Films

Films
Polymeric materials have found widespread use in the form of thin films. Films having
thicknesses between 0.025 and 0.125 mm (0.001 and 0.005 in.) are fabricated
and used extensively as bags for packaging food products and other merchandise,
as textile products, and a host of other uses. Important characteristics of the materials
produced and used as films include low density, a high degree of flexibility,
high tensile and tear strengths, resistance to attack by moisture and other chemicals,
and low permeability to some gases, especially water vapor (Section 14.14).
Some of the polymers that meet these criteria and are manufactured in film form
are polyethylene, polypropylene, cellophane, and cellulose acetate.
15.22 FORMING TECHNIQUES FOR PLASTICS

Quite a variety of different techniques are employed in the forming of polymeric materials.
The method used for a specific polymer depends on several factors: (1) whether
the material is thermoplastic or thermosetting; (2) if thermoplastic, the temperature at
which it softens; (3) the atmospheric stability of the material being formed; and (4) the
geometry and size of the finished product. There are numerous similarities between
some of these techniques and those utilized for fabricating metals and ceramics.
Fabrication of polymeric materials normally occurs at elevated temperatures
and often by the application of pressure. Thermoplastics are formed above their
glass transition temperatures, if amorphous, or above their melting temperatures, if
semicrystalline. An applied pressure must be maintained as the piece is cooled so
that the formed article will retain its shape. One significant economic benefit of using
thermoplastics is that they may be recycled; scrap thermoplastic pieces may be
remelted and reformed into new shapes.
Fabrication of thermosetting polymers is ordinarily accomplished in two stages.
First comes the preparation of a linear polymer (sometimes called a prepolymer)
as a liquid, having a low molecular weight. This material is converted into the final
hard and stiff product during the second stage, which is normally carried out in a
mold having the desired shape. This second stage, termed curing, may occur during
heating and/or by the addition of catalysts, and often under pressure. During
curing, chemical and structural changes occur on a molecular level: a crosslinked or
a network structure forms. After curing, thermoset polymers may be removed from
a mold while still hot, since they are now dimensionally stable. Thermosets are difficult
to recycle, do not melt, are usable at higher temperatures than thermoplastics,
and are often more chemically inert.
Molding is the most common method for forming plastic polymers. The several
molding techniques used include compression, transfer, blow, injection, and
extrusion molding. For each, a finely pelletized or granulized plastic is forced, at
an elevated temperature and by pressure, to flow into, fill, and assume the shape
of a mold cavity.
Compression and Transfer Molding
For compression molding, the appropriate amounts of thoroughly mixed polymer
and necessary additives are placed between male and female mold members, as
illustrated in Figure 15.23. Both mold pieces are heated; however, only one is movable.
The mold is closed, and heat and pressure are applied, causing the plastic to
become viscous and flow to conform to the mold shape. Before molding, raw materials
may be mixed and cold pressed into a disc, which is called a preform. Preheating
of the preform reduces molding time and pressure, extends the die lifetime,
and produces a more uniform finished piece. This molding technique lends itself to
the fabrication of both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers; however, its use
with thermoplastics is more time-consuming and expensive than the more commonly
used extrusion or injection molding techniques discussed below.
In transfer molding, a variation of compression molding, the solid ingredients are
first melted in a heated transfer chamber. As the molten material is injected into the mold
chamber, the pressure is distributed more uniformly over all surfaces.This process
is used with thermosetting polymers and for pieces having complex geometries.
Injection Molding
Injection molding, the polymer analogue of die casting for metals, is the most widely
used technique for fabricating thermoplastic materials. A schematic cross section of
the apparatus used is illustrated in Figure 15.24. The correct amount of pelletized
material is fed from a feed hopper into a cylinder by the motion of a plunger or ram.
This charge is pushed forward into a heating chamber where it is forced around a
spreader so as to make better contact with the heated wall. As a result, the thermoplastic
material melts to form a viscous liquid. Next, the molten plastic is impelled,
again by ram motion, through a nozzle into the enclosed mold cavity; pressure is
maintained until the molding has solidified. Finally, the mold is opened, the piece is
ejected, the mold is closed, and the entire cycle is repeated. Probably the most outstanding
feature of this technique is the speed with which pieces may be produced.
For thermoplastics, solidification of the injected charge is almost immediate; consequently,
cycle times for this process are short (commonly within the range of 10 to 30
s).Thermosetting polymers may also be injection molded; curing takes place while
the material is under pressure in a heated mold, which results in longer cycle times
than for thermoplastics. This process is sometimes termed reaction injection molding
(RIM) and is commonly used for materials such as polyurethane.
Extrusion
The extrusion process is the molding of a viscous thermoplastic under pressure
through an open-ended die, similar to the extrusion of metals (Figure 11.8c). A mechanical
screw or auger propels through a chamber the pelletized material, which is successively
compacted, melted, and formed into a continuous charge of viscous
fluid (Figure 15.25). Extrusion takes place as this molten mass is forced through a
die orifice. Solidification of the extruded length is expedited by blowers, a water
spray, or bath.The technique is especially adapted to producing continuous lengths
having constant cross-sectional geometriesfor example, rods, tubes, hose channels,
sheets, and filaments.
Blow Molding
The blow-molding process for the fabrication of plastic containers is similar to that
used for blowing glass bottles, as represented in Figure 13.8. First, a parison, or
length of polymer tubing, is extruded.While still in a semimolten state, the parison
is placed in a two-piece mold having the desired container configuration.The hollow
piece is formed by blowing air or steam under pressure into the parison, forcing the
tube walls to conform to the contours of the mold. Of course the temperature and
viscosity of the parison must be carefully regulated.
Casting
Like metals, polymeric materials may be cast, as when a molten plastic material is
poured into a mold and allowed to solidify. Both thermoplastic and thermosetting
plastics may be cast. For thermoplastics, solidification occurs upon cooling from the
molten state; however, for thermosets, hardening is a consequence of the actual
polymerization
or curing process, which is usually carried out at an elevated temperature.

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15.22 FORMING TECHNIQUES FOR PLASTICS

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