b2 Summary Notes - Sets 1-5
b2 Summary Notes - Sets 1-5
b2 Summary Notes - Sets 1-5
AQA
GCSE Biology
Summary Notes
For Unit B2
Exam Tuesday
th
May 13 2014
Page 1
Yeast
Yeast is a single-celled organism.
The cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm and a membrane surrounded by a cell wall.
Bacteria
Bacterium is a single-celled organism.
A bacterial cell consists of cytoplasm and a membrane surrounded by a cell wall.
The genes are not in a distinct nucleus.
Page 3
To get into or out of cells, dissolved substances have to cross the cell membranes.
Solutes = particles in solution eg glucose, sodium ions, chloride ions.
Solvent = liquid in which the particles are dissolved eg water.
Solute and solvent molecules move around randomly.
Solutes can move into and out of cells by diffusion.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the spreading of the particles of a gas, or of any substance in solution,
resulting in a net movement from a region where they are of a higher concentration.
Oxygen required for respiration passes through cell membranes by diffusion.
The greater the difference in concentration, the faster the rate of diffusion.
Page 4
Page 5
Plant organs
Plant organs include stems, roots and leaves.
Examples of plant tissues include:
epidermal tissues, which cover the plant
mesophyll, which carries out photosynthesis
xylem and phloem, which transport substances around the plant.
Page 6
B2.3 Photosynthesis
Summary
Green plants and algae use light energy to make their own food. They obtain the raw
materials they need to make this food from the air and the soil. The conditions in which
plants are grown can be changed to promote growth.
Photosynthesis
Photo = light
Synthesis = making of (glucose)
Photosynthesis = making glucose using light
During photosynthesis:
light energy is absorbed by a green substance called chlorophyll, which is found in
chloroplasts in some plant cells and algae.
This energy is used by converting carbon dioxide (from the air) and water (from the
soil) into sugar (glucose).
Oxygen is released as a by-product.
Photosynthesis is summarised by the equation:
light energy
carbon dioxide + water
glucose + oxygen
Page 7
The glucose produced in photosynthesis may be converted into insoluble starch for
storage
Plant cells use some of the glucose produced during photosynthesis for respiration.
Some glucose in plants and algae is used:
to produce fat or oil for storage
to produce cellulose, which strengthens the cell wall
to produce proteins:
o To produce proteins, plants also use nitrate ions that are absorbed from the
soil.
Page 8
Quadrats
These are square frames, used to mark off specific areas of ground.
Typically 0.5m X 0.5m with a grid of 10cm X 10 cm
They can be used to survey:
o which species are present,
o numbers of each species, or
o percentage cover of a species.
Random Sampling:
Construct a regular grid using tape across the area.
Generate random numbers using a calculator or computer.
Use these to determine coordinates.
This ensures that there is no bias by the investigator.
It ensures the results are valid.
Investigate the population of the species in the quadrat.
Repeat many times.
Transects
Use when:
There are changes in the distribution of a population of an organism.
There are two neighbouring habitat
eg grassland to woodland
Or, if a particular factor leads to zonation
Eg the effect of the tide and coverage by water on a rocky seashore.
Method
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
Page 10
Analysis of data
Mean:
The average value; calculated by adding all the observations and dividing by the number of
observations.
Example 1
25 quadrats were placed.
125 dandelions where found in total.
Mean number of daisies per quadrat = 125
25
=5
Example 2
5 quadrats were placed.
Percentage cover of grass in each was: 70%, 50%, 80%, 60%, 90%
Mean percentage cover = 70 + 50 + 80 + 60 + 90
5
= 70%
Median:
The middle value of a list.
Example:
The number of slugs found under discarded bricks were: 5,9,9,8,6,9,3,6
Arrange the data in order: 3,5,6,6,8,9,9,9
The median is the middle number, or the mean of the middle two numbers.
The median number of slugs per brick = 6 + 8 = 7 slugs per brick
2
Mode:
The most common value in a list.
In the case of the slugs this would be 9 slugs per brick
Page 11
B2.5 Proteins
Summary
Proteins have many functions, both inside and outside the cells of living organisms.
Proteins, as enzymes, are now used widely in the home and in industry.
Protein structure
Protein molecules are made up of long chains of amino acids.
These long chains are folded to produce a specific shape that enables other molecules to fit
into the protein.
Proteins act as:
Structural components of tissues such as muscles:
o Muscle cells contain interlinking protein fibres.
o These interact when the muscle contract.
Page 12
Hormones:
o Some hormones are proteins.
o Example: insulin
o Hormones are released into the blood from glands.
o They have specific shapes, and attach to molecules on the cell membrane of
specific target cells.
o Eg when the blood sugar levels increase, insulin is released from the
pancreas. It attaches to the cell membrane of cells in the liver, and this
causes them to increase rate of glucose uptake.
Antibodies:
o Antibodies are made of proteins.
o They are released by white blood cells.
o They have a specific shape that attaches to antigens.
o Antigens are chemicals that pathogens carry or release.
o The antibody prevents the pathogens from damaging our own cells.
Page 13
Catalysts:
o Proteins act as biological catalysts called enzymes.
o These control and sequence all of the reactions that occur inside and outside
cells in all living organisms.
Page 14
Activation Energy
In order for a chemical reaction to take place, energy is required.
This is called the activation energy.
Enzymes reduce the activation energy of a reaction.
Effect of temperature on enzymes
Like most chemical reactions, the rate of enzyme-controlled reactions increases as the
temperature increases.
The enzyme and substrates move around faster so they collide more often.
The temperature when the enzyme is working fastest is called the optimum.
This is true up to approximately 40C, higher than this and the structure of the enzyme
changes.
As a result, the active site becomes a different shape and the substrate no longer fits.
It is then described as denatured.
Page 15
Digestion
Some enzymes work outside the body cells.
These are called extracellular enzymes.
The digestive enzymes are produced by specialised cells in glands and in the lining of
the gut.
The enzymes then pass out of the cells into the gut where they come into contact with
food molecules.
They catalyse the breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules.
Digestion is the process where food is broken down into substances the body can
absorb.
Nutrition is the process of taking in and using food.
The Human Digestive System
Page 16
Page 17
Advantages
These are more efficient at removing stains
from clothes.
Disadvantages
If the clothes are not fully rinsed, protease
enzymes may remain in the clothes, which
digests protein in the skin.
This can lead to irritation, allergies and
dermatitis.
In industry:
o Proteases are used to pre-digest the protein in some baby foods.
This reduces how much the baby needs to digest the food.
o Carbohydrases are used to convert starch into sugar syrup.
This is cheaper than extracting sugar from sugar cane.
o Isomerase is used to convert glucose syrup into fructose syrup:
This is much sweeter
It therefore can be used in smaller quantities in slimming foods.
Advantages
Enzymes enable industrial reactions to take
place at lower temperatures.
Supplying heat is expensive. When
enzymes are used, industrial processes can
be cheaper.
Disadvantages
Enzymes are sensitive to temperature and
pH changes.
Temperature and pH need to be carefully
monitored and controlled, which can be
expensive.
Page 18
B2.6 Respiration
Summary
Respiration in cells can take place aerobically or anaerobically. The energy released is
used in a variety of ways. The human body needs to react to the increased demand for
energy during exercise.
Respiration
Definition: The process of transferring energy from food molecules in every living cell.
Aerobic respiration - uses oxygen
Anaerobic respiration - uses no oxygen
All chemical reactions inside cells are controlled by enzymes.
Aerobic respiration
Glucose reacts with oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water as waste products.
This takes place continuously in animals and plants.
Word equation:
Glucose + Oxygen
6CO2 + 6H2O
Mitochondria
Most of the reactions in respiration happen in the mitochondria.
The inner surface of the mitochondria is highly folded to increase the surface area for
enzymes.
Energy use
Page 19
However, lactic acid is poisonous. We can only tolerate small amounts in our body.
If muscles are subjected to long periods of vigorous activity they become fatigued, ie
they stop contracting efficiently.
One cause of muscle fatigue is the build up of lactic acid in the muscles.
Blood flowing through the muscles removes the lactic acid.
During and after exercise, we breathe heavily to take in extra oxygen to oxidise the lactic
acid:
lactic acid + oxygen
Page 20
Page 21
Page 22
Asexual reproduction
The cells of the offspring produced by asexual reproduction are produced by mitosis
from the parental cells.
They contain the same genes as the parents.
Cell differentiation
Differentiation results when some genes are turned on, some are turned off.
Once the cells are specialised they carry out their role.
Most types of animal cells differentiate at an early stage.
Many plant cells retain the ability to differentiate throughout life.
In mature animals, cell division is mainly restricted to repair and replacement.
Stem cells
Stem cells can be made to differentiate into many different types of cells e.g. nerve
cells.
There are very few stem cells in an adult.
There is currently a lot of research involving the use of stem cells to treat various
diseases and injuries.
Cells can be taken from human embryos, adult bone marrow and umbilical cords.
Page 23
Treatment with these cells may help cure conditions such as paralysis.
However, many people are concerned about the use of human embryos to treat
diseases.
They feel that all embryos have got the potential to become a baby, and that they should
not be used in this way.
Sexual reproduction
Gamete formation
Gametes are sex cells (sperm and egg cells).
Sperm formed in the testes.
Egg cells are formed in the ovaries.
A cell containing a full set of chromosomes (chromosomes in pairs) divides to form cells
with half the number set of chromosomes (a single set):
o Meiosis occurs:
Copies of the chromosomes are made.
The nucleus divides twice to form 4 nuclei.
o Then the cell divides twice to form four gametes.
Each has a single set of chromosomes.
Fertilisation
When gametes join at fertilisation, a single body cell with new pairs of chromosomes is
formed.
A new individual then develops by this cell repeatedly dividing by mitosis.
Page 24
Variation
Asexual reproduction leads to very little variation:
Organisms that reproduce asexually create new individuals by mitosis.
They are genetically identical to the parent.
They may develop differently due to differences in their environment.
Sexual reproduction leads to much more variation:
Meiosis ensures that all gametes contain the same genes, but have a different selection
of alleles.
Also, it is random which sperm fertilises which egg.
Therefore all individuals (except for identical twins) produced sexually are genetically
different.
Mendels discoveries
Mendel worked out the main principles of inheritance in the 19th century.
He studied inheritance in pea plants.
He noticed that certain characteristics that were shown by 2 pea plants were not always
shown in their offspring.
However, when he crossed these offspring together, the characteristics sometimes
reappeared in the next generation.
He carried out thousands of crosses with pea plants, and he found that many
characteristics were inherited in predictable patterns.
He proposed the idea of separately inherited factors:
o Each individual inherits a set of factors from each of their parents.
o It is the combination of these characters that determines the characteristics of an
individual.
Mendels discoveries were not recognised until after his death Why?
He published his work in an obscure journal
DNA, chromosomes and genes were not yet discovered
People could not accept the link between plants and humans.
Inheritance
Each gene may have different forms called alleles.
Eg. There is a gene for eye colour. Everyone has 2 copies of this gene. Alleles for eye
colour may be blue, brown, green etc.
Therefore each person may have 2 different alleles for eye colour.
When we are conceived, we receive one copy of each gene from each parent.
Therefore we have two copies of every gene, but they may be 2 different alleles.
Different combinations of alleles may lead to differences in the characteristic.
An allele, which controls the development of a characteristic when it is present on only
one of the chromosomes, is a dominant allele.
An allele, which controls the development of characteristics only if the dominant allele is
not present, is a recessive allele.
Phenotype is a description of how a characteristic is expressed. This can be influenced
by genetic or environmental factors.
Genotype is a description of the alleles an individual possesses for a characteristic.
A homozygous genotype has 2 identical alleles.
A heterozygous genotype has two different alleles for a gene.
Page 25
Eg tongue rolling
There is a gene that control our ability to roll our tongues.
There are 2 alleles for this gene:
The allele that allows us to roll our tongues is dominant (R)
The allele that prevents tongue rolling is recessive (r)
Possible parent combination 1:
Parents phenotypes:
tongue roller
non-tongue roller
Parents genotypes:
RR
rr
r and r
and R
Rr
Rr
Rr
Rr
tongue roller
X
tongue roller
(both carrying the non-tongue rolling allele)
Parents genotypes:
Rr
and r
Rr
R and r
Offspring phenotypes:
RR
Rr
Rr
rr
Page 26
tongue roller
X
(carrying the non-tongue rolling allele)
Parents genotypes:
Rr
and r
non-tongue roller
rr
r and r
Offspring phenotypes:
Rr
rr
Rr
rr
Family Trees
The inheritance of traits in families can be illustrated using a family tree
In this example, the allele for attached earlobes is recessive.
F = allele for detached earlobes
f = allele for attached earlobes
FF and Ff = genotypes for detached earlobes
ff = genotype for attached earlobes
Page 27
male
female
XY
XX
X and Y
X and X
At fertilisation:
X
XX
XY
XX
XY
Page 28
DNA Fingerprinting
Each person (apart from identical twins) has unique DNA.
Samples of DNA can be found in blood, semen and saliva.
Special techniques are used to cut the DNA and then separate them according to length
across a gel.
Sequences within the DNA can be identified.
Each individuals DNA produces a specific pattern.
This can be used:
o To identify criminals
o To decide whether someone is the biological father of a child.
Page 29
B2.8 Speciation
Summary
Changes in the environment of plants and animals may cause them to die out. The fossil
record shows that new organisms arise, flourish, and after a time become extinct. The
record also shows changes that lead to the formation of new species.
Origins of life
The first organisms were very simple single-celled organisms, similar to bacteria.
However, these rarely survive as fossils.
Therefore, Scientists cannot be certain about how life began on Earth.
It is only possible to develop theoretical models that show how life may have started.
Fossils
We can learn from fossils how much or how little different organisms have changed as
life developed on Earth.
However, many early forms of life were soft-bodied, which means that they have left few
traces behind.
What traces there were have been mainly destroyed by geological activity.
Fossils may be formed in various ways:
from the hard parts of animals that do not decay easily
from parts of organisms that have not decayed because one or more of the
conditions needed for decay are absent
when parts of the organism are replaced by other materials as they decay
as preserved traces of organisms, eg footprints, burrows and rootlet traces.
Extinctions
Various events can make it difficult for individuals to survive:
o changes to the environment over geological time
o new predators may arise
o new diseases may arise
o new, more successful, competitors may arise
o a single catastrophic event, eg massive volcanic eruptions or collisions with
asteroids.
If the organisms cannot evolve quick enough to become better adapted to the change
they may become extinct.
If they do evolve, they are likely to develop into new species.
Speciation
A species is defined as a group of organisms that are capable of breeding together to
produce fertile offspring.
New species arise as a result of:
Isolation two populations of a species become separated, eg geographically.
Genetic variation each population has a wide range of alleles that control their
characteristics.
Natural selection - In each population, the alleles that control the characteristics
which help the organism to survive are selected:
Page 30
o The individuals with the most beneficial alleles are more likely to survive.
o They are more likely to reproduce and pass on their genes.
o Therefore, the beneficial alleles become more common in future generations.
Over a long period of time, the populations may become so different that successful
interbreeding is no longer possible.
They have no become separate species.
Speciation has therefore occurred.
Page 31