MEKELLE UNIVERSITY.

FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING.

Class: Year IV. Semester: 2 (even).

Course Code: CEng. 412. Title: Design of Steel and Timber Structures.
Credit hour: 3(2+3). Instructor Name: Mague Perez.

Course content:
Methods used in design of structural steel members: tension members, compression members,
combined bending and compression members. Structural connection and joint. Introduction to
plastic design of steel frames. Timber: grades of timbers, design of tension and compression
members, beams connections.

Course outline:
1. Introduction: Steel structures, field of application. Merit and drawback of steel
structures. Behavior of steel under tension. Design philosophies. LSM, specification of
EBCS-3. Rolled steel sections.

2. Tension members: Introduction, types, members subjected to axial tension, effective

area, slenderness ratio, members subjected to combined tension and bending.

3. Compression members: Introduction, column and struts, members subjected to axial

compression, stability.

4. Bending members: Introduction, laterally restrained beams, laterally unrestrained

beams, plastic behavior of steel beams.

5. Beam-column members: Members subjected to combined compression and bending,

base plate.

6. Connections: Introduction, bolted/riveted and welding connections, tension splice

connections, welded end plate to beam connection, bolted beam to column connections.

7. Introduction to plastic design of steel frames:

8. Timber structures: Grades of timber, design of tension and compression members,

beams and connections.

References:
1. Arya Chanakya. Design of Structural Elements.
2. Ambrose. Building Structures.
3. Ramachandra. Design of Steel Structures.
4. EBCS-3. Design of Steel Structures.

Evaluation criteria:
Assignment 10%.
Mid Examination 40%.
Final Examination 50%
Chapter 1. Introduction.
1.1- Field of application.
1.2- Merit and drawback of steel structures.
1.3- Mechanical properties of steel. Behavior of steel under tension.
1.4- Rolled steel sections and their main uses.
1.5- Design philosophies. LMD Method.
1.6- Classification of cross-sections.
References: Class notes.
EBCS-3. Design of Steel Structures.

1.1 Field of application: Steel structural members can be used in several types of structures, as follow:
A Framework or skeleton systems, having as their main element beams, girders, trusses and columns, such as:
1. The frameworks of industrial building and structures with their internal members such as crane, girders,
platform, etc.
2. Railways, highways and urban large-span bridges.
3. Civic multistories buildings, pavilions for exhibition, domes, etc.
4. Special purpose buildings such as hangars, shipbuilding, etc.
5. Special structures like towers, mast, hydraulic engineering structures, cranes, etc.
B Shell systems.
1. Gasholders and tanks for the storage and distribution of gases.
2. Tanks and reservoirs for the storage of liquids.
3. Bunkers for the storage of loose materials.

1.2. Merits and drawbacks of steel structures.

Merits:
1. The ability to resist high loads, due to the high strength of steel. Because of the high strength of the
material, steel members are small in size, which makes them convenient for transportation.
2. Gas tightness and water tightness, which is due to the high density of steel.
3. Have a long service live, determined by the high and homogeneous strength and density properties of steel.
4. The possibility of industrializing construction work, attained by the use of prefabricated members with
mechanized erection thereof at the construction site.
5. The possibility of readily disassembling or replacing steel members, which makes it easier to reinforce or
replace parts of structures.
6. The possibility of sending steel members to any parts of the country no matter the bad conditions of site.

Drawbacks.
The principal drawback of steel members is their susceptibility to corrosion, which necessitates their painting or the
use of other methods for their protection, and less fire resistance.

1.3 Mechanical properties of steel.

1. Strength; is determined by the resistance of the material to external loads and forces.
2. Elasticity; is the property of the material to restore its initial shape after removal of the external loads.
3. Plasticity; is the reverse of elasticity, i.e. the property of a material not to return to its initial dimensions
after removal of the external loads or, in other words, the property of obtaining permanent sets.

Behavior of steel under tension.

The standard requires that the manufacturer shall carry out tension tests on specimens taken from each type of
section rolled from cast steel to ensure that the material has specified properties. A typical test specimen is shown
below. See Fig. 1.
If a specimen of steel is subjected to tension by gradually increasing the load P, and the resulting elongation L be
measured, the results can be used to plot an experimental tension diagram of elongation Vs load. For convenience
we plot stress Vs unit elongation. See Fig. 2.

Now; stress f = P/A; that is load/area. Units N/mm2.

L
Strain = *100 where: f Normal stress (N/mm2).
L
A cross-sectional area of the specimen. (mm2).
strain or unit elongation in percent.
L gauge length or original length of the specimen.
L longitudinal elongation of the specimen.

The relation between the stress and strain follows the Hooks Law; Robert Hook around 1678 stated his low by the
following equation: f = E.
Note that the highest stress in a material, after which the relation between stress and strain no longer remains linear,
is called yield point. After this point appears elongation without an increase in load, then, appear the yield area.
E Modulus of elasticity.
For all types of steel E = 2.1*105 Mpa is accepted.

Types of steel. (according with EBCS 3).

Thickness t (mm)
Nominal steel
t 40 mm 40 mm < t 100 mm
grades
fy (Mpa) fu (Mpa) fy (Mpa) fu (Mpa)

Fe 360 235 360 215 340

Fe 430 275 430 255 410

Fe 510 355 510 335 490

Materials Coefficients.
1. Modulus of elasticity E = 210 Gpa.
2. Shear Modulus G = 80 Gpa.
3. Unit mass = 7850 kg/m3.
4. Poisons ratio = 0.3.
5. Coefficient of linear expansion = 12 x 10-6 per oC.

1.4 Rolled steel sections and their main use.

These sections are designed to achieve economy of material while maximizing strength, particularly in bending.
Bending strength can be maximized by concentrating the metal at the extremities of the section, where it can sustain
the tensile and compressive stress associated with bending. The most commonly used sections are universal beams
(Ubs) and universal columns (Ucs). See Fig.3.

a) W shapes. Wide flange sections. Are rolled with parallel flanges and are specified by their serial
size and mass in kg per meter, e.g. W 310 x 202. It nominal depth is 310 mm and the mass is 202
kg per meter. May be used principally as columns and also may be used as beams too.
b) S shapes. Known as universal beams. It has Iy>>Iz, for this reason is recommended to be used as
beams.
c) HP shapes. High Powered shape. Available on the USA codes. It has practically same depth
compared with wide to diminish the difference between Iy and Iz. Is recommended for columns
exclusively.
d) Standard Channels (C shapes). The difference between Iy and Iz is very significant. Are used as
purlin in the roof of industrial buildings, as a light beam to resist bending and in built-up sections
connected by batten plates.
e) Angles. Fabricated as equal legs angles and unequal legs angles. Are described by their nominal
dimensions, first number is the large leg; second number is small dimension and third number the
thickness of the section. Are used mainly as members of trusses, for ties in steel frames, etc.
f) T shapes. Available on the USA codes, is used as member in trusses and also in built-up beams
with different types of steel.
1.5 Design Philosophies.
During the history of the design of structures activities, have been used three design philosophies namely:
1. Permissible stress design method.
2. Load factor design method.
3. Limit state design method.
In permissible stress design method, the stress in the structure at working loads are not allowed to exceed a certain
portion of the yield stress of the construction material, therefore, the working stress level is within the elastic range
of the behavior of steel. The working stress is obtained by dividing the characteristic value by a unique factor of
safety.
In load factor method all safety is attached to the acting load, then the acting load is obtained by multiplying the
working loads by a load factor greater than the unity. The material supposes to work at the yield point, that is, at the
characteristic value.
The limit state design method was formulated in the former Soviet Union in the 1930s and developed in Europe in
the 1960s, this approach can perhaps be seen as a compromise between the permissible and load factor methods. It is
in fact a more comprehensive approach, which take into account both methods in appropriate ways. The majorities
of modern structural codes of practice are now based on the limit state design method.
Limit state design method.
A structure or part of the structure is considered unfit for use when it exceeds a particular state, called Limit State
beyond which it infringes one of the criteria governing its performance for use. The Limit State can be placed in two
categories:
1. The Ultimate Limit States are those associated with collapse, or with other forms of structural failure,
which may endanger the safety of the people. States prior to structural collapse which, for simplicity, are
considered in place of the collapse itself, are treated as ultimate limit states. Normally the ultimate limit
state is concerning with the strength of the structure.
2. The Serviceability Limit States corresponds to states beyond which specified service requirements are no
longer met, e.g. deformation or deflections which affect the appearance or effective use of the structure
(including the malfunction of machines or services) or cause damage to finishes of non structural members;
vibration which cause discomfort to people.

Characteristic and design values.

Characteristic loads are normally obtained from code practices. See EBCS-1. Chapter 2.
Design loads = characteristic loads x partial safety factor for the load (f).
Design strength = characteristic strength / partial safety factor for strength (m).
In general, the ultimate limit state design method is stated as follow:

Design action Design strength.

For partial safety factor for strength m see 4.1. (2). EBCS-1.
For partial load factor and combination of actions see 2.8.2.2. EBCS-1.

1.6 Classification of cross-sections.

When plastic global analysis is used, the members shall be capable of forming plastic hinges with sufficient rotation
capacity to enable the required redistribution of moments to develop. When elastic global analysis is used, any class
of cross-section may be used for the members, provided the design of members takes into account the possible limits
of resistance of cross-section due to local buckling.
Four classes of cross-section are defined, as follow:
1. Class 1 or plastic cross-sections are those in which all elements subjected to compression comply with the
values given in Table 4.1 of EBCS-3. Design of Steel Structures for plastic elements. A plastic hinge can
be developed with sufficient rotation capacity to allow redistribution of moments within the structure.
Only Class 1 section may be used for plastic design.
2. Class 2 or compact cross-sections are those in which all elements subject to compression comply with the
values given in Table 4.1 for compact elements. The full plastic moments capacity can be developed but
local buckling may prevent development of a plastic hinge with sufficient rotation capacity to permit
plastic design. Class 2 sections can be used without restriction except for plastic design.
3. Class 3 or semi-compact sections are those in which the elements subject to compression comply with the
values given in Table 4.1 for semi-compact elements. The stress at the extreme fibbers can reach the
design strength but local buckling may prevent the development of the full plastic moment. Class 3
sections are subjected to limitations on their capacity.
4. Class 4 or thin-walled sections are those that contain thin-walled elements subjected to compression due to
moment or axial force. Local buckling may prevent the stress in a thin-walled section from reaching the
design strength. Design of Class 4 sections requires special attention.
Chapter 2. Tension members.
2.1 Introduction.
2.2 Design value of axial tension force.
2.3 Effective area.
2.4 Members subjected to combined tension and bending.
2.5 Slenderness ratio.
Reference: EBCS-3. Design of steel structures.

2.1 Introduction.
Axially loaded tension members are used mainly as members of the roof truss, truss for bridges and as tie to take
horizontal forces on industrial buildings.

2.2 Design value of axial tension force.

The design value of the axial force is N t , Sd Nt , Rd
Af y
1. The design plastic resistance of the gross section is N pl , Rd =
M1
0.9 Aeff fu
2. The design ultimate resistance of the net section at the bolt hole is N u , Rd =
M2

Where: A gross section area (area without reduction).

Aeff effective area.
fy stress at the yield point of the steel.
fu ultimate tensile stress.

2.3 Effective area.

The effective area is taken as Net Area. The net area of cross-section or element section shall be taken as it gross
area less appropriate deductions for all holes and openings. When calculating net section properties, the deduction of
a single hole shall be the gross cross sectional area of the hole in the plane of its axis. Provided that the fastener
holes are not staggered, the total area to be deducted for fastener holes shall be the maximum sum of the sectional
areas of the holes in any cross-section perpendicular to the member axis.
When the fastener holes are staggered, the total area to be deducted for fastener holes shall be the greater of:
1. The deduction for non-staggered holes.
2. The sum of the sectional area of all holes in any diagonal or zigzag line extending progressively across the
member or part of member, less s2t/4p for each gauge space in the chain of holes. See Fig. 4.

Therefore the net width dn can be computed by using the following formula which is known as the chain
formula.
as 2
d n = total width nd +
4p
 where: n number of holes in the chain of holes
a number of diagonal space p in the chain
s is the pitch, the spacing of the centers of two consecutive holes in the chain measured parallel to the
member axis
p is the spacing between the centers of the holes measured perpendicular to the ember axis
d diameter of holes.
Finally the net area should be the net width x thickness of the plate: d x t.
Note: The diameter for holes is given in Table 6.1 of the EBCS-3.

Example Nr 1.
Calculate the net critical area for the bolt distribution shown below.

Solution:
Chain (1) dn = 15 2 x 1 = 13 cm.
2 x32
Chain (2) s = 3; p = 3 d n = 15 4 x1 + = 12.5 cm
4 x3
2 x32 2 x 42
Chain (3) s = 4; p = 3 d n = 15 5 x1 + + = 14.17 cm
4 x3 4 x3
Chain (4) dn = 15 3x1 =12 cm

Therefore the Net Critical Area = 12 x 0.5 = 6 cm2.

Design example Nr = 2.
Calculate the maximum design load for the plate of the example Nr 1. Steel grade Fe = 360.
Solution:
1. The design plastic resistance of the gross section.

Gross area A = 15 x 0.5 = 7.5 cm2

Yield strength fy = 23.5 kN/cm2 (Table 3.1, EBCS-3).
Partial safety factor M1 = 1.1 (Section 4.1.1, EBCS-3).
7.5 x 23.5
N pl , Rd = = 160.2 kN
1.1
2. The design ultimate resistance of the section at the bolt holes.

Effective area Aeff = 6 cm2.

Ultimate resistance fu = 36.0 kN/cm2 (Table 3.1 EBCS-3)
Partial safety factor M2 = 1.25
0.9 x6 x36
N u , Rd = = 155.52 kN
1.25

Therefore, the design force is 155.52 kN.

 2.4 Members subjected to combined tension and bending.

To check members under simultaneous action of tension and bending moment the following criterion may be
used:

N Sd M y , Sd M z , Sd
+ + 1
N pl , Rd M pl , y , Rd M pl , y , Rd

2.5 Slenderness ratio.

Even if the tension members are not under the action of reversal stress, to avoid damages during the transportation
and erecting of the members, its slenderness ratio is limited to 350.

Example Nr 3.
Determine the design strength of two angles 100 x 100 x 10 in grade Fe 430 used as a welded bracing member.

Solution:

Because there is not holes (welded connection), only design plastic resistance must be checked.
The partial safety factor for the section M1 = 1.1.
The design plastic resistance is:

Af y 2 x1920 x 275
N pl , Rd = = = 960000 N = 960 kN .
M1 1.1

Example Nr = 4.

Determine the design strength for the two angles of the example Nr 3 if now are used as a bolted bracing member
with single row of 16.5 mm holes at each leg of the angle.

The partial safety factor is M2 = 1.25

The effective area is the net area. Anet = 3840 4 x 16.5 x 10 = 3180 mm2
0.9 Aeff fu 0.9 x3180 x 430
N u , Rd = = = 984528 N = 484.528 kN > 960 kN
M2 1.25
Therefore, the design strength of the bolted bracing member is controlled by the yield strength of the full section.
Thus, Npl,Rd = 960 kN.
Example Nr 5.
Check the section used as a main tie of the roof truss shown in the Figure below. The section is formed with 2
unequal leg angle 100 x 75 x8 mm. Steel grade Fe 430 is used. The joint was made with 7 bolts diameter 20 mm as
shown. The acting tensile force is 630 kN.

Steel Grade Fe 430 fy = 275 Mpa = 27.5 kN/cm2

fu = 430 Mpa = 43.0 kN/cm2
Gross area for one angle 100 x 75 x 8 = 13.49 cm2
dhole = d + 2 = 20 + 2 = 22 mm (Table 6.1, EBCS-3)

Solution:
1). Plastic resistance of the gross section:

2 x13.40 x 27.5
N pl , Rd = = 670 kN
1.1
2). Ultimate resistance of the net section at the bolt holes.
Calculation of the Aeff. S = 3.5 cm and p = 4.1 cm.

Calculation of Nu, Rd.

0.9 x 20.88 x 43
N u , Rd = = 646.44 kN
1.25
Checking for the maximum slenderness ratio.

Slenderness ratio = Leff / kmin; minimum radius of gyration kmin = 1.62 mm.

Slenderness ratio = 300 / 1.62 = 185 < 350 OK.

Answer:
The design tension resistance capacity of the cross-section is 646.44 kN, therefore, because 646.44 kN > 630 kN, the
section 1-1 used for design is adequate.
Example Nr 2. Beams.

A simply supported beam 7.00 m span is laterally supported at the third points and carries un factored uniform loads
of 18.5 kN/m and 9.4 kN/m permanent load. In addition the beam carries at mid span un factored concentrated load
of 50 kN permanent load and 50 kN imposed load. Find a universal beam of grade Fe 430.

Solution:
Geometry, materials and loads.

Factored loads:

Imposed loads: q = 1.6 x 18.50 = 29.60 kN/m

Q = 1.6 x 50.00 = 80.00 kN.

Permanent loads: g = 1.3 x 9.40 = 12.20 kN/m

G = 1.3 x 50.00 = 65.00 kN.

Fe 430; fy = 275 N/mm2 (assume t 40 mm)

Step 1. Maximum bending moment and shear force.

max M =
(29.6 + 12.2)x7 2 + (80 + 65)x7 = 509.8 kN m
8 4
max V =
(29.6 + 12.2)x7 + (80 + 65) = 218.8 kN
2 2
Step 2. Required plastic modulus.
M 509.8 x10 2 (kN cm)
W pl = = = 2039 cm3 . Tray 533 x 210 x 92 UB.
f y M1 2
27.5 (kN / cm ) 1.1

Step 3. Selection of the profile.

The relevant section properties are:

h = 533.1 mm w = 0.92 kN/m It = 76.2 cm4

d = 476.5 mm A = 118 cm2 Iw = 1.6 x 106 cm6
tf = 15.6 mm Iy = 55400 cm4
w = 10.2 mm Iz = 2390 cm4
b = 209.3 mm Wel,y = 2080 cm3
Wpl,y = 2370 cm3
 209.3 2 = 6.70 < 11x0.92 OK
235 15.6
Class of section. = = 0.92 . The section is Class 2 at least.
275 476.5 = 46.7 < 83 x0.92 OK
10.2
Step 4. Resistant moment. (for class 2 section).

W pl f y 2370 x 275 x103

M pl , Rd = = = 592.5 kN m
Mo 1.1
Check of self-weight of the beam. (w = 0.92 kN/m)
Factored weight: 1.3 x 0.92 = 1.2 kN/m
Additional moment: (1.2 x 72)/8 = 7.35 kN-m.
Total moment: 509.8 + 7.35 = 517 kN-m < 592.5 kN-m OK.

Step 5: Check for shear.

Maximum shear force, VSd = 218.8 + (1.2 x 7)/2 = 223 kN.

Shear resistance of section.

d 476.5
= = 46.7 < 69 x0.92 = 63.5 OK . Shear buckling resistance must not be verified.
tw 10.2

V pl , Rd =
(
AV f y 3 ) = 1.04 x533.1x10.2(275 3 ) x10 3
= 816.4 kN > 233 kN OK .
Mo 1 .1
VSd 233
and = = 0.27 < 0.5 Therefore, no reduction of design resistance moment is required.
V pl , Rd 816.4

Step 6: Check for deflection.

5wL4
For uniformly distributed load: =
384 EI y
PL3
For concentrated load: = 5 14 14 2
and EI y = 2.1x10 x55400 x10 = 1.1634 x10 N mm .
48EI y
5 x9.4 x70004 50 x103 x70003
Dead load deflection: LL = + = 5.59 mm.
385 x1.1634 x1014 48 x1.1634 x1014
5 x18.5 x70004 50 x103 x70003
Imposed load deflection: IL = + = 8.04 mm .
384 x1.1634 x1014 48 x1.1634 x1014

L 7000
Allowable deflection for imposed load =
= = 20 mm. > 8.04 mm OK .
350 350
Total deflection max = 5.59 + 8.04 = 13.63 mm .
L 7000
Allowable total deflection = = = 28 mm > 13.63 mm OK .
250 250
Step 7: Check for lateral torsional buckling.

LT wWol , y f y
M b, Rd = . c = 209.3 = 6.70 < 10 x0.92 = 9.2 .
M1 tf 15.6
The section is Class 1 and w = 1 .
Determination of Mcr.
Lateral support to the beam is provided at the ends at the third points. Therefore the effective buckling length is
L = span/3 = 7000/3 = 2333 mm.
The critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling is:
2 EI z
I w L2GI t
M cr = C1 + . C1 = 1.132 for the worse condition; G = 80 Gpa
L2 I z 2 EI z
G 80000
and 2 = 2 = 0.039
E x 210000
1.132 2 x 2.1x105 x 2390 x10 4 1.6 x1012 0.39 x 23332 x76.2 x10 4
M cr = + = 2.67 x109 N mm .
23332 2390 x10 4
2390 x10 4

2 EW pl , y 2 x 2.1x105 x 2370 x103

LT = = = 42.9
M cr 2.67 x109
42.9
1 = 93.9 = 93.9 x0.92 = 86.8 and LT = = 0.4942 > 0.4
86.8
For rolled section curve a is used. Therefore LT = 0.9250
3
0.9250 x1x 2370 x10 x 275
M b, Rd = x10 6 = 548 kN m > 517 kN m
1.1
Therefore, resistance of the member is adequate in bending.

Step 8.1. Check for web crushing (at the support).

( )
R y , Rd = S s + S y t w f yw / M 1 ; Where Ss = 75 mm; Sy is the length over which the applied force is effectively
distributed.
2
1 bf f yf f , Ed
S y = 2t f 1 at the end S y is half .
2 tw
f yw
f yf


Check if bf < 25 tf ; 209.3 < 25 x 15.6 = 390 OK.
f , Ed = 0 at the sup port.

Then S y =
1
[ ]
2 x15.6 209.3 10.2 = 70.66 mm and Ry , Rd =
(75 + 70.66)10.2 x 275 x103
2 1.1
R y , Rd = 371.3 kN > 223 kN OK
8.2 Check for web crippling.

Crippling resistance:

Ss = 75 mm < 0.2 d = 0.2 x 476.5 = 95.22 mm. OK.

tf t S
Ra , Rd = 0.5t w2 Ef yw + 3 w s / M 1
t w t f d

Ra , Rd =
0.5 x10.2 210000 x 275 [ (15.6 10.2) + 3(10.2 15.6)(75 476.5)]10 3
= 660.6 kN > 233 kN
1.1
Interaction at mid-span. Where the member is also subjected to bending moments, the following criteria should be
satisfied.
FSd M Sd
+ 1 ; Substituting the value of Mc,Rd = 592.5 kN-m
Ra , Rd M c , Rd
(80 + 65) + 517 = 1.09 < 1.5 OK .
660.6 592.5
8.3 Check for web buckling (at the support). Ss = 75 mm.

Ss 75
beff = 0.5 h 2 + S s2 + = 0.5 533.12 + 752 + = 306.7 mm
2 2

I beff tw3 t
i= = = w
A 12beff hw 12

assuming that l = o.7 d = 0.7 x 476.5 = 333.6 mm.

tw 10.2
Radius of gyration of the web is: i= = = 2.94 mm
12 12
333.6 235 113.5
= = 113.5; 1 = 93.9 = 93.9 = 86.8; and = = 1.31
2.94 275 86.8
h 533.1
= = 2.55 > 1.2 and t f = 15.6 mm 40 mm
b 208.7
Using buckling curve c for solid section = 0.3848.
The buckling resistance of the web is: Rb , Rd = A Af y / M 1; A = 1; and A = beff t w
A = 306.7 x10.2 = 3124 mm.
0.3848 x1x3124 x 275
Rb, Rd = x103 = 300.5 kN > 223 kN . OK .
1.1
Step 9. Check for flange induced buckling.
d E Aw
k
tw f yf A fc

c 209.3 2
= = 6.7 < 10 ; therefore, the fange is class 1; k = 0.3
tf 15.6
d 476.5
tw
=
10.2
= 46.7 < 0.3 210000
275
(
533.1x10.2
209.3x15.6
= 296 ok . )
Step 10. Check for transverse force on the web.
In the absence of shear force the web of a member subject to transverse force in the plane of the web shall also
satisfy the following condition:
2 2
x, Ed z , Ed x, Ed z , Ed
+ 1
f yd f yd f yd f yd
x , Ed Is the design value of the local longitudinal stress due to moment and axial force at the point.
z , Ed Is the design value of the stress at the same point due to the transverse force.
fy
f y,d =
Mo
x , Ed and z , Ed shall be taken as positive for compression and negative for tension.
The point to be considered is the joint between flange and web.

x , Ed
M
= Sd
(h 2 t ) = fl 517 x106 533.1 2 15.6
x = 234 N / mm 2
3
Wel h 2980 x10 533.1 2
2

z , Ed =
FSd
=
(80 + 65)x103 = 134 N / mm2 ; assume S = 75 mm
( )
S s + t fl t w (75 + 15.6)x10.2
s

Therefore:
2 2
234 134 234 134
250 + 250 250 250 = 0.66 < 1 OK .

Chapter 3. Compression Members and Stability Problem.

If a 6 mm diameter steel rod 1 m long is placed in a resting machine subjected to a pull, as shown in a Figure below,
it will be found to carry a load of about 7 kn before failure occurs. If on the other hand this same rod had been
subjected to compression, then the maximum load, which would have been carried, would be about 0.035 kN, a very
big difference.

Failure in the first test occurs by the fracture of the member; in the second it is due
to bending out of the line of action of the load, as indicated.

Since the load carrying capacity of a member in compression is very different from that of a similar member in
tension, requires special treatment. It is seen that failure takes place by bending. This can not occurs unless a
moment acts on a member and this moment results from a number of effects, which make an apparently axial load
acts eccentrically. The causes are:
1. The fact that no member can be made perfectly straight.
2. Imperfection in manufacturing leaving some part of the member with slightly different mechanical
properties from the remainder.
3. Inability to ensure that the load actually acts along the centre of area of the cross-section.

Types of Equilibrium.

a) Stable: The body returns to its initial position after disturbing its condition of equilibrium.
b) Neutral: The body remains in the same apparent equilibrium in its new position.
c) Unstable: The body loss its initial condition of equilibrium.
Now lets apply a disturbing force F at mid-height acting as shown in the figure.

If the strut returns to its position prior to the application of F, then it is in stable
equilibrium.
If it remains in the deflected position, it is in neutral equilibrium.
If it continues to deflect, it is in unstable equilibrium and the strut loses its load carrying
capacity and fails.

We can see that for low value of P the equilibrium is stable, but that as P is increased a load value is obtained which
causes the strut to be in a state of neutral equilibrium. This load value is known as the critical or buckling load of a
strut.

Critical load of a pin ended strut. (Euler formula).

Lets consider the strut AB with length l as shown in the following figure.

The maximum deflection is a at mid span, and at distance x from the origin, the deflection is (a y).
The differential equation of bending gives
d2y P
EI = M = P(a y ) ; writing 2 = ;
dx 2 EI
d2y d2y d2y
= 2
( a y ) 2
( a y ) = 0 or + 2 ( y a ) = 0 differential equation of
dx 2 dx 2 dx 2
sec ond deg ree.
The solution for this equation is: y = A sin x + B cos x + a ; where A and B are constants of integration. To
evaluate A and B it is as follows:
1. When x = 0; y = 0 0 = A sin 0 + B cos 0 + a B cos 0 + a = 0 B + a = 0 and B = a
dy
2. When x = 0; = 0 ; (angle of rotation).
dx
dy
= A cos x. B sin x.x = 0 , therefore A cos 0o + a sin 0o = 0 ; is possible only if A = 0;
dx
Finally the solution is: y = a cos x + a = a (1 cos x)
l l l
Now, when x = l/2; y = a, and then a = a (1 cos ) , from which 1 = 1 cos cos = 0 ,
2 2 2
2
P Pl
Therefore l = , and l = ; now squaring = 2 , and finally we obtain the formula to calculate the
EI EI
critical load, known as Euler Formula.
2 EI
PE = ; where le = effective length.
le2
Value for Ratio le / l for different end conditions. (Theoretically).

To write the Euler formula in terms of stress, divide the critical load over the area.
PE 2 EI I I
E = = 2 ; but r = therefore; r 2 = ; is the least radius of gyration.
A le A A A
2 Er 2 2E le 2E
E = = . The relation = is the Slenderness ratio. And E = 2
le2 le
2
r

r
Limitation of the Euler Formula.
The formula show that E depends only on the elastic modulus of the material and on the slenderness ratio, this
value is true only for a constant modulus of elasticity; i.e. within elastic limits of the steel.
The steel behaves elastic only up to Proportional Limit p. The Structural Stability Research Council (SSRC) of the
USA accept for p = 0.5 y, that is 0.5 the value for the yield limit to ensure perfectly elastic behaviour. Then for
mild steel like A 36, y = 24.82 kN/cm2 and E = 2 x 104 kN/cm2:
2E le E
2
2 x 2 x104 le
E = = 0.5 y = 126 . Therefore, for values of the
r 0.5 y 0.5 x 24.82 r
2
le

r
slenderness ratio less than 126, Eulers formula is not valid, as shown in the following figure.
As we see, the Eulers buckling load can only represents column behaviour at higher values of the slenderness ratio.
For lower values of the le / r, empirical formulae are used.
The SSRC of the USA recommended the following formula, which is accepted by the AISC (American Institute for
Steel Construction) code.
l 2
e
2 2 E
= 1 + 2 y . In which Cc =
r
crit , and for mild steel like A 36 Cc = 126.
2Cc y


Design of Axially loaded Columns.

According with EBCS 3. Design of Steel Structures, section 4.5.4,1; the compression resistance of cross section is
as follows:
1. For member in axial compression, the design value of the compressive force Ncom,Sd at each cross-section
shall satisfy:

N com, Sd N com, Rd .
Where Ncom,Rd is the design compression resistance of the cross-section, taken as the smaller of:
Af y
a) The design plastic resistance of the gross section, N pl , Rd = , (for classes 1 3 cross-sections)
Mo
Aeff f y
b) The design local buckling resistance of the gross section, N o , Rd = where Aeff is the effective
M1
area of the cross section (for class 4 section).

2. Buckling Resistance of Axially Loaded Compression Members (Nb,Rd).

A = 1 for Class 1, 2 or 3 cross sec tions
A Af y Aeff
N b, Rd = ; Where A = for Class 4 cross sec tions
M1 A
is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mod e.

For the constant axial compression in members of constant cross-sections, the value of for the appropriate
non-dimensional slenderness , may be determined from:
1
= but 1.
()
0.5
+ 2
2

 Where:

(
= 0.51 + 0.2 +
2
) ()

is an imperfection factor.
0.5
Af
= A y = ( A )0.5
N cr 1
is the slenderness ratio for the relevant buckling mod e.
0.5
E
1 = = 93.9
f y
0.5
235
= ( f y in MPa )
f y
N cr is the elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mod e.
Notes:
- The imperfection factor corresponding to the appropriate buckling curve shall be obtained fromTable 4.8,
page 21 of EBCS-3.
- The selections for a buckling curve for a cross-section shall be obtained from Table 4.11, page 24 of
EBCS-3.
- Values for the reduction factor for the appropriate non-dimensional slenderness may be obtained from
Table 4.9, page 21 of EBCS-3.

Buckling length of compression members.

For the basis about buckling length read 4.5.2.1, EBCS-3. When the column belong to a building frame, the
procedure is as follow.

The frames are divided into 2 types, as shown in the figure above. The coefficient for buckling length ratio (k)
depends of the type of frames; as shown, if sway is not allowed, k < 1, other case if sway occur then k > 1.
According to Appendix A of EBCS-3,
1 The buckling length l of a column in non-sway mode may be obtained from Fig. A.2.1.
2 The buckling length l of a column in a sway mode may be obtained from Fig. A.2.2.
The distribution factors at the ends of the member 1 and 2 are obtained from:
K columns
=
K columns + K beams
The symbol includes only those members rigidly connected to the joint. For example:

The distribution factors are:

Kc Kc + K2
1 = and 2 =
K c + K11 + K 22 K c + K 2 + K 21 + K 22
K c is the column stiffness coefficient = I column L
K ij is the effective beam stiffness coefficient = I beam L
Finally, the slenderness ratio shall be taken as follows:
l
= ; Where r is the radius of gyration about relevant axis, determined using the properties of the gross
r
cross-section.
The values of the slenderness ratio shall not exceed the following:
1 For members resisting loads other than wind loads 180
2 For members resisting self weight and wind loads only 250
3 For any member normally acting as a tie but subject to
reversal of stress resulting from the action of wind 350

Design step for loading compression members:

1. Determine the axial load, Nsd.
2. Determine the buckling length, l, which is a function of the column length, L, and the statical system of the
column.
3. Select a trial section (take into consideration economy, i.e. least weight per unit length).
4. Determine the Class of the section according to Section 4.3.2 and Table 4.1. If the cross-section is
classified as Class 4, determine Aeff according to Section 4.3.4 and Table 4.4.
5. Determine the non-dimensional slenderness ratio (Section 4.5.4.3).
6. Using Table 4.11 determine the appropriate buckling curve.
7. Using Table 4.9 find the value of . Interpolation must be used to determine more exact values.
8. Calculate the design buckling resistance Nb,Rd of the member. Buckling about both principal axes must be
checked.
9. Check the computed buckling resistance against the applied load. If the calculate value is inadequate or is
too high, select another section and go back to Step 4.
Chapter 3. Columns.

Example Nr1.
The column B E on the Figure shown below is under the action of NSd = 2800 kN. Both sides are pinned. Check
the resistance of the column. Steel grade Fe 430 is used.

Solution:
Step 1: Axial load NSd = 2800 kN.
Step 2: Buckling length L = 4000 mm (pinned end both sides. Frame non-sway mode).
Step 3: The section is given.
Step 4: Determine the class of the cross-section and check for a local buckling. The section is subjected to uniform
compression. For the section to be classified as at least class 3, in order to avoid any modification to the full cross
sectional area due to local buckling, the limiting width to thickness ratio for class 3 section are (See Table 4.1
EBCS-3).
Outstand element of compression flange: c / tf 15 .
Web subject to compression only: d / tw 39 .
For Fe 430 steel grade fy = 275 N / mm2. Thus = 235 275 = 0.92
This gives the following limiting values:
Outstand element of compression flange: c / tf = (254/2) / 16.3 = 7.78 < 15 x 0.92 = 13.8 OK.
Web subject to compression only: d / tw = (310-2 (33)) / 9.1 = 26.8 < 39 x 0.92 = 35.88 OK.
Therefore, the section belongs to at least Class 3. Thus, A = 1.0

Step 5: Determine the non-dimensional slenderness ratio.

For Fe 430 steel grade, 1 = 93.9 = 93.9 x 0.92 = 86.39
Slenderness ratio about y-axis: y = L / iy = 4000 / 135 = 29.63
Slenderness ratio about z-axis: z = L / iz = 4000/63.6 = 62.89
Hence, the non-dimensional slenderness ratio is determined as:

y =
y
( )
A = 29.63 86.39 1 = 0.34
1

1
( )
z = z A = 62.89 86.39 1 = 0.73
Step 6: Determine the appropriate column curves (Table 4.11 EBCS-3).
h = 310 = 1.22 and t f = 16.3 mm < 40
b 254
Use curve a for buckling about y-axis and curve b for buckling about z-axis.
Step 7: Determine value of . Using Table 4.9 and interpolating:
For y-axis: curve a for y = 0.34 y = 0.97
For z-axis: curve b for z = 0.73 z = 0.77
Therefore, buckling about the z-axis becomes critical.
Step 8: Calculate the design buckling resistance.
A Af y 0.77 x1x11000 x 275
N b, Rd = = = 2117500 N = 2117.5 kN
M1 1.1
Step 9: Because 2800 kN > 2117.5 kN, the column do not resist.

Solution 1. Add an additional hinged support at mid-height to increase the resistance about the minor axis.

Go to Step 5.
Slenderness ratio about z-axis = 29.63 (dont varies)
Slenderness ratio about z-axis = 2000 / 63.6 = 31.45
Non dimensional slenderness ratio y = o.34 dont varies
31.45
z = (1) = 0.36
86.39
Values of :
y-axis: y = 0.97 dont varies
z-axis: Curve b for z = 0.36 z = 0.94

Hence buckling about the z-axis becomes critical

0.94 x11000 x 275

N b, Rd = = 2585 kN < 2800 kN . don' t resist
1.1
Solution 2: Add 2 plates 200 x 10 mm to reinforce the weak axis.

10 x 2003
Now: I z = I zW + 2 = 44.5 x106 + 13.3x106 = 5.78 x107 mm 4
12
Iz 5.78 x107 4000 64.52
iz = = 4
= 62 mm ; then z = = 64.52 and z = = 0.72
A 1.5 x10 62 86.39

For column curve b; z = 0.77

0.77 x1.0 x15000 x 275

And N b , Rd = = 2887.5 kN > 2800 kN OK
1.1
Example Nr 4.
Determine the design buckling resistance of a 457 x 152 x 52 UB used as a pin-ended column. The column is 3.00 m
long and its steel grade is Fe 360.

Step 2: Buckling length = 3000 mm.

Step 3: The section is given.
Step 4: Determine the class of the cross-section and check for local buckling.
For Fe steel grade fy = 235 N / mm2. Thus, = 235 f = 1
y
These limiting values are:
Outstand element of compression flange: c / tf 15 = 15
Web subject to compression only: d / tw 39 = 39

For the 457 x 152 x 52 UB profile, the actual values are:

Outstand element of compression flange: c / tf = (152.4 / 2) / 10.9 = 7 < 15 OK.
Web subject to compression only: d / tw = (449.8 2 x 10.9 2 x 10.2) / 7.6 = 53.60 > 39
Therefore, the flange satisfies the Class 3 requirement, but the web is Class 4 section. Consequently, there must be a
reduction in the strength of the section to allow for the load buckling which will take place in the web. Therefore,
the effective area, Aeff must be determined for the web.
Explanation for the effect.

The effective width is beff = reduction factor x b = x b.

The method to calculate the effective area (Aeff) is explained in section 4.3.4 of EBCS-3.
To calculate the reduction factor is as follow.
a). = 1; if p 0.673
b).
(
= p 0.22 ) if p > 0.673
p2
Where

(
p = b t 28.4 k )
In which : t is the relevant thickness.
k is the buckling factor corresponding to the stress ratio from Table 4.3 or 4.4 as appropriate.
b = d for webs.
In our example, since the column is axially loaded the stress distribution is uniform, i.e. 1 = 2. Table 4.3 is used to
calculate the effective width.
Thus, 1/ 2 = 1, and k = 4.0 (see lower part of table 4.3)
b = d = 407.6 mm
b = 407.6 = 53.6
tw 7 .6
p = 53.6
(28.4 x1x 4 ) = 0.944 > 0.673
= ( 0.22) = (0.944 0.22 )
p
2 = 0.812
p 0.9442
And beff = b = 0.812 x 407.6 = 331.2 mm
Therefore the area that should be ignored at the center of the web is: A = (407.7 331.2)x7.6 = 581.4 mm2

= (6650 581.4)
Aeff
And then A = 6650
= 0.913
A
Step 5: Determine the non-dimensional slenderness ratio (axis-z govern).
3000
z = = 96.5
31.1
1 = 93.9 = 93.9
Hence the non dimensional slenderness ratio z = z A = (96.5) 93.9 0.913 = 0.98
1
Step 6: Appropriate column curve.
For h / b = 449.8 / 152.4 = 2.95 > 1.2; and tf = 10.9 < 40 mm; use curve b for buckling about z-axis.
Step 7: Determine the value of .
Using Table 4.9 and interpolating, z-axis: curve b for z = 0.98 z = 0.6034
Step 8: Calculate the design buckling resistance.
A Af y 0.6034 x0.913x6650 x 235
Nb, Rd = = = 782660 N
M1 1.1
Answer: The design buckling resistance N b, Rd = 782.66 kN .
Chapter 4. Bending Members.

4.1 Introduction.
4.2 Plastic behaviour of steel beams.
4.3 Laterally restrained beams.
4.4 Laterally unrestrained beams.
4.5 Resistance of web to transverse forces.

4.1 Introduction.
Beams work principally under the action of the vertical loads, which rise to bending of the beam. The principal
dimensions are the length and the depth. There are 3 types of length as shown in the figure.

The minimum d recommended to avoid excessive deformation is as follows.

/L=1/r0 1/1000 1/750 1/600 1/500 1/400 1/250 1/200

dmin/L 1/6 1/8 1/10 1/12 1/15 1/25 1/30

Beam arrangement.

Tributary area.
Secondary beam a x b
Main beam bxL
For column bxL
Secondary beams should be continuous for better structural behaviour as shown in the figure below.

1
4.2. Plastic behaviour of steel beams.
Let study a beam of any cross-section.

In stage (1) the beam behaves elastically, the extreme fibbers rich the yield point.
M Inertia
For elastic behaviour f = fy where W = is the elastic sec tion mod ulus. And the
W c
maximum value for f is the yield limit fy.
Stage (2) is partially plastic, yield stress go deep into the cross-section.
Stage (3) is fully plastic, the section rotate and plastic hinge is formed. The section is under the action of the Plastic
Moment MP

1 2 1
[
M p = A f y dA y = A f y ydA + A f y ydA = f y A ydA + A ydA
2
]
but ydA = S is the First Moment of Area.
Therefore M p = f y (S1 + S 2 ) and for symmetric section S1 = S 2 = S .
Hence M p = f y 2 S ; doing W p = 2 S -- Plastic Modulus. S is the first moment of area for the half section.
Finally we can write (by similarity) M p = f yW p .
Then;
Elastic behaviour Plastic behaviour
M = fy W MP = fy WP
To compare M with MP let evaluate We and WP for rectangular section.

bh 2 h h bh 2
W = and WP = 2S = 2b =
6 2 4 4

Now the ratio between Plastic Moment and Elastic one is MP / Me

MP f yWP bh 2 4 6
= = = = 1.5
Me f yWe bh 2 / 6 4

2
 MP
For the general cases = C ; Where C is the Shape Coefficient of the section.
Me
The most common values of the shape coefficient are as follow.

4.3 Laterally restrained beam.

A beam is prevented from moving side ways, by a floor resistance due to the use of bracing or insitu or precast floor
construction.

Resistance to bending moment.

According to EBCS-3, for bending about one axis in the absence of shearing force, the design value of bending
moment M Sd M c , Rd . The design moment resistance of a cross-section without holes for fasteners may be
determined as follows:
W pl f y
a) Class 1 or 2 cross-sections: M c , Rd =
M0
Wel f y
b) Class 3 cross-sections: M c , Rd =
M0
Weff f y
c) Class 4 cross-sections: M c , Rd =
M 1
Fastener holes in the tension flange need not be allowed for, provide that for the tension flange:
0.9 A f , net f y M 2

Af fu M 1

Resistance to shear.
The design value of the shear force VSd at each cross-section shall satisfy: VSd V pl , Rd

Where V pl , Rd =
(
Av f y 3 ) is the plastic shear resistance. A is the shear area.
v
M0

For simplicity, a rectangular distribution of shear stress is accepted and Av = 1.04 h tW for a rolled I, H or channel
section, load parallel to web.

3
Resistance for bending and shear.
The theoretical plastic resistance moment of a cross-section is reduced by the presence of the shear. For small values
of the shear force this reduction is not significant and may be neglected. However, when the shear force exceeds half
of the plastic shear resistance, allowance shall be made for its effect on plastic resistance moment.
Hence, if the value of the shear force VSd does not exceed 50% of the design plastic shear resistance no reduction
need be made in the resistance moments. When VSd exceeds 50% the design resistance moment of the cross-section
should be reduced to Mv,Rd obtained as follows:
a) For cross-sections with equal flanges, bending about the mayor axis
2
A2 f y 2V
M v , Rd = W pl v but M v, Rd M c , Rd ; = Sd 1
4t w M 0 V pl , Rd

b) For other cases Mv,Rd should be taken as the design plastic resistance moment of the cross-section,
calculated using a reduced strength (1 ) fy for the shear area, but not more than Mc,Rd.

Deflections.
Deflection belongs to serviceability limit states; the loads used to calculate deflections are characteristic loads that
are unfactored loads. For vertical deflection the value for the maximum deflection is calculated as follows:

max = 1 + 2 0
Where: max is the sagging in the final state relative to the straight line joining the supports
0 is the pre-camber of the beam in unloaded state, (state 0)
1 is the variation of the deflection of the beam due to the permanent loads immediately after load, (state 1)
2 is the variation of the deflection of the beam due to the variable loading plus any time dependent
deformation due to the permanent load, (state 2).
Limiting values.
For buildings, the recommended limits values for vertical deflections are given in Table 5.1 of EBCS-3, in which L
is the span of the beam. For cantilever beams, the length L to be considered is twice the projecting length of the
cantilever. The vertical deflection to be considered is illustrated in the following Figure.

Limits
Conditions max 2
Roof generally L/200 L/250
Roof frequently carrying personnel other than
for maintenance. L/250 L/300
Floor generally L/250 L/300
Floors and roofs supporting plaster or other
brittle finish or non-flexible partitions. L/250 L/350
Floors supporting columns (unless the
deflection has been included in the global
analysis for the ultimate limit state). L/400 L/500

Where max can impair the appearance of the

building L/250

For horizontal deflection the recommended limits at the tops of the columns are:
1. Portal frames without gantry cranes: h/150
2. Other single storey building: h/300
3. In multi-storey building:
(i) in each storey h/300
(ii) on the structure as a whole h0/500

Where h is the height of the column or of the storey

h0 is the overall height of the structure.

4
Lost of Stability

General Stability (Lateral torsional buckling)

Stability Due by skear on the web.

Local Stability

Due by compressive stress on the flange.

During bending, part of the web and one flange at least is under compressive stress, therefore can be subjected to the
loss of stability.

Let study first the problem of local stability.

1). Shear buckling resistance. Near the support, where there is a considerable acting shear force, the web of the beam
can lost its stability as follows:

Because the action of the shearing stress, appear on the web

folds of buckles.

This problem is prevented by putting in place transverse stiffness as shown in the figure belows.

The shear buckling resistance of the web depends on the depth to thickness ratio d/tw and the spacing of any
intermediate web stiffeners. All webs with d/tw greater than 69 shall be provided with transverse stiffeners at the
supports. Webs with d/tw greater than 69 for an unstiffened web, or 30 k for stiffened web, shall be checked
for resistance to shear buckling.
Normally, a/d > 3 is used, for these beams the simple post critical method is recommended.
According with this method, the design shear buckling resistance Vbe,Rd should be obtained from:
Vba , Rd = dt w ba / M 1 , Where ba is the simple post-critical shear strength and should be determined as follows:
(
ba = f yw / 3 ) if 0.8
ba = [1 0.625( 0.8)]( f / 3 ) if
yw 0.8 < < 1.2
ba = (0.9 / )( f / 3 ) if 1.2
yw
d / tw
in which = is the web slenderness.
37.4 k

5
 k is the buckling factor for shear, is given by the following:
a). for webs with transverse stiffeners at the supports but no intermediate transverse stiffeners k = 5.34
b). for webs with tranverse stiffenerss at the supports and intermediate transverse stiffeners
k = 4 + 5.34 / (a / d )2 if a/d <1
k = 5.34 + 4 / (a / d )2 if a/d 1

2). Flange induced buckling.

As we can see in the figure below, the upper flange is under the action of the compressive stress and may lose it
local stability.

To prevent the possibility of the compression flange buckling in a plane of the web, the ratio d/tw of the web shall
satisfy the following criterion:

(
d / t w k E / f yf ) (Aw / A fc ) Where Aw is the area of the web.
Afc is the area of the compression flange
and fyf is the yield strength of the compression flange.
The values of k shuold be taken as follows:
Class 1 flanges = 0.3
Class 2 flanges = 0.4
Class 3 or Class 4 flanges = 0.55

6
4.4 Laterally unrestrained beams. (Lateral torsional buckling).

Lateral torsional buckling should be present on laterally unrestrained beams. When the beam has a higher bending
stiffness in the vertical plane compared with the horizontal plane, the beam can twist sideways under the action of
the load as shown in the Figure belows:

Design Buckling Resistance Moment.

The design buckling resistance moment of laterally unrestrained bean shall be taken as:

M b, Rd = LT wW pl , y f y / M 1

Where w = 1 for Class 1 or Class 2 cross-sections

w = Wel W pl , y for Class 3 cross-sections
w = Weff , y W pl , y for Class 4 cross-sections.
And the value of LT is the reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling, is calculated as follows for appropriate
non-dimensional slenderness LT .
1
LT = but LT 1
2 0.5
LT + LT LT
2

(
Where LT = 0.51 LT LT 0.2 + LT
2

)
The value of the imperfection factor LT for lateral-torsional buckling should be taken as follows:
LT = 0.21 for rolled sections.
LT = 0.49 for welded sections.
Values of the reduction factor LT for the appropriate non-dimensional slenderness LT may be obtained from
Table 4.9 with = LT and = LT using:
1. for rolled sections curve a ( = 0.21)
2. for welded sections curve c ( = o.49)
1 = 93
LT
( w )
0.5
LT = where 235
1 = and f y in MPa
f y

7
The geometrical slenderness ratio LT for lateral-torsional buckling is given for all cases by:
0.5
2 EW pl , y
LT =
M cr

Mcr is the elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling and for beam of uniform symmetrical cross-section
with equal flanges, under standards conditions of restraint at each end, loaded trough its shear centre and subjected
to uniform moment is calculated as follows:
0.5
2 EI z I w L2GI t
M cr = C1 +
(kL )2 I z EI z
2

Factor C1 depends on the loading conditions (See table 4.12 and 4.13 of EBCS-3)
The most common values for C1 are as follows:

The rest of the terms are:

E
G= = 80 GPa
2(1 + )
It is the torsion constant.
Iw is the warping constant.
Iz is the second moment of area about the minor axis.
kL is the length of the beam between points which have lateral restraint.
k = 0.5 for full fixity.
k = 1.0 for no fixity.
k = 0.7 for one end fixed and one end free.

Notes:
1. A beam with full restraint does not need to be checked for lateral-torsional buckling.
2. Where the non-dimensional slenderness 0.4 no allowance for lateral-torsional buckling is necessary.
3. The standard conditions of restraint at each end are:
- Restrained against lateral movement.
- Restrained against rotation about the longitudinal axis
- Free to ratate in plan.

8
4.5 Resistance of web to transverse forces.

Due to high vertical stresses directly over a support or under concentrated load, the beam web may actually crush, or
buckle as a result of these stresses, as illustrated in a figure below.

The resistance of an unstiffened web to transverse forces applied through a flange, is governed by one of the
following modes of failure:
a) Crushing of the web close to the flange, accompanied by plastic deformation of the flange. See (a).
b) Crippling of the web in the form of localized buckling and crushing of the web close to the flange,
accompanied by deformation of the flange. See (b).
c) Buckling of the web over most of the member. See (c).

A distinction is made between two types of load application, as follows:

1. Forces applied through one flange and resisted by shear in the web, See Fig (a). in this case the resistance
of the web to transverse fosces should be taken as the smaller of:
I) The crushing resistance.
II) The crippling resistance.

2. Forces applied to one flange and transferred through the web directly to the other flange. See Fig (b). In this
case the resistance of the web to transverse forces should be taken as the amaller of:
I) The crushing resistance.
II) The buckling resistance.

(I). Crushing Resistance.

The design crushing resistance Ry,Rd of the web of an I, H or U section should be obtained from:

R y , Rd =
(Ss + S y )tw f yw , in which S is given by:
y
M1
S y = 2t f (b f )( )[ (
t w f yf f yw 1 f , Ed f yf )2 ] but b should not be taken as more than 25 t and
f f f,Ed is the
longitudinal stress in the flange.
Sy represents the length over which the applied force is effectively distributed. At the end of the member Sy should
be halved.
SS is the length of the stiff bearing. See Fig. 4,28 and 4.29 of EBCS-3.

9
For wheel loads from cranes, transmitted through a crane rail bearing on a flange but not welded to it, the design
crushing resistance of the web Ry,Rd should be taken as:
R y , Rd = S y t w f yw / M 1 , in which:
1
I f + IR
[1 ( )2 ] or more approximately S y = 2(hR + t f ) [1 ( f , Ed )2 ]
3
S y = k R f , Ed / f yf f yf
tw
Where: hR is the height of the crane rail.
If is the second moment of area of the flange about its horizontal centroidal axis.
IR is the second moment of area of the crane rail about its horizontal centroidal axis.
kR is a constant taken as follows:
a). When the crane rail is mounted directly on the flange, kR = 3.25
b). When a suitable resilient pad not less than 5 mm thick is interposed between the crane rail and the
beam flange. KR = 4.0

II).Crippling Resistance.

The design crippling resistence Ra,Rd of the web of an I, H or U section should be obtained from:

Ra , Rd = 0.5t w2 Ef yw [t f ( ) ]
t w + 3 t w t f (S s d ) / M 1 , but Ss/d should not be taken as more than 0.2

Where the member is also subjected to bending moments, the following criteria should be satisfied;
FSd M Sd
+ 1 .5
Ra , Rd M c, Rd

III). Buckling Resistance.

For the web the design buckling resistance should be obtained by considering the web as a virtual compression
member with an effective breath beff..

The buckling resistance should be determuned from Chapter 3 using buckling

curve c and = 1. The buckling length of the virtual compression member
should be determined from the conditions of lateral and rotational restraint at the
flanges at the point of load application, but not less than 0.75d

Transverse stiffeners.
End stiffeners and intermediate stiffeners at internal support normally be double sided and symmetric about the
centerline of the web.
When checking the buckling resistance, the effective cross-section of a stiffener should be taken as including a
width of the web plate equal to 30tw, arranged with 15tw each side of the stiffener, as shown in Fig. 4.30. At the
ends of the member (or openings in the web) the dimension of 15tw should be limited to the actual dimension
available.
In addition to checking the buckling resistance, the cross-section resistance of a load bearing stiffeners should also
be checked adjacent to the loaded flange. The width of web plate included in the effective cross-section should be
limited to Sy and allowance should be made for any opening cut in the stiffener to clear the web-to-flange welds. For
intermediate transverse stiffeners it is only necessary to check the buckling resistance, provided that they are not
subjected to external loads.

10
Chapter 4. Beams.

Built-up beams.

Dimensions of the section.

Wreq M SD
h = 1 .2 where Wreq = and t w, Min = 8 mm
tw fy
Mo
h
Try that 69
tw
Wreq ht w
b fl = use t w t fl 3t w ; t fl , Max = 40 mm . Try that c/tfl satisfies Class 1 or 2 conditions.
ht fl 6t fl
Now, with all the dimensions defined:
twd 3
Iy = + 2b fl t fl d12
12
t fl b3fl
Iz = 2
12
2I y
Wel , y = and W pl , y = 1.12Wel , y
h
I z h 2f
Warping Constant I w =
4
biti3 dhw3 b fl t 3fl
Torsion Constant I t = = +2
3 3 3
Thickness of the plates multiples of 2 mm.
Width of the plates multiples of 20 mm.
Values for Mcr.
For beams with doubly symmetric cross-sections and with no end fixity.
2 EI z I w L2GI t
M cr = C1 +
L2 Iz 2 EI z
Factor C1 depends on the loading conditions (see table 4.12 and 4.13 of EBCS-3)

C1 = 1.88 1.44 + 0.52 2 2.7 , But the most commons values for C1 are as follows:
Example Nr 1.
Design a simple supported beam of Fe 430 steel grade. The span of the beam is 5.00 m. The top flange is embedded
in a reinforced concrete floor providing sufficient restraint against lateral-torsional buckling. The beam carries a
uniformly distributed load of 20 kN/m permanent load and 20 kN/m imposed load.
Solution:
The factored loads are: Imposed load: 1.6 x 20 = 32 kN/m
Permanent load: 1.3 x 20 = 26 kN/m.
Step 1: Maximum bending moment.

Step 2. Required plastic modulus.

M 181.3x106 N mm
W pl = = = 7.25 x105 mm3 = 725 cm3
fy 275 / 1.1
Mo
Step3: Selection of the profile: Try 310 x 52 W Shape.

h = 317 Mass = 0.52 kN/m

b = 167 Wy,el = 747 cm3
tfl = 13.2 mm Wy,pl = 837 cm3
tw = 7.6 mm Iy = 11800 cm4
d = 257 mm

167
235 2 = 6.33 < 9.5 257
Class of the section: = = 0.92 and = 33.82 < 83 OK
275 13.2 7.6
Satisfies conditions for Class 2.

Step 4. Resistance moment.

W pl f y 837 x103 x 275
M pl , Rd = = = 209.25 kN m > 181.3 kN m OK .
Mo 1.1
Check of the self-weight of the beam.
w = 0.52 kN/m; additional factored dead weight moment = 1.3 x 0.52 x 52 / 8 = 2.11 kN-m
Total moment: MSd = 181.3 + 2.11 = 183.41 < Mpl,Rd OK.

Step 5: Check for shear.

Maximum shear force is 145 kn + 1.3 x 5/2 = 146.69 kN.
Shear resistance of section. Un stiffened web: shear buckling resistance must not be verified if d/tw 69.
d/tw = 257/7.6 = 33.82 < 69 x 0.92
 f 3
Therefore: V pl , Rd = Av y Av = 1.04hwt w
Mo where

Av = 1.04 x317 x7.6 = 2506 mm 2 then V pl , Rd =

(
2506 275 3 ) = 361.7 kN
1.1
Effect of shear force on the resistance moment.
VSd 146.69
= = 0.41 < 0.5 Therefore no reduction of design resistance moment required.
V pl , Rd 1.1

Step 6. Check for deflection.

5 wL4
For a simple span uniformly loaded beam =
384 EI
0.52
Deflection due to un factored load w = 20 + 20 + = 40.10
5
5 x 40.10 x103 x50004
= = 13.17 mm
384 x118 x106 x 2.1x105
Assumption: - beam is not pre-cambered.
-beam is carrying a reinforced concrete floor.
Limiting values for vertical deflections (see Table 5:1 EBCS-3)
1. Total deflection of the span: max = L 250 = 5000 250 = 20 mm > 13.17
2. Live load deflection at span (2): max = L 300 = 5000 350 = 14.3 > 12 mm

Step 7. Check for lateral-torsional buckling.

Since the reinforced concrete floor provides sufficient restraint against lateral movement, the beam is not checked
for lateral-torsional buckling.

Step 8. Check for resistance of web to transverse forces.

The beam must be checked at the support. Suppose the support as follows:

8.1 Check for web crushing: R y , Rd =

(Ss + S y )tw f y, w where Ss = 70 mm (length of stiff bearing) and
M1
2
1 bf f yf f , Ed
S y = 2t f
2 t f 1 f
at the end Ss is half .
w yw

yf

bf = 167 mm < 25 x 13.2 = 330 mm OK
tw = 7.6 mm
fyf = fyw = 275 N/mm2
f,Ed = 0 (at the support there is no moment)
 1 167 (70 + 62)x7.6 x 275 = 250 kN > 146.69 OK
Sy = 2 x13.2 (1)(1) = 62 mm then R y , Rd =
2 7.6 1.1

8.2 Check for web crippling.

tf t S
Ra , Rd = 0.5t w2 Ef yw + 3 w s / M 1 but Ss / d = 70 / 257 = 0.27 therefore take Ss / d = 0.2
t w t f d

13.2 7.6
Ra , Rd = 0.5 x7.62 2.1x105 x 275 + 3 (0.2) / 1.1 = 332 kN > 146.69 OK
7.6 13.2
8.3 Check the web buckling: Un stiffened web at the point where concentrated load (reaction acts).

h 2 + S 2 70 317 2 + 702 70
a= s
= = 127.32
2 2

beff = 70 + 127.32 = 197.32 mm.
Therefore; the virtual compression member for the web is:

Assumptions: Web is partially fixed at top and bottom; thus the effective length is taken no less than 0.75 d
l = 0.75 x 257 mm = 193 mm.

I beff t w3 t2 t 7 .6
Radius of gyration of the web is i = = = w = w = = 2.19 mm
A 12beff t w 12 12 12
Web slenderness ratio = 193/2.19 = 88.19 and 1 = 93.9 = 93.9 x 0.92 = 86.39
Relative slenderness ratio = 88.19 86.39 = 1.02
Using curve c of table 4.9 of EBCS-3; the reduction factor = 0.48
Hence; the buckling resistance of the web is:
A Af y
Rb, Rd = ; A = 1; A = beff t w = 197.32 x7.6 = 1499.6 mm 2 ; f y = 275 N mm 2 and M 1 = 1.1
M1

0.48 x1x1499.6 x 275

Rb, Rd = = 180.2 kN > 146.69 kN OK
1.1
Step 9: Check for flange induced buckling.

Aw
The ratio d k E
tw
f yf A fc
167
Since c = 2 = 6.33 < 8.5 = 8.5 x0.92 = 7.82 , the flange is Class 1; therefore, k = 0.3
tf 13.2
d =
257
= 33.81 ? 0.3 2.1x10
5 (257 x7.6 )
tw 7 .6 275 167 x13.2
33.81 < 215.6 OK
Chapter 5. Beam column members.

In the foregoing consideration has been given to a columns carrying axial loads only. Loads are rarely concentrically
applied in practice and the effect of eccentricicy of loading must be taken into account.

Buckling Resistance of compression members with moments.

The total stress due by the combined action of axial force and bending moment is:
fy N M,y Mz
M + M , y + M ,z , then we can write + + 1
M1 f y M1 f y M1 f y M1
N My Mz
and finally: + + 1 . Now, taking into account the problem of the loss
A f y M1 Wy f y M 1 Wz f y M 1
of stability, the design according with EBCS-3 is as follows:

a). When lateral-torsional buckling is not a potential failure mode, for Class 1 and 2 cross-sections.
N Sd k y M y , Sd k z M z , Sd
+ + 1 .0
min A f y M 1 W pl , y f y M 1 W pl , z f y M 1
for Class 3 sections: Wpl,y = Wel,y
for Class 4 sections: Wpl,y = Weff,y and A = Aeff
min is the lesser of y and z (reduction factor)
y N Sd z N Sd
ky = 1 1 .5 and kz = 1 1.5
y Af y z Af y
W pl , y Wel , y W pl , z Wel , z
y = y (2 My 4) + 0.90 and z = z (2 Mz 4) + 0.90
Wel , y Wel , z
W pl Wel
= 0 for Class 3 nd 4 sections.
Wel
My and Mz are equivalent uniform factors to be obtained from the following Table according to the shape
of the bending moment diagram between the relevant braced points as follows:

Factor Moment about axis Points braced in direction

My y-y z-z
Mz z-z y-y
MLT y-y y-y
When Lateral torsional buckling is a potential failure mode (When > 0.4 ), these members shall also satisfied:

N Sd k LT M y , Sd k z M z , Sd
+ + 1 .0
z A f y M 1 LTW pl , y f y M 1 W pl , z f y M 1
LT N Sd
k LT = 1 but k LT 1
z Af y
LT = 0.15 z M , LT 0.15 but LT 0.90

Equivalent Uniform Moment Factors.

The values of Factors C1, C2, and C3 corresponding to values of factor k are obtained from the following Table.
Notes:
k = 1 For no fixity at the ends.
k = 0,7 for one end fixed and one end free.
k = 0.5 For full fixity at both ends.
Values of factors C1, C2, and C3

Loading and Value Values of factors

support Bending moment diagram
conditions of K
C1 C2 C3

1.0 1.000 1.000

0.7 1.000 - 1.113
= +1 0.5 1.000 1.144

1.0 1.141 0.998

0.7 1.270 - 1.565
= + 3/4
0.5 1.305 2.293

1.0 1.323 0.992

0.7 1.473 - 1.556
= + 1/2 0.5 1.514 2.271

1.0 1.563 0.977

0.7 1.739 - 1.531
= + 1/4 0.5 1.788 2.235

1.0 1.879 0.939

0.7 2.092 - 1.473
=0 0.5 2.150 2.150

1.0 2.281 0.855

0.7 2.538 - 1.340
= - 1/4 0.5 2.609 1.957

1.0 2.704 0.676

0.7 3.009 - 1.059
= - 1/2 0.5 3.090 1.546

1.0 2.927 0.366

0.7 3.009 - 0.575
= - 3/4 0.5 3.093 0.837

1.0 2.752 0.000

0.7 3.063 - 0.000
=-1 0.5 3.149 0.000
Chapter 5. Example 1.
A 4.00 m pin-ended column supports a beam with a reaction of 100 kN permanent load and 150 imposed load.
Assuming the beam reaction to be applied 75 mm from the face of the flange. Check the adequacy of a 203 x 203 x
46 UC grade 430 steel profile.

Solution:

Step 1: Applied axial forces and moments.

Partial safety factor Factored load

Permanent load 100 kN 1.30 130 kN
Imposed load 150 kN 1.60 240 kN

Moment (beam is connected to the flange of the column).

M y , Sd = 370(0.2032 2 + 0.075) = 65.34 kN m

Step 2: Effective length of column.

Since both column ends are hinged, the effective length is l = 4.00 m.

Step 3: Select the trial section. (Section are given).

Step 4: Check the classification of the cross-section; check the section local buckling. If necessary determine the
effective cross-section and its properties.
c 203.2 2
a) Flanges. = = 9.24 < 11 = 11 235 275 = 10.2 (Limit for Class 2.)
tf 11.00
d 160.9 66
b) Web (assuming = 1) (web generally). = = 22 < = 60.70
tw 7.4 0.4 + 0.6
(Web is Class 1).

The whole cross-section is Class 2.

Step 5: Check the first condition:
N Sd k y M y , Sd k z M z , Sd
+ + 1 . Since there is no bending about the minor axis, Mz,Sd = 0.
min Af y / M 1 W pl , y f y / M 1 W pl , z f y / M 1

Determination of the parameters:

5.1 Determonation of min
5.1.1 Buckling about y-y axis.
400
Slenderness ratio: y = = 45.4
88.1
y 45.4
Relative slenderness: y = = = 0.523
1 235
93.9
275
h 203.2
= = 1 < 1.2 ; Thus, buckling curve b has to be used (see Table 4.11) and y = 0.8763.
b 203.3
5.1.2 Buckling about z-z axis.
400
Slenderness ratio: z = = 78.3
51.1
78.3
Relative slenderness: z = = 0.906
93.9 x0.92
h
= 1 < 1.2 ; Thus, buckling curve c has to be used and z = 0.5962 (is the critical value for this case).
b
Therefore min = 0.5962

5.2 Determination of ky.

y N Sd
ky = 1 1 .5
y Af y
W pl , y Wel , y
y = y (2 My 4) + 0.90
Wel , y

M , y = M , +
MQ
M
( M ,Q M , )
Where:
is the ratio of the end moments (is = 0 in our case).
M , = 1.8 0.7
MQ is the maximum moment from the lateral load.
M ,Q = 1.3 for uniformly distribuited lateral load and
= 1.4 for a central lateral point load.
M is the maximum span moment, to which the maximum end moment is added if the sign of the
diagram changes.

Thus:
= 0 and M , = 1.8
MQ = 0 (no lateral load between top and botton of the column).
M , y = 1.8
 y = 0.523 (refer to step 5.1.1)

y = 0.523(2 x1.8 4 ) + (497 449 ) = 0.1023 < 0.9 OK

449
0.1023 x370 x103
ky = 1 = 1.026 < 1.5
0.8763x5880 x 275
5.3. Substituting into the interaction equation for first condition:
370 x103 1.025 x65.3 x106
+ = 0.420 + 0.540 = 0.96 < 1 OK
0.5962 x5880 x 275 / 1.1 497 x103 x 275 / 1.1
Thus, the section is adequate to carry the combined compression and bending.

Step 6: Check for the second condition. (If LT > 0.4 ).

2 EW pl , y
6.1 - LT = for all the cases.
M cr .
C1 2 EI z I w L2GI t
M cr = +
L2 I z 2 EI z
Value of C1 See Table 4.2; for = 0 and k = 1; C1 = 1.879
1.879 2 210000 x1540 x10 4 1.42 x105 40002 x0.39 x 22.3 x104
M cr = +
40002 1540 1540 x104
M cr = 5.07 x108 N mm
2 x 210000 x 497 x103
LT = = 45.07
5.07 x108
235
1 = 93.9 = 93.9 = 86.8
275
45.07
LT = = 0.519 > 0.4 . Then, check the second condition is valid.
86.8
6.2 The interaction equation for Class 2 section is:
N Sd k LT M y , Sd
+ 1
z Af y / M 1 LT W pl , y f y / M 1
LT = 0.15 z M , LT 0.15 M , LT = 1.8 as in step 5.2
LT = 0.15 x0.906 x1.8 0.15 = 0.0946
LT N Sd 0.0946 x370 x103
k LT = 1 = 1 = 0.964 < 1 OK
z Af y 0.5962 x5880 x 275
Value for LT :
For rolled sections, curve a is used; the corresponding value for LT = 0.519 is LT = 0.9178(Table 4.9 ) .
6
370000 0.964 x65.34 x10
Finally: + = 0.422 + 0.552 = 0.974 < 1
0.5 x5880 x 275 / 1.1 0.9178 x 497 x103 x 275 / 1.1

Therefore the section is satisfactory in respect of lateral-torsional buckling and axial compression.
Bolted Connections

Bolted connections are employed mainly in structures subjected under reversed and vibration loads, over all in
members with heavy conditions.
The black hexagon bolt shown in the Figure below with nut and washer is the most commonly used structural
fastener.

Behaviour of bolts in joints.

Three types of behaviour appear for bolted connection as follows:

1. Shear due to shearing of their shank.

If the force P is large enough, the bolt could fail in shear; breaking by sliding of its fibres along the shear planes.
The area of the steel bolt resisting the failure is the circular area of the bolt shank. The resisting force depends
upon the number of shear planes.

2. Bearing due to bearing of steel plates or bolt material.

3. Tension in the direction of the acting force along the shank of the bolt.

Shear and bearing should be present at the same time in the joint. It will be seen that bolt may be designed on the
basis of their strength in shear or their strength in bearing.
In actual design the lesser of these two values will have to use.
When designing of this type of connection, the following questions should be asked:
1. Is the connection in single or double shear?
2. What is the safe appropriate shear load on one bolt?
3. What is the safe bearing load on one bolt?
Effective area of bolts.

Since threads can occur in the shear plane, the area As for resisting shear should normally be taken at the bottom of
the threads. When threads do not occur in the plane As may be taken as the shank area.
Tensile stress area for bolts as determined by ISO Standards shank and tensile areas area tabulated below.

Bolt diameter Tensile area Shank area

(mm) (mm2) (mm2)
12 84 113
16 157 201
20 245 314
22 303 380
24 353 452
27 459 572
30 561 707

Shear capacity
Provided that no reductions are required for long joints the shear capacity for shear plane Fv,Rd of a bolt shall be
taken as:
0.6 fub 0.87 f yb
Fv , Rd = f v , d As Where the design shear strength f v , d = but
M M
Bearing capacity.

The effective capacity of a bolt in bearing on any ply shall be taken as the lesser of the bearing capacity of the bolt
and the bearing capacity of the connected ply.

The bearing capacity of the bolt. Fbb , Rd = dtf bb , d

Where d is the nominal diameter of the bolt
t is the thickness of the ply (the minimum thickness on one part of the joint)
fbb,d is the design bearing strength of the bolt.

The bearing capacity of the connected ply. Fbp , Rd = dtf bp , d but 1 2e1 tfbp , d
Where fbp,d is the design bearing strength of the connected parts.
e1 is the edge distance.

fbb, d =
(
0.9 f ub + f yb ) and f bp , d =
(
0.8 fu + f y )
M M2
Where fyb is the specified minimum yield strength of the fastener
fub is the specified minimum ultimate tensile strength of the fastener
M is the partial safety factor Mr or Mb; as the case may be
fy is the specified minimum yield strength
fu is the specified minimum ultimate strength.

Bolt subjected to tension.

The tension capacity of a bolt Ft , Rd = f t , d As

0.7 f ub 1.0 f yb
Where the design tension capacity strength f t , d = but
M M
The partial safety factor for all the cases are M = 1.25
Combined shear and tension.

When bolts are subjected to both shear and tension then in addition to the conditions studied before the following
relationship shall be satisfied:
Fv , Sd Ft , Sd
+ 1.4
Fv.Rd Ft , Rd
Where Fv,Sd is the design shear force per bolt for the ultimate limit state
Ft,Sd is the design tensile force per bolt for the ultimate limit state
Fv,Rd is the shear capacity per bolt
Ft,Rd is the tension capacity per bolt.
Notes:
1. The size of the holes are given in Table 6.1
2. The edge distances and spacing of holes for fasteners are given in Table 6.2

Table 6.1 Maximum dimensions of holes

Clearance
Oversize
Bolt shank hole Short slotted hole Long slotted hole
hole
diameter diameter dimensions dimensions
diameter
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
(mm)

14 d+1 d+4 d+1 d+4 d+1 2.5d

14d22 d+2 d+5 d+2 d+6 d+2 2.5d
24 d+2 d+6 d+2 d+8 d+2 2.5d
27 d+3 d+8 d+3 d + 10 d+3 2.5d

Table 6.2 Edge distances and spacing of holes for fasteners.

1 2 3 4 5
1 Edge distances Hole distances
2 For a rolled, machine e1
Flame cut, sawn or 1.25 do
Minimum Planned edge e2 Minimum
edge hole 2.5 d0
3 For sheared or hand
distance distance p1
flame cut e1 1.4 do
edge and any end e2

4 Maximum
Hole
Maximum 12 t 14 t
e1 distance p1
Edge or or 200
e2 in
distance 150 mm mm
unstiffeded
plates
t is the thickness of the thinner outside ply
d o is the diameter of hole
Where the members are exposed to corrosive influences the maximum distances shall not exceed:
(a) for edge distances: 40 mm + 4t
(b) for hole distances: 16t or 200 mm.

Bolt grades.

The grade of the bolt is given by two figures separated by a point. The first figure is 1% of the minimum ultimate
strength in N/mm2 and the second is 1/10th of the percentage ratio of the minimum yield strength. Thus 5.6 grade
means that the minimum ultimate strength is 500 N/mm2 and the yield strength is 60% of this strength which is 300
N/Mm2. the nominal values of the yield strength fyb and the ultimate strength fub to be adopted as characteristic
values in calculations are given below.

Bolt grade 4.6 4.8 5.6 5.8 6.8 8.8 10.9

fyb (N/mm2) 240 320 300 400 480 640 900
fu (N/mm2) 400 400 500 500 600 800 1000
Bolted connections.

Example Nr 1. The connection shown in the Figure below is subjected to a design tensile force of 240 kN. The steel
Grade is Fe 430, the bolt Grade 8.8 and its diameter is 20 mm. Check that the connection is adequate.

Check for the geometry.

Bolts M 20; Grade 8.8 fyb = 640 N/mm2 , fub = 800 N/mm2
Diameter of the holes: (see Table 6.1). The hole diameter shall be d0 = d + 2 mm = 20 + 2 = 22 mm.
Minimum edge dis tan ce e1 = 1.25d 0 = 1.25 x 22 = 27.5 mm < 30 ok
Minimum hole dis tan ce p1 = 2.5d 0 = 2.5 x 22 = 55 mm < 50 ok
Maximum edge dis tan ce e1 = 12t = 12 x7 = 84 mm > 50 ok
Maximum hole dis tan ce p1 = 14t = 14 x7 = 98 mm > 80 ok
Shear capacity of bolts.
Assumptions: - There are two shear planes per bolts.
- Threads are in the shear plane i.e; As = 245 mm2
Shear capacity of bolt.
2 x0.6 f ub As 2 x0.87 f yb As
Fv, Rd = f vd As =
Mb Mb
2 x0.6 x800 x 245 x103
= = 188 kN (Governs the design)
1.25
2 x0.87 x640 x 45 x10 3
and = = 218 kN
1.25
240
Therefore, because there are 2 bolts: 188 > is OK
2
Bearing capacity of members and bolts.

The bearing capacity of the bolts is:

Fbb, Rd = d t f bb, d ; where t = 14 mm (the gusset plate is not the critical member since t = 15 mm > 2 x 7 = 14 mm)

Fbb, Rd =
[ (
dt 0.9 f ub + f yb )] = 20 x14 x0.9(800 + 640)x103 = 290.3 kN ( per bolt ) > 240 OK
Mb 1.25 2
The bearing capacity of the gusset plate is:
1
Fbp , Rd = d t f bp , d e1 t f bb, d ( per bolt )
2

Fbp , Rd =
[ (
dt 0.8 f u + f y )]
M2
20 x15 x0.8(430 + 275)x10 3 240
Fbp , Rd = = 135.36 > = 120 kN . Ok ( governs design)
1.25 2
1 50 x15 x0.8(430 + 275)x103
and x = 169.2 > 135.36 OK
2 1.25
The bearing capacity of one angle is:
d t [0.8( f u + ft )] 1
Fbp , Rd = e1t fbp , d
M 2
20 x7[0.8(430 + 275)]x103 240
= = 63.2 kN > = 60 kN ( per angle)
1.25 2 x2
1 50 x7 x0.8(430 + 275)x103
and x 79.0 > 63.2 OK
2 1.25
Example Nr 2.
Check that the secondary girder to primary girder connection by means of angles shown in the figure below is
adequate. All data required are provided in the figure.

Main girder, Secondary girder and Angles L 90 x 9 with Steel Grade Fe 430, fu = 275 N/mm2.
Bolts Grade 8.8, fyb = 640 N/mm2, fub = 800 N/mm2; Diameter 22 mm.
Bolt area at the bottom of the thread: As = 303 mm2.
Applied load: Shear force V = 890 kN (at the centreline of the web of the main girder).

Solution:
Diameter of holes d0 = d + 2 = 22 + 2 = 24 mm.
Minimum edge distance, e1 = 1.25 d0 = 1.25 x 24 = 30 mm < 40 mm. OK.
Minimum hole distance, p1 = 2.50 d0 = 2.50 x 24 = 60 mm = 60 mm OK.
Maximum edge distance, e1 = 12 t = 12 x 9 = 108 mm > 40 mm OK.
Maximum hole distance, p1 = 14 t = 14 x 9 = 126 mm > 60 mm OK.
Shear Capacity of bolts.
Assumptions: - one shear area per bolt.
- threads area in the shear plane.
Shear capacity of a bolt:
0.6 f ub As 0.87 f yb As
Fv , Rd = f vd =
Mb Mb
3
0.6 x800 x303 x10 890
= = 116.4 > = 49.4 kN
1.25 2 x9
0.87 x640 x303x103
and = 135 > 116.4 kN OK
1.25
Capacity of connection main girder and connection angle.
Bearing capacity of bolts.
Since the web thickness of the beam tw = 18.5 mm is grater than the angle leg thickness ta = 9 mm, the angle is the
critical member.

Fbb, Rd = d t f bb, d =
[ (
dt 0.9 fub + f yb )] = 22 x9 x0.9 x(800 + 640)x103 = 205.3 kN > 49.4 kN OK
Mb 1.25
Bearing Capacity of angle.

Fbp , Rd =
[ (
dt 0.8 f u + f y )] 1 e t f
Mb
1 bp , d
2
22 x9 x0.8(430 + 275)x103
= = 89.3 kN > 49.4 OK
1.25
1 40 x9 x0.8(430 + 275)x103
and = x = 81.2 < 89.3 but > 49.4 kN OK .
2 1.25
Capacity of connection Secondary Girder and connection Angle (welded).

Design Moment Msd = V * e = 890 x 9 = 8010 kN-cm.

f ye fu
Resistance condition: f R , w f vw, d = 0.63 but 0.65
Mw Mw
Area of welded section = 2 x 0.566 cm x 56 cm = 63.9 cm2
890 kN
fv, w = 2
= 14.04 kN / cm2
63.9 cm
 2 x0.566 x562
Section modulus of the weld section Wweld = = 591.66 cm3
6
8010 kN cm
fb, w = 3
= 13.54 kN / cm 2
591.66 cm
Finally, for point B.

f R, w = fb2,w + f v2,w
43
f R , w = 13.542 + 14.042 = 19.51 < 0.65 = 22.36 kN / cm 2
1.25
Welded Connections.

Electric welding is the most widespread method of connecting the elements of steel members. The welding process
is shown in the following figure.

Types of weld.
The commom types of weld are illustrated in Table 6.3. To study the behaviour of the joints they are divided mainly
into 2 types, Butt weld and Fillet ones.

Butt welds. This type is used mostly to weld steel plates of same or similar thickness. You can use it also in welding
of beams with sections I or C. Their disadvantage consists in to achieve complete penetration. For foils thickness
bigger than 10 mm it is necessary to prepare the borders appropriately, that wich requires of special cares and
appropriate facilities. This work is carried out in shops where the welding process can be controlled with quality.

Behaviour of the butt joint.

P P
Then, the tensile stress due to the axial force P on the welding section 1 1 is: f st = = f t = , it is similar
Lst bt
to the tension that take place in a section 2 2 for the base metal. Usually if the resistance of the material of
contribution of the electrode is bigger than that of the base netal, the resistance of the joint is guaranteed and it is not
necessary further calculation.

Fillet welds.
Fillet welds may be used for connecting parts where the fusion faces form an angle of between 600 and 1200.
Smaller angles are also permitted. However, in such a cases the weld shall be considered to be partial penetratrion
butt weld.
Fillet welds terminating at the ends or sides of parts should be returned continuously around the corners for a
distance of not less than twice the length s of the weld unless access or the configuration renders this impracticable.
This detail is particularly important for filled welds on the tension side of parts carrying a bending load.
In lap joints the minimum lap shall be no less than 4t where t is the thickness of the thinner part joined. Single fillet
welds should only be used where the parts are restrained to prevent opening of the joint.
As it is observed in the figure, the tensions that appear in the welding chord are of shear, being the points of the
ends (A and B) the most loaded for what reach the yiend point first. Then the interior points go reaching the yield
point gradually and in the moment of the failure, all the points of the welding chord will be working contributing the
maximum resistance evenly. Numerous researsh works show that the failure really happens for the half plane of the
cord, that which defines the efective area as the product of multiplying the effective with of the throat of the cord (a)
for the longitude of the chord.

Throat thickness.
The effective throat size a of a fillet weld shall be taken as the perpendicular distance from the root of the weld to a
straight line joining the fusion faces wich lies within the cross-section of the weld. It is not, however, be taken as
greater than 0.707 times the effective leg with s.
The throat thickness of a fillet weld should not be less than 3 mm.

Design Strength.
The codes usually use they calculate the maximum force that resists the unit of longitude.
The design strength Fw,Rd of a fillet weld per unit of length shall be obtained from:

Fw, Rd = f vw, d a ; where f vw, d is the design shear strength of the weld and shall be determined from:
0.63 f ye 0.65 fu
f vw, d = but f v , w
Mw Mw
where fye is the minimum tensile strength of the electrodes.
fu is the specified minimum ultimate tensile strength of the weaker part joined.
Mw = 1.25.

Long joints.
In lap joints the design resistance of a fillet weld shall be reduced by multipliying it by a reduction factor Lw to
allow for the effects of non-uniform distribution of the stresses along its length.
This provision is not apply when the stress distribution along the weld corresponds to the stress distribution in the
adjacent base metal, as for esample, in the case of weld connecting the flange and the web of a plate girder.
Generally in lap joints longer than 150a reduction factor Lw should be taken as Lw,1 given by:

Lw,1 = 1.2 0.2 L j /(150a) but Lw.1 1.0 ; where Lj is the overall length of the lap in the direction of
the force transfer.
For fillet welds longer than 1.7 meters connecting transverse stiffeners in plated members, the reduction factor Lw
may be taken as Lw.2 given by:

Lw, 2 = 1.1 Lw / 17 but 0.6 < Lw, 2 1.0 ; where Lw is the length of the weld in meter.

Types of elctrodes.
For a common structural steel, the AWS (American Welding Society) recommends electrodes types E 60 XX and E
70 XX. E denotes electrode, the first 2 numbers represent the tensile strength of the electrode in Ksi (kilopound
per square inches); then for the electrodes abobe the tensile strength are 60 Ksi (414 Mpa) and 70 Ksi ( 483 Mpa)
respectively.
Table 6.3 Common types of welded joints.
Welded Connections.

Example Nr 1. (Checking problem).

In the beam to column connection shown in the figure, the steel plate is supporting a support factored reaction of
525 kN from the beam. If the size of the weld is 8 mm and steel Grade Fe 360, check if the connection is adequate.

Geometry, materials and loading.

Plate t = 16 mm. Fe 360, fy = 235 N/mm2 and fu = 360 N/mm2.

Size of the welds s = 8 mm.
Throat thickness: a = 0.707 s = 0.707 x 8 = 5.66 mm.
Length of the weld l = 2 x 295 + 260 4 x 8 = 818 mm.

1). Check the dimension of the chords:

Minimum weld length l = 40 mm or 6 x a = 6 x 5.66 = 34 mm < 260 mm. OK.
Maximum weld length l = 150 a = 150 x 5.66 = 849 mm > 295 OK.

2). The design strength per unit length is Fw, Rd = f vw, d a

0.63 f ye 0.65 fu
where f vw, d =
Mw Mw
In most practical cases, the quality of the electrodes are greater than that of the base metal and then the ultimate
tensile strength of the weaker part joined, that is, the base metal govern the design. Therefore the second statement
of the equation is checked.
0.65 x360
Fw, Rd = x5.66 = 1059.55 N / mm
1.25
3
And the total resistance force F = 1059.55 N / mmx818 mmx10 = 866 kN > 525 kN OK .
Example Nr 2. (Design problem).
Special case (Eccentrically loaded joint. Unsymmetrical section).
When securing an unsymmetrical section, for example two angles to a plate, attention is paid to uneven distribution
of the load between the welds transmitting the force field from the angles to the plate.

The Force F is discomposed into F1 and F2

Taken moment with respect to point o.
2 2 F
F b = F1b F1 = F ; Thus F2 =
3 3 3
therefore; F1 is taken by two chord (filled weld) length L1each and F2 is taken by the lower two fillet weld length L2
each.

Example: Compute the welds required for connecting two angles 75x75x8 mm to a gusset plate with a thickness 10
mm. The factored tensile force in the angle is 450 kN. The material is steel Grade 430.

Geometry, Materials.
Plate and angles Grade 430 steel, fy = 275 N/mm2 ; fu = 430 N/mm2
Size of the welds 8 mm; take s = 6 mm.
Throat thickness a = 0.707 x 6 = 4.24 mm.

1). Acting Force F1 and F2.

2 2
F1 = F1 = x 450 kN = 300 kN
3 3
450
F2 = = 150 kN
3
2). Design strength per unit length. (Suppose the weaker part is the base steel).
0.65 x 430
Fw, Rd = x 4.24 = 948 N / mm.
1.25
3). Length of fillets:
F1 300 x10 3 N
L1 = = = 158.2 mm
2 ( fillet welds ) Fw, Rd 2 x948 N / mm
Actual length if no round a corner L1 = 158.2 mm + 2 s = 158.2 + 2 x 6 = 170 mm each side.
And L2 = 158.2 + 2 x6 = 91.1 mm (take 92 mm)

4). Check the dimension of the fillets.

6 x 4.24 < 92 and 170 < 150 x 4.24 OK
- Joints in beams under the action of bending moment and shear force.
Suppose a beam such that:

Principle: The flanges take the acting bending moment and the web takes shear force.

M is discomposed into a couple of forces F.

F = M/h acting on the flange levels.

284 kN m
Then F= = 532 kN .
0.533 m

Design of cover plates.

Af y
The design plastic resistance of the gross section N pl , Rd = = 532 kN
Mo

Mo x532 x103 1.1x532 x103

A = 180tc , p = = = 2128 mm 2
fy 275
2128 mm 2
tc , p = = 11.82 mm take 12 mm.
180 mm
- suppose size of the weld 8 mm < 12 mm.
- throat thickness a = 0.707 x8 mm = 5.66 mm
0.65 x 430
- strength per unit length Fw, Rd = x5.66 = 1266 N / mm
1.25
F 532 x103 N
The length of the filled weld L1 = = = 210 mm each sides + (round 2 x6 mm)
2 Fw, Rd 2 x1266 N / mm
Design of the central plate for shear.

0.65 x 430
Strength per unit length Fw, Rd = x 4.24 = 948 N / mm
1.25
3
The total resistance force = 948 N / mm x 350 mm x 10 = 331.8 kN > 142 kN OK .
Analysis and design of Bases.

The base of a column is designed to distribute the concentrated column load over a certain definite foundation area
and to ensure connection of the lower column end to the foundation.
Two basic types of bases are distinguished, namely pinned and rigid ones.

Pinned bases. Used to transmit axial load only.

The minimum thickness is: t =

2.5
f yp , d
( )
w a 2 0.35b 2 t f , where:

a is the greater projection of the plate beyond the column

b is the lesser projection of the plate beyond the column
w is pressure of underside of the plate assuming an uniform distribution
Check that w 0.4 fcu
fyp,d is the design strength of the plate. See Table 6.4 bolow
tf is the flange thickness of the column.
Thickness less than or equal
Design strength fyp,d (Mpa)
(mm)
16 170
40 265
63 255
100 245
Rigid base.
In these case both axial load and bending moment are present. Two cases are to be considered:
1. The combined effect of axial load and bending moment produce a uniformly varying presure (compression)
over the entire underside of the base (use 4 anchor bolts).
2. The combined action produces a zone of compression and a zone of tension (use anchor bolts to take the
tension force in this zone).

C is the resultant of compressive zone

T is total force in all the anchor bolts located at one side of the footing
P 6M
f max = + 0.4 f cu (design compressive stress of concrete)
BL BL2
P 6M
f min =
BL BL2
M Pa
Taking moment with respect to C. T = M Pa Ty = 0 T =
y
L x f max x
Where: a = ; x = L; and y = L e
2 3 f max + f min 3

To calculate the thickness of the plate t.

M 6M 6M
f = = f yp , d from which t
W 1xt f yp , d
 For round columns.

t=
w
2 .4
(
D p D p 0 .9 D )
D is diameter of the column.
Dp is the length of the side or diameter of the cup of the base plate, but not
less than 1.5(D+75) mm.

Notes.
1. The design resistance of the holding down bolts shoud be determined from section 6.2.4 of EBCS 3.
2. The anchorage length shoud be such as to prevent bond failure before yielding of the bolt.

Example Nr 1.
Find the general dimension for the base plate for the following column. Consider fc at 28 days = 20 Mpa.

P 250
w= = 0.4 x 2.0kN / mm 2 BL = = 312.5 cm 2
BL 0.8
Using square plate
B = L = 312.5 = 17.18 cm less than 15.24 cm
Therefore use base plate 30 mm greater than each side to allow
welding.
B = L = 215 mm.

215 152.4
a=b= = 31.3 mm
2
250
w= = 0.54 kN / cm2 < 2.0 kN / cm2 OK
21.5 x 21.5

t =
2.5 x0.54
0.4 x 2
( )
3.132 0.3 x3.132 = 3.4 cm

t = 34 mm > 6.8 mm OK .
Example Nr 2
For the base of the crane column shown below, calculate the thickness of the base plate and the tensile force for
anchor bolts. The caracteristic concrete steength at 28 days of the foundation is 20 MPa.
Factored axial force is 590 kN.
Factored acting bending moment is 196 kN-m.

Solution:
1. The stress distribution.
P 6M 590 6 x196 x100
fc = + 2 = +
BL BL 51.72 x61.26 51.72 x61.26 2
f c = 0.186 + 0.606 = 0.792 kN / cm 2 < 0.4 x 2 OK
ft = 0.186 0.606 = 0.42 kN / cm2 tensile stress.
2. Thickness of the plate.
0.535 x132 1 2
M = + (0.792 0.535)(13) x13
2 2 3
M = 59.69 kN cm

suppouse 16 t 40 mm, then fyp,d = 26.5 kN/cm2

6 x59.69
t= = 3.67 cm , take 3.8 cm = 38 mm > 35.4 mm OK.
26.5

3. Tensile force: T
M Pa
T=
y
x fc 0.792
y = L e; e = 75mm, x = L= 61.26 = 40.3 cm.
3 f c + ft 0.792 + 0.42
40.3
y = L 7.5 = 40.42 cm
3
L x 61.26 40.03
a= = = 17.29 cm then finally :
2 3 2 3
196 x102 590 x17.29
T= = 235.53kN .
40.42
235.53
For 2 bolts : T1bolt = = 116.26 kN each bolt.
2
Table 4.9 Imperfection Factors.
Buckling Curve a b c d
Imperfection factor 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76

Table 4.9 Reduction Factors.

Buckling curve

a b c d
0.2 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
0.3 0.9795 0.9641 0.9491 0.9235
0.4 0.9258 0.9261 0.8973 0.8504
0.5 0.9243 0.8842 0.8430 0.7793
0.6 0.8900 0.8371 0.7854 0.7100
0.7 0.8477 0.7837 0.7247 0.6431
0.8 0.7957 0.7245 0.6622 0.5797
0.9 0.7339 0.6612 0.5998 0.5208
1.0 0.6656 0.5970 0.5399 0.4671
1.1 0.5960 0.5352 0.4842 0.4189
1.2 0.5300 0.4781 0.4338 0.3762
1.3 0.4703 0.4269 0.3888 0.3385
1.4 0.4179 0.3817 0.3492 0.3055
1.5 0.3724 0.3422 0.3145 0.2766
1.6 0.3332 0.3079 0.2842 0.2512
1.7 0.2994 0.2781 0.2577 0.2289
1.8 0.2702 0.2521 0.2345 0.2093
1.9 0.2449 0.2294 0.2141 0.1920
2.0 0.2229 0.2095 0.1962 0.1766
2.1 0.2036 0.1920 0.1803 0.1630
2.2 0.1867 0.1765 0.1662 0.1508
2.3 0.1717 0.1628 0.1537 0.1399
2.4 0.1585 0.1506 0.1425 0.1302
2.5 0.1467 0.1397 0.1325 0.1214
2.6 0.1362 0.1299 0.1234 0.1134
2.7 0.1267 0.1211 0.1153 0.1062
2.8 0.1182 0.1132 0.1079 0.0997
2.9 0.1105 0.1060 0.1012 0.0937
3.0 0.1036 0.0994 0.0951 0.0882
Table 4.11 Selection of Buckling Curve for a Cross-section.

Buckling
about axis
Cross-section Limits Buckling curve

h/b > 1.2: yy a

Rolled I sections tf 40 mm zz b

yy b
40 mm < tf 100 mm zz c

h/b 1.2: yy b
tf 100 mm zz c

yy d
tf > 100 mm zz d

Welded I sections yy b
tf 40 mm zz c

yy c
tf > 40 mm zz d

Hot rolled any a

Hollow section
Cold formed
any b
-using fyb

Cold formed
any c
-using fya

Generally
Welded box sections any b
(except as below)

Thick welds and c

yy
b/tf < 30 c
z-z
h/tw < 30

U, L, and Solid Sections

any c
 Mekelle University.
Department of Civil Engineering.

Assignment Nr 1. Steel and Timber Structures.

For the floor system shown below, design each of the elements of the system. The floor is
composed by a Reinforced Concrete slab thickness 10 cm with screed 5 cm and finishing 2 cm.
The floor carries in addition to its own weight, loads from partitions of magnitude 3 kN/m2 and
live load of w kN/m2.

Special notes:
1. Steel Grade is indicated for each student.
2. Secondary beams rest over compression flange of main beams.
3. Columns are fixed at the foundation level and the frames are non-sway mode. The
heights of the columns are 5.00 m.

Required:
1. Design of secondary beams.
2. Design of main beams.
3. Design of the columns with its base.
4. Design of the main beam to column connection by using bolted connection.
5. Represent the design of each member and details of joints on sketch with adequate scale.
Introduction to Plastic Analysis and Design.
Reference: Ram Chandra. Design of Steel Structures.

Behaviour of a statically indeterminate structure.

In elastic behaviour
ql 2 ql 2
M A = MC = > MB = .
12 24
Therefore if q increases; the first plastic hinge will be
formed at A and C; at point B ; MB < MP

The beam is transformed from statically indeterminate

structure in to simply supported beam.

Now, with a further increase of external load q up to qu,

the 3th plastic hinge at point B is formed and the beam
is transformed into a mechanism with three plastic
hinge lie on the same straight line.

qu l 2
Therefore, M P + M P =
8
2
qu l qu l 2
2MP = MP =
8 16
16 M P
And the collapse load q u =
l2
Fundamental conditions for plastic analysis.

In the elastic analysis, the equilibrium condition, continuity and limiting stress conditions are satisfied. According to
the first condition, the structure subjected to any system of loading should be in equilibrium. According to the
second condition the distortion or deformation of the various fibres should be compatible with those of adjacent
fibres. According to third condition, the maximum stress at any section, in any fibre should be less than the yield
stresses i.e. the bending moment should be less than the yield moment.
Similarly, in the plastic analysis, the following fundamental conditions should be satisfied:
1. Mechanism condition. The ultimate or collapse load is reached when a mechanism is formed. The number of
plastic hinges developed should be just sufficient to form a mechanism.
2. Equilibrium condition. The algebraic sum of all vertical forces acting over a structure should be zero. The
algebraic sum of horizontal forces acting over the structure should be zero. The moment of all the forces acting
over a structure about any point should be zero.
3. Plastic moment condition. The bending moment at any section of the structure should not be more than the
fully plastic moment of the section.

MECHANISM.

When any elastic body is subjected to a system of loads and deformation takes place and the resistance is set up
against the deformation, then the elastic body is known as structure. In contradiction to this, if no resistance is set
up in the body against the deformation, then it is known as a mechanical mechanism.
When a statically indeterminate structure is subjected to loads and the bending moment diagram is drawn, it is seen
that is two or more points of peak moments. As the loads are gradually increased, the cross-section having the

1
maximum of these peak moments will reach yield. A plastic hinge is formed at such a cross-section and the value of
bending moment becomes MP at the section. As further load is added, this value of bending moment, MP remains
constant and this cross-section having the plastic hinge rotates, and other sections having the bending moment
smaller than MP maintain the equilibrium with the increased load by a proportionate increase in moment. These
sections having peak point in the bending moment diagram reach yielding and the plastic hinges are formed in
succession. The values of bending moments at these peak points become MP in succession. The process of moment
transfer known as the redistribution of moment due to successive formation of plastic of plastic hinges continues.
After the formation of sufficient number of plastic hinges, the structure reduces to a plastic mechanism, and the
failure or collapse of the structure occurs.
If the degree of indeterminacy of the structure is r, then the indeterminate structure becomes a determinate structure
on the formation of r number of the plastic hinges. If one additional hinge is formed, after the structure has become a
determinate one, then a mechanism is formed. Thus, the (r + 1) number of plastic hinges are necessary to convert a
structure into a mechanism. A simply supported beam is determinate structure. If one plastic hinge is formed, then
this structure reduces to a mechanism. The structure fails or collapses as soon as a mechanism is formed. The load
corresponding to the formation of first plastic hinge is known as yield load, the load corresponding to the formation
of a mechanism is known as collapse or ultimate load.
The formation of plastic hinges results in modest increase of load. The redistribution of moment further increases
the load carrying capacity (reserve strength) of indeterminate structures loaded beyond the elastic limit.

Types of independent mechanism.

Methods of Plastic Analysis.

1. Static method. Based on equilibrium equation of bending moments.

See Design of steel structures by Ram Chandra. Page 632.

2. Kinematic Method. (Or mechanism method of analysis). Based on the Principle of

virtual work.

The principle of virtual work states that if deformable elastic body is in equilibrium under
a system of external loads and remains in equilibrium while it is subjected to a small
virtual deformation, the external virtual work done by the external forces acting on the
body is equal to the internal virtual work of deformation done by the internal stress.

Therefore; The work done by external force is equal to the work absorbed by the plastic
hinges at collapse.

2
The Project and Construction of Industrial Building.
1. Project of industrial building.
2. Column layout, expansion joints. Faade.
3. Physical model, crane loads.
4. Bracing system of Industrial Buildings
5. Plastic design of steel frames.
6. Joints by using high strength bolts.
7. Quality control measurements for welded connections.

References:
1. Ram Chandra. Design of Steel Structures.
2. Mac Ginley TJ.& Ang T. Structural Steelwork.
3. Beddle L S. Plastic Design of Steel Frames.

1. Introduction.

The industrial building are designed and constructed to store the raw materials or
manufactured products of the industry or to support and house a manufacturing process for
the industry. Normally are simple roof structures on open frames. These buildings require
large and clear areas unobstructed by the columns. These large floor are provides sufficient
flexibility and facility for later change in the production layout without major building
alterations. The industrial buildings are constructed with adequate headroom for the use of an
overhead traveling crane.
The function of industrial building dictates the degree of sophistication. For the proper design
of the industrial building, the designer should have knowledge of the manufacturing process
and the purpose for which the industrial building is installed. From the external architectural
point of view, the industrial building should be properly related aesthetically to the
community and its natural environment. The internal architecture of the industrial building
should provide for the development of design so as to satisfy the requirements of the
occupants. The total area and volume requirements are determined for proper planning and
layout of the industrial building. The designer then develops the exterior dimensions for the
structure surrounding the manufacturing process
The most common types of frames used are as shown in the figure below.

The distance between to adjacent transverse columns is known as bay length or simply bay
and the distance between two columns line as aisle. The industrial building are generally
single-aisle structures. However, the industrial building with two, three, four or more aisles
are also built.
2. Column Layout.

Normally the span (aisle) is taken multiples of 3 m, and the spacing (bay) 6 m or 12 m as
required.
Expansion joints.
If a building has a considerable length or width, a significant deformation of its separate
elements appears due to temperature changes.

L = Lt where = 0 .000012 o C 1 coefficient of linear expansion of steel.

L length of the block
t difference of temperature

Maximum permissible dimension of expansion section of building and structures

Maximum distance
Maximum length of
Category of building from end of section Maximum width of
section along
or structure. to centerline of building.
building.
nearest vertical brace.

Heated buildings 90 230 150

Unheated buildings
75 200 120
and hot shops.
Note: when precast reinforced concrete column are used, the expansion joints are spaced not
more than 60 m apart.

Wall construction.
The permanent wall construction is used except where low cost is essential. The type of wall
construction used for the industrial buildings has adequate resistance and insulating
properties. The type of wall construction used for industrial building should be durable, and
easily maintained. The bearing walls are made strong enough to support, in addition to their
self-weight, the loads from floors, the roof which frame into them. The solid masonry, hollow
masonry, plain cement concrete and reinforced concrete are used for wall construction.
The corrugated cement asbestos sheets, trafford cement-asbestos sheets, galvanized-iron
corrugated sheets are also used for wall construction. The glass enclosures are also becoming
common.
Roof system
The roof trusses supported on columns provide structural roof system for the industrial
building. The type of roof covering, its insulating value, acoustical properties, the appearance
from inner side, the weight and the maintenance are the various factors, which are given
consideration while designing the roof system. The asbestos corrugated and trafford cement
sheets, and the galvanized-iron corrugated sheets are used as the roof covering materials.

Floor construction.
The industrial building are mostly one-storey structures. The part of the industrial building
used as office may consist of two or more storeys. The cement concrete solid slabs are most
frequently used. The cement concrete slabs are made with 100 mm as minimum thickness.
These slabs are supported on the intermediate rolled steel joists. The intermediate rolled steel
joists are supported on columns spacing into two or more panels.

Partition walls.
The partition walls used for industrial building should have pleasing appearance, acoustical
properties, less weight and ease in erection. The partition walls carry their self-weight. The
clay tiles, cinder block, and gypsum tiles are commonly used for the partition walls of the
industrial buildings. The hollow partitions and lightweight partitions are also becoming
popular. The asbestos cement boards, and metal, and wire glass are also used for the partition
wall of industrial buildings.

Staircases.
The staircases provided in industrial buildings should allow safe, ease and comfortable
passage from one floor to the other. The staircases provided should have sufficient width. The
landing should be provided between the flights of staircases. The proportions of tread and rise
should be suitable. The size of area to be served and the number of persons to be
accommodated govern the number of staircases and its width.

Lighting.
As far as possible, attempt is made to use day light most satisfactorily. The industrial building
are made with monitor as shows the figure below to allow the sky light. The monitors in the
industrial buildings are provided lengthwise. The north light roof trusses or saw tooth roof
truss as shows in the proper figure are also used in the industrial building. The north light roof
trusses provide uniform day light throughout the day.
3. Physical model, crane loads.
For the portal frame solid web there are three models to be used as shown in the figure below.

Frames (a) and (b) are recommended for places with poor soil conditions. Frame (c) for well
soil conditions.

Other models for frames with roof trusses are shown in the following figure.

The squeme for the analysis is defined by following the centre of gravity for the columns and
the centre of gravity of the lower chord of the truss.
When a rigid frame as shown in (c) is used, the acting bending moment M is taken by a pair
of forces values M/h acting at the upper and lower joints as shown in Detail (1).

Crane loads.
The overhead travelling cranes are used in the industrial buildings to lift the heavy materials
equipment, and to carry them from one place to the other over an entire floor area of one or
more bays between any two lines of building columns. These cranes are either hands
operated or electrical operated. These cranes include hoist trolley and a crane bridge on a
roller track. The bridges as whole moves longitudinally on rails provided at the ends. The rails
on either side of the bridge are supported on the girders. The load being handled as well as the
weight of the crane and the trolley is transmitted to the crane girders through the crane
wheels, and the crane girder finally transmit the total load to the frame by the support reaction
on the bracket supports. A general squeme about crane loads is shown in the figure below.
Depending upon the location of the trolley the crane wheel load may have a maximum or
minimum value. The maximum working loads of crane wheels as well as the arrangement of
the wheels with respect to each other are indicated in the standards relating to cranes.
Owing to braking of the trolley, lateral horizontal braking force appears. As a result, a lateral
braking force is transmitted to the Crane Bridge.
This lateral braking force is given by the standard or can be calculated from the equation:
2 Q+g
Fbro = f r ( Q + g ) = 0 .1( Q + g ) =
2
4 4 20

Fbro Lateral braking force.

Fr Coefficient of friction. = 0.1
Q Lifting capacity of crane.
g weight of trolley, taken in accordance with the standards for cranes; if not data are
available it may be assumed that g = 0.3 Q.
2/4 fraction whose numerator indicates the number of brake wheels and denominator the
total number of trolley wheels (since the force of friction appears only under those
trolley wheels which are outfitted with brakes).
The braking force Fbr is transmitted to one crane girder and is distributed uniformly between
the wheels of the crane.
F
Fbr = bro
2
The maximum value for the acting forces each side of the frames is obtained by using the
influence line diagrams as shown in the figure below:
Some codes practices recommend preparing the structure to withstand the action of two
cranes acting at the same times. The diagram of the influence line for the support reaction of
the crane girder both sides of the frame being studied is shown in the figure above. The values
for the forces are:

Dmax = Pmax y i + Pcg

Where Pcg is the weight of the crane girder.
Dmin = Pmin y i + Pcg

For the braking force the same influence line diagram is used because both forces; vertical
forces and horizontal one have the same point of application.

Other types of loads like Live Load, Wind loads etc are established on EBCS-1 Basic of
Design and Actions on Structures. To estimate in first the weight of steel elements on
industrial buildings in kN/m2 the following table may be used.

Approximate weight of elements of Steel Industrial building framework in KN/m2

Groups of Shops.
Elements of steel Framework.
Light Medium Heavy
Roof trusses 0.16 0.25 0.18 0.30 0.20 0.40
Secondary trusses 0.00 0.06 0.04 0.07 0.08 0.20
Purlins 0.10 0.12 0.12 0.18 0.12 0.20
Skylights 0.00 0.10 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.12
Ties 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.15
Columns with ties and platforms 0.10 0.18 0.18 0.40 0.7 1.20
Crane girders with repair platforms 0.00 0.14 0.14 0.40 0.50 1.50
Wallframework 0.00 0.03 0.05 0.14 0.12 0.20

4. Bracing system of Industrial Buildings

All industrial buildings are thoroughly braced to prevent the deformation of the structures due
to the action of wind, earthquake forces, and effects of moving equipment such as cranes. In
braced industrial buildings, the roof trusses rest on columns with hinged type of connections.
The function of bracing system is to transmit the lateral and longitudinal forces efficiently to
the foundations of the buildings. The wind and earthquake loads may act in the direction
parallel or normal to the plane of transverse bents of the industrial buildings. The longitudinal
braking force of the Crane when it move along the building is also taken by the braced
system. Therefore, the industrial buildings are thoroughly braced in the following three
mutually perpendicular planes:
1. Transverse plane (horizontal plane at tie level of the roof truss).
2. Longitudinal vertical plane (vertical plane along the longitudinal section of columns).
3. Vertical planes in the end cross-sections (usually at the gable ends).
A general view of Bracing system is shown in the figure below.

Bracing of industrial buildings in transverse direction.

The industrial buildings bents are braced against transverse forces independently of the
others. As a result of this, on completion of the erection, each industrial building bent remains
stable transversely. The nature of soil under foundation, the fixity of columns at the base, and
the rigidity of connections between the steel trusses and columns influence the structural
stability in the transverse direction. Four methods of bracing an industrial building bent are
shown in the following figure.

The suitability of each method of bracing depends on the height of the industrial building and
the span of the truss.
The method of bracing a bent as shown in figure (A), i.e., by fixing the column at the base,
and providing the mechanical hinges at the top, is suitable when the vertical column load and
the size of the foundation are large, and the overturning moment is small. When the span of
truss is large, then the vertical loads and consequently the size of the foundation are also
large. When the height of building is small, then the overturning moment is also small. Hence,
the method of fixing columns at the base is suitable for low and wide industrial building.
The overturning moment may be reduced by providing the knee braces between trusses and
the columns. The method of bracing the bent by fixing the columns at both the ends is suitable
for tall buildings. These methods of bracing the bents by providing knee braces as shown in
fig. (B) and (C), are suitable when the spans of the trusses are small.
In case when the columns are hinged, then there is no bending moment on the foundation. The
construction of foundation becomes cheap when the columns are hinged. The reduced
moment is transferred to the column at the junction of knee-braces with the columns. In the
case the columns are fixed, then the moments are further reduced. The knee-braces reduce the
clear height of the buildings.
Some times it becomes necessary to have maximum headroom around the walls of industrial
buildings. In such places, the knee braces cannot be provided. The method of bracing the bent
without knee-braces as shown in fig. (D) is adopted. In this method, the column and truss
connections are made rigid. The columns are fixed at the bases, and the foundations are made
large.

Bracing of industrial building in longitudinal direction.

When the wind acts in the direction normal to the plane of industrial building bents, that is, in
the longitudinal direction, then it becomes essential to brace it to another to provide sufficient
stability against wind or other longitudinal forces. The industrial building bents are braced in
pairs. When two bents are braced together, then they form brace bay. A braced bay acts like a
space tower under the action of wind. Such braced bents are provided at every third or fourth
bay of the industrial building. It is essential to provide at least two braced bays in each
industrial building. The bents are braced by providing trusses in a plane of top chord and in
the plane of bottom chord of the roof trusses. These trusses maintain the rectangular shape of
the building and prevent the collapse of the structure from twisting action of the diagonal
wind. The horizontal truss bracing transmit the longitudinal forces to the columns at the sides.
The columns are braced in the longitudinal vertical planes. These bracing transmit these loads
to the foundations.
For a complete information about bracing on one practical example, see Reference Design of
Steel Structures by Ram Chandra, Page 457 to 460.
The braces normally are constructed in cross-form as shows the figure below. In this form,

only the tension one is effectively taking the loads, the other one, which is under compression,
because it large slenderness ratio, bent under the action of the force.
Plastic design of steel frames.

Let study a beam of any cross section.

P

Fy (1) (2)(3)

Fy Fy Fy
dA

y c
h A1 YT x

A2 Fy Fy Fy
(1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3)

In (1) the beam behaves elastically, the extreme fibbers rich the yield point.
M I
For elastic behaviour f b = ; where: W = section modulus.
W c
For bending the condition with respect to X, the strength condition is:
M
f b = x Fy Fy , stress at the yield point.
Wx
Stage (2) is partially plastic, yield stress go deep into the section.
Stage (3) is fully plastic, the section rotate and a plastic hinge is formed, the section is under
the action of the Plastic Moment Mp.

Mp= FY y dA = FY y d A + FY y da = FY y dA + y dA , but
A A1 A2 A1 A2
y d A = S , static moment or first moment of area
Therefore M p = FY ( S1 + S2 )
For a symmetric section S1 = S2 = S Therefore:
M p = FY . 2S; doing Wp = 2S Plastic Modulus: Mp = FY Wp.

Elastic behaviour Plastic behaviour

Hence: M = FY W e M p = FY W p
Lets obtain both values Wp and We for a rectangular section.

h/2 h/4
bh 2 h h bh 2
h/2 WE= W P=2 S = 2 b =
6 24 4
b

What is the ratio between Plastic Moment and elastic one?

Mp WP FY WP bh 2 6
= = = * = 1.5
M WE WE 4 bh 2

Mp
The ratio = C , is known as Shape Coefficient of the section .
M
Values for C.

Behaviour of a statically indeterminate structure.

In elastic behaviour
ql 2 ql 2
M A = MC = > MB = .
12 24
Therefore if q increases; the first plastic hinge will be
formed at A and C; at point B ; MB < MP

The beam is transformed from statically indeterminate

structure in to simply supported beam.

Now, with a further increase of external load q up to qu,

the 3th plastic hinge at point B is formed and the beam
is transformed into a mechanism with three plastic
hinge lie on the same straight line.

qu l 2
Therefore, M P + M P =
8
qu l 2 q l2
2MP = MP = u
8 16
16 M P
And the collapse load q u =
l2
Fundamental conditions for plastic analysis.

In the elastic analysis, the equilibrium condition, continuity and limiting stress conditions are
satisfied. According to the first condition, the structure subjected to any system of loading
should be in equilibrium. According to the second condition the distortion or deformation of
the various fibres should be compatible with those of adjacent fibres. According to third
condition, the maximum stress at any section, in any fibre should be less than the yield
stresses i.e. the bending moment should be less than the yield moment.
Similarly, in the plastic analysis, the following fundamental conditions should be satisfied:
1. Mechanism condition. The ultimate or collapse load is reached when a mechanism is
formed. The number of plastic hinges developed should be just sufficient to form a
mechanism.
2. Equilibrium condition. The algebraic sum of all vertical forces acting over a structure
should be zero. The algebraic sum of horizontal forces acting over the structure should be
zero. The moment of all the forces acting over a structure about any point should be zero.
3. Plastic moment condition. The bending moment at any section of the structure should
not be more than the fully plastic moment of the section.

MECHANISM.

When any elastic body is subjected to a system of loads and deformation takes place and the
resistance is set up against the deformation, then the elastic body is known as structure. In
contradiction to this, if no resistance is set up in the body against the deformation, then it is
known as a mechanical mechanism.
When a statically indeterminate structure is subjected to loads and the bending moment
diagram is drawn, it is seen that is two or more points of peak moments. As the loads are
gradually increased, the cross-section having the maximum of these peak moments will reach
yield. A plastic hinge is formed at such a cross-section and the value of bending moment
becomes MP at the section. As further load is added, this value of bending moment, MP
remains constant and this cross-section having the plastic hinge rotates, and other sections
having the bending moment smaller than MP maintain the equilibrium with the increased load
by a proportionate increase in moment. These sections having peak point in the bending
moment diagram reach yielding and the plastic hinges are formed in succession. The values of
bending moments at these peak points become MP in succession. The process of moment
transfer known as the redistribution of moment due to successive formation of plastic of
plastic hinges continues. After the formation of sufficient number of plastic hinges, the
structure reduces to a plastic mechanism, and the failure or collapse of the structure occurs.
If the degree of indeterminacy of the structure is r, then the indeterminate structure becomes a
determinate structure on the formation of r number of the plastic hinges. If one additional
hinge is formed, after the structure has become a determinate one, then a mechanism is
formed. Thus, the (r + 1) number of plastic hinges are necessary to convert a structure into a
mechanism. A simply supported beam is determinate structure. If one plastic hinge is formed,
then this structure reduces to a mechanism. The structure fails or collapses as soon as a
mechanism is formed. The load corresponding to the formation of first plastic hinge is known
as yield load, the load corresponding to the formation of a mechanism is known as collapse or
ultimate load.
The formation of plastic hinges results in modest increase of load. The redistribution of
moment further increases the load carrying capacity (reserve strength) of indeterminate
structures loaded beyond the elastic limit.
Types of independent mechanism.

Methods of Plastic Analysis.

1. Static method. Based on equilibrium equation of bending moments.

See Design of steel structures by Ram Chandra. Page 632.

2. Kinematic Method. (Or mechanism method of analysis). Based on the Principle of

virtual work.

The principle of virtual work states that if deformable elastic body is in equilibrium under
a system of external loads and remains in equilibrium while it is subjected to a small
virtual deformation, the external virtual work done by the external forces acting on the
body is equal to the internal virtual work of deformation done by the internal stress.

Therefore; The work done by external force is equal to the work absorbed by the plastic
hinges at collapse.

Examples.

1. Simply beams with different ends conditions under the action of concentrated and
distributed loads systems.
2. Continues beams.
3. Portal frames.

Plastic Design.
Plastic design is included by EBCS-3, but only sections that satisfy requirements for Class 1
(Plastics) on Table 4.1 shall be used.
Fasteners of high elastic limit.

The meetings with fasteners of high elastic limit follow the principle of working for the
friction forces that arise among the surfaces in contact product of the tractions that arise in
the fasteners. On these fasteners the first studies began in E. U. and Germany in 1938 and
already in 1956 they are accepted definitively when arising the first specifications on their
use.
Already in the construction with the technique of the one riveted in hot was known of the
existence of the forces of friction that appear in the joint, it is to take advantage of this forces
using a much more advanced technology with the following advantages with regard to the
riveted meetings:
- Forge no-necessity with the rising saving in compressors, scaffolds and the entire
necessary one for the one riveted.
- Smaller effort manual.
- A distribution of efforts is achieved but to regulate in the borders of the holes.

The magnitude of the friction forces depends of:

1. Intensity of the traction force in the body of the screw.
2. The friction coefficient among the surfaces in contact.
Characteristic of the screws
Diameter d 12 mm.
Diameter of the hole, d a = d + (1 2 ) mm in E.U. d a = d + 1.5 mm
Strength of the material. Ru 800 Mpa in general it is accepted (800 Ru 1200 ) Mpa
Minimum yield point. = 640 Mpa.
Washers: thickness minimum 4 mm; there is adjustable washers for inclination of wings in
some laminate profiles.
Strength of the material (600 Ru 1000) Mpa.
The screws TAR should crowd together until getting in its spike a tension under the
simultaneous action of the traction and of the torsion moment to that it is subjected by virtue
of the compression of the same nut, as minimum to 80% of its yield limit. This is achieved by
means of the moment of final torsion applied to the nut by a gauged special key.
The torsion moment to be applied determines for the following formula: M t = k .d .N 0
k - Coefficient of the key that varies between 0.15 and 0.19, recommended 0.18
d - nominal diameter of the screw.
No - Is an effort axial of pretension that must get in the spike of the screw. For a
80%;. It formula is: N 0 = 0.8 Fy An
Fy - tension in the yield limit.
An - net area for the threaded area.
There are keys that automatically, after graduate, themselves indicates that it has been arrived
to the torsion moment.
Note: To guarantee the one it presses wanted, to apply a superior moment to that of
calculation in 10%.
Friction coefficient. ( )
The surfaces in contact should be cleaned appropriately with jets of sand (sand blasting) or
with chemical agents.
For steels structural degree, A - 36, S - 37, Ct - 3 and other similar ones, they intend the
following values for the coefficient of friction.
United States. = 0.2 0.6 one usually works with 0.45

Calculation of the unions.

If the traction force on the offspring of the fastener, N 0 = 0.8 Fy An , this it will be the normal
force among the surfaces in contact, then the force of friction of exhaustion for a fastener will
be: Tu = 1.07 N 0 n , here n is the number of planes of friction (similar to
that of planes of cut), and 1.07 are an experimental
coefficient.

Possible cases:
Subjected union to Shear Force.
The resistant force for a fastener will be:
Tu = 1.07 N 0 n

The total Number gives necessary fasteners it will be

V
then: N = u
Tu

Subjected union to shear force and force of parallel traction to the axis of the screw.

Due to the tensile force Pu, each fastener this subjected

P
one to a tensile force N* = u ; then the net tensile force
N
that produces friction will be (No - N *). Then the
resistant force gives a fastener it will be:

Tu = 1.07( N 0 N*) n , and N* < N 0

Subjected union to the simultaneous action of shaer force and bending moment

Due to the bending moment, a force appears in each screw

gives friction Pi whose maximum value will be Pm in the
line but far away the center of the bolts.
- Calculation of the maximum force of traction Pm.
M d M d A m
Pm = u m or Pm = u m m where I = Ai di2 . This second formula is
m I i =1
di2
i =1
more general, but it stops fasteners of same diameter both they coincide.
To verify:
a) La Pm No. To guarantee compression.
V
b) That the shear force on each fastener, u 1.07 N 0 n that is to say, to verify the sharp
N
one it is not considered the effect of the moment, since the Pi = 0.(Produced by the bending
moment).

Subjected union to the simultaneous action of shear force, bending moment and parallel force
to the axis of the screw.

To verify:
a) The maximum traction on a screw N * due to the combination of Pu and Mu; that is to say
N * = Pm + Pt, be inferior to No. Then N * = Pm + Pt < No.
b) The maximum force resisted by a fastener to shear will be:
Tu = 1.07 ( N 0 N *) n ; being N * = Pt that is to say only of the axial effort.

7). Quality control measurement for Welded Connections.

All welded fabrication must be checked, tested and approved before being accepted.
1. Visual inspection for uniformity of weld.
2. Surface tests for cracks using dyes or magnetic particles.
3. X rays and ultrasonic tests to check for defects inside the weld.
Only visual and surface tests can be used on fillet welds. Butt welds can be checked
internally, and such tests should be applied to important butt welds in tension.
Crack can occurs in welds and adjacent parts of the members being joined. The main types
are shown in Figure 7.1 below.
Faulty welding procedure can lead to te following defects in the welds, all of which reduce
the strength.
1. Over reinforcement and undercutting.
2. Incomplete penetration and lack of side-wall fusion.
3. Slag inclusions and porosity
When the weld metal cools and solidifies it contracts and sets residual stresses in members. It
is not economic to relieve these stresses by heat treatment after fabrication, so allowance is
made in design for residual stresses.
Welding also causes distortion, and special precautions have to be taken to ensure that
fabricated members are square and free of twisting. Good detailing and using correct welding
procedure can minimize distortion effects. Presetting, prebending and preheating are used to
offset distortion.
Puentes gras elctricos para uso general con capacidad desde 5t hasta 15t y un gancho para regmenes
mediano y pesado de trabajo (GOST 3332-54).
Posiciones C
Presin por
Dimensiones Principales (mm) extremas del A Peso en (t)
Rueda (t).
Lk gancho R Lk
Q(t) Tlong
(m) R (m)
B K H B1 F h L1 L2 I Pmx Pmn Ttrans Carri Gra
to. Total
L
11 250 7,0 2,3 0,70 13,6 11
14 250 7,5 2,7 0,75 15,4 14
5000 3500 KP70
17 250 8,2 3,4 0,82 18,1 17
20 350 8,9 4,0 0,89 20,8 20
5 1650 230 500 1100 800 2,2 2,2
23 450 10,1 4,9 1,01 25,0 23
26 550 P38 10,7 5,8 1,07 28,0 26
6500 5000
29 650 11,5 6,6 1,15 31,2 29
32 750 12,2 7,0 1,22 33,3 32
11 250 11,5 2,2 1,15 17,5 11
14 250 12,0 2.3 1,20 19,5 14
KP70
17 300 12,5 3,0 1,25 21,0 17
4400
20 300 13,5 3,5 1,35 24,0 20
10 6300 1900 260 500 1200 1100 4,0 4,0
23 600 14,5 4,0 1,45 27,0 23
26 600 P38 15,5 4,5 1,55 30,0 26
29 900 17,5 5,4 1,70 34,8 29
5000
32 900 18,0 7,0 1,80 40,0 32
11 250 14,5 3,0 1,45 20,0 11
14 250 15,5 3,0 1,55 22,2 14
KP70
17 250 16,5 3,5 1,65 25,0 17
4400
20 250 17,5 4,0 1,75 28,0 20
15 6300 2100 260 600 1300 1100 5,3 5,3
23 450 18,5 4,5 1,85 31,0 23
26 450 P43 19,5 5,0 1,95 34,0 26
29 750 21,0 7,0 2,10 41,0 29
5000
32 750 22,0 8,0 2,20 45,0 32
Chapter # 7 Timber Structures.

1. Introduction. Basis for design.

2. Design of compression members.
3. Design of flexural members.
4. Columns subject to bending and axial compression.

Reference: Chanakya Arya. Design of structural elements. Page 328.

1. Introduction.
In Ethiopia around 100 different varieties of trees types are used in timber structures.
Advantages of timber structures:
1. Easy availability.
2. Easy to work on even with simple tools.
3. It has acceptable strength in compression, tension and bending.
4. It is a lightweight material.
5. Has a good resistance to acid and salts
6. Non conductor of electricity.
7. Temperature expansion/contraction is negligible.

Disadvantages:
1. It is inflammable.
2. Insect and piants, termits, fungus and worms deteriorate it.
3. The drying, sawing and other processes on wood to get timber as construction material is
time consuming.
4. Moisture reduces the strength and volume of timber.
5. Organic structure changes the quality and volume of timber.
6. Joinary and use of fastenery need due attention and skilled working.

Basis of design.
Limit state principles: The terms ultimate and serviceability limit states apply in the same way
as is understood in other limit state codes. Thus ultimate limit states are those associated with
collapse, while serviceability limit states correspond to states beyond which specific service
criteria are no longer met.
Actions:
G Permanent actions.
Q Imposed load. Wind, earthquake, snow loads.

The design values of actions, Fd, are obtained by multiplying the characteristic actions, Fk, by
the appropriate partial safety factor F

Fd = F Fk

The partial safety factors for permanent actions, G, and variable actions, Q, states on EBCS 1
shall be used.
For permanent actions G = 1.30 (unfavourable effect)
G = 1.00 (favourable effect)

For variable actions Q = 1.60

1
Material properties. (strength classes).

European code specifies 15 strength classes. The typical characteristic strength and stiffness
values and densities for each are given in table 11.3.
The characteristic strength values given in Table 11.3 are related to a depth in bending and
witdth in tension of solid timber of 150 mm. For depth in bending or widths in tension of
solid members, h les than 150 mm the characteristic strength may be increased by the factor
kh which is given by:
150 0 .2
kh =
h
The characteristic strength, Xk, are converted to design values, Xd, by dividing them by a
partial coefficient for material properties, m, and multiplying by a factor kmod. Both factor as
follows

Xk
X d = k mod (Equation 11.3)
m

Values for m.

- Ultimate limit states. m

Fundamentals combinations: timber and wood based materials 1.3
Steel used in joints 1.1
Accidental combinations 1.0
- Serviceability limits states 1.0

Values of kmod.
Loads duration class service class order of duration examples.

1 2 3

Permanent 0.60 0.60 0.50 > 10 years self weight

Long term 0.70 0.70 0.55 6 month 10 years imposed storage.

Medium term 0.80 0.80 0.70 1 week 6 month imposed

occupational loads

Short term 0.90 0.90 0.70 < 1 week wind, snow.

Instantaneous 1.10 1.10 0.90 accidental impact.

kmod takes into account the effect on the strength parameters of duration of loading and
climatic conditions.

2
The service classes are:
Service class moisture contents typical service conditions

1 12 % 20 0 C, 65 % R H

2 20 % 20 0 C, 85 % R H

3 > 20 % Climatic conditions leading to

a higher moisture content
than in service class 2.

2. Design of Compression Members.

Members subject to axial compression only should be designed according to the following
expression provided there is no tendency for buckling to occur.

c,o d fc,o,d where c,o d = N/A; N Axial factored load and A cross-sectional area.

fc,o,d is the design compressive strength parallel to the grain obtained from Eq. 11.3.

3. Design of flexural members.

It involves principally:
1. Bending.
2. Deflection.
3. Shear.
4. Bearing.
5. Vibration.
6. Lateral buckling.

Description of methods.

3.1 Bending
If member is not to fail in bending, the following conditions should be satisfied:
m, y ,d m,z ,d
km + 1
f m,y ,d f m,z ,d
m,y ,d m,z ,d
+ km 1
f m,y ,d f m,z ,d

Where m,y,d and m,z,d are the design bending stresses about axes y-y and z-z.
fm,y,d and fm,z,d are the design strengths from equation 11.3 and km the bending factor as
follows: For rectangular sections km = 0.7
For other cross sections km = 1.0

3
For a beam whit rectangular cross-section:
My My M M
m,y ,d = = 2 and m,z ,d = z = 2 z
Zy bh Zz hb
6 6
My and Mz are the design bending moments about axes y-y and z-z and Zy and Zz the moduli
of elasticity about axes y-y and z-z.

3.2. Deflection.

The components of the deflection are:

u0 Precamber (if applied)
u1 deflection due to permanent loads.
u2 deflection due to variable loads.

Limiting values.
1. Instantaneous deflection due to variable load,
u2,inst, should not exceed:
u2,inst 1/300 x span.
u2,inst 1/150 x span (for cantilever)

2. Final deflection due to variable load only

u2,fin, should not exceed:
u2,fin 1/200 x span.
u2,fin 1/100 x span (for cantilever)

3. Final deflection due to all the loads and any precamber, unet, fin
u2,net,fin 1/200 x span.
u2,net,fin 1/100 x span (for cantilever).

The instantaneous deflection due to the variable loads, u2,inst, and the final deflection due to
the total load, u2,net,fin, can be calculated using the formulae given in Table 6.9 and should be
based on E0,mean or E90,mean. The final deflection due to variable loading, u2,fin, is derived from
the instantaneous deflection using the following expression:
(
u fin = uinst 1 + k def )
Where kdef is the deformation factor which takes into account the increase in deformation with
time due to the combined effect of creep and moisture. Values of kdef are given as follow.

Load duration class. Service class

1 2 3
Permanent 0.80 0.80 2.00
Long term 0.50 0.50 1.50
Medium term 0.25 0.25 0.75
Short term 0.00 0.00 0.00

4
3.3 Shear.
In flexural members are not to fail in shear, the following condition should be satisfied:

d f v ,d

where d is the design shear stress and fv,d the design shear strength.
For beam with a rectangular cross-section, the design shear stress occurs at the neutral axis
and is given by:
3V
d = d ; where Vd is the design shear force and A the cross-sectional area.
2A
k mod f v ,k
f v ,d = ; where fv,k is the characteristic shear strength.
m
For beam notched at the ends as shown in Fig. Below, the following condition should be
checked:
d k v f v ,d ; where kv is the shear factor which may attain the following values:
a). For beams notched on the unloaded side kv = 1
b). For beams of solid timber notched on the loaded side kv is taken as the lesser of kv = 1 and
11 . i 1.5
51 +
h
kv = ,
x 1
2
h ( 1 ) + 0 .8
h
where = he/h and x is the distance from line of action to the corner.

3.4 Bearing. (Compression perpendicular to grain).

For compression perpendicular to grain the following condition should be satisfied:

c ,90 ,d kc ,90 f c ,90 ,d

where: c,90,d is the design compressive stress perpendicular to grain

fc,90,d is the design compressive strength perpendicular to grain from equation 11.3
kc,90 is the compressive strength factor.
Here kc,90 takes into account that the load can increased if the loaded length, l in Fig.belows is
short.

5
Values for kc,90 for various combination of a, l and l1 are given in the following table.

l1 > 150 mm
l1 150 mm a 100 mm a < 100 mm

L l 150 mm 1 1 1

150 > l 15 mm 1 1 + (150 l)/170 1 + a(150 l)/ 17000

15 mm > l 1 1.8 1 + a/125

3.5 Vibration. (Applied to residential floors).

The method given in E.C. # 5 assumes that the floor is supported on four edges.
The fundamental frequency of vibration of a rectangular residential floor supported on four
edges, fI can be estimated using:
( EI ) l
f1 = 2 = ; where m is the mass equal to the self-weight of the floor and other
2l m
permanent actions per unit area(kN/m2)
l is the floor span (m).
(EI) l is the equivalent bending stiffness in the beam direction.
Unit (Nm2/m).
For residential floors with a fundamental frequency greater than 8 Hz the following
conditions should be satisfied:

u 1.5 mm / kN
F and 100 ( f1 1)

where is the damping coefficient, normally taken as 0.01

u is the maximum vertical deflection caused by a concentrated static force F = 1 kN
and is the unit impulse velocity.
The transverse distribution of load can be taken as 50%, i.e., 0.5 kN on the loaded joist and 25
% on the adjacent ones.
The value of the unit impulse velocity may be estimated from:
= 4( 0 .4 + 0 .6 n 40 ) / ( mbl + 200 ) mN 1 S 2 ; where b is the floor width (m) and n40 the number
of first order modes with natural frequencies below 40 Hz given by.
2 b 4 ( EI ) l
40
n 40 = 1
; where (EI)l is the equivalent plate bending stiffness parallel
f 1 l ( EI ) b
to the beam.

3.6. Lateral buckling.

The following condition shall be satisfied.

m,d k inst f m,d

where m,d is the design bending stress
fm,d is the design bending strength
kinst is the instability factor, given by:

6
k inst = 1 for rel ,m 0.75
k inst = 1.56 0.75 rel ,m for 0.75 < rel ,m 1.4
k inst = 1
rel
2
,m for 1.4 < rel ,m
where rel,m is the relative slenderness ratio for bending.
For beams with rectangular cross-section, rel,m can be calculated from the following
expression:
l ef hf m,k E0 ,mean
rel ,m = 2 where l ef is the effective length of the beam and is obtained
b E0 ,k 05 Gmean
from the figure below.
b is the width of the beam
h is the depth of the beam
fm,k is the characteristic bending strength (table 11.3)
E0,k05 is the characteristic modulus of elasticity parallel to the grain (Table 11.3)
E0,mean is the mean modulus of elasticity parallel to the grain (Table 11.3)
Gmean is the mean shear modulus = E0,mean/16.

7
4. Column subjects to bending and compression.

Eurocodes gives two sets of conditions for designing columns resisting combined bending and
axial compression. Provided that the relative slenderness ratios about both the y-y and z-z
axes of the column; rel,y and rel,z respectively, are not greater than 0.5, i.e. rel,y 0.5 and
rel,z 0.5. The suitability of the design can be assumed using the more stringent of the
following condition:
c ,0 ,d m, y ,d
2
m,z ,d
+ + km 1
f c ,0 ,d f m, y ,d f m,z ,d
c ,0 ,d m, y ,d m,z ,d
2

+ km + 1
f c ,0 ,d f m, y ,d f m,z ,d

In all other cases the stress should satisfy the more stringent of the following conditions:

c ,0 ,d m, y ,d m,z ,d
+ + km 1
k c , y f c ,0 ,d f m, y ,d f m,z ,d
c ,0 ,d m, y ,d m,z ,d
+ km + 1
k c ,z f c ,0 ,d f m, y ,d f m,z ,d

Where c,0,d is the design compressive stress = N/A

fc,0,d is the the design compressive strength (Equation 11.3)
km = 0.7 for rectangular sections and 1.0 for other cross-sections.
f c ,0 ,k f c ,0 ,k 2 E0 .05 l ef
rel ,y = and rel ,z = where c ,crit = and =
c ,crit , y c ,crit ,z 2 i
Values of l ef

m is the bending stress due to any lateral or eccentric loads.

kc =
1
(
where k = 0 .5 1 + c ( rel 0 .5 ) + rel
2
) and c = 0.2 for solid timber.
k + k rel
2 2

8
Chapter # 7 Timber Structures.

1. Introduction. Basis for design.

2. Design of compression members.
3. Design of flexural members.
4. Columns subject to bending and axial compression.

Reference: Chanakya Arya. Design of structural elements. Page 328.

1. Introduction.
In Ethiopia around 100 different varieties of trees types are used in timber structures.
Advantages of timber structures:
1. Easy availability.
2. Easy to work on even with simple tools.
3. It has acceptable strength in compression, tension and bending.
4. It is a lightweight material.
5. Has a good resistance to acid and salts
6. Non conductor of electricity.
7. Temperature expansion/contraction is negligible.

Disadvantages:
1. It is inflammable.
2. Insect and piants, termits, fungus and worms deteriorate it.
3. The drying, sawing and other processes on wood to get timber as construction material is
time consuming.
4. Moisture reduces the strength and volume of timber.
5. Organic structure changes the quality and volume of timber.
6. Joinary and use of fastenery need due attention and skilled working.

Basis of design.
Limit state principles: The terms ultimate and serviceability limit states apply in the same way
as is understood in other limit state codes. Thus ultimate limit states are those associated with
collapse, while serviceability limit states correspond to states beyond which specific service
criteria are no longer met.
Actions:
G Permanent actions.
Q Imposed load. Wind, earthquake, snow loads.

The design values of actions, Fd, are obtained by multiplying the characteristic actions, Fk, by
the appropriate partial safety factor F

Fd = F Fk

The partial safety factors for permanent actions, G, and variable actions, Q, states on EBCS 1
shall be used.
For permanent actions G = 1.30 (unfavourable effect)
G = 1.00 (favourable effect)

For variable actions Q = 1.60

1
Material properties. (strength classes).

European code specifies 15 strength classes. The typical characteristic strength and stiffness
values and densities for each are given in table 11.3.
The characteristic strength values given in Table 11.3 are related to a depth in bending and
witdth in tension of solid timber of 150 mm. For depth in bending or widths in tension of
solid members, h les than 150 mm the characteristic strength may be increased by the factor
kh which is given by:
150 0 .2
kh =
h
The characteristic strength, Xk, are converted to design values, Xd, by dividing them by a
partial coefficient for material properties, m, and multiplying by a factor kmod. Both factor as
follows

Xk
X d = k mod (Equation 11.3)
m

Values for m.

- Ultimate limit states. m

Fundamentals combinations: timber and wood based materials 1.3
Steel used in joints 1.1
Accidental combinations 1.0
- Serviceability limits states 1.0

Values of kmod.
Loads duration class service class order of duration examples.

1 2 3

Permanent 0.60 0.60 0.50 > 10 years self weight

Long term 0.70 0.70 0.55 6 month 10 years imposed storage.

Medium term 0.80 0.80 0.70 1 week 6 month imposed

occupational loads

Short term 0.90 0.90 0.70 < 1 week wind, snow.

Instantaneous 1.10 1.10 0.90 accidental impact.

kmod takes into account the effect on the strength parameters of duration of loading and
climatic conditions.

2
The service classes are:
Service class moisture contents typical service conditions

1 12 % 20 0 C, 65 % R H

2 20 % 20 0 C, 85 % R H

3 > 20 % Climatic conditions leading to

a higher moisture content
than in service class 2.

2. Design of Compression Members.

Members subject to axial compression only should be designed according to the following
expression provided there is no tendency for buckling to occur.

c,o d fc,o,d where c,o d = N/A; N Axial factored load and A cross-sectional area.

fc,o,d is the design compressive strength parallel to the grain obtained from Eq. 11.3.

3. Design of flexural members.

It involves principally:
1. Bending.
2. Deflection.
3. Shear.
4. Bearing.
5. Vibration.
6. Lateral buckling.

Description of methods.

3.1 Bending
If member is not to fail in bending, the following conditions should be satisfied:
m, y ,d m,z ,d
km + 1
f m,y ,d f m,z ,d
m,y ,d m,z ,d
+ km 1
f m,y ,d f m,z ,d

Where m,y,d and m,z,d are the design bending stresses about axes y-y and z-z.
fm,y,d and fm,z,d are the design strengths from equation 11.3 and km the bending factor as
follows: For rectangular sections km = 0.7
For other cross sections km = 1.0

3
For a beam whit rectangular cross-section:
My My M M
m,y ,d = = 2 and m,z ,d = z = 2 z
Zy bh Zz hb
6 6
My and Mz are the design bending moments about axes y-y and z-z and Zy and Zz the moduli
of elasticity about axes y-y and z-z.

3.2. Deflection.

The components of the deflection are:

u0 Precamber (if applied)
u1 deflection due to permanent loads.
u2 deflection due to variable loads.

Limiting values.
1. Instantaneous deflection due to variable load,
u2,inst, should not exceed:
u2,inst 1/300 x span.
u2,inst 1/150 x span (for cantilever)

2. Final deflection due to variable load only

u2,fin, should not exceed:
u2,fin 1/200 x span.
u2,fin 1/100 x span (for cantilever)

3. Final deflection due to all the loads and any precamber, unet, fin
u2,net,fin 1/200 x span.
u2,net,fin 1/100 x span (for cantilever).

The instantaneous deflection due to the variable loads, u2,inst, and the final deflection due to
the total load, u2,net,fin, can be calculated using the formulae given in Table 6.9 and should be
based on E0,mean or E90,mean. The final deflection due to variable loading, u2,fin, is derived from
the instantaneous deflection using the following expression:
(
u fin = uinst 1 + k def )
Where kdef is the deformation factor which takes into account the increase in deformation with
time due to the combined effect of creep and moisture. Values of kdef are given as follow.

Load duration class. Service class

1 2 3
Permanent 0.80 0.80 2.00
Long term 0.50 0.50 1.50
Medium term 0.25 0.25 0.75
Short term 0.00 0.00 0.00

4
3.3 Shear.
In flexural members are not to fail in shear, the following condition should be satisfied:

d f v ,d

where d is the design shear stress and fv,d the design shear strength.
For beam with a rectangular cross-section, the design shear stress occurs at the neutral axis
and is given by:
3V
d = d ; where Vd is the design shear force and A the cross-sectional area.
2A
k mod f v ,k
f v ,d = ; where fv,k is the characteristic shear strength.
m
For beam notched at the ends as shown in Fig. Below, the following condition should be
checked:
d k v f v ,d ; where kv is the shear factor which may attain the following values:
a). For beams notched on the unloaded side kv = 1
b). For beams of solid timber notched on the loaded side kv is taken as the lesser of kv = 1 and
11 . i 1.5
51 +
h
kv = ,
x 1
2
h ( 1 ) + 0 .8
h
where = he/h and x is the distance from line of action to the corner.

3.4 Bearing. (Compression perpendicular to grain).

For compression perpendicular to grain the following condition should be satisfied:

c ,90 ,d kc ,90 f c ,90 ,d

where: c,90,d is the design compressive stress perpendicular to grain

fc,90,d is the design compressive strength perpendicular to grain from equation 11.3
kc,90 is the compressive strength factor.
Here kc,90 takes into account that the load can increased if the loaded length, l in Fig.belows is
short.

5
Values for kc,90 for various combination of a, l and l1 are given in the following table.

l1 > 150 mm
l1 150 mm a 100 mm a < 100 mm

L l 150 mm 1 1 1

150 > l 15 mm 1 1 + (150 l)/170 1 + a(150 l)/ 17000

15 mm > l 1 1.8 1 + a/125

3.5 Vibration. (Applied to residential floors).

The method given in E.C. # 5 assumes that the floor is supported on four edges.
The fundamental frequency of vibration of a rectangular residential floor supported on four
edges, fI can be estimated using:
( EI ) l
f1 = 2 = ; where m is the mass equal to the self-weight of the floor and other
2l m
permanent actions per unit area(kN/m2)
l is the floor span (m).
(EI) l is the equivalent bending stiffness in the beam direction.
Unit (Nm2/m).
For residential floors with a fundamental frequency greater than 8 Hz the following
conditions should be satisfied:

u 1.5 mm / kN
F and 100 ( f1 1)

where is the damping coefficient, normally taken as 0.01

u is the maximum vertical deflection caused by a concentrated static force F = 1 kN
and is the unit impulse velocity.
The transverse distribution of load can be taken as 50%, i.e., 0.5 kN on the loaded joist and 25
% on the adjacent ones.
The value of the unit impulse velocity may be estimated from:
= 4( 0 .4 + 0 .6 n 40 ) / ( mbl + 200 ) mN 1 S 2 ; where b is the floor width (m) and n40 the number
of first order modes with natural frequencies below 40 Hz given by.
2 b 4 ( EI ) l
40
n 40 = 1
; where (EI)l is the equivalent plate bending stiffness parallel
f 1 l ( EI ) b
to the beam.

3.6. Lateral buckling.

The following condition shall be satisfied.

m,d k inst f m,d

where m,d is the design bending stress
fm,d is the design bending strength
kinst is the instability factor, given by:

6
k inst = 1 for rel ,m 0.75
k inst = 1.56 0.75 rel ,m for 0.75 < rel ,m 1.4
k inst = 1
rel
2
,m for 1.4 < rel ,m
where rel,m is the relative slenderness ratio for bending.
For beams with rectangular cross-section, rel,m can be calculated from the following
expression:
l ef hf m,k E0 ,mean
rel ,m = 2 where l ef is the effective length of the beam and is obtained
b E0 ,k 05 Gmean
from the figure below.
b is the width of the beam
h is the depth of the beam
fm,k is the characteristic bending strength (table 11.3)
E0,k05 is the characteristic modulus of elasticity parallel to the grain (Table 11.3)
E0,mean is the mean modulus of elasticity parallel to the grain (Table 11.3)
Gmean is the mean shear modulus = E0,mean/16.

7
4. Column subjects to bending and compression.

Eurocodes gives two sets of conditions for designing columns resisting combined bending and
axial compression. Provided that the relative slenderness ratios about both the y-y and z-z
axes of the column; rel,y and rel,z respectively, are not greater than 0.5, i.e. rel,y 0.5 and
rel,z 0.5. The suitability of the design can be assumed using the more stringent of the
following condition:
c ,0 ,d m, y ,d
2
m,z ,d
+ + km 1
f c ,0 ,d f m, y ,d f m,z ,d
c ,0 ,d m, y ,d m,z ,d
2

+ km + 1
f c ,0 ,d f m, y ,d f m,z ,d

In all other cases the stress should satisfy the more stringent of the following conditions:

c ,0 ,d m, y ,d m,z ,d
+ + km 1
k c , y f c ,0 ,d f m, y ,d f m,z ,d
c ,0 ,d m, y ,d m,z ,d
+ km + 1
k c ,z f c ,0 ,d f m, y ,d f m,z ,d

Where c,0,d is the design compressive stress = N/A

fc,0,d is the the design compressive strength (Equation 11.3)
km = 0.7 for rectangular sections and 1.0 for other cross-sections.
f c ,0 ,k f c ,0 ,k 2 E0 .05 l ef
rel ,y = and rel ,z = where c ,crit = and =
c ,crit , y c ,crit ,z 2 i
Values of l ef

m is the bending stress due to any lateral or eccentric loads.

kc =
1
(
where k = 0 .5 1 + c ( rel 0 .5 ) + rel
2
) and c = 0.2 for solid timber.
k + k rel
2 2