative in the presence of
solutes. So that osmotic potential is also negative. According to thermodynamics, osmotic
pressure is called solute potential S and shown by negativeor osmotic potential. It is
represented by sing (ve) or it is better to say osmotic potential on the basis of free energy.
Osmotic potential or solute potential measured in bars. (1 Bar = 0.987 atmospheric pressure) OP
= 22.4 atm => osmotic potential = 22.4 atm. (1 M glucose solution) P)2. Pressure potential
( Turgor pressure is known as pressure potential. It is shown by positive sign (+ve). 1 Bar = 106
dynes/sq. cm. or 0.987 atm. (1 megapascal = 10 bars) According to this concept their relation is
as follows. Water potential = Osmotic potential + pressure potential + matric potential According
to the above concept the relation of the three phases of the cell by the water potential will be as
follows :- [A] In case of fully turgid cell - There is no flow of water in a fully turgid cell, because
the cell is in equilibrium condition with water which is present out side the cell. So that water
potential will be zero at this state. Because osmotic potential and pressure potential are equal in
the cell. For example - If the value of osmotic potential of a cell is 10 and P) is + 10, then water
potential will be zero as-pressure potential ( [B] In case of flaccid cell - Turgor pressure is zero
at this stage. It means pressure potential is zero. If osmotic potential of the cell is 10 bar then,
W = S [C] In Plasmolysed cell- The pressure potential (P) means turgor pressure is negative in
this stage. Therefore water potential (W) of this cell will be more negative [more ve]. If the
value of osmotic potential is 10 bar of a plasmolysed cell and value of pressure potential is 2
bars then its water potential (W) will be 12 bars. So, this is the conclusion that water always
move from higher water potential towards the lower water potential. For example if the water
potential of A cell is 10 bars and water potential of B cell is 12 in two cells, then water will
be flow from A cell to the B cell. PLASMOLYSIS If a plant cell placed in a hypertonic
solution, water molecules diffused out from the cell. As a result of exosmosis, the protoplasm of
the cell detached from the cell and starts shrinking. This is called plasmolysis. The various
sequences of plasmolysis are as follows - (i) In a turgid cell, the cell sap pushed away the
protoplasm, so that it is in close contact with cell wall. (ii) When it placed in a hypertonic
solution, the volume of the cell reduces due to shrinking of cell because some amount of water of
cell sap diffuses out by exosmosis. Turgor pressure decreases by which cell wall is not pushed by
the protoplasm, so that shrinking cell membrane reduces in total volume of the cell. This
situation is called the first stage of plasmolysis or limitingbplasmolysis. Plasmolysis : A - A cell
in normal stage, B - A cell placed in pure water and resulting in increased turgor pressure and C -

A cell placed in strong salt solution leading to plasmolysis (iii) If the diffusion of water to the
outside is continue by the exosmosis then central vacuole contracts and with this protoplasm also
shrinks but cell wall is not contracting. So that protoplasm is seems to detach from the corners of
cell wall. This condition is known as second phase of the plasmolysis or incipient plasmolysis.
(iv) The shrinking of protoplasm is continuous due to continuous exosmosis, it detaches from the
cell wall and assumed a spherical shape. This phase is known as evident plasmolysis / full
plasmolysis. Hypertonic solution is present in between the cell wall and protoplasm.
Important,chapter,notes,water,RELATION,Class,11,biology Significance of plasmolysis [i] A
living cell is distinguished from the non living [dead] cell through the plasmolysis. Because
plasmolysis does not occur in dead cell. [ii] The osmotic pressure of any cell can be measured by
incipient plasmolysis. [iii] If the plasmolysis remains for long duration in a cell then it dies. To
destroy the weeds, salts puts in their roots. [iv] Fishes and meat are prevented from spoilage by
salting, which inhibits the growth of bacteria and fungus. [v] Higher concentration of sugar in
jams and jellies stops the growth of bacteria and fungus. [vi] High amount of chemical fertilizers
near the root causes death or browning of the plant due to plasmolysis. [vii] The fresh water
growing plants are either wilted or die when they are kept in marine water. IMBIBITION
Adsorption of undissolved liquid by any solid material is called imbibition or adsorption of water
by hydrophilic colloids is known as imbibition. This is a physical process by which a dry solid
colloid material swells up by adsorption of water. The cell wall is made up of colloidal substance
as cellulose, pectin, hemicellulose etc. All they are hydrophilic in nature. Therefore they imbibe
water. Proteins, Agar - agar, starch etc, these are all imbibant materials. Agar - agar can adsorbs
99 times more water than that of its weight. Some of the proteins adsorb 15 times more water.
Imbibition power = Agar Agar > Pectin > Protein > Starch > Cellulose Affinity must be
between imbibant and liquid material and movement of water occurs in order of water potential
gradient.The heat released during the imbibition is called heat of wetting. A huge pressure is
developed in material due to imbibition. This pressure is called Imbibition pressure (IP). IP is
also called as matric potential with respect to water potential. m The imbibition is less in
compact arranged material like wood,W = and more in lighter or soft material like gelatin.
Imbibition decreases with increasing pressure on imbibant material. Significance of Imbibition :
Absorption of water during due the seed germination is only initiate through the imbibition.
Breaking of seed coat during the seed germination is due to imbibition process. Proteins, fats and
starch is present in the kernel. This kernel swells up more as compared to the seed coat which
breaks the seed coat. Initial process of water absorption in roots by root hairs is imbibitions.
Resurrection in many plants like Selaginella, Lichen take place due to the process of imbibition.
The water enter into the aerial roots and dry fruits is due to imbibition. Newly formed wood
swells up in rainy season. Dry wood is filled in the natural grooves of rocks and watered them.
The rocks are broken due to their swelling. Movement of water molecules : Higher D.P. Lower
D.P. Lower O.P. Higher O.P. Lower DPD Higher DPD Higher (less ve) W Lower (more ve) W
Higher T.P. Lower T.P. Hypotonic Hypertonic Higher conc. of solution. Lower conc. of
solution ABSORPTION OF WATER BY PLANTS SIGNIFICATION OF WATER IN PLANTS

75-80% part of cells is water. In aquatic plant cells, upto 95% water may be present. Water is a
universal solvent. (a) Gases, solids, minerals and organic compounds are found dissolved in it.
Their transfer in plants occurs through aquetic medium. (b) Water is essential for metabolic
reactions occuring in plants. Water is used in many reactions (hydrolysis, photosynthesis etc.)
The cells remain turgid due to water, so that shape of cells/organs is maintained. Many types of
movements, opening and closing of stomata, metabolic reactions, growth etc. are affected by
turgidity. Water protects the plants from harmful effects due to high and low temperatures. Water
is essential for seed germination. FORM OF WATER Water is mainly obtained through rain.
Some of the water goes into the reservoirs. This is called run off water. Rest of the water enter
into the land. Water present in soil is following type- (a) Gravitational water :- Form of water,
which reaches at the soil water table due to the gravitational force after the rainfall. This form is
not available to plants but available by mechanical methods or by tubewell irrigation. Some
plants can absorbe this water - Calotropis, Prosopis, Capparis, etc. (b) Hygroscopic water :- Thin
film of water is tightly held by the soil particles is called hygroscopic water. This water is also
not available to the plants. W of hygroscopic water is highly negative or very low. (c) Chemically
combined water :- The amount of water present in the chemical compounds, which are present in
the particles of soil. This is not available to the plants ......................... 24 H2O, ................... 7
H2O (d) Capillary water :- Water exists between soil particles in small capillary pores is called
Capillary water. It is the most common available form to the plants. Plants only obsorb this form
of water. (e) Atmospheric humidity :- This is water vapour present in air, which can be absorbed
by hanging roots of the epiphytes due to presence of velamen tissue and hygroscopic hairs.
Holard : It is the total amount of water presents in the soil. Holard Chresard Echard Chresard :
This is the water available to the plants. Echard : This water is not available to the plants.
Important,chapter,notes,water,RELATION,Class,11,biology WATER ABSORBING SYSTEM In
thalophytes (fungi and algae) water absorption takes place through the whole surface of all cells.
In Bryophyta it occurs by Rhizoids. In Pteridophyta & spermatophyta it occurs by roots. Root
System consists of following parts - (a) Root cap region or calyptra- Present at the apex of the
root as a protective tissue ; it is impermeable to water & solute absorption. It percept the stimuli
of gravity. Important,chapter,notes,water,RELATION,Class,11,biology (b) Meristematic regionRegion of active cell division situated above root cap. Mineral absorption mainly occurs from
this region. (c) Region of cell elongation - Next to meristematic region, here growth in length of
the root takes place. (d) Maturation region - The cells at this region are highly differentiated to
carry out different function. It includes root hair region. Root hairs are the water absorbing
organs of plants. PATH OF MOVEMENT OF WATER
Important,chapter,notes,water,RELATION,Class,11,biology Water present in soil must reach the
xylem of roots. Root hair is in contact with soil water. Their cell wall is thin & water easily
diffuses in. From root hairs water reaches epidermis & from their to cortex made of
parenchymatous cells. From innermost layer of cortex water enters in endodermis consisting of
thin walled passage cells found against each protoxylem. In last, water reaches to xylem passing
through thin walled pericycle. endodermis Cortex Epiblema Root hair In Short : -Soil

water Xylem Pericycle (passage cells) Pathway of Apoplast and Symplast : (A) Symplast fAro smub csetall intoa bcleel l litvhirnogug pha pthla sism kondoewsnm aasta s iysm
cpallalesdt. sTyhmisp isla tshteic l ipviantgh pina spslaagnet.. TThhise mmoovveemmeenntt ooff
wwaatteerr through cell membrane is also called as transmembrane pathway. (B) Apoplast tTohgies tihse trh teo nfoornm l iavpinogp lpasatt.h in plants. Watered cell wall, intercellular
space and xylem cavity associate Vacuole Cell wall Cytoplasm Plasmodesmata Tonoplast
Apoplast pathway Symplast pathway Vacuolar pathway Term apoplast & symplast given by
Munch The path of water from root hair to cortex, may be apoplastic or symplastic. In
endodermis subarised casparian strips blocks the apoplast, thus water must passes through
passage cell via symplast. Important,chapter,notes,water,RELATION,Class,11,biology
MECHANISM OF WATER ABSORPTION Term active & passive absorption was proposed by
Ranner. Water is absorbed by two different ways- (1) Active water absorption (2) Passive water
absorption According to this method water is(1) Active absorption of water absorbed due to
the osmotic acitivity of roots or by expenditure of ATPs. This is given by Atkins(I) Osmotic
active water absorption & Priestley. According to this method water is absorbed due to the
osmotic activity of roots in order to O.P. & D.P.D. No direct ATP are consumed in this method. It
is effective during night in herbaceous plant and developes root pressure. (A) Root Pressure :
Important,chapter,notes,water,RELATION,Class,11,biology Root pressure is the positive
hydrostatic pressure which develops due to turgidity of cortical cells of root which excert
pressure on the xylem sap of roots due to accumulation of water absorbed by roots, during
night.Term root pressure was coined by Stephan Hales. Root pressure is developed when rate of
osmotic active water absorption is more than the rate of transpiration and due to which water is
pushed up in tracheary elements of roots. When a plant is cut near the base, the oozing of the
liquid from the cut end is called bleeding or exudation. It is indicative of root pressure. The
maximum value of root pressure can be upto 2 atm. Its maximum value is found in plants
growing in well aerated, well watered soil under and moist environment. Root pressure is absent
in most of the conifers, woody plants and in rapidly transpiring plants (negative pressure is
effective). Guttation is also the result of root pressure. Root pressure is high under favourable
conditions (rains and spring). At this time transpiration rate is comparatively low. In summers,
when there is greatest need for water, root pressure is lacking. Thus root pressure is not important
in most plants. It may be effective in herbaceous plants which transpire slowly, during night. (B)
Guttation : Important,chapter,notes,water,RELATION,Class,11,biology Loss of water from the
margin of leaves of the herbaceous plant in the form of water droplets is called as guttation. The
term Guttation was coined by Burgerstein. Exuded liquid of guttation along with water
contains some organic and inorganic (dissolved) substances. It means it is not pure water.
Normally, guttation process is found in herbaceous plants like Grasses, Tomatos, Balsum,
Nausterium, Colocasia, Sexifraga and in some of the plants of Cucurbitaceae family. Guttation
occurs from the margins of the leaves through the special pore (always open) like structure are
called hydathodes or water stomata. Generally guttation occurs during mid night or early
morning. Parenchymatous and loose tissue are lie beneath the hydathode, which are known as

epithem or transfer tissues. The process of guttation take place due to root pressure, develope in
cortex cells of root. (C) Bleeding : Fast flowing of liquid from the injured or cut parts of the
plants is called bleeding or exudation. This process takes place due to high root pressure. Sugar
is obtained from the sugar mapple by this process. The highest bleeding is found in Caryota
urens (Toddy palm) (about 50 liter per day) Bleeding is important in economic biology, because
Opium, latex of rubber is obtained by this. Proposed by Thieman,(II) Non osmotic active
water absorption Bennet-Clark. According to this method absorption of water occur against the
osmotic concentration by direct investment / expenditure of metabolic energy in the form of
ATPs. Generally this process present in Halophytes. Only 4% of total absorbed water is taken by
this process. Given by Kramer. According to this(2) Passive absorption of water method
forces for the absorption of water originates in aerial parts by rapid transpiration & roots remain
as passive organ. According to Kramer water absorption in plants is followed by transpiration.
About 96% of water is absorbed by passive method. Due to rapid transpiration, D.P.D. of leaf
cells result in suction force, which suck the GRAMS OF WATER Wilting : Drooping of soft
parts of the plants due to loss of turgidity in their cells is called wilting. Wilting is caused due to
high rate of transpiration during mid-day or deficiency of water in soil and also in prolonged
drought condition. Wilting may be temporary or permanent. Incipient wilting : This is starting of
wilting without any external symptom is called incipient wilting. FACTORS AFFECTING
WATER ABSORPTION [1] Available soil water :- Plant absorbs capillary water, which is
present in soil. Absorption of water depends on the amount of capillary water present in the soil.
Absorption increases by increasing amount of capillary water. If, water is present in higher
amount in the soil then such type of soil is called Water logged soil. iTnh rioso stso,i la insd P
ahlcyoshiooll oisg ifcoarmllye dd. rRy oaontsd claanck b eo xdyeggeenn. eBraetcea duusee toof
fothrims aanlc oaheorol. b(iDc rrye sspoiirla itsio pnh ytaskiceasll yp dlarcy.e) [2] Soil
temperature :- Soil temperature affects the following mechanisms- [iii] At low temperature
viscosity of capillary water is increased. Generally, normal absorption of water take place at
temperature of soil between 20 - 35C. Increasing or decreasing soil temperature of soil between
20 - 35C. [3] SCooilld Asior il: -is as physiologically dry. Absorption of water proceeds more
rapidly in well aerated soil. Deficiency of oxygen in soil causes improper respiration in roots.
Poorly aerated soil is physiologically dry. [4] Soil Concentration : The rate of the absorption is
inversely proportional to the concentration of minerals present in soil. concentration of soil
minerals 1Water Absorption Water absorption is only take place in appropriate soil solution. If
the concentration of soil minerals Transpiration :- According to Kramer the rate of water
absorption is directly proportional to the rate of transpiration. The rate of absorption increases
due to increase in the transpiration. Because passive water absorption increases due to
transpiration.