Snow II: Snowmelt and energy

balance

The are three basic snowmelt phases

1) Warming phase: Absorbed energy raises the average snowpack
temperature to a point at which the snowpack is isothermal (no
vertical temperature gradient) at 0oC.
2) Ripening phase: Absorbed energy is used to melt snow, but the
meltwater is retained in the snowpack in pore spaces by surface
tension forces. As the end of this phase, the snowpack cannot
retain any more liquid water and is said to be ripe.
3) Output phase: Further absorbtion of energy produces water output,
which then appears as runoff, infiltration or evaporation.
This is a very idealized sequence. For example, melting typically
occurs at the surface of the snowpack at a time prior to the
ripening phase. Meltwater may percolate into deeper layers where
the snow temperature is below 0oC and refreeze, forming ice
layers and lenses; latent heat release then warms the snowpack.
There is also (typically) a diurnal freeze/thaw cycle.

Warming phase
Warming phase: Must add energy to raise the temperature to 0oC. The
required energy represents the cold content (Qcc) of the snowpack. This
energy total, in J m-2 (a snowpack 1 meter on a side), is:

Qcc = -ci.w.hm.(Ts-Tm)
Where ci is the heat capacity of ice (2102 J kg-1 K-1), Ts is the average
temperature of the snowpack, Tm is the melting point of ice (0oC), w is the
density of water (approximately 1000 kg m-3), and hm is the snowpack water
equivalent in meters.
For a snowpack water equivalent of 0.29 m and an average snowpack
temperature of -9oC (Example 5-2 in Dingmans book), the cold content is
5.49 MJ m-2.
What if we do not have snowpack water equivalent but rather snow density
and depth? Then we need to replace w with the snow density s and hm
with snow depth hs.
w.hm = s.hs (units kg m-2)

Ripening phase
From empirical studies, the maximum volumetric water content
(ret) that a snowpack can retain against gravity (for ripe snow) is:
ret = -0.0745.(s/w) + 0.000267.(s/w)2
For a typical ripe snowpack of density s = 500 kg m-3, ret = 0.03
Snowpack density can be written as:
s = (1 ).i + .w
i = ice density = 917 kg m-3
= liquid water content, as the ratio of liquid water volume to total
snowpack volume
= porosity, the ratio of pore volume to total snowpack volume
Dingman 2002, Figure 5-19

Idealized depiction of snow grains,

water retained by surface tension
and continuous pores filled with air.

With s = 500 kg m-3 and ret = 0.03, and rearranging, =0.49

ret/ = 0.061 = proportion of pore space filed with water at the end
of the ripening phase. Key: Little of the pore space (6% in this
example) is water!
Net energy Qm2 in J m-2 require to complete the ripening phase is:
Qm2 = ret.hs.w.f , where f is the latent heat of fusion (0.334 MJ kg-1)

Output phase
Once the snowpack is ripe, further energy input results in meltwater
that percolates downward to become water output. The energy
Qm3 in J m-2 required to melt the snow remaining at the end of the
ripening phase is:
Qm3 = (hm hwret).w.f
Where hwret = ret.hs is the liquid-water retaining capacity of the
snowpack and hm (as we recall) is the liquid water equivalent of the
snowpack.

Time series from Sleepers River Research Watershed (VT)

Dingman 2002, Figure 5-24

The increase in snow depth and snowpack water equivalent (SWE) through the
accumulation season is accompanied by an increase in density due snow metamorphism.
The accumulation period ended Feb 26 and SWE began to decline on 4 March. Snowpack
density continued to increase through the snowpack warming phase, ripening phase and
water output phases of the snowmelt process, reaching 520 kg m-3 just before the melting
process was complete.

The energy balance

The snowmelt process requires absorbtion of energy Q of an amount equal to
the sum of the energy absorbtion associated with the three snowmelt
phases:
Q = Qcc + Qm2 + Qm3
Q = -ci.w.hm.(Ts-Tm) + ret.hs.w.f + (hm hwret).w.f
Recall that Q has units of J m-2 . Dividing each term through by time yields a
time rate of change of energy storage (Q/t) = J m -2 s-1 = W m-2 of the water
in the 1x1 meter column representing the original snowpack.
From energy conservation:
Q/t = energy flux in minus energy flux (W m-2) from all processes.

The energy budget

Q/t = K + L + H + LE + R + G
Q/t = net energy flux into snowpack (change in storage)
K = net shortwave radiation flux
L = net longwave radiation flux
H = turbulent sensible heat flux
LE = turbulent latent heat flux heat
R = heat input from rain
G = conductive exchange of sensible with the ground
All fluxes are positive when directed into the snowpack (i.e.,
they are en energy source to the snowpack).

The energy budget

K = Kin Kout
K = Kin (1-), = albedo

Kin

Kout

Lin

Lout

K is either positive or zero

LE

L = Lin Lout
L = a Ta4 - s Ts4
a, s = emissivity of surface and
atmosphere, respectively
Ta, Ts = temperature of the air and
surface, respectively

Snowpack

= Stefan-Boltzmann constant
L is usually negative
H, LE, typically both negative, but by
no means always
G is usually positive

G
R is always positive

Controls on net shortwave radiation K

Biggest in summer, smallest in winter (small or zero in high latitudes in winter)
Depends strongly in surface albedo. Albedo of fresh snow is about 0.8, albedo
of forest might be 0.15-0.20. However, snow albedo is quite variable and drops
as snow undergoes metamorphosis.
Depends on slope and aspect, more on south-facing slopes than north-facing
slopes
Reduced under cloud cover, primarily due to high cloud albedo, and to a lesser
degree by cloud absorbtion; both are related to cloud thickness.
Reduced by clear sky scattering and absorbtion
(atmospheric gases, aerosols)
Reduced under forest canopies
At right: Ratio of incident solar radiation to the
surface under various types of forest canopies to
that received in the open for four forest types, BF
= balsam fir, JP = jack pine, LP = lodgepole pine,
circles = open boreal spruce forest.
Dingman 2002, Figure 5-22

Spectral reflectance

Direct beam spectral reflectance for a semi-infinite snowpack as a function of

wavelength for grain radii from 50 to 1000 m and for a solar zenith angle of 60 [from
Wiscombe and Warren, 1980, by permission of AMS]. The key points are that
spectral reflectance depends on both grain size and wavelength. Albedo is the
integrated spectral reflectance over the visible wavelengths.

Effects of slope and aspect on incoming

shortwave radiation

http://agcal.usask.ca/slsc240/modules/module8/temp_fact.html

Controls on net longwave radiation L

Recall that:
L = Lin Lout
L = . a.Ta4 - . s .Ts4
Lout: Most surfaces behave approximately as blackbodies in the infrared (s 1), so if you
know the surface temperature, you know Lout. The surface temperature is the radiating
skin temperature, not the air temperature.
Lin: This is much more complicated. While Lin depends on Ta , the near-surface air
temperature, it is strongly dependent on the atmospheric emissivity, a. The emissivity
increases with increasing water vapor content (water vapor is a greenhouse gas). It is
also higher under cloudy skies that under clear skies, as cloud bases act like blackbody
emitters. Trees are also very nearly blackbodies, such that Lin is higher under a forest
canopy than an adjacent open field.
In most cases, outgoing longwave radiation exceeds incoming longwave radiation i.e., L is
negative. However, it becomes less negative and can even be positive under heavy cloud
cover, forest cover, and inversion conditions.

Turbulent sensible and latent heat fluxes

Through diffusion, there will be a vertical exchange of sensible heat H (heat as measured by
a thermometer) between the surface and the overlying atmosphere, the direction of which is
determined by the sign of the vertical temperature gradient (upward if temperature
decreases with height, downward if temperature increases with height) and magnitude which
is proportional to the strength of the gradient and factors governing the efficiency of the
diffusion process. Similarly, the sign of the vertical latent heat flux is determined by the
vertical gradient in water vapor, with magnitude proportional to the strength of the gradient
and the efficiency of the vapor diffusion process:
H = -CH. a.ca.T/z
Where a is air density, , ca is the specific heat of dry air, T is temperature, z is height and
and CH is the efficiency coefficient for sensible heat transfer.
LE = = CE.v.pv/z
Where v is the latent heat of vaporization, pv is absolute humidity and CE is efficiency
coefficient for latent heat transfer. Absolute humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapor
to the volume occupied by a mixture of moist and dry air, i.e., the density of the water vapor
component.
Diffusion: The process of mixing fluid properties by both molecular and turbulent motions.
Diffusion is a consequence of concentration gradients.

Turbulent latent and sensible heat fluxes (cont)

Dingman 2002, Figure D-9

Molecular diffusion (conduction) is inefficient. The

process is instead dominated by turbulence, known as
eddy diffusion. A horizontal wind blows across a
surface. There is friction with the surface, resulting in a
reduction of the horizontal wind as the surface is
approached, attended by a turbulent flow with a highly
variable vertical component of the wind. This friction and
turbulence results in a net downward transfer of
momentum. If temperature decreases with height (the
usual situation), then when the wind is directed upwards,
it carries warm air away from the surface to higher
levels. When the wind is downward, it caries cool air
towards the surface. The net result is an upward
transfer of sensible heat. Similarly, if humidity decreases
with height (the usual situation), upward winds carry
moist air away from the surface and downward winds
carry drier air towards the surface, resulting in net
upward transport of water vapor. If the temperature and
humidity gradients are reversed, the respective turbulent
flux is upwards. The stronger the winds, the stronger the
turbulence and momentum transfer, and the stronger the
turbulent sensible and latent heat fluxes for a given
temperature or humidity gradient. If there is no gradient,
there is no flux.

Turbulent sensible and latent heat fluxes (cont)

Recall that the turbulent sensible and latent heat fluxes can be expressed, respectively, as
H = -CH. a.ca T/z
LE = CE.v.pv/z
The efficiency coefficients depend on the characteristics of the turbulence. The most
accurate measurements of H and LE are obtained by the eddy fluctuation method, in which
H and LE are proportional to the mean of the product of departures from the time means of
the vertical wind and temperature, and the vertical wind and humidity, respectively:
H = a.ca .<wT>
LE = v .< wpv >
Where w is the vertical wind, the primes indicate departures from the time mean and the
angle brackets denote the time mean. The direct approach obviates the need for
determining coefficients and is widely used (although instrumentation is expensive and
difficult to maintain).
So-called bulk or profile methods use measured profiles of temperature and humidity (at two
or more levels) along with vertical profiles of the horizontal wind. The vertical wind profile
contains information regarding the nature of the eddies under a number of assumptions , a
key one being that the vertical wind profile is logarithmic. See Dingman (2002) for further
discussion.

Heat input by rain (R)

The are two situations
1) Rain falls on a snowpack that is at the freezing point (Ts = Tm = 0oC)
R = w.cw.r.(Tr-Tm)
Where cw is the heat capacity of water (4.19x10-3 MJ kg-1 K-1),
r is the rainfall rate (m s-1) and Ts is the temperature of the rain.
Rain cools to the freezing point, giving up sensible heat, and the heat
given up is used in melting.
2) Rain falls on a snowpack below the freezing point
R = w.cw.r.(Tr-Tm) + w.r.r
Rain is cooled to the freezing point, giving up sensible heat, and then
the water freezes, giving up latent heat. This can be a very effective
heating process.

Conductive exchange of sensible heat

with ground (G)
Temperatures in the soil underlying the snowpack generally increase downward.
As such, in these cases, heat is conducted upwards to the base of the snowpack
at a rate G given as:
G = kG.(dTG/dz)
kG = thermal conductivity of the soil (W m-1 K-1)
TG = soil temperature
z = distance below the ground surface
Hence the heat transfer depends on the temperature gradient in the soil (dTG/dz)
and how good a conductor the soil is (kG)
Values of kG of soils and other substances vary widely, taken from Oke (1987):
Sandy soil, 40% pore space: 0.03, dry, 2.20, saturated
Peat soil, 80% pore space: 0.06 dry, 0.50 saturated.
Snow: fresh, 0.06, old, 0.42
Water: 0.57 (at 4oC, when still)

Water output from the snowpack

Dingman 2002, Figure 5-26

The surface melt rate typically exhibits a

strong diurnal cycle, peaking in early
afternoon. The meltwater produced at the
surface then percolates downwards through
the snowpack. Because the speed of the
percolation increases as the melt rate
increases, water produced during the peak
melt period overtakes water produced
earlier in the day, such that the diurnal melt
wave at successively deeper depths
develops a sharp wave front. This sharp
wave front is clearly seen at left in the
output rate of meltwater through the bottom
of the snowpack (in this case a 101 cm
deep snowpack). The time lag between the
timing of peak surface melting and peak
water output through the bottom of the
snowpack increases with the depth of the
snowpack.

Snowmelt runoff generation modes

Snowmelt runoff generation can take several modes.

In the first panel, the top of the saturated zone in the
soil (the water table) is deep, so percolating
meltwater infiltrates to raise the water table and
induce increased groundwater flow to the stream. In
the second panel, the water table is at the soil
surface, or the soil surface is impermeable (the
ground may be frozen) so percolating meltwater
forms a basal saturated zone through which water
migrates to the stream. In the bottom panel, the
lower portion of the water table has risen above the
ground surface into the snowpack. Water in the
upper part of the slope moves as in the top panel,
and the water in the lower part of the slope modes
as in the middle panel.

Dingman 2002, Figure 5-28

A few notes on snowmelt modeling

Q: Why model snowmelt?
A: There are practical applications for water management. Snowmelt models
represent a component of hydrologic models that are key tools for predicting seasonal
streamflows in areas like Colorado. On the larger scale, If we want to get the
hydrologic cycle right in coupled global climate models, we need to get snowmelt
processes right.
Basic model types:
Energy balance models: These are described as physically based because the
energy balance is a fundamental principal and because they use equations describing
the physics of processes in each component of the energy balance. Complex Land
Surface Models (LSMs) formulate snowmelt from the energy balance.
Conceptual models: These make use of empirical relationships. A good example of a
simple conceptual models is estimating snowmelt with a temperature index approach,
in which snowmelt is a linear function of daily air temperature or melting degree days.
The approach works because the air temperature tends to be well correlated with the
energy balance. More complex approaches may describe variability in melt as a
function or land type, slope and aspect and other factors.