A Handbook of Mohammedan Decorative Arts
A Handbook of Mohammedan Decorative Arts
A Handbook of Mohammedan Decorative Arts
DECORATIVE ARTS
THE METROPOLITA N M U S EU M OF ART
A HANDBOOK OF
MOHAMMEDAN
DECORATIVE
ARTS
B y M.S . .J?IMAND, Ph.D.
Associate Curator in tbe
Department of Decorative Arts
0
(r;)
en
..- .,
('-
r
\.0
Q.
\.JJ
U)
I
v
In recent years our knowledge of the decorative arts of Islam
has been greatly advanced through excavations and compara-
tive study of the material in the numerous public and private
collections in this country and abroad. Today, therefore, it is
possible to trace the main outline of the development with a
certainty that would have been impossible even twenty years
ago. To present in the light of recent researches such a survey
is the purpose of this handbook, the first general history of
Mohammedan decorative art to appear in English. The writer
is conscious of its many deficiencies, but trusts that it will be
useful to the student and the collector as well as to the casual
visitor seeking guidance to the large collection of Mohammed-
an art in this Museum.
The representative character of this collection is evident
from the fact that all the illustrations in the handbook have
9een selected from our own material. The foundation of the
collection was laid many years ago when the bequest of Ed-
ward C. Moore in 1891 brought to the Museum its first im-
portant group of Near Eastern material, including a magnif-
icent group of enameled glass and a large collection of silver-
inlaid metalwork. A notable group of Turkish ceramics was
presented by W. B. Osgood Field in 1902. The Alexander
Smith Cochran Collection of Persian illuminated books and
single miniatures, given to the Museum in 1913, placed our
collection in the first rank in this field. The Altman Bequest in
1914 brought to the Museum many magnificent rugs and other
specimens of Near Eastern art, which were supplemented m
v
PREFACE
Vl
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Preface v
List of Illustrations XV
Bibliography XX Ill
Vll
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
B. Period of jahangir (1605-1627) s8
c. Periods of Shah jahan (1628-1658 ) and Aurangzib
( 1658-1707) 62
11. Indian Painting: The Raj put School 62
CHAPTER V. Bookbinding 70
CHAPTER VI I. \Voodwork 86
1. Egyptian and Mesopotamian Wood-Carving from the
VII to the I X Century 86
2. Egyptian Wood-Carving of the Fatimid Period ( X to
X II Century) 87
3. Egyptian Wood-Carving of the Ayyubid and Mamluk
Periods (X I to XV Century) 8g
4. Egyptian Lattice-Work of Turned Wood go
5 Wood-Carving of the Seljuks, Asia Minor (XI I and
X Ill Centuries) 9I
6. Wood-Carving of Persia, Western Turkestan, and
Afghanistan 92
7 Indian Wood-Carving g6
VIII
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
5 lntarsia 103
6. Indian Metalwork 12 1
IX
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER X. Ceramics I 23
1. The Origins I 23
X
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
c. Unglazed Pottery with Relief Decoration in the
Barbotine Technique from the I X to the X II
Century 150
o. Pottery with Monochrome and Polychrome
Glazes (I X Century) I 5I
E. Lust red Pottery of the I X Century I 52
Pottery with Plain Gold Lustre I 53
Tin-enameled Pottery with Lustre Painting I 53
F. Pottery with Overglaze Painting I 55
G. Imitations of Chinese Porcelain and Stoneware I 55
H. Pottery Found at Rakka (X II and X Ill Cen-
turies) I 56
With Blue Glaze and Relief Decoration I 56
Lustred Pottery I 58
A. Unglazed Pottery I 68
..
Xll
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER X Ill. Rugs 231
1. Technique and Earliest Specimens 231
4 Persian Rugs 2 36
Medallion Rugs 2 38
X Ill
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE PAGE
XVll
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE PAGE
106. Panel of Tiles. Turkish, Asia Minor, Late XVI Century 175
I 07. Plate, Turkish, Asia Minor, End of XV I Century I76
108. Mosque Lamp. Turkish, Asia Minor, Late XVI Century I/7
I09. Plate, Syrian, Damascus, XVII Century 178
110. Panel of Tiles. Syrian, Damascus, XV I-XV I I Century I79
I I 1. Lustred Alqarello. Hi spano-Moresque, XV Century 180
I I2. Lustred Bowl. Hispano-M.oresque, XV Century I81
I 13. Bowl, Hispano-Moresque, Paterna, XIV Century 182
11 4. Lustred Plate. Hispano-Moresque, XV Century 183
115. Rock Crystal. Egypto-Arabic, X 1-X I I Century 186
116. Glass Bottle. Egypto-Arabic, X-X I Century 187
11 7. Standing Cup, Enameled Glass. Mesopotamian or Syrian,
X I II Century 188
118. Mosque Lamp, Enameled Glass. Syrian, Late X I I I Century 189
119. Mosque Lamp, Enameled Glass. Syrian, X IV Century 191
I20. Mosque Lamp, Enameled Glass. Syrian, XIV Century 193
121. Mosque Lamp, Enameled Glass. Syrian, X IV Century I 95
XIX
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE PAGE
122. Standing Cup, Enameled Glass. Syrian, X IV Century 197
123. Bottle, Persian, XVII-XVIII Century 199
124. Tapestry Weave, Fragment. Egypto-Arabic, X-X I Century 203
125. Tapestry Weave (Detail). Egypto-Arabic, IX Century 204
126. Silk Tapestry Weave, Fragment. Egypto-Arabic, End of the
X Century 205
127. Silk Tapestry Weave (Detail). Egypto-Arabic, XI Century 207
128. Silk Tapestry Weave. Egypto-Arabic, about 1300 209
129. Silk Weave. Egypto-Syrian, XIII Century 211
130. Silk Velvet. Persian, XVI Century 215
131. Silk Weave. Persian, Dated 1599-1600 216
132. Velvet Carpet (Detail). Persian, about 16oo 217
133. Silver Brocade. Persian, XVII Century 218
134. Gold Brocade. Persian, about 16oo 219
135. Embroidered Cover. Persian, XVII Century 220
136. Painted Cotton. Indian, XVII Century 221
137. Velvet, Turkish, Asia Minor, XVI-XVII Century 223
138. Gold Brocade. Turkish, Asia Minor, XVII Century 224
139. Gold Brocade. Turkish, Asia Minor, XVII Century 225
140. Gold Brocade. Hispano-Moresque, X II-X Ill Century 226
141. Embroidery, Turkish, Asia Minor, XVIII Century 227
142. Silk Weave. Hispano-Moresque, XV Century 229
143. Fragment of Rug. From Fustat, about X II Century 232
144. Medallion Rug. Persian, Late XV Century 233
145. Medallion Rug. Persian, Early XVI Century 235
146. Compartment Rug. Persian, XVI Century 237
147. Prayer Rug. Persian, XVI Century 239
148. Medallion Rug. Persian, XVI Century 241
149. Silk Rug. Persian, XVI Century 243
150. Animal Rug from Ardebil. Persian, XVI Century 245
XX
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE PAGE
151. Silk Animal Rug. Persian, XV I Century 247
152. Rug, Persian, XV I Century 249
153. Rug, Persian, XVII Century 250
154. Silk Rug. Persian (So-called Polish) , XVII Century 251
155. Tapestry-woven Rug. Persian, _XV II Century 253
156. Vase Rug. Persian, XVI Century 255
157. Garden Rug. Persian, XVIII Century 257
158. Dragon Rug. So-called Armenian, XV I I Century 259
159. Rug, Indian, about 16oo 26r
160. Rug, Indian, XV I I Century 262
161. Rug, Turkish, XVI Century 263
162. Prayer Rug. Turkish, about 16oo 264
163. Rug, Turkish, Ushak, XV I Century 265
164. Rug, So-Called Damascus, XVI Century 267
165. Prayer Rug. Turkish, XVI-XVI I Century 269
166. Prayer Rug. Turkish, Ghiordes, XVI I-XVI I I Century 271
167. Prayer Rug. Turkish, Ladik, Dated 1794 273
168. Prayer Rug. Turkish, Bergama, XV I I Century 275
169. Rug, Hispano-Moresque, XV Century 277
PLATES IN COLOR
XXI
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1
GENERAL WORKS
Bahgat Bey, Ali , and Gabriel, Albert. Fouilles d' AI Foustat, publiees
sous les auspices du Comite de conservation des monuments de l'art
arabe. Cairo, 1921.
Creswell, K. A. C. Early Mohammedan Architecture. London , 1929.
Diez, Ernst. Churasanische Baudenkmaler. Berlin, 1918.
- - - Die Kunst der islamischen Volker. Second edition. Berlin. 1922.
Dimand, M. S. Dated Specimens of Mohammedan Art in The Metro-
politan Museum of Art- Part I. In Metropolitan Museum Studies,
1928, vol. I, part I, pp. 99-1 13.
GlUck, Heinrich. TUrkische Dekorationskunst. In Kunst und Kunst-
handwerk, 1920, vol. X X I I I, pp. 19 ff.
GlUck, Heinrich, and Diez, Ernst. Die Kunst des Islam. Berlin, 1925.
Gurlitt, Cornelius. Die Baukunst Konstantinopels. Berlin, 1912.
Herz Bey, Max. Catalogue raisonne des monuments exposes dans le
Musee national de !'art arabe. Second edition. Cairo, 1906.
Herzfeld, Ernst. Erster vorl:t.ufiger Bericht i.iber die Ausgrabungen von
Samarra. Berlin, 1912.
Mschatta, Hira und Badiya. In j ahrbuch der preussischen
Kunstsammlungen, 1921 , vol. XLI I, pp. 104-146.
jaussen, R. R., and Sa\'ignac, P. P. Les Chateaux arabes de Qe~eir
CAmra, Haraneh
,.., et Tuba
. (Mission archeologique en Arabie, vol.
I II) . Paris, 1922.
KUhnel, Ernst. Maurische Kunst (Die Kunst des Ostens). Berlin, 1924.
- - - Islamische Kleinkunst (Bibliothek fUr Kunst- und Antiquitaten-
Sammler). Berlin, 1925 .
XX Ill
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PAINTING
XXIV
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKBINDING
WOODWORK
IVORIES
METALWORK
CERAMIC ART
XXIX
BIBLIOGRAPHY
TEXTILES
RUGS
Bode, Wilhelm von, and Kuhne! , Ernst. Antique Rugs from the Near
East. New York, 1922.
Bogoloubov, A. A. Tapis de l'Asie centrale. St. Petersburg. 1908.
Breck, joseph, and Morris, Frances. The James F. Ballard Collection
(The Metropolitan Museum of Art). New York, 1923.
Dimand, M. S. Early Persian Medallion Carpets. In The Art Bulletin
(College Art Association of America) , 192-f, vol. VI , pp. 82-84.
Grote-Hasenbalg, W. Der Orientteppich, seine Geschichte und seine
Kultur, vols. I-III. Berlin, 1922.
1 Iendley, Th. A. Asian Carpets: XVIth and XVI Ith Century Designs
from the jaypur Palaces. London, 1905 .
Kendrick, A. F. Guide to the Collection of Carpets (Victoria and Al-
bert Museum , Department of Textiles). London, 1920.
- - Notes on Carpet Knotting and Weaving (Victoria and Albert
Museum, Department of Textiles). London, 1920.
XXXI
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6
HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION
I I
C~api~r II. ORNAMENT
16
C~apt~r I I I. MINIATURE PAINTING
_0,")~~_, ~~
, "" - ~ J ' -"
--:-''~.1.~ 1 ..., \ .J
~~ i -.-
t~-!"'
. ,
~.J
'
I
l.-
Fig. 3. Chapter Ending from a MS. of the ]ami at-Tawarikb
by Rashid ad-Din. Persian. Early X IV Century
MOHAMMEDAN DECORATIVE ARTS
32
PLATE I
-?,~,r=~...,~~w;.:
,~ (,{Jt/' c;;~ ;
~(J_J ~ ,~~
>
leaving the ship on his arrival in Egypt (fig. I6). The influ-
ence of the school of Bihzad is quite evident in the landscape
and in the figures, which have characterstic Bokhara turbans
with round or conical caps. The same types may be seen in a
miniature (fig. I 7) illustrating another manuscript in our col-
. '
lection, a Bustan by Sadi. The scene in figure I 7 represents a
sultan of Syria interviewing two dervishes in a garden. It is
painted in the vivid, enamel-like colors which are so charac-
teristic of the Bokhara school of the sixteenth century.
Towards the end of the sixteenth century new fashions in
44
Fig. 16. From a MS. of Yusuf u Zulaikba by jami
Persian, Bokhara, about 1 5-lO
MOHAMMEDAN DECORATIVE ARTS
,,
6o
MINIATURE PAINTING
Jahan. The faces, painted with infinite care, are masterly ex-
amples of portraiture in the mature Mughal style.
The representation of I Iindu ascetics and hermits convers-
ing with princes and nobles was a popular subject with the
M ughal painters. A characteristic scene of this kind in our col-
lection is signed by Manohardas.
68
CALLIGRAPHY
6g
C~aft~r V. BoOKBINDING
very high relief are in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum and the
Detroit Institute of Arts. The conventionally treated faces are
of the Mongolian type familiar to us from Persian lustred
ware of the thirteenth century. Occasionally one finds also
complete medallions with figure subjects forming part of a
wall decoration that must have been quite elaborate in char-
acter. We possess two small fragments of friezes, probably
borders (figs. 36 a and b), from Rhages. One of them which
may be assigned to the twelfth century shows two convention-
88
WOODWORK
8g
MOHAMMEDAN DECORATIVE ARTS
farther on, ivory was substituted for wood. The use of small
panels which minimized the effects of warping had been
known since the Coptic period. Several dated specimens of
Mamluk wood-carving are in the Victoria and Albert Mu-
seum. Among them are panels from the pulpit erected in 1296
by Sultan Lagin in the Mosque of Ibn Tulun. The name of the
sultan, his titles, and the date are seen on two horizontal pan-
els. In the carvings from this pulpit the arabesque appears
in the developed form characteristic of the Mamluk period.
Other dated examples in the same museum are the carved
panels from a pulpit in the Mosque of al-Maridani, built in
\ .
the year 1338. The arabesques of these panels are carved m
two planes, like those in the Lagin pulpit, but are more deli-
cate in workmanship. In the same collection are panels which
probably come from a pulpit in the Mosque of Kusun, built
about 1347.
The best specimens of Mamluk wood-carving, as seen in the
Arab Museum at Cairo and in other museums, belong to the
first half of the fourteenth century. The l\1etropolitan Muse-
urn has numerous panels of doors and pulpits that may be as-
signed to this period.
In the fifteenth century, some good wood-carving was done,
but the best work is inferior to that of the earlier period. Al-
though the use of ivory and other materials for inlay was
more general, the art of carving had deteriorated and become
mechanical.
7 Indian Wood-Carving
In India wood-carving was an ancient art that continued to
flourish under the Mohammedan domination, but as existing
specimens are Hindu rather than Mohammedan in character
they do not come within the scope of this handbook.
g6
Fig. 43. Lacquered Doors
Persian, XV II Century
C~a:pier VI I I. IVORY AND I NTARSIA
~
complete door (fig. 44) that may be assigned to the late thir-
teenth century or the early fou rteenth. The ivory panels of this
door are carved in two planes of relief with an intricate ara-
besque pattern. Doors and pulpits with inlaid ivory panels
continued to be made in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
3 Hispano-Moresque Ivories
Spanish ivories of the Mohammedan era may be divided into
two groups. Those of the earlier or Omayyad period, of which
many bear dates and the names of sultans of the tenth cen-
tury, were made in Cordova. The later group, in which dated
specimens also occur, was produced in the eleventh century,
probably at Cuenca. The decoration in both groups consists
of court and hunting scenes, animals and 'birds, and plants with
characteristic feathery leaves. Important specimens of the
tenth century are a pyxis, dated A. H. 3 57 (968) , in the Louvre,
and another, dated A. H. 3 59 (970), in the Victoria and Albert
Museum. A casket of this period is in the Hispanic Society in
New York.
In eleventh-century H ispano-Moresque ivories the rei ief is
lower, and the palmettes become more conventionalized. Ex-
amples of this type are a casket, dated A. H. 395 ( 1005), in the
cathedral of Pamplona; a casket, dated A. H. 417 (1026), at
Burgos ; and a casket, dated A. H. 441 (1049) , from Palencia,
now in the Archaeological Museum , Madrid.
5 lntarsia
The art of inlaying wood with small pieces of ivory, bone, or
colored wood was practised in Egypt during the Coptic peri-
od, and continued in favor under the Mohammedans. The
earliest examples are those of the Tulunid period in the Arab
Museum. An interesting specimen of the ninth or tenth cen-
tury is a Koran cover of wood inlaid with ivory and wood,
now in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum. The designs of these
mosaics are usually geometrical, but occasionally palmettes
and birds appear. Several very fine tables, boxes, and doors of
the fifteenth century are in the Arab Museum in Cairo.
l n Spain and Sicily, also, inlay work of this kind was pro-
duced. A thirteenth-century wooden box in the Cappella Pa-
latina in Palermo has a rich decoration of ivory inlay.
I ntarsia inlay is still being made in Mohammedan coun-
tries. Mother-of-pearl is sometimes combined with wood, bone,
and ivory for this work, and many pieces of modern furni-
ture from Egypt and Syria are so decorated.
103
C~api~r IX. METALWORK
From remote antiquity the Orientals have been ski lful metal-
workers. Besides the casting, cutting, and engraving of metals
the Mohammedan craftsmen were familiar with the process
of inlaying with various polychrome stones and metals. A
bronze figure of a bull of about 2000 B. c. in the Louvre, found
in southern Mesopotamia, is inlaid with irregularly shaped
silver plaques. Gold and silver inlay was also known to the an-
cient Egyptians. Persian metalwork of the Achaemenid period
(550-331 B. c.) shows various methods of decoration. Other
masters of metalwork were the I rani an nomads who intro-
duced to the Teutonic tribes of Europe the art of stone inlay
in gold.
The great revival of Persian art under the Sasanid dynasty
is especially noticeable in the metalwork of the period, which
consisted mainly of gold and silver plates and vessels. Small
decorative plaques and ornaments of silver and lead are also
known. The Museum has three examples of Sasanian applied
ornament in lead, two of which show men on horseback, the
third, a donkey.
106
METALWORK
MOHAMMEDAN DECORATIVE ARTS
METALWORK
episodes from the court life of sultans and nobles. Other pop-
ular motives are signs of the zodiac and symbols of the
planets. In addition to these motives we find sphinxes, griffins,
and birds with human heads, which are of Persian origin. The
inscriptions are usually glorifications of the sultans or ex-
pressions of good wishes, but sometimes they give the name of
the owner, the maker, and the place of manufacture.
A characteristic silver-inlaid brass ewer of the early thir-
teenth century is seen in figure 5 r. The surface is elaborately
ornamented with figures and geometrical patterns and inscrip-
tions in horizontal bands. The figure subjects, representing
musicians performing before a prince and men filling wine
cups from a vat, are of great interest. An inscription relates
that the piece was made by an engraver of Mosul in the year
A. H. 623 (I226/ 27). The sketchy drawing is characteristic of
early thirteenth-century Mosul ware.
One of the finest specimens known of Mosul ware is the can-
dlestick illustrated in figure 52. Unfortunately, the neck is
missing. The decoration consists of four large medallions with
scenes from the life of a sultan, and of twelve smaller medal-
lions decorated with the signs of the zodiac and the symbols
of the planets. The charming border designs depict in scenes
of festivity the gay life of a sultan's court. We notice animated
groups of men and women drinking wine from cups or beakers
while others are playing cymbals, lutes, and harps, to the
strains of which girls are dancing. Several faces, especially
those of old bearded men, are excellent character studies. The
two bands at the top and bottom between the mouldings are
also of interest. Here the artist has represented all kinds of
animals, water-fowl, and fantastic figures of birds and griffin s
ingeniously combined with scrolls. It is certain that a piece
like this belonged to a man of high rank, but there is no in-
scription to indicate the ownership, although a suggestion lies
I I2
METALWORK
on his coins and on one of the Mosul gates, Bab Sinjar. Simi-
lar in style to our candlestick are other known metal objects
inscribed with the name of Badr ad-Din Lulu.
I 18
METALWORK
6. Indian Metalwork
As this handbook is restricted to Mohammedan art, we have
no occasion to speak of the remarkable work done by the In-
dian metalworkers before the Mohammedan conquest. Dur-
ing the M ughal supremacy the use of brass and other alloys
for domestic and ritual vessels was continued by Indian crafts-
men, who frequently incrusted the vessels with silver and
gold. Jewelry, which was extensively worn in India, was made
12 I
MOHAMMEDAN DECORATIVE ARTS
122
C~apt~r X. CERAMICS
~
r. The Origins
The earliest ceramic art of the Mohammedan East continued
the traditions of Parthian and Sasanian pottery, both glazed
and unglazed, in which Oriental and Roman elements coexist.
Of the rare Sasanian pottery we are fortunate in possessing a
large group of specimens in brick red clay, decorated with fig-
ure subjects in relief (fig. 57) , that were found in the vicinity
of Teheran. These pieces, which date probably from the third
or fourth century of our era, are unglazed with one exception,
a vase covered with blue enamel.
The art of glazing was practised very early in ancient Egypt
and in Mesopotamia. Green lead glazes were known in the
Oriental provinces of the Roman Empire and in Parthian
Mesopotamia and Persia during the first centuries of the
Christian era. A Parthian vase with a blue-green glaze in this
Museum has a linear ornament of wavy lines that may be
traced back to the prehistoric period of the Near East.
123
MOHAMMEDAN DECORATIVE ARTS
144
PLATE II
T be So-called Sbiraz
Ware ()(VI I I Century)
The semi-porcelains of
, this type show a brown-
ish paste with a poly-
chrome decoration in au-
bergine, blue, and black
Fig. 8o. Bowl , Persian under a creamy glaze.
XV Century
The design is mainly flo-
ral, but is sometimes combined with Persian writing. This pot-
tery may be assigned to the late eighteenth century, and prob-
ably originated at Shiraz.
Fig. 85. Bowl from Western Fig. 86. Plate from Western
Turkestan, X Century Turkestan, X-X I Century
T in-ena1Jteled Pottery
witb Lustre Painting
The pottery in thi s group
is cove red with opaq ue tin
enamel upon which a dec-
oration in mon ochrome
or polychrome lustre is
pa in ted. T he magnificent
colors of the lu st re change Fig. 88. j ug, Mesopotamian
accord in ba to the direction Mosul , X II -X Ill Century
of light or the angle of view. Pottery with light gold or brown-
gold lustre, simil ar to that found at Sama rra, has also been un -
earthed at Rh ages in Persia. A bowl of the Samarra- R hage
ty pe in our coll ection is deco rated with sty li zed running hares,
painted in brown-gold lustre ( which is badly rubbed off) on
a white ground (fig. 92) . Other bowls of this ty pe, fo un d in
Persia, are decorated with seated figures pl aying upon va rious
instruments. Kufic inscripti ons on dotted backgrounds and
circles wit h ro ettes or spiral are common motives. Pezard
and other French scholars rega rd the lustred wa re fo un d at
' 53
MOHAMMEDAN DECORATIVE ARTS
are perhaps somewhat earlier than the rest of the Rakka ware,
and may date from the eleventh or twelfth century.
Lustred Pottery
In ware of this type from Rakka, the lustre, usually dark
brown in color, is painted over a transparent greenish white
158
CERAMICS
162
CERAMICS
Iustre. There are indications 2 that this pottery was a Iuxu rio us
product, made not only for daily use but also for decoration.
Of unlustred Rusapha ware this, Museum possesses two in-
teresting specimens, a vase (fig. I o I) and a small bowl. The
former has a design of three horizontal bands, medallion s with
palmettes, and floral motives in blue, black, and reddish
brown, painted over a white
slip and covered with a
transparent, slightly green-
ish glaze. The bowl shows
the design of a blue bird
vvith red-brown wings en-
circled by a foliated wreath.
Characteristic of Rusapha
ware is this red-brown col-
or, which does not appear
m other contemporary
wares.
'77
MOHAMMEDAN DECORATIVE ARTS
in blue, g reen, black, and purple. Dating from the end of the
sixteenth century is a panel of tiles (fig. I 10), decorated with
a diaper pattern of flor a l scrolls, conventional palmettes,
tulips, carnations, hyacinths, and pomegranates in turquoise
blue, cobalt blue, green, and purple manganese.
In Syria as in Asia Minor, the sty le of decoration became
freer in the seventeenth cen-
tury, although symmetrica l
composition did not entirely
disappear. The eigh teenth-
century wares continue the
traditional color scheme, but
the drawing is inferior to the
earlier examples. A ch aracter-
istic specimen in ou r collec-
tion is a panel of tiles .in-
scribed with the n ames of Al-
Fig. 109. Plate, Syrian la h, Mohammed, and the four
Damascus, XV II Century
Orthodox Ca liphs; it bears
the date A. H . I I 50 ( I738/39) .
198
GLASS AND CRYSTAL
pily, the sovereign is not named, but the style and 'quality of
workmanship seem to indicate a faiTly late date in the second
half of the fourteenth century.
In concluding these paragraphs on
enameled glass, it should be noted that
the Mamluk sultans and their officials
were not the sole patrons of the glass-
workers. A few examples have inscrip-
tions which show that glassware of this
type was made for the Rasulid sultans
of Yemen. One example dates from the
last years of the thirteenth century.
Others correspond in style to the four-
teenth-century Mamluk specimens.
4 Glass in Spain
Glass was made in Spain during the Arab domination of that
country, as we learn from texts which refer to sites and ma-
terials employed. No specimens, however, of this primitive
Moorish glass have come down to us, but the later glass wares
of Almeria and other towns in the province of Granada show
marked Arab characteristics, which represent, no doubt, a su r-
vival of the earlier tradition .
5 Window-Glass
Excavations at Samarra have yielded evidence that glass was
used in the house windows of this ninth-century Mesopota-
a Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, Ancient Babylonia, &c., &c.,
vol. I, p. 714. 200
GLASS AND CRYSTAL
20(
C~apter X I I. TEXTILES
cloth was the tapestry process, and the preferred material was
wool. The method of weaving allowed great freedom in picto-
rial composition. The style and technique of Coptic weaving,
which achieved its highest development in the sixth and sev-
enth centuries, continued under the rule of the Arabs.
In our large collection of Egypto-Arabic textiles of various
periods, found at Fustat, are several specimens of polychrome
tapestry weaving in wool on a linen warp. A notable piece of
about the ninth century, unusual in size and beauty, is seen
in figure 12 5 It is a portion of a black woolen scarf or shawl,
decorated with four bands of various widths, tapestry woven
in polychrome wool and linen. The main ornament consists
of cross motives, S-motives, and birds in hexagons in white,
204
TEXTILES
where luxurious fabrics and those for daily use were woven.
This Museum is fortunate in possessing two small fragments
of a silk fabric of the Shah Abbas period that give both the
name of the weaver and the date (fig. 131). The brocade de-
picts a garden scene with a lady holding a cup, while her lover
offers her a bowl of fruit. The wine bottle is inscribed in Per-
sian: "1 oo8 [ 1599-16oo] made by Yahya [ ?] ." Only four other
names of weavers in the sixteenth century are known: Ghi-
yath, Abdallah, I an Muhammad, and M uizz ad-Din, son of
Ghiyath. The scarcity of dated brocades enhances the impor-
217
MOHAMMEDAN DECORATIVE ARTS
8. Indian Textiles
The art of weaving and decorating fabrics by various methods
was known in India in the pre-Mohammedan era, but no ex-
amples of this period have been preserved. The textiles of the
Mohammedan period include brocades, damasks, embroider-
ies, and painted and printed cottons. The techniques of block
printing and resist dyeing are of great antiquity, possibly hav-
ing originated in India. This Museum possesses several re-
markable specimens of painted cottons known as ((palam-
pores," or ((p intadoes." One large hanging is decorated with
figure subjects in an architectural setting. Three little mats or
cushion covers are painted with figures of men and women,
animals, and plants. The compositions show numerous genre
scenes of great charm (fig. 136). Some figures are dressed in
Persian, others in II indu fashion. On the backs of the three
covers are inscriptions written in Persian and Indian bearing
inventory dates, corresponding to 1650, 16)1, 1673, 1689, and
1701. Judging from the costumes and the style of the design,
we may assign these rare ((pintadoes" to a period from about
161 5 to 1640 . Painted and printed cottons were popular not
only in India and Pers ia but also in Europe, to which they
were brought by the English and Dutch trading companies.
Indian fabrics with woven patterns often display great tech-
nical skill. The colors are bright and varied in hue, and gold is
liberally employed to give a sumptuous effect. Embroideries
of extraordinary fineness were produced in Kashmir.
/
TEXTILES
/
MOHAMMEDAN DECORATIVE ARTS
2)0
C~af'ier X I I I. RUGS
... ~-
4 Persian Rugs
Although rugs are represented in Persian miniatures of the
fourteenth and fifteenth century, there are no existing speci-
mens of Persian manufacture that may surely be assigned to
this early period. Some rugs have been so dated, but on in-
sufficient grounds. The rugs represented in fifteenth-century
miniatures show either geometrical or floral patterns, the
former consisting of octagonal diapers, interlacings, and Kufic
ornament, the latter of highly stylized designs. Toward the
end of the fifteenth century rugs are represented with medal-
lions of angular or lobed outlines filled with arabesques and
floral scrolls. There is still a difference of opinion as to the
dating of some of the early Persian rugs, but it is certain that
the vast majority of those seen in private collections and in
museums are not earlier than the sixteenth century. A few
specimens, however, may have been woven at the end of the
fifteenth century in Tabriz during the reign of the Turkoman
dynasty. To this period may be assigned a rug in the Ballard
Collection, decorated in the center with a sixteen-pointed, star-
~haped medallion with stems and palmettes on a blue and red
ground (fig. L+4). The main field is covered with interlaced
arabesques and floral scrolls bearing small palmettes on a
sa lmon red background. The stylized design and the unusual
color scheme point to an early date.
manufacture, these rugs are best classified for the present ac-
cording to the different types of design.
Medallion Rugs
Rugs of this type are characterized by central medallions of
various shapes with cartouches and small medallions attached,
and quarter sections of medallions in the corners. The decora-
tive motives consist of arabesques and floral motives to which
animal and hunting scenes are sometimes added. A typical
medallion rug (fig. 145) may be seen in the Altman Collection.
In the center is a white medallion with an eight-pointed blue
star; a cartouche and a lobed compartment are attached above
and below. The rose-colored field is filled with arabesques and
fine floral scrolls. The floral ornament and the color scheme of
this rug are richer than those in the earlier type seen in figure
I 44 Floral motives, derived from the Chinese lotus and peony,
are generally stylized, but in a few instances a more naturalis-
tic trend is noticeable. A medallion rug which may be regarded
as a prototype of the Ushak rugs of Asia Min or (recently
exhibited in the Museum as a loan from Albert Wielich) is
decorated with a stylized floral pattern in white, tan, light
blue, and dark blue on a wine red background. The severe ele-
gance of the scrolls and the stylization of the flowers in these
three rugs indicate a date in the first half of the sixteenth cen-
tury. The dating is further substantiated by a hunting rug, in
the Poldi-Pezzoli Museum in Milan, inscribed with the date
A. H. 929 (I 522/ 23) 1 and the name of the maker, Ghiyath ad-
Din Jami. This important rug has a central medallion in red
decorated with floral scrolls and birds; the field shows hunting
scenes on a blue ground. The angular treatment of the floral
motives recalls the pattern of the medallion rugs of figures 144
and I 45, previously discussed. These rugs are generally attrib-
1 Sarre and others favor the reading of the date as A. H. 949 ( 1542/
43)-
Fig. 147. Prayer Rug. Persian, XVI Century
MOIIAMMEDAN IH:. CORATJVE ARTS
called vase rugs discussed later on. Such rugs were probably
woven at jus hagan in central Persia, where a rug industry
flourished until the middle of the nineteenth century.
6. Indian Rugs
According to the historian Abu ' l-Fazl, 2 the E mperor Akbar
(1556-I6o5) "caused carpets to be made of wonderful variety
and charming textures; he has appointed experienced work-
men who have produced many masterpieces. The carpets of
I ran and Turan are no more thought of, a lthough merchants
still import carpets from Joshagan ( between Kashan and Is-
fahan), Khuzistan ( in which province Tuster is the chief
town), Kirman and Sabzawar (in Khurasan). All kinds of
carpet weavers have settled here, and drive a flourishing trade.
2 F. R. Martin, A History of Oriental Carpets, pp. 88 and 8g.
Fig. 158. Dragon Rug. So-called Armenian, XVI I Century
(Detail)
MOHAMMEDAN DECORATIVE ARTS
260
Fig. 159. Rug, Indian, about 16oo
(Detail)
Fig. 160. Rug, I ndian, XV II Century
(Detail)
Fig. 161. Rug, Turkish, XVI Century
(Detail)
Fig. 162. Prayer Rug. Turkish, about 16oo
Fig. 163. Rug, Turkish, Ushak, XV I Century
MOHAMMEDAN DECORATIVE ARTS
266
Fig. t6~. Rug, So-called Dama~cus , XVI Century
(Detail)
MOHAMMEDAN DECORATIVE ARTS
270
Fig. 166. Prayer Rug. Turkish, Ghiordes
XV II- XV III Century
MOHAMMEDAN DECORATIVE ARTS
D. Ghiordes Rugs
The largest and most interest ing group among the prayer
rugs of Asia Minor are the Ghiordes prayer rugs, of which
the Ballard Collection includes eighteen specimens. The dis-
tinctive feature of these prayer rugs is the niche, or mihrab,
which indicates in the mosque the direction of Mecca, toward
which the Mohammedan faces at the time of prayer. The arch,
which takes various shapes, is generally supported by two
columns or pilasters. Sometimes a mosque lamp, which may
be tran sformed into an ornamental device, is shown suspend-
ed from the apex of the arch. Most Ghiordes rugs are not ear-
lier than the eighteenth century, but a few may be assigned to
the seventeenth century. Dating probably from the end of the
seventeenth century is the Ghiordes rug shown in figure 166.
One of the G hiordes rugs in our collection is dated A. H. I 2 I o
(1795/96).
272
Fig. 167. Prayer Rug. Turkish, Ladik, Dated 1795 / 96
MOHAMMEDAN DECORATIVE ARTS
E. Kula Rugs
The Kula prayer rugs are simil ar to the Ghiordes in general
type, but the introduction of ornament in the field of the niche
is more common in Kula th an in Ghiordes rugs, the latter
showing a preference for a solid color effect in the field. The
Kul a niche differs in shape from the Ghiordes, and the border
is usua lly composed of more stripes. The Ghiordes, as a gen-
eral rule, has a cross panel above and below the field; the
Kula, in the upper panel only. The best Kul a ru gs date from
the eighteenth century.
F. Ladik Rugs
A familiar type of rug from Asia Minor bears the na me Ladik.
C ha racteri stic features of these rugs are the lily stalks a nd
arrow heads, or "Vandykes," seen below the niches. The color
schem e is yellow, g reen, blue, and reel. Most Ladiks are of the
eig hteent h century; the one in figure 167 is dated A. H. 12 10
( 1795 / 90).
G. Bergmna Rugs
These rugs, w hich are assigned to the district of Bergama, are
somet imes called T ra nsy Ivan ian o r Sieben bi.irgen rugs, as
many were found in Hungary and Transylvania. They are
vigorous in color, a nd m ore nearl y square in shape than most
ru gs from Asia Minor. The compartmen t borders are charac-
ter istic (fig. 168).
8. Caucasian Rugs
Caucasian rugs com e from the country between the Black Sea
and the Caspian traversed obliquely by the Caucasus moun-
tains. Although rug weav ing was undoubtedly practised for
m any centu ries in this region , the vast m ajority of Caucasian
rugs stj}l in existence a re not ea rlier th an the nineteent h cen-
274
Fig. 168. Prayer Rug. Turki h. Bergama, XVI I Century
MOHAMMEDAN DECORATIVE ARTS
279
\
CIIRONOLOGICAL TABLE
OF l\10 HAMM EDAN DYNASTIES 1
THE CALIP H ATE
A. D.
632- 66 1 The Orthodox Caliphs
632- 634 Abu Bakr
The capital at Medina
634- 6-t4 Omar
Conquest of Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia,
and Egypt
Foundation of Basra in 636
Foundation of Kufa in 638
64-t- 656 Othman
6s6- 66 1 Ali
The capital at Kufa
661- 750 Om ayyad cali phs
66 1- 68o Moawiya I
The capital at Damascus
68o- 683 Yazid I
750- 1258 Abbasid caliphs
753- 775 Mansur
Beginning of the decline of the ca li phate in
755
Foundation of Bagdad, the new capital of
the Abbasid caliphs, in 762
786- 809 Harun ar-Rashid
Foundation of Rakka, a second residence,
lll 795
833- 84 1 Mutasim
The Abbasid capital removed from Bagdad
to Sa marra, a newly founded city, in 836
1For a complete list of Mohammedan dynasties see: Stanley Lane-
Poole, Tbe Mobammadan Dynasties. London, 1893. E. de Zambaur,
Ma11uel de genealogie et de chronologie pour l' bistoire de l'Islam. The
Hague, 1929. ,
28 1
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
SPAIN
S ICILY
NORTH AFRICA
EGYPT
SYRIA
MESOPOTAM IA
1451-1481 Muhammad II
Capture of Constantinople in 145 3; Con-
stantinople thenceforth the capital
15 12- 1520 Se Ii m I
1520-1566 Sulaiman I
1623-1 640 Murad IV