6th Symposium On Naval Hydrodynamics
6th Symposium On Naval Hydrodynamics
6th Symposium On Naval Hydrodynamics
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Sixth Symposium
NAVAL HYDRODYNAMICS 7
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Sponsored by the
DAVIDSON LABORATORY
STEVENS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
MARINE
J
'
Biological
RALPH D. COOPER laboratory
STANLEY W. DOROFF
Editors L . -^ARY
WOOC'i HOLE. MASS.
cf^'^T^. W. H. 0, I.
\
OFFICE OF NAVAL RESEARCHT 30
TMENT OF THE NAVY
Washington, D.C.
PREVIOUS REPORTS IN THE NAVAL HYDRODYNAMICS SERIES
Statements and opinions contained herein are those of the authors and are not
to be construed as official or reflecting the views of the Navy Department or
of the naval service at large.
11
PREFACE
This Symposium is the sixth in a series each of which has been concerned
with various aspects of Naval Hydrodynamics The first (held in September
.
In keeping with this objective, the second symposium (August 1958) had
for its subject the areas of hydrodynamic noise and cavity flow, the third
(September 1960) was concerned with the area of high performance ships, the
foxirth (August 1962) emphasized the topics of propulsion and hydroelasticity,
and the fifth (September 1964) addressed itself to coverage of the areas of
ship motions and drag reduction.
Still continuing with the original plan, a threefold theme was selected for
the present symposium, thus emphasizing, among other things, the interest in
the current problems and latest accomplishments associated with physics of
fluids ocean waves and maneuverability and ocean platforms. Important
, ,
progress has been made in various aspects of ship maneuverability, and this
meeting served to stimulate further effort and to emphasize a relatively little
documented field of endeavor. The broad field of waves covers many aspects
of ship waves and wave resistance and ocean or wind- generated waves. Physics
of fluids covers many fundamental aspects of ship problems: cavitation, visco-
elastic flows, turbulence, and turbulent boimdary layers.
The address of welcome by Dr. Davis and the speech opening the sym-
posium by Captain Melson more than adequately describe the background and
objectives of this meeting, thus leaving little more to be said other than to
express our gratitude to all those who contributed so much to the success of
this symposium. However, taking the liberty of speaking both for the Office
of Naval Research, as well as the international scientific community of hydro-
dynamicists, I should like once again to express our deepest appreciation to
Dr. J. P. Breslin,Mr. D. Savitsky,and Mr. J. S. Welker of the Davidson Lab-
oratory, Stevens Institute of Technology, and to Mr. P. Granville of the Office
of Naval Research for their outstanding efficiency and care in managing the
many varied aspects of this symposium.
UA^ &
RALPH D. COOPER
Head, Fluid Dynamics Branch
Office of Naval Research
111
CONTENTS
Page
Prefa(
Welcome
Jess H. Davis, President, Stevens Institute of Technology
Opening Address
CAPT L.B.Melson, Assistant Chief for Research, Office of
Naval Research
Dinner Address
VADM R. Brard, Director, Bassin d'Essais des Carfenes
de la Marine
PHYSICS OF FLUIDS
HYDRODYNAMIC ASPECTS OF MACROMOLECULAR SOLUTIONS 3
Marshall P. Tulin, Hydronautics, Inc.
VI
Page
DISCUSSION 27 2
S. Bindel, Bassin d'Essais des Car^nes
DISCUSSION 272
Orvar Bjorheden, KaMeWa
REPLY TO DISCUSSION 274
J. D. van Manen, M. W. C, Oosterveld, and J. H. Witte
OCEAN WAVES
LOW-FREQUENCY TAIL OF THE OCEAN WAVE SPECTRUM 475
Walter H. Munk, University of California, San Diego
vn
Page
viii
Page
DISCUSSION 674
B. Yim, Hydronautics, Inc.
DISCUSSION 675
Lawrence W. Ward, Webb Institute of Naval Architecture
REPLY TO DISCUSSION 677
K. W. H. Eggers
IX
Page
viii
Page
DISCUSSION 674
B. Yim, Hydronautics, Inc.
DISCUSSION 675
Lawrence W. Ward, Webb Institute of Naval Architecture
REPLY TO DISCUSSION 677
K. W. H. Eggers
IX
WELCOME
Jess H. Davis
President
Stevens Institute of Technology
Hohoken, New Jersey
In looking over your program I noticed that many of the papers are con-
cerned with rather fundamental exploratory research. This was particularly
interesting to me because I am associated with an educational institution, and
colleges and universities have traditionally been the centers of what might be
termed basic research.
During its 20-year existence, ONR has continually stressed the importance
of exploratory studies in the spirit of free investigation. It has been most grat-
ifying for Stevens to have had the understanding support of such an organization
in its own studies
in hydrodynamics. Such support to Stevens, as well as other
and organizations, has resulted in many advances in naval hydrody-
institutions
namics including increases in the effectiveness of both surface and subsurface
vessels.
Man is reaching out into space in his search for new knowledge. He is also
exploring the oceans to uncover secrets which may someday become vital to his
continued existence. The late President Kennedy remarked that "knowledge of
the oceans is more than a matter of curiosity; our very survival may hinge upon
it." For centuries man has depended upon the oceans for travel and commerce.
Now he looks to the sea as a source of fresh water, as a source of increased
food supplies, and as a seeding area for the control of turbulent weather.
Inevitably man's new relationship with the oceans must depend on his knowl-
edge of hydrodynamics and engineering skills. Meetings, such as this, which
foster an exchange of information on fundamental research and its applications
provide a major step in amassing the knowledge man must gain to meet future
needs.
Stevens has a long history of contributions to maritime research dating
back to the last century when one of the members of the Stevens family per-
fected an early steamboat. Our Davidson Laboratory has been engaged in hy-
drodynamics research since 1935, and we take pride in the fact that many re-
sults of the work of the Laboratory have been reported in meetings of this kind
in previous years. Today it is with special pride that we share the sponsorship
of thissymposium during the ONR vicentennial year. Again, it is a pleasure to
be with you and to welcome you to this forum.
OPENING ADDRESS
Captain L. B. Melson
Assistant Chief for Research
Office of Naval Research
Washington, D.C.
Brought together here are scientists and engineers from the far corners of
the earth to review the progress that has been made in the demanding and ex-
citing field of hydrodjmamics. This progress will provide clues as to the con-
cepts and technologies of the future. In the late 1870's the Superintendent of the
U.S. Patent Office resigned his position, explaining he had seen all the ideas
patented that could ever possibly be submitted and had no reason to continue his
work. Fortunately, his philosophy was not correct and the future at any point in
time will always be bright and challenging.
Rear Admiral Leydon has mentioned a few of the new areas that have opened
within the hydrodynamic field. These intriguing avenues, through collective
thought and research, will lead the way to newer and wider applications. The
United States of America, recognizing the importance of the oceans, has re-
cently created by law a Committee chaired by the Vice President of our country
and charged with the responsibility of insuring that our national efforts are
channeled into the support of oceanographic development. The United States
Navy, in meeting the requirements of the present, has reorganized its oceano-
graphic efforts to insure that its support maintains a proper balance with the
advancing technology. The Oceanographer of the Navy is now responsible for all
research and development in oceanography, assisted by the Chief of Naval Re-
search and the Chief of Naval Development as his principal deputies. Through
this organization, we know we will encourage the collection of knowledge and in-
formation needed to emphasize the sciences concerned with the oceans and
hydrodynamics.
xii
Since the removal of these restrictions, through the combined efforts of all per-
sons interested in advancing hydrodynamics and ship construction, remarkable
advances have been achieved. Twenty years ago any proposal for the construc-
tion of a 100,000-ton hull would have been greeted with skepticism. Today mag-
azines routinely report the plans for 300,000-ton ships on the back pages. Sub-
marine designs for years called for construction of boats that would barely
submerge below the lower limits of the continental shelves. Today the deep
submersible is capable of extended operations at 6000 feet or more.
The impetus of the petroleum industry's search for offshore oil fields has
brought home a realization that dynamics of the ocean must be understood be-
fore safe and suitable platforms and drill rigs may be constructed. When we
view the future, it is obvious hydrod5mamics is a vital and rapidly moving sci-
ence and the years to come will open new vistas for the benefits of humanity
through the efforts of those assembled here today.
In preparing for this symposium, we wish to express our thanks to the ef-
forts of the Davidson Laboratory of Stevens Institute in planning and managing
the many and varied aspects of the symposium. We also wish to acknowledge
the outstanding support given us by the Hydromechanics Laboratory of the David
Taylor Model Basin* for their participation in the initial planning of the tech-
nical program.
We very much appreciate all that they are doing for us during our stay in
Washington. I should like also to congratulate and thank all those who were in
charge of printing the papers before the start of the Symposium. We realize
that it was a feat of strength.
In 1960, Dr. Weyl, speaking at the Third Symposium banquet, said that naval
hydrodynamics knew, at the time, a new spring. That was and is still today
my own feeling. In initiating these symposia, ONR is, for an impressive part, at
the origin of the improvements made in naval hydrodynamics. The Office of
Naval Research has the merit to have understood, ten years ago, that new re-
quirements would appear very soon and that it was important to encourage and
promote the sciences and technologies on which the necessary progress would
depend.
The evolution of things has been so quick that it can be considered a revo-
lution. The so-called conventional ships, whose designs are presently in hand,
deeply differ from those which have been conceived less than ten years ago.
New types of ships, of propellers, of steering devices also appear. Simultane-
ously, new vehicles and machines are conceived, particularly for exploring the
oceans and the bottom of the seas.
xiv
So is it possible to say that oceans, which separate the continents from one
another, may be a matter of concord between the nations? They are still today
the most practical way by which men can exchange goods and products. They
are also as a common weal of all the peoples because of the great treasures
lying hidden in the seas. Moreover, they are, in themselves, a thrilling subject
of scientific research.
Science has no mother country. Its mother country, if any, is the world as
a whole. Because of that, ONR's intention was and is always that its sym-
posia be of an international nature. The Office of Naval Research has reached
its goal, as is proved by the great number of nations represented here. But this
goal implies a generous and continuous support without which it would be unat-
tainable. All of the guests of ONR are perfectly conscious of this fact.
Therefore, we warmly congratulate and thank again the Office of Naval Re-
search for its action, and, on this day, which may be considered as the twentieth
anniversary of its birthday, we cordially formulate our best wishes for its pros-
perity. Identical wishes are also formulated for the Stevens Institute of Tech-
nology and the Davidson Laboratory.
XV
Thursday, September 29, 1966
Morning Session
PHYSICS OF FLUIDS
Chairman: G. B. Schubauer
Page
INTRODUCTION
It is now common knowledge among us that tens or even several parts per
million of innocuous large molecules in liquid solution drastically alter some
turbulent flows (Refs. 1, 2, and 3, for example). This discovery was not only of
very great potential practical importance, but it also meant that hydrodynamics
and all of us with it have been brought to the end of a very long age of innocence.
We have now discovered for ourselves what those physical chemists, chemical
engineers, and mathematicians who call themselves rheologists, have been try-
ing to tell us all along: that fluids can store strain energy; that, as a result, the
normal pressure in even the simplest shear flow is not an isotropic quantity;
that accompanying both shear and extension, fluids in general possess both vis-
cosity and stiffness; and that these latter quantities as we would define them,
are not physical properties of the fluid, but depend in a rather complicated way
upon the flow.
Perhaps we should not be blamed too much for holding on so long to the
gilt-edge security of an old blue-chip like Navier -Stokes, in preference to the
frankly rather speculative and volatile issues that have been offered up to us.
Now, however, we clearly face the necessity to finance our adventures in
polymer land by selling out Navier -Stokes.
The present work attempts in very brief form to: review some important
concepts involving disperse systems (such as thermal forces, entropy, and
strain energy); discuss the dynamics of molecular response to the motion of the
solvent; introduce and discuss the idea of critical strain rates, which arises
naturally in the theory of molecular response; relate molecular strain to fluid
stresses through the use of Mohr's circle; and discuss in a speculative way the
role of fluid stiffness in turbulent flows, as for example in providing a mode for
the extraction of turbulent energy from an eddy through the generation of elastic
shear waves. Finally, it is speculated how radiation damping could result in a
twofold or threefold thickening of the viscous sublayer.
DISPERSE SYSTEMS
Rheological effects occur in all solutions containing a disperse phase such
as colloidal suspensions and polymer solutions. These include most fluids in
Tulin
industry and biology (blood, for example). The role of the dispersed phase de-
pends upon the particulate size k and upon the time scales t within the flow.
Thermal, viscous, and inertial forces act upon microscopic particles and depend
linearly on particle displacement and its time derivatives:
viscous A.V
thermal kT t
inertial p'k^
thermal kx t^
inertial p'k^
viscous /it
The inertia of sufficiently small particles (somewhat below the line /V ~ t^^^)
may be neglected in comparison to viscous and thermal forces; all large mole-
cules fall in this category. As the figure attempts to show, the ability of these
inertialess particles to store thermal energy in strain increases as the time
scale decreases, i.e., as the frequency of impressed motion increases; for suf-
ficiently long time scales the molecular motions result mainly in viscous dissi-
pation. In this connection, time scales must be compared with the so-called
first relaxation time of the molecule (which is 10"^ sec for the large molecule
indicated by the circle on the line \ - t'-"^).
X~tl'2
DISSIPATIVE
FIBERS. ETC.
X~t^=
RATIO OF FORCES:
INERTIAL
VISCOUS
10
X~t'/3
BLOOD INERTIAL
CELLS
THERMAL
10
VISCOUS DISSIPATIVE
THERMAL
- t
MACROMOLECULES 10'
10'
example). When strained relative to this state, free energy in an amount pro-
portional to entropy change is stored within the molecule in vibrations of its
links; we may properly call this the strain energy. It consists of a springlike
portion due to the coherence of the chain, which resists its expansion, and an-
other gaslike part which even a collection of separated particles possesses
and which resists compression. These ideas can be given a formal represen-
tation:
3
X, =
3X:
where
= T
S
and
-k -in [P(aj, a^, a^)]
Y
^ <-
Y
springl ike gasl ike
Tulin
where Xj are the thermal forces, is the Lagrangian or, in this case, the neg-
ative strain energy, s is the entropy, a. is the principal strain (x. /relaxed mo-
lecular radius), and p is the principal strain probability distribution.
Almost all rheological effects exhibited by dilute polymer solutions are due
to the existence of this strain energy. So is the elasticity of rubber, which is of
precisely the same fundamental nature as the elasticity of dilute polymer solu-
tions (5). Incidentally, the strain energy stored in stretched rubber, being
thermal in nature, may be felt by the hand.
ay
\ ^k'.ti'
-\ I*-"-
{^
o
Fig. 2 - Mohr's circle and second order stresses
We can adopt for this purpose the simplest model of the flexible molecule,
according to which there exists no hydrodynamic interference between its dif-
ferent parts. This proves a limited but nevertheless highly fruitful model.
A la.rge flexible molecule possesses many, say IC* links, virtually free to
rotate at points of connection. Relative motion between the macromolecular
links and the solvent in their immediate neighborhood results in dissipation of
energy (because of the smallness of the Reynolds number, this dissipation, F, is
quadratic in the velocities of the relative motion). In the absence of inertia,
Tulin
changes in the strain energy must occur in equilibrium with viscous forces
which may be described in terms of the dissipation:
_3C _ _BF
Bxj Bxj
We may think of the molecular response in terms of the sum of the re-
sponses of independent groups of equal number of links, i.e., in modal terms.
Accordingly, we may write dynamic equations, all based on the previous rela-
tion, for the molecular strains a. appropriate to each mode p:
(.-^) -. (ii-i^^l
These equations are nonlinear and of first order in the strain; notice the
presence of a term due to the viscous stresses imposed by the flow velocities
(u) which, itself, depends in part upon the stresses due to molecular strain.
For a small strain disturbance (Aa)^ imposed at time zero upon an equilibrium
state, the strain (Aa) decays exponentially in time:
- 2 t /T
Aa. = (Aa. ) e p .
We call the characteristic time of decay the relaxation time r^. Note its
relation, in theory, to molecular size ( r^), solvent viscosity (17), temperature
(t), molecular dissipation function (c^p), and the mode number (p):
^Ci, 1
3kT n2
We note how the higher modes have shorter relaxation times in analogy to
most mechanical systems.
great importance.
Twelve years ago, Prince Rouse (8) and others applied theory based on the
same assumptions as we have indicated here to the prediction of viscosity and
stiffness in unsteady Couette shearing. Provided that the fluid's relaxation time
Tj is determined from the experiments themselves, the experimental data of
Rouse and Sittel (13) are in wonderful agreement with the Rouse theory, as
shown in Fig. 3. This gives us courage to pursue the theory utilizing the simple
noninterference model of the molecule. Let us take this opportunity to notice in
Fig. 3 how the energy storage (Gp is enhanced at high frequencies, while the
dissipation is depressed in accord with the k- t diagram presented as Fig. 1.
Hydrodynamic Aspects of Macromolecular Solutions
THEORY
O 2220 ppm
experiment:^ a 1440 ppm
A 10 10 ppm
RELATIVE
Gr'
Tulin
= A< : A >0
( l-Ar )2t/i (
l+AT^)2t/T^
1 - At e 2 1 + ATp e
p
1 - At, 1 + At,
The behavior of the solution for large times is seen to depend on the value
of thenondimensional strain rate (At^) relative to unity, and we see that this
simple theory predicts an unlimited strain a^ for values of At^ greater than
unity:
At < 1 (subcritical ); aj
1 - At, 1 + ATp
Of course, the molecules cannot even in the case treated endure unlimited
supercritical strains as indicated by theory, for its assumptions become invali-
dated first. Nevertheless, we may expect molecules to become greatly extended
under certain flow conditions.
SIMPLE SHEAR
10
Hydrodynamic Aspects of Macromolecular Solutions
for turns out that the characteristic angular dispersion time for a molecular
it
mode is about equal to its relaxation time. This fact is of great importance in
determining the strain for small shears. For supercritical shears, the elon-
gated molecule is convected rapidly through the high shear region, and spends
most of its lifetime within an angle to the horizontal which is of the order of
l/(Tj 9u/By), as we earlier indicated in Fig. 2, top right side. Under super-
critical conditions we find that the strain energy stored there is at first propor-
tional to (Tjau/By)^ and for higher shears to (r^ Bu/By)^/ ^ The change in
stored energy is particularly rapid at the onset of supercritical conditions,
where we estimate it increases by an order of magnitude as (Tj3u/3y) increases
from 2 to 4.
The kind of considerations and conclusions sketchily outlined here can lead
to an improved understanding and prediction of rheological effects. For exam-
ple, we are led to conclude that the unfolding and shearing over of molecules
under supercritical shear conditions is almost certainly responsible for the so-
called pseudoplastic behavior of polymer solutions in steady shearing. Beyond
that, it suggests that the flow of a macromolecular solution be considered in
terms of two separate but coupled flows of discrete fluids: the solvent and the
imbedded molecules. A theory involving dual dynamic equations requiring si-
multaneous solution would result.
TURBULENT FLOWS
Strain energy storage and release will effect turbulent flows. The magni-
tudes of elastic shear stresses associated with energy storage due to unsteady
straining in a turbulent flow are easily estimated:
The strain and therefore strain energy stored in elongated molecules sub-
jected to a given imposed flow deformation is greater than for relazed mole-
cules. As a result, under certain conditions the bulk stiffness associated with
the strain of molecules subjected to supercritical shears on a small scale can
11
Tulin
be several orders of magnitude greater than if the molecules are relaxed, and
as a result the potency of very small concentrations may become exaggerated.
Of course, this does not mean to say that molecular unfolding or shear stiffen-
ing is necessary in order that macromolecules in solution affect turbulent flows.
It does mean, however, that molecular unfolding may very well be responsible
for the onset of those effects which begin to occur in the most dilute polymer
solutions studied.
Some
detailed considerations lead us to expect that this shear -stiffening
effect will occur in a turbulent flowwhen the local shears associated with the
dissipation scale are supercritical and when at the same time the local turbu-
lence Reynolds number for the energy containing scale is less than about 100.
The latter condition arises through the necessity that the characteristic time
for local reorientation of the shear pattern on the smallest (dissipation) scale
not be too much shorter than the duration of large scale strains due to shears
on the largest (energy containing) scale. These conditions begin to occur in the
turbulent shear flow closest to the wall itself when the rate of strain there be-
comes supercritical (t Bu/By > 2). The thickness of the viscous sublayer is, of
course, determined in this region. The effects of macromolecules may thus be
enhanced by unfolding in a region most sensitive from the point of view of wall
friction.
the straining of relaxed and of unfolded molecules and for strain durations t,
both greater and less than t the case of relaxed molecules (first column)
^,
Table 1
Dependencies ofBulk Fluid Stiffness
Hydrodynamic Aspects of Macromolecular Solutions
the upper left corner will tend to occur at the lowest flow speeds and largest
concentrations. In the hypercritical case it may be shown that for large flexible
molecules r^ oc m^^^; the stiffness therefore scales something like conc.xM'^^,
a result in good agreement with the results of experiments with disks rotating
at high speeds in polyethylene oxide (1).
RADIATION DAMPING
What are the precise manifestations of the bulk fluid stiffness? There are
no doubt many. For one, I have earlier offered the suggestion (14) that stiffness
provides a mode for the extraction of turbulent energy from an eddy through the
radiation of elastic shear waves; these, removed from the scene, later decay
through the usual action of viscosity. In fact, this radiation may be calculated
along the lines of the theory of the generation of sound by turbulence, pioneered
by Lighthill (15). We are dealing with an incompressible fluid. The momentum
balance is
_d_ (0) ^_ ,( 1)
Bt
where
du,
,(0) _
(UiU.) P ~^ 1
\Bx.
which is the stress tensor for a normal viscous fluid, including the Reynolds
stress (u.Uj), and where T^ M is the additional stress tensor due to the elastic
properties of the fluid. At its very simplest, the latter takes the form:
de. Be.
,( 1) 1
I
3X: BX:
Be.
Bt BX: Bx:
13
Tulin
where
(0) ( 1)
-.2 (0)
d u.
T^r
^J
Bt2 3t Bx.
and
^ (0) ^ (0)
OUj
(0) _ ^i +
^i 3x Bx
The driven wave equation for the shear wave field u[ '^ may be interpreted
to show that propagating strain waves are generated by dipoles in the strain-
rate s[y associated with the turbulent field. This wave equation may be solved,
and the elastic strain field at any point in the flow calculated as an integral of
the turbulent rate -of- strain field. The energy associated with the elastic strain
field radiated from a turbulent eddy may thus be estimated. It turns out to be of
the form
radiated energy
usual turbulent dissipation
= f
/c
where the function f has a maximum value of about 2 when c^/vg % tt, and
where
3
These rather crude considerations thus lead us to the conclusion that the
total dissipation, including radiation associated with a turbulent flow of given
intensity in a suitably elastic fluid may be as much as tripled over the amount
normally associated with inertial interactions alone. That is, the coefficient of
turbulent dissipation c^, which has the approximate value 0.8 in the previous
formula, may take on values as large as 2.4 in the case of polymer solutions.
In that case, the usual inertial transfer of the total energy production down
through the eddy cascade to the dissipation range may become short-circuited,
as indicated in Fig. 5.
SUBLAYER THICKENING
Let us go further and speculate how the thickness of the viscous sublayer of
a turbulent boundary may be affected by an increase in the coefficient of turbu-
lent dissipation c^. We may define (Fig. 6) the edge of the viscous sublayer as
the position y* where the total shear stress is equally compounded of laminar
and Reynolds stresses:
14
Hydrodynamic Aspects of Macromolecular Solutions
ENERGY INFLOW
FROM
Tulin
or
Bu .^ 1 u*2
By (y ) ^ 2 ^"TT '
We may then argue that the local dissipation there due to the operation of
the laminar and turbulent stresses must also be about equal (this argument de-
pends upon the fact that turbulent production of energy there is approximately
equal to turbulent dissipation (Ref. 17, Fig. 9.13):
(dissipation )l ^ (dissipation )j , y = y ;
* 3
T- (y )
4K .
u y
12 ,
but the important thing to notice is that a twofold or threefold increase in the
coefficient of turbulent dissipation, to which K is proportional, will result in a
proportionate increase in this Reynolds number and thus in the sublayer thick-
ness:
u y
% 24-36
L
'- V J
- max
in polymer solutions.
This maximum thickening will occur when c^/u* ^ 0(5), while larger and
smaller concentrations of polymers than correspond to this last condition will
result in a decrease in the polymer effectiveness. The sublayer thickening has
been observed (2) and so has the plateau in the drag reduction as a function of
polymer concentration (1-3).
CONCLUSION
Presented here is only a partial and, of course, hurried view of some of
our conclusions, the result of research supported by the Fluid Dynamics Branch
16
Hydrodynamic Aspects of Macromolecular Solutions
'LASTIC WAVES
Sticky fluids should not be
treated with discourtesy.
Strain them easy and you'll see,
larger grows viscosity.
Strain them quicker than fast time,
relaxation shows no sign,
Greater grows the molecule,
which to shatter George Stokes' rule.
REFERENCES
1. Hoyt, J.W., and Fabula, A.G., "The Effect of Additives on Fluid Friction,"
pp. 947-974 in "Fifth ONR Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics: Ship Mo-
tions and Drag Reduction," Office of Naval Research, Department of the
Navy, ACR-112, 1964; U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
2. Elata, C, Lehrer, J., and Kahanovitz, A., "Turbulent Shear Flow of Poly-
mer Solutions," Israel J. Technology (Jerusalem) 4(No. l):87-95 (1966)
17
Tulin
5. James, H.M., and Guth, E., "Theory of the Elastic Properties of Rubber,"
Chem. Phys. ll(No. 10):455-481 (Oct. 1943)
8. Rouse, P.E., Jr., "A Theory of the Linear Viscoelastic Properties of Di-
lute Solutions of Coiling Polymers," J. Chem, Phys. 21(No. 7):1272-1280
(July 1953)
10. Peterlin, A., "Streaming and Stress Birefringence," pp. 615-651 in Vol. I,
"Rheology -Theory and Applications," F. Eirich, ed., Academic Press, New
York, 1956
13. Rouse, P.E., Jr., and Sittel, K., "Viscoelastic Properties of Dilute Polymer
Solutions," J. Chem. Phys. 24(No. 6):690-696 (June 1953)
17. Townsend, A.A., "The Structure of Turbulent Shear Flow," Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1956
18
TURBULENCE IN VISCOELASTIC FLUIDS
F. A. Seyer and A. B. Metzner
University of Delaware
Newark, Delaware
INTRODUCTION
Recent analyses and experimental studies dealing with turbulence and with
unsteady flows of dilute polymeric solutions will be considered. Emphasis will
be placed on those contributions which lead to proper descriptions of the rele-
vant fluid properties and the interactions between these properties and the flow
field, to yield mechanistic interpretations of the turbulent characteristics of
these materials.
This paper will show that while the large-scale portion of the turbulent
spectrum appears to be similar to that of Newtonian systems, major decreases
in the energy levels are predicted at high wavenumbers. These predictions find
some experimental support, but a major obstacle to research in this area ap-
pears to be a rather general inapplicability of the experimental devices nor-
mally used to study turbulent velocity fields. As a result only a few detailed
measurements are available, and of these some are probably either in error or
of restricted generality. Methods for overcoming these deficiencies will be
considered, but no ready solutions of direct and easy applicability will be noted.
Interest in the area of turbulent flow of dilute polymeric solutions has been
motivated by the important observation that the drag coefficients of such sys-
tems in turbulent flow may be significantly lower than those of Newtonian or
other purely viscous fluids. Most available evidence suggests this effect to be
due to the viscoelastic properties of these systems, though, as will be seen, few
really definitive results are available with which to test this hypothesis rigor-
ously. Few results are available owing to the difficulty of studying both the de-
tailed turbulent motion in these systems and their physical properties; results
obtained using conventional experimental techniques may be subject to serious
error. Thus the hypothesis concerning the importance of viscoelasticity, while
tentatively accepted and used herein, remains in need of much more rigorous
tests than have been carried out to date. Comments concerning its limitations
are available elsewhere (Refs. 45 and 51).
19
Seyer and Metzner
A large number
of experimental reports in which drag coefficients have
been reported but which no attempt to either estimate or measure the physi-
in
cal properties of the polymeric solutions used are available. These are of value
in distinguishing the systems and conditions to be used in maximizing the prag-
matic effects desired. As they do not, however, usually lead to any insight into
the mechanisms responsible for the observed results they will generally not be
considered in the present report. The authors wish to emphasize that this
omission is not intended to reflect a value judgment so much as a need for keep-
ing the present paper within prescribed bounds, and a recognition of the fact that
those directly involved in extensive test programs are more capable of survey-
ing those activities.
will be used. The relaxation time ff and the viscosity m are taken as arbitrary
variables dependent on the invariants of d
Equation (1), with but two exceptions, precisely describes all effects which
have been observed quantitatively. One exception is that real materials appear
20
Turbulence in Viscoelastic Fluids
in which the three material property functions Jl, Wj, and co^ are all arbitrary
functions of the invariants of d and d^. It is possible to show that in the limit-
ing case of very low deformation rates these functions become constants (15,39).
The resulting "second-order-fluid" approximation, being conceptually attractive
and mathematically simple has been extensively employed (15,19,26,54,59,61).
However, if it is used, a good approximation to the behavior of real materials is
obtained only at such small deformation rates as to make even the experimental
determination of the coefficients very difficult (28,35). For the slow flows of
interest to a number of workers (26,59) it thus represents the logical choice;
for the rapid flows of interest in turbulent fields reference to experimental re-
sults (28,35,51,53)* shows that the second-order approximation is clearly in-
valid. However, Eq. (2) with the coefficients m^ and ^^ chosen as variables so
as to portray correctly the approximate linearity of the stresses, would appear
to be a sound choice, provided the flows are nearly steady.
These have recently been extended by Oliver (44) into the range of concentra-
tions of interest in turbulent drag reduction.
21
Seyer and Metzner
4. Recent papers by Bernstein, Kearsley, and Zapas (8) and by Bogue (9)
develop promising constitutive relationships which, though yet largely unapplied
to problems of interest in the context of the present paper, may well serve to
extend the asymptotic validity of simple fluid analyses into ranges of greater
engineering interest, as well as having unique regions of applicability directly.
In the case of unsteady flows Eq. (1) appears to be of better than first-
approximation utility and will be employed herein. This is the area of primary
interest in studies of turbulence, of course, but definitive comments concerning
the choice of applicable equations do not yet appear possible. As Eq. (1) also
portrays the major effects of interest in steady flows it appears to be of. rather
general utility.
VISCOELASTIC PARAMETERS
*If Newtonian fluids are considered, then Eq. (1) with 0=0 and = constant
/j.
will describe the fluid properties. Alternately, Eq. (2) with = constant and
/j.
22
Turbulence in Viscoelastic Fluids
physical property parameters are taken as constants, the one additional variable
appearing in Eq. (1) (o) requires one additional dimensionless group, and the
two additional variables of Eq. (2) (w, and w^) require two. Physically these
are necessary to consider the additional forces arising in deformation of visco-
elastic materials. They have been considered in some detail in laminar bound-
ary layer analyses (39,61), where it is shown that they may be expressed as
Nu,
'Ws
=
^1
fl
-V
D
elastic forces
(3a)
viscous forces
and
Nvr =
= ratio of several elastic forces (3b)
if Eq. (2) is employed." Correspondingly if Eq. (1) were used, the Weissenberg
number N^j,^ may be expressed as
N - ^ (3c)
If the physical property terms co^ and co^, or 6, are chosen as variables,
then correspondingly additional dimensionless groups as required to consider
the parameters which govern the dependency of these variables on the deforma-
tion rates must be introduced.
These same dimensionless groups were also employed by Elata and Poreh(19).
23
Seyer and Metzner
steady flows, the experiments recorded by Johnson (31) using high-speed pho-
tography are of interest. If a flat object is dropped, slowly, into a puddle of a
dilute polymeric solution it simply moves aside like a conventional fluid would.
If, on the other hand, the impact is intense and rapid the sheet of fluid created
does not "splash" but instead stretches and recoils just as a suddenly stretched
elastic solid would. On the time scale involved (a few milliseconds) only the
elastic response is felt. Quantitative analyses of this effect have been published
(39,40,60) in which it is shown that Eq. (1) as well as the correct asymptotic
forms from simple fluid theory (though not Eq. (2)) predict such purely elastic
responses for the short time scales involved.
For flows that are steady in a Lagrangian sense, for example steady lami-
nar shearing flow in a tube, the Deborah number is identically zero. It is in
this limit (and only in this limit) that Eq. (2) may be used to portray the mate-
rial properties of simple fluids. In this asymptotic, limiting flow process it
may be shown that for ducted flows through round tubes neither the velocity
profile nor the viscous drag are influenced by the presence or absence of elastic
forces. That is, the fluid is behaving as a purely viscous material even though
one may have present large elastic forces as described by the Weissenberg
number in Eq. (3). (Experimental results discussed in the next section show the
elastic forces may be 10 to 40 times larger than viscous forces at the shear
rate levels of interest.)
The intuitive notions embodied in Eq. (4) have been formalized mathemati-
cally by Astarita (2) as
N -,l/H^ (5)
24
Turbulence in Viscoelastic Fluids
10
10
10
lO
Seyer and Metzner
f^
8, SEC
Turbulence in Viscoelastic Fluids
\
Seyer and Metzner
Turbulence in Viscoelastic Fluids
as noted in Fig. 3. Evidently the major effects of interest do not occur in this
low-wavenumber region.
, = X (6)
in which V denotes the relative elongational velocity and x the length of the fluid
element under consideration. Batchelor (7) has shown that the inverse of the
characteristic stretch rate may be identified with a time scale characteristic of
the dissipative eddies in a turbulent flow, so that one may define a Deborah
number characterizing the dissipative process as
(t -
'"' ) viscoelastic 1 /q\
K we now consider a given turbulent flow field, the energy levels available
todeform a fluid element are fixed at some finite value by inertial effects, from
which it follows, in view of Eq. (8), that the rates of stretching will be far lower
than in a Newtonian fluid. Equivalently, since the stretching processes for a
Newtonian fluid are primarily associated with the dissipative eddies, one may
predict the increased resistance to stretching to inhibit much of the small-scale
high-frequency turbulence. In view of the form of Eq. (8) it would appear that
the elastic effects would serve to cut off rather suddenly the high-wavenumber
end of the spectrum, starting at eddies with time scales of the order of the fluid
relaxation time. Several qualitative observations based on observing the spread
of a dye filament (25,50,52) have shown that the structure of the turbulent flow
is grossly altered in drag reducing systems in just this way: the dye filaments
spread as large discrete "lumps" of material, whereas in a Newtonian fluid the
29
Seyer and Metzner
EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
This section considers briefly the major tools or methods available for
studying the flow fields of interest and in so doing points to some of the signifi-
cant results, limitations of techniques, and areas in need of further work.
Heated Probes
It is not clear at this point how the above problems can be alleviated, as
reductions in velocity or increases in probe size in order to circumvent the
Deborah number limitation increase the uncertainty of the measurements due to
natural convection effects, and take the measurements out of the ranges of pri-
mary interest.
Impact Probes
In the case of impact probes several effects arise which may, in principle,
serve to alter or limit the utility of the probe. First, the boundary -layer con-
siderations noted in the previous section suggest that here too the response of
the probe may be significantly reduced, and more importantly Metzner and
Astarita (38) have shown that a boundary layer of the same order of thickness
as the probe size may exist at the leading edge of the probe. This problem is
particularly acute in the case of small probes and imposes a severe restriction
on use of the probes for measurements near the wall.
30
Turbulence in Viscoelastic Fluids
4
u
= A log y^
^
+ B (9)
The data suggest the non-Newtonian effect appears as a change in the numerical
value of B, while A remains the same. In Eq. (9) the minor term contributing
to the value of u/u* is b, and over most of the range of the data it seems that
the noted changes in b could possibly be attributed to the flow rate discrepancy.
Thus, it is not clear if the apparent shifts in the velocity curves are significant
or not.
Notably the solutions used in the above studies were very dilute and exhib-
ited only slight drag reduction effects. Other data (4), using solutions showing
major drag reduction effects, indicate that if the impact readings are interpreted
directly as velocity, the apparent flowrate may be as much as 30% lower than
the true flowrate. As these results appear to have obtained using systems simi-
lar to those used by Elata et al. (18), the absence of similar effects in the latter
study is surprising. Clearly it would be premature to suppose any validity for
reported turbulent velocity profile measurements on systems which show sig-
nificant viscoelastic effects, as there is at present no rigorous method for dif-
ferentiating between the inertial velocity contributions desired and the effects
arising due to viscoelastic (normal stress) terms.
31
Seyer and Metzner
Tracer Studies
Heat Transfer
Recent heat transfer results (29), for drag reducing system, have shown
that in conjunction with the decrease in drag coefficient there is a corresponding
but much larger relative decrease in the heat transfer coefficient. The accom-
panying detailed analysis shows no matter what the change in the bulk velocity
profile might be, it alone is insufficient to explain the low heat transfer rates.
Therefore, one may conclude that the wall region is thicker or that the turbu-
lence levels near the wall (where the greatest resistance to heat transfer is)
are much weaker, or both. It is interesting to note that the same conclusion has
been drawn elsewhere (18) on the basis of velocity profile measurements which,
as noted earlier, could have been expected to be incorrect.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work has been supported by the Office of Naval Research, U.S. Navy,
and reproduction of this work, in whole or in part, is permitted for any purpose
of the United States Government.
LIST OF SYMBOLS
A Slope of universal velocity correlation, Eq. (9)
D Tube diameter
f
1
Laminar friction factor = 16/N^g
32
Turbulence in Viscoelastic Fluids
f
^
Purely viscous friction factor (17)
I Unit tensor
p Isotropic pressure
u Kinematic viscosity
P Fluid density
33
Seyer and Metzner
REFERENCES
1. Acosta, A. J., and James, D.F., unpublished data, 1966
5. Astarita, G., and Metzner, A.B., Proc. Accad. Lincei (in press)
7. Batchelor, G.K., Proc. Royal Soc. A213:349 (1952) and Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 51:361 (1955)
8. Bernstein, G., Kearsley, E.A., and Zapas, L.J., Trans. Soc. Rheology 7:391
(1963)
10. Coleman, B.D., and Noll, W., Arch. Rat. Mech. Anal. 3:289 (1959)
11. Coleman, B.D., and Noll, W., Anals. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 89:672 (1961)
12. Coleman, B.D., and Noll, W., Arch. Rat. Mech. Anal. 6:355 (1960)
13. Coleman, B.D., and Noll, W., Physics of Fluids 5:840 (1962)
14. Coleman, B.D., Duffin, R.J., and Mizel, V.J., Arch. Rat. Mech. Anal. 19:100
(1965)
15. Coleman, B.D., Noll, W., and Markovitz, H., "Viscometric Flows of Non-
Newtonian Fluids," Springer, Berlin, 1966
16. Denn, M.M., and Metzner, A.B., Trans. Soc. Rheology (in press)
18. Elata, C, Lehrer, J., and Kahanovitz, A., Israel J. Tech. 4:87 (1966)
34
Turbulence in Viscoelastic Fluids
20. Etter, I., and Schowalter, W.R., Trans. Soc. Rheology 9:351 (1965)
21. Ericksen, J.L., Arch. Rat. Mech. Anal. 4:231 (1960); 8:1 (1961)
24. Ferry, J.D., "Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers," Wiley, New York, 1961
26. Giesekus, H., Rheologica Acta 4:85 (1965) and Proc. 4th Int. Cong, on Rhe-
ology, p. 249, 1965
27. Ginn, R.F., Ph.D. thesis. University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 1967
28. Ginn, R.F., and Metzner, A.B., Proc. 4th Int. Cong, on Rheology, p. 583,
1965
32. Kapoor, N.W., Kalb, J.W., Brumm, E.A., and Fredrickson, A.G., Ind. Eng.
Chem. Fundamentals 4:186 (1965)
34. Lodge, A.S., "Elastic Liquids," Academic Press, Lon ion, 1964
35. Markovitz, H., and Brown, D.R., Trans. Soc. Rheology 7:137, 1963
40. Metzner, A.B., White, J.L., and Denn, M.M., A.I.Ch.E. J. (in press)
35
Seyer and Metzner
42. Oldroyd, J.G., Proc. Roy. Soc. A200:523 (1950); A295:278 (1958); A283:115
(1965)
45. Park, M.G., and Metzner, A.B,, J. Fluid Mech. 20:291 (1964)
46. Pruitt, G.T., and Crawford, H.R., Western Company Report DTMB-1 (1966)
48. Rodriguez, J.M., Zakin, J.L., and Patterson, G.K., in press (1966)
53. Shertzer, C.R., and Metzner, A.B., Proc. 4th Int. Cong. Rheology, p. 603,
1965
54. Singh, K., Ph.D. thesis, Pennsylvania State University, University Park,
Penn., 1966
58. Vela, S., Kalb, J.W., and Fredrickson, A.G., A.I.Ch.E. J. 11:288 (1965)
59. Walters, K., and Savins, J.G., Trans. Soc. Rheology 9(No. 1):407 (1965)
62. White, J.L., and Metzner, A.B., J. App. Poly. Sci. 7:1867 (1963)
36
Turbulence in Viscoelastic Fluids
DISCUSSION
Richard L. Hummel
University of Toronto
Toronto, Canada
The authors imply that the drag reduction associated with these dilute poly-
meric solutions would be due to a suppression of the high-frequency or small
eddies. Is it not correct to believe that the majority of the energy is first
picked up by relatively larger eddies through interaction of the bulk stream and
the wall layer and then successfully transferred to smaller and smaller eddies
where it is more rapidly consumed? If this is so and the suppression of small
eddies is due to a more rapid absorption of the energy by these small eddies, I
do not see that this would result in any large change in the drag characteristics
per se.
I would presume that for some non -Newtonian fluids, at least, relaxation of
stress in a current direction of flow or shear would change the fluids resistance
to flow in a new direction by a different amount and that the change might well
be of opposite sign. That is, while the resistance to flow for shear in the x di-
rection was decreased because of flow in the x direction, resistance to flow or
shear in the y or z direction could be increased relative to that of a stationary
randomly oriented fluid. Since common turbulence requires movements not only
in the primary direction of flow, but also in all other directions such behaviour
would suppress the conversion of energy into eddies of any size in the wall re-
gion where the flow is most predominantly unidirectional.
The possible behaviour for the polymeric solutions might be inferred from
microscopic physical models of the system. These will depend very much upon
the relative interactions between the low-molecular -weight liquid and the high-
molecular -weight polymer. If the interactions with the polymer unit were suffi-
ciently high, each polymer molecule could be dispersed through the liquid as
some sort of thread, possibly tangled. This form would be very strongly aligned
by flow shear to give a reduced drag in the direction of flow and considerably
increased drag in other directions. If the interaction between liquid and polymer
were less favourable, polymer would tend to be forced out of the liquid (or pull
itself out, it does not matter which) to form small globules, but in this case
there would be almost as strong a tendency to collect large numbers of these
molecules to produce fairly sizable micelles as in soap solutions. As noted in
the preceding paper these globules themselves tend to become deformed and
elongated in the direction of shear, which results in reduced resistance in this
direction and increased resistance in others, but to a lesser extent the fragmen-
tation of these globules could result in a reduced resistance in all directions.
Other possibilities exist depending on the liquid, the polymer units, and the
polymer end groups, including the setting up of local or extended gels which are
more or less fibrous networks through the liquid. To what extent are these ar-
rangements known and how do they affect drag reduction?
37
Seyer and Metzner
I am not very familiar with the equations of fluid dynamics, having recently
entered the field to apply a new measurement technique we have developed. With
this technique we have thus far measured, I believe for the first time, the instan-
taneous thickness and velocity profile for the laminar region at the wall in tur-
bulent pipe flow. I would judge that the equations presented in this and the pre-
ceding paper are largely either empirical or semiempirical (the form specified
by some theory, but the constants fitted to experiment) and that, therefore, ac-
curate time-continuous experimental data on the stress and rate of strain rela-
tionships for these fluids is required possibly to verify the theoretical form of
the equations and certainly to provide the constants which would determine the
detailed behaviour of the fluid. This paper indicates that the standard hot wire
or hot probe results for fluid velocity are highly questionable due to expected
but unknown effects of the non -Newtonian fluid on the probe. When one further
considers that in Newtonian flow corrections are frequently necessary which
were not originally expected, such as, for example, the effect of small-scale-
turbulence intensity on the heat transfer veiocity relationship. Furthermore all
probes tend to disturb the flow for measurements near a wall, which may be the
region where drag reduction occurs with these unique solutions. Our new tech-
nique involves the instantaneous introduction of a very fine dye tracer at any
angle to the flow, including perpendicular, without disturbing the flow. It will
permit continuous and accurate determinations of the liquid strain rate (velocity
profiles). I would welcome suggestions as to experimental conditions.
REPLY TO DISCUSSION
A. B. Metzner
38
AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF
GRID TURBULENCE IN DILUTE
HIGH-POLYMER SOLUTIONS
A. G. Fabula
Naval Ordnance Test Station
(after July 1967 renamed the Naval Undersea Warfare Center)
Pasadena, California
ABSTRACT
Longitudinal, one -dimensional turbulence energy spectra were meas-
ured behind a towed grid in a tank filled with dilute aqueous high-
polymer solutions. Several types of hot-film flowmeters with constant-
tennperature bridges were used, with emphasis on quartz-coated,
platinum-film sensors of conical shape. Spectral nneasurements in
water were consistent with wind-tunnel measurements. Cylindrical
sensors were found unsuitable because of evidence of coating of the
hot-film leading edge. The additives -were poly(ethylene oxides) (Polyox
WSR-301 and coagulant), polyacrylamides (Separan AP-30 and JlOO)
and guar gum. Concentrations of up to 137 ppm were used. The guar
gum produced temporary suspensions which were not suitable for tur-
bulence measurements because of high noise level. With the other
additives, the sensor signal near the grid included a high-frequency
connponent (called "raggedness") which was attributed to temporary (or
temporarily altered) inhomogeneity caused by the action of the grid
bars. With extreme raggedness, the interpretation of the signal as a
turbulent velocity fluctuation would have implied impossible viscous
dissipation rates.
Three types of spectral effects were the spectral distortion due to rag-
gedness, a greater experimental scatter of spectral levels near the
grid in newly prepared solutions, and the predictable spectral shift due
to viscosity increase. No non-Newtonian spectral effects were detected
under conditions of nonragged signals or at frequencies below the spec-
tral distortion due to raggedness.
39
Fabula
INTRODUCTION
In choosing the type of flow for study, the following requirements were con-
sidered essential:
2. The available turbulence sensors for use in liquids should have adequate
spatial resolution and frequency response for the flow to be studied.
3. The experiment should be free as far as possible from bias due to ef-
fects of degradation of solution properties by mechanical cleavage of polymer
chains.
40
Grid Turbulence in Dilute High-Polymer Solutions
Singh and the intention was to obtain a comparison of theory and experiment.
(2),
Due nature of the results, this comparison cannot be made yet, and no
to the
theoretical discussion is needed in this work beyond that given in the later dis-
cussion of the experimental results.
Polymer Supplier
reduction in turbulent pipe flow at typical wall shear stresses, say of the order
of 10^ dynes/cm^. In two cases, friction reduction tests with solutions made
from Polyox WSR-301 and from JlOO showed the expected high degree of effec-
tiveness (e.g., 70% pressure-drop reduction) at low concentrations (e.g., at 20
ppm parts per million by weight). Maximum concentrations in the towing-tank
tests were about 140 ppm. All the towing-tank solutions are "dilute" (3) in that
the dimensionless concentration c' [17] , where c' is the polymer concentration
in g/100 cc or g/dl and [r]] is the intrinsic viscosity in dl/g, is at most about
0.3. In general, local tap water was used as the solvent. As discussed later,
there was no evidence that the results were dependent on the solvent impurities.
PROCEDURE
A Turbulence Research Towing Tank, 48 feet long with a cross section of
about 4 by 4 feet, was constructed for this work. The tank is lined with a
smooth vinyl film which was hosed clean between tests. A grid-turbulence ex-
periment is shown in progress in Fig. 1. The grid carriage, carrying the verti-
cal grid, is pulled along by cables from constant-speed winches. The sensor
carriage, generally towed by a cable from the grid carriage, follows at a fixed
distance x from the grid (i.e., at a constant value of x m, where M is the grid
mesh width). The duration of useful run time is about 25 sec for the standard
towing speed of 36 cm/sec.
41
Fabul2
A better view of the sensor carriage with the sensor -carrying, surface-
piercing strut, is given in Fig. 2. The strut is faired to reduce vortex-shedding
excitation and is mounted on a simple vibration-isolation moimting of very low
natural frequency. The sensor is connected to its constant-temperature bridge
by the long cable seen in Fig. 1.
Due to the low frequency range in this work, the frequency response of the
bridges used is flat, and only the frequency response of the sensors is of con-
cern. Their comparative frequency response in water was evaluated by meas-
urements of a standard grid-turbulence spectrum. Significant frequency re-
sponse drop-off was found for circular-cylindrical sensors and for a glass-coated
thermistor. For the circular cylinders, Lighthill's analysis (5) was used to
*Modifications made since the completion of this work have eliminated this
difficulty.
42
Grid Turbulence in Dilute High-Polymer Solutions
CIRCULAR CYLINDERS
r
2 mil
(JERI)
WEDGE
(WILHELM)
THERMISTOR
FILM (P-ia-2)
I 1 I I
20 40 60 m II
43
Fabula
show that the drop-off was not a boundary layer effect, and the drop-off was at-
tributed to the separated flow which occurs at the Reynolds numbers in this
work. The circiilar-cylindrical sensors were also found to produce a false tur-
bulence signal in the form of "wake ripple" and "wake noise" starting at sensor
Reynolds number of 40 to 50. The drop-off for the thermistor-film sensor was
verified by "interface -penetration" tests and was attributed to an extra-thick
glass coating. It was found that the wedge sensor gave abnormal calibration
curves in Polyox solutions, presumably due to coating of the hot film by gela-
tinous material collecting on the leading edge. Thus most of the solution work
was done with conical sensors, which displayed only minor calibration- curve
shifts due to the additives. The improvement may be attributed to the better
shape and the film location. In other work (6), the frequency response of simi-
lar conical sensors was found to be essentially flat out to 200 cps for 50 cm/sec
which is close to the mean flow speed in this work. Because the upper frequency
of the useful spectral measurements in this work was usually about 200 cps, the
conical sensors were assumed to have flat response in both water and in the di-
lute solutions. The results do not deny this assumption, but when most concen-
trated solutions are used in future work, the frequency -response question should
be re-examined.
In order to provide for comparison of the towing-tank results for water with
measurements in air by Comte-Bellot and Corrsin (7), a square-bar, square-
mesh biplane type of grid was used with the ratio of mesh width to bar thickness
taken as 5.3. Thus the nominal grid solidity is 0.34. The grid Reynolds num-
ber, R^, = Uq ^/v, where u^ is the mean speed and v is the kinematic viscosity,
was about 40,000 in the towing-tank tests and from 17,000 to 135,000 in the wind-
tvinnel tests. The mesh width was chosen as 11.8 cm on the basis of several
considerations. It had to be sufficiently small compared to the test section di-
mensions to encourage lateral homogeneity of the turbulence. On the other hand
a large value was desirable so that the available sensors would accurately re-
solve the smallest turbulence scale of interest. This scale can be assigned as
follows. The characteristic dissipation wavenumber is k^ where i/k^ is the
Kolmogoroff microscale, {v^/e)^^*, with e the time rate of decay of turbulence
energy per unit mass. It is desirable to resolve eddies of the corresponding
scale, and so l^, the longest scale of the sensor hot film, should be less than
about the half wavelength corresponding to k^, i.e., ^r/kj. The corresponding
frequency seen by the sensor, \'.^\]^/2n, should be well below the sensor cut-off
frequency f^. k^ decreases with distance from the grid, and in this work a
typical high value (for x/M % lo) is 30 cm"^ Thus the sensor size condition is
These conditions were satisfied in this work with the conical sensors and mar-
ginally satisfied with the wedge sensor, A large value of M was also desirable
to make the grid Reynolds number as high as possible.
44
Grid Turbulence in Dilute High-Polynner Solutions
The towing speed was chosen from considerations of sensor frequency re-
sponse, towing-tank length and test run duration, grid towing power, and pres-
sure drop across the grid. Sensor frequency response and test run duration
have been discussed already. The grid towing power is about 1/3 horsepower.
The hydrostatic head corresponding to the pressure drop through the grid is
about 1/4 in. There was no need to restrain the free surface in this work to re-
duce wave generation, since spectral measurements showed no wave components.
Waves moving relative to the grid were observed only ahead of the grid.
The tank solution preparation problem was sizable, since the 6000 gallons
of solution had to be homogeneous but not appreciably degraded by the method of
preparation. Two methods were used. In the first method the polymer particles
were dispersed directly into the tank filled with conditioned tap water, using an
aspirator type of disperser. The towing-tank fluid was then mixed by towing the
grid back and forth, sometimes with an off-center board on the grid to produce
larger-scale mixing. The grid turbulence helped to dissolve the gelatinous
blobs which the polymer particles become after being wetted. The results with
the first Polyox solutions prepared by the "direct-dispersal" technique, led to
work with the polyacrylamides. Prolonged grid stirring or stirring by air bub-
bling did not dissolve the gelatinous blobs of Separan AP-30 and JIOO. Thus it
was necessary to prepare a master solution at a relatively high concentration
(e.g., 0,8%) and mix it for a long period of time to encourage homogeneity. This
solution was then diluted to the desired concentration with conditioned water and
fvirther mixing.
Sensor calibration was done by towing the sensor carriage along the tank
and measuring bridge output voltage as a function of speed for a fixed bridge
operating condition. The slope of the bridge voltage curve at the mean speed
behind the grid was taken as the sensor sensitivity. Each sensor was calibrated
before and after each series of grid-turbulence tests. Sensor deterioration was
detected as a significant loss of sensitivity and as an upward drift of cold re-
sistance. When the drift of sensitivity in 2 hours was as much as 4%, the sensor
was replaced.
45
Fabula
The absence or very low level of fine -scale structure in the waveforms of
Fig. 5 is due to the dominant action of viscosity which begins at k/k^ % 0. 1.
For x/M =10.7 the wavelength corresponding to k^ is roughly 0.2 cm or half of
one major division of the time scale.
For all conditions the same except for tank fluid and a negligible change in
sensor sensitivity. Fig. 6 shows the character of the signal at x/M = 10.7, 20.2,
and CO in Solution F-5 (P301B; 137 ppm; prepared by the master-solution method)
on the third day after dispersal, and at x/M = 10.7, 11 hours later. This is a
typical case of significant raggedness near the grid, negligible raggedness far-
ther away, and (only for Polyox) a decrease of raggedness with solution age at a
given x/M. The lower group of sweeps in Fig. 6c is for the ordinary speed, but
the upper group of sweeps is for the sensor at rest. Since the noise with the
quartz-coated sensor at rest in quiet fluid was independent of the test fluid, the
upper group also applies to the case of Fig. 5d for water. Thus there was a
decrease in noise level when the sensor was set in motion in water but a slight
increase in the solution. With variation of the lateral, y and z coordinates,
,
there were no notable changes in signal character, but some further evidence for
a low degree of intermittency of the raggedness.
The decay of raggedness with solution age is illustrated for Solution F-10
in Figs. 7-9. At 71 hours of age, raggedness is seen at x/M - 20.2, but by 89
hours it is essentially gone at the same x/M but still evident at x/M = 12.6. By
six days of age, raggedness is still detectable at x/M = 6. The waveforms for
x/M = CO in Fig. 9c show distinctive blips (corresponding to depressed heat
transfer) which are not seen for x/M - co in Fig. 7d. This phenomenon was found
in several cases of the concentrated, older Polyox solutions, and visible blobs
could be detected when none had been found before.
With other additives used in this work, there was more intense and age-
independent signal raggedness (for Separan AP-30 and JlOO), and there was a
higher level of solution noise which interfered more with spectral measure-
ments (for guar gum, Separan AP-30, and JlOO). Some tj^ical waveforms for
JlOO are given in Fig. 10 for Solution F-6 with a concentration of 46 ppm, pre-
pared by the master-solution method. The waveforms in Fig. 10 can be com-
pared with waveforms in water for corresponding x/M values in Fig. 5, for the
same sensor and only a minor change in sensitivity. The more intense ragged-
ness in this case seems to be related to the higher solution noise. In Fig. lOd
the waveforms for x/M = co are for two sensor towing speeds of about 20 and 45
cm/sec for the upper and lower groups respectively. A reasonable hypothesis
is that the cause of the higher noise level is solution inhomogeneity, and it im-
plies that the main result of changing speed from Uj to Uj should be a distortion
of the characteristic times by the factor Ui'U2. The waveforms in Fig. lOd are
at least superficially consistent with this requirement.
47
Fabula
48
Grid Turbulence in Dilute High-Polymer Solutions
(c) X/M : 00, AGE 72hrs (d) X/M : 10.7, AGE 83 hrs
49
Fabula
50
Grid Turbulence in Dilute High-Polymer Solutions
^Bj^SmH
Fabula
(c) x/m = 00
52
Grid Turbulence in Dilute High-Polymer Solutions
HaSlMIn
^^BBBBBilBBBilil
pBBSBB
Fabula
At the time of the photographs of Fig. 10, 22 hours had passed since the
dispersal of the JlOO into mixing barrels. The master solution had been gently
stirred for 15 hours. In the other 7 hours, the master solutions were mixed
with the towing-tank water by a continuous-flow technique giving a 50:1 dilution,
with grid stirring to make the tank fluid homogeneous. After the photographs,
the tank was stirred again for 4-1/2 hours by continuous back and forth towing
of the grid by automatic switching. No changes in raggedness and noise resulted
from this stirring. The solution was left in the tank over a 7-day period and
then checked. No changes were found. Thus there is an extreme difference of
behavior of Polyox and JlOO solutions with respect to dependence of the signal
raggedness upon solution age. This difference is similar to their difference
with respect to the dependence of viscosity upon solution age.
The variation of towing-tank solution viscosity with age was studied with a
Caraher, low -shear -rate viscometer (8). Figure 11 gives the relative viscosity
{t]^) measurements- of towing-tank solutions of P301B. The data are in three
groups, according to whether the total amount of polymer added is 2, 4, or 6
SOLU-
Grid Turbulence in Dilute High-Polymer Solutions
pounds. (Solution F-1 has a slightly lower concentration than normal due to
spillage loss.) The results for Solution F-5 at 19 and 25"C show that relative
viscosity is only slightly temperature dependent, so that the difference between
temperatures of 24 and 25C can be ignored. There is fair agreement between
the backward extrapolations of the towing-tank data to one day of age with the
predicted values (based on tests of solutions prepared in small quantities) given
by the horizontal dashed lines. Polymer chain cleavage has been indicated as
the cause of viscosity loss of Polyox solutions (9).
By comparing the data in Fig. 11 with the preparation methods for the vari-
ous solutions in Table 1, some notable relations are found. Comparing Solutions
F-8 and F-1, the change from the direct-dispersal technique to the master
solution technique apparently produced no major change in the loss of specific
viscosity Vs "^
^r
~ ^- Comparing Solution F-5 and F-10, the major increase in
master -solution stirring time, from about 20 to 40 hours, produced no changes
in the decrease.
Table 1
Preparation Methods for Towing-Tank P301B
Solutions Tested with the Caraher Viscometer
Direct-Dispersal Technique
Fabula
The time for raggedness of Polyox solutions to disappear was not noticeably
affected by the range of solution preparation technique. The time depended, of
course, upon the value of x/M of interest. Roughly speaking, the times for rag-
gedness to disappear at x/M = 10.7 were about the same as the times for a 50%
loss of specific viscosity, according to Fig. 11, independent of the solution
preparation technique.
With JlOO solutions prepared in the same way as the P301B solutions, no
significant decrease in -q^ was found over the longest period tested, viz., one
week, and as has been mentioned, there was no decrease of signal raggedness
for the same period.
In Figs. 13 to 16 the water noise level from Fig. 12 is shown by the curve
labeled W.N.L. The increase in noise in the solution is about 5 to 10 db at the
frequencies shown and is fairly independent of solution age. Figure 12 shows
that in water the noise correction would have reached 4 db at about 250 cps. In
the 4-hour-old solution, the noise correction is negligible up to above 250 cps
56
Grid Turbulence in Dilute High-Polymer Solutions
Fabula
-J. 1
Grid Turbulence in Dilute High-Polymer Solutions
-30| 1 1
1
I I
I I I
I 1 1 1
-40
-50-
-60
> -70
SOLUTION
< -80 P30l-3,43hr
C74 V
C79
-90 "v^.N.L.
C84N \
-100
-llO J I I I I I I
10 100 500
FREQUENCY, cps
All the solutions prepared in this work showed some degree of increased
noise level relative to water. The lowest increases were obtained with the
Polyox solutions. Only a limited amount of spectral analysis was done with
other additives than Polyox. With guar gum, there was a high level of noise, due
to visible particles in the suspensions, which greatly restricted the range of x M
in which accurate spectral data could be obtained for the standard sample lengths.
With Separan AP-30 and JlOO, no spectral analysis was done because the signal
raggedness near the grid did not decrease in time and because the higher noise
levels with these additives would have interfered with tests far from the grid.
The decay of raggedness with distance from the grid is seen in the higher
frequency portions of the curves of Fig. 17. In these tests, Solution PC -4,
59
Fabula
-40 I r
-50-
-60-
Qj -70-
80 -
Grid Turbulence in Dilute High-Polymer Solutions
The comparison of the 4j{k) spectrum for the solution with the correspond-
ing spectrum for water must be made with allowance for viscosity difference.
Non-Newtonian behavior is indicated only if the spectral changes cannot be cor-
related with the predictions of the Newtonian-fluid scaling laws for the effects
of a simple viscosity increase.
where 0(k, x/m, v) has been measured for a particular grid, x/M and v , the ef-
fect of changing v to v' in the dissipation range should be given by
Thus if there is an inertial subrange with m = -5/3, the spectral level shift due
to viscosity in that inertially dominated range is zero as expected. Of course,
viscosity increase would not affect the even lower wavenumber range which is
also inertially dominated. Thus Eq. (5) applies only where m < -5/3. The upper
wavenumber for which spectral measurements were made was typically of the
order of k^. Since m ~ -1 for k k^ = 1, the factor (m + 5/3) varies from to
roughly -16/3 over the applicable range in this work. Thus for a 10% increase
in V, the spectral shift will be about -1.6 db. Since the viscosity increases due
61
Fabula
to the additives were often 25%, nonnegligible spectral shifts just due to
Newtonian -fluid effects are to be expected.
thus the expected similarity is found to within the typical measurement scatter.
Similar agreement was found for x/M =12.6 and 20.2.
The magnitudes of the spectral shifts are not evident in Fig. 18 but are seen
in Fig. 19where the spectral level ratio (cold water compared with warm water)
is shown for x/M = 10.7. Also included is the approximate prediction of Eq. (5)
(dashed curve), based on values of m determined graphically from Fig. 18, De-
spite the approximation made in deriving Eq. (5) it can be seen that Fig. 19 is
quite consistent with Fig. 18, so that the approximate relation can be used in
considering viscosity increase in the polymer solutions.
10^ n 1
1
I 1
I I r
1 I
I I I
SOLID CURVE T= 20 7 C
DASHED CURVE T= II 7 "C
"i I
-e-ioH
10-2
I
_l I I 1 _I I I I I I I I
lO"' 1 I I I
62
Grid Turbulence in Dilute High-Polymer Solutions
2[ I I I I
500
FREQUENCY, cps
was lost in the noise. A detailed comparison shows that there are no significant
spectral changes other than those which can be attributed to raggedness. The
estimated viscosity increase was so small that the expected spectral shift due
to viscosity increase was insignificant.
For higher concentrations of Polyox, two other types of spectral shift were
observed. The first type was a greater scatter in spectral measurements near
the grid. A possible cause of such behavior could be temporary sensor sensi-
tivity loss, due to intermittent coating. However, no abrupt changes of signal
level were ever observed. Another possible cause is poorer mixing of the wakes
of the grid bars, since the diffusion of turbulent wakes has been shown to be re-
duced even by low Polyox concentrations (10). The grid-turbulence experiment
is not appropriate for a study of the wake mixing, for which a large increase in
the number of runs would be necessary. With older solutions or greater x/M the
scatter of spectral measurements was the same as the scatter in water.
The final type of spectral shift in the more concentrated Polyox solutions
was that due to the viscosity increase. An example of this type of shift can be
seen with Fig. 20, which gives the relative spectral curves for water and Solu-
tion F-5 at 66 hours, both for x/M = 39. Considering Fig. 6 which shows wave-
forms for x/M = 20.2 and 72 hours, and noting the similar effects of grid dis-
tance and solution age, we can assume that the waveforms in Fig. 6 for x m =
20.2 would have also applied, except in amplitude, to x m = 39 at 66 hours. Thus
no spectral effects due to raggedness are expected. In Fig. 20, the curve for
the solution departs from the data points due to the usual noise correction, and
the curve is stopped when the correction becomes 4 db. When correction of
63
Fabula
T 1 1 1 1
1 I 1
1 1
T
-50 -
< -80
o D WATER , 18 3 "C
-100
_J I III I I I J I I I I I I I J I l_
10 100
FREQUENCY cps .
S 4 "T
1 1
I I I -I
1
r
_l I L.
100 500
FREQUENCY , cps
64
Grid Turbulence in Dilute High-Polymer Solutions
+3.6 db to the solution curve (due to sensor replacement by one of much lower
sensitivity) is made, the spectral level shift data in Fig. 21 are obtained.
The amount of the spectral shift can be compared with the predicted shift
due to simple viscosity increase according to Kolmogoroff similarity with con-
stant dissipation. Using the relative viscosity measurements on Solution F-5
discussed earlier, the viscosity ratio v' for 66 hours can be estimated as 1.27.
'"ly
Thus the dashed curve in Fig. 21 results from the viscosity spectral shift rela-
tion of Eq. (5). The agreement is as good as in the case of the cold-water tests.
Thus there is no evidence of any non-Newtonian effects.
Spectral shift curves for solution F-5 for various solution ages and x/M =
10.7 are given in Fig. 22. The theoretical dashed curve is for 73 hours, but ap-
plies for all three solution ages, since the decrease of viscosity ratio from 1.27
to 1.23 for 66.5 to 85 hours produces only a 4% decrease in log (v' /v)
The changes in signal waveforms in Fig. 6 for x/M = 10.7 between 72 and 83
hours can be compared with the changes in spectral shift for the same x/M in
Fig. 22 for roughly the same period. It is clear that as the solution ages the
decrease of raggedness reveals more and more of the spectral shift due to the
65
Fabula
viscosity increase. Similar behavior was found for the lower P301B concentra-
tions, except that the viscosity spectral shifts was not so large. The theoretical
prediction for the absence of any non -Newtonian effects is given in the following
section.
DISCUSSION
1/2
t^(e/v)^^^ ^ [k/kj)^ E(k)/( 1^5)1/4]- ^
(7)
Corrsin also considers two other characteristic times: t^^ for energy ex-
change due to pressure-velocity correlations and t^ for viscous dissipation,
t^ has to be assumed to be approximately equal to t^, t^ becomes appreciably
smaller than t^ only for k/k^ > 1. In this region, we can expect that the effects
of viscoelasticity to be difficult to separate experimentally from purely viscous
non-Newtonian effects.
smaller than the minimum characteristic times associated with the turbulence,
66
Grid Turbulence in Dilute High-Polymer Solutions
1 1
1
I I I I I
I
1
1
I
I I I M I
I I r
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
we may expect experimentally significant viscoelastic effects upon the grid tur-
bulence to first appear at k/k^ ~ 1/2, and we presume the effect would become
significant when
t re/z.)i/V2 (8)
The molecular theories (14-16) which predict the value of t^ are for sufficiently
dilute solutions that the macromolecular coils are well separated. Thus
100 Voh^l^
(9)
Na^bT
67
Fabula
c'NAkgT
Wecan make only a crude prediction of t^ with Eqs. (9) and (10), because
of theunknown molecular weight distributions of the industrial Polyox polymers
used. Thus for P301B with Iv] ~ 20 dl/g and ==4x10^, we obtain t^ 0.002
fri
sec from Eq. (9). With this value and v = 0.01 cm^/sec, Eq. (8) gives a required
e of about 10"* cm^/sec-^. This value is extremely high compared with values
in the present grid-turbulence flow. With m/Uq^ ~ 12/34 sec Vcm^, the required
value of eMAJg^ is about 3, while from data in Ref. 1 the extrapolated value for
x/M = 5 is about 0.01. Five mesh widths is as close to the grid as one might
hope to find some degree of turbulence homogeneity. Thus the dissipation rates
in the grid-turbulence experiment are too low by a factor of 300 to expect any
effect on the turbulence spectrum. If we assume that the ratio of times in Eq.
(8) needs to be only about 1/3 instead of 1, the dissipation rates are still too low
by a factor of about 30. Thus no viscoelastic effect upon the turbulence spec-
trum in this work is expected.
The need for matching the viscoelastic relaxation time to the minimum tur-
bulence characteristic time became clear early in this work. It was thought
that polymer concentration could be increased to produce the desired magnitude
of t_^. The task of solution preparation became formidable when the master
solution technique was introduced in an attempt to solve the raggedness prob-
lem. Nevertheless, much higher concentrations than 140 ppm could be used in
the towing tank. However, the present results indicate that this is not worth-
while until the signal raggedness can be eliminated or circumvented.
68
Grid Turbulence in Dilute High-Polymer Solutions
must be solved before the desired near match of characteristic times can be
achieved in the grid-turbulence experiment.
Another mechanism by which the bars of the grid might produce raggedness
is by accumulating smaller clusters on their stagnation lines. Presumably the
rate of accumulation would be balanced by a washoff of temporary agglomerates
of a much larger size than the constituent clusters, so that the sensor might de-
tect only the agglomerates.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author thanks his thesis advisor. Professor John L. Lumley, for com-
prehensive guidance during this work (1). This research was supported by the
Bureau of Naval Weapons as a part of a graduate study program in Hydrodynam-
ics of Submerged Bodies. The work of Professor Lumley was supported in part
by ONR.
69
Fabula
REFERENCES
1. Fabula, A.G., "An Experimental Study of Grid Turbulence in Dilute High-
Polymer Solutions," Ph.D. Thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 1966
2. Singh, K., "Non -Newtonian Effects on the Turbulent Energy Spectrum Func-
tion," Ph.D. Thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 1966
3. Weissberg, S.G., Simha, R., and Rothman, S., "Viscosity of Dilute and Mod-
erately Concentrated Polymer Solutions," J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stds. 47:298-
314 (1951)
5. Lighthill, M.J., "The Response of Laminar Skin Friction and Heat Transfer
to Fluctuations in the Stream Velocity," Proc. Roy. Soc. 224A:l-23 (1954)
11. Spriggs, T.W., and Bird, R.B., "Some Nonlinear Viscoelastic Models with
Inclusion of Results from Molecular Theory," Ind, Eng. Chem. Fund.
4:182-186 (1965)
12. Corrsin, S., "Local Isotropy in Turbulent Shear Flow," NACA Res. Mem.
RM 58B11, Washington, D.C., 1958
14. Rouse, P.E., Jr., "A Theory of the Linear Viscoelastic Properties of Dilute
Solutions of Coiling Polymers," J. Chem. Phys. 21:1272-1820 (1953)
70
Grid Turbulence in Dilute High-Polymer Solutions
18. Patterson, G.K., Hershey, H.C., Green, CD., and Zakin, J.L., "Effect of
Degradation by Pumping on Normal Stresses in Polyisobutyline Solutions,"
unpublished
DISCUSSION
G. E. Gadd
National Physical Laboratory
Felt ham, Middlesex, England
71
Fabula
DISCUSSION
Richard L. Hummel
University of Toronto
Toronto, Canada
This work was well conceived and carefully conducted, and the "signal rag-
gedness" which seems to have frustrated the original aims of determing a fre-
quency distribution curve for comparison with that predicted theoretically by
certain models may suggest important aspects in the behaviour of these solutions
which had not been sufficiently expected. Ideally, possibly one -half of our ex-
perimental work should come out in the form we are prepared for, or possibly
expect, so that it may be tied up in a neat package for the scientific community,
and the remainder, which at first does not seem as satisfactory, may eventually
lead us to new experiments and insights.
The author's suggestion that clusters of macromolecules may exist and con-
tribute substantially to the raggedness is certainly justified from the high at-
traction of water molecules for each other relative to their interaction with
ether linkages as would be present in the Polyox WSR-301. Thus the water
molecules would squeeze the polymer molecules together into clusters. It is
well known that much smaller molecules, such as soaps and detergents will
cluster under similar conditions into relatively large micelles. The ratio of
polar bonds to hydrocarbon segment is high and, therefore, more favourable for
these macromolecules than for most soaps and detergents, and the larger mole-
cule considerably reduces the opposing entropy effect of molecular association.
Thus, larger molecules are statistically more likely to be associated with each
other.
*E,J. Ryan, J.W. Smith, and R.L. Hummel, "Dynamically Preferred Particle
Orientations in Liquid Fluidized Beds," submitted to International Symposium
on Fluidization, Eindhoven, 1967.
72
Grid Turbulence in Dilute High-Polymer Solutions
in vertical streamers, and the planes will tend to rotate first clockwise and then
counterclockwise in the tube. Another more unexpected observation, resulting
from the fact that our optical system was similar to that for a Tyndall beam
(which is very sensitive to small suspended material), was that very small col-
loidal suspended material was separated into regions of high and low concentra-
tion on passing through the fluidized bed. That is, as tracers they did not truly
follow the streamlines. This observation has led to the thought that inherent in
the absence of density differences larger particles of micron or submicron size
simply cannot follow the consorted movement of molecules precisely, and that
furthermore if such larger entities are present in appreciable concentration
they would tend to stabilize flow patterns such as eddies or vortices. Even in
the absence of elastic behaviour larger entities must move as a unit from, for
example, one eddy to a new eddy, while with eddies in collision, the fluid itself
can gradually be sheared off into, for example, a new smaller eddy. A macro-
molecule or larger entity would tend to be carried with the fluid unit in which
most of its mass resides, and any remnant in an opposing flow would be pulled
at least to the interface between the two. The shearing down of an eddy in size
would become more difficult, although loss of momentum would not necessarily
be prevented.
With regard to the raggedness. Prof. Metzner in the previous paper has al-
ready suggested that the probe will have a thickened stabilized boundary layer
at the leading edge as well as further along the probe due to the viscoelastic be-
haviour of the fluid and that this layer is sensitive to factors other than strictly
the fluid velocity. It is also known for Newtonian fluids that a towed grid such
as used in this study will create not only general turbulence but also pronounced
vortices near the grid bars and particularly the crossings. These normally lose
their identity or die out a short distance behind the grid, but in a solution of
macromolecules these vortices might retain their identity for a considerably
longer distance behind the grid. The periodic interaction of these vortices with
the probe boundary layer would contribute to the raggedness observed.
REPLY TO DISCUSSION
A. G. Fabula
73
Fabula
incipient overlap of the macromolecular coils in the solution at rest, since ap-
proximate theoretical calculations give that value as roughly a few hundred ppm.
Thus, if entanglements are formed at much lower concentrations, the relative
motion of the coils and their deformation due to flow may also be involved.
*B.-J. Tu and W.W. Willmarth, "An Experimental Study of the Structure of Tur-
bulence Near the Wall Through Correlation Measurements in a Thick Turbulent
Boundary Layer," University of Michigan, Dept. of Aerospace Eng. Tech. Rep.
02930-T, 1966.
'A.G. Fabula, J.L. Lumley, and W.D. Taylor, "Some Interpretations of the Toms
Effect," in "Modern Developments in the Mechanics of Continua," Acadennic
Press, New York, 1966.
74
Thursday, September 29, 1966
Afternoon Session
PHYSICS OF FLUIDS
Chairman: A. Silverleaf
Page
75
CAVITATION, TENSILE STRENGTH, AND THE
SURFACE FILMS OF GAS NUCLEI
Leslie H. Bernd
Research and Development Center
General Electric Company
Schenectady N. Y.
,
Surfaces were sought that did not promote cavitation when in contact with
water. These surfaces were used to encapsulate sonar transducers. With these
transducers, appreciable tensile strengths were found to exist in water; i.e.,
power levels higher than normal were obtained without cavitation.
The tensile strength of water is set by the gas nuclei present in the water.
Using encapsulated transducers, the behavior of gas nuclei was followed by
measuring tensile strength. Surface films were found to form about the nuclei,
retarding the acquisition of tensile strength. To acquire an understanding of
these surface films, various waters were tested. Also, surface films were
created about gas nuclei from solutions of hydrocarbons and proteins in water.
SUMMARY
This paper summarizes some of the results of experimental investigations
into the basic factors that determine the tensile strength of water. The stress
range covered was 0-100 psi. These factors in effect determine the "cavitation
properties" of water, since they can set the level of inception of cavitation, and
to a certain extent affect its intensity and violence.
The underlying purpose was to learn how to achieve two opposite applica-
tions; the prevention of tensile strength where considered undesirable, and the
obtaining of tensile strength where useful. In addition, the action of gas nuclei
and other factors related to tensile strength are in many ways something of a
mystery. Knowledge of these factors should be important to our basic under-
standing of cavitation phenomena.
For instance tensile strength has occasionally been noted in water tunnels
(1,2). The inception of cavitation has occurred at higher stress levels than cus-
tomarily expected. Higher flow velociti'es or lower tunnel pressures than nor-
mal have been needed to produce cavitation about a body. The tensile strength
acts as if an additional static head were present. In this case, tensile strength
isundesirable in order to make for a uniformity of test results, and duplicate
"prototype" conditions.
77
Bernd
The tensile strength of the water once weak water/solid interfaces were
removed was limited by the presence of gas nuclei in the water. Gas nuclei
are small bubbles containing air. When cavitating, gas nuclei are the end prod-'
ucts of cavitation voids produced in a low pressure area. Waves and splashing
at the surface, of water ingest small air bubbles to produce nuclei.
In a body of water, the tensile strength should increase with depth. This is
due to several actions. Generally speaking, the tensile strength of the water is
inversely proportional to the maximum size of gas nuclei present. Large bubbles
that prevent tensile strength from occurring rise rapidly to the surface; small
bubbles rise slowly and so remain behind. However, small bubbles tend to dis-
solve. A high ratio of interface surface to gas volume, and internal pressure
created within the bubble by surface tension, favor the dissolving of small
bubbles. In addition, dissolving is promoted by increasing depth. Hence bubble
size decreases with increasing depth because of the relative rates of rise, and
because of dissolving.
Tensile strength tests were made to see if this picture were so. Figure 1
gives the tensile strength obtained versus depth in two fresh water lakes, using
the specially constructed sonar transducers to stress the water. The tensile
strength did indeed increase with depth. A 6.7-db increase in power level above
the "normal" inception of cavitation was obtained at a 39.4-foot depth before
cavitation took place. Thus a 36.1-psi tensile strength was obtained at a 39.4-
foot depth, and the transducer cavitated as if it were at a 123.0-foot depth
78
Cavitation, Tensile Strength, and the Surface Films of Gas Nuclei
Bernd
faster or slower dissolving than the "prototype" norm, and largely duplicate the
action of various natural waters.
The body of this paper reports upon the basic investigations of surfaces,
water, and surface films of gas nuclei.
CONCLUSIONS
It was found that usable tensile strength can exist in water in nature; labo-
ratory conditions and extreme purity of water are not prerequisites. However,
this tensile strength may not be realized because of the nature of the solid ma-
terials in contact with the water. Also the maximum tensile strength obtainable
may be limited by surface films retarding or preventing the dissolving of gas
nuclei entrained in the water.
On the other hand, fast dissolving water with little film formation can also
exist,and should be a partial explanation of the occurrence of tensile strength
in water tunnels.
Surface films about gas nuclei are produced by trace organic materials
possessing solubilities in the order of 100 to 10 parts per million. These ma-
terials are surfactant; i.e., they are able to migrate to the surface of the nucleus
and form a monolayer. Thus a low concentration in solution is brought to a high
concentration at the surface. A monolayer is a layer one molecule thick. The
monolayer may be surrounded by additional structure -building materials.
WATER/SOLID INTERFACE
A container, pipe, or some form of solid surface is usually to be fovmd in
contact with water. Solids are often present as debris. Therefore the inception
of cavitation was measured for different solid materials immersed in "strong"
water possessing tensile strength. Thus, the water/solid interface was made
the weak link under test. Materials were cemented to the face of a glass-housed
acoustic transducer used to produce cavitation. Glass is a "high strength,"
noncavitating material. Rough screening tests were also performed, using
supersaturated carbon dioxide water solutions in contact with the material to
stress the water/solid bond.
80
Cavitation, Tensile Strength, and the Surface Films of Gas Nuclei
Gas on the surface of solid materials in contact with water was found to be
responsible for cavitation at very low stress levels. In fact, most solid mate-
rials were unable to achieve tensile strength with water unless air was first
removed from the surface of the material. Poor molecular bonding started to
be important in the 40 to 50 psi tensile stress range.
Gas
If only a few air bubbles were present on a surface in contact with the
water, cavitation was brief at high stress levels, ceasing as soon as the bubbles
were hurled away from the surface of the material by the violence of the cavita-
tion action. Operation at high stress levels thus provided a ready means of
removing gas from a surface to make it suitable for noncavitating duty.
On the other hand, numerous nucleation sites may exist on a surface, seed-
ing cavitation for extended periods of time. Nucleation sites are usually small
pores or surface imperfections a few microns in size containing gas (17). De-
pending upon the characteristics of the material at hand, prolonged soaking may
often (but not always) dissolve gas to remove sites from action.
3. Pores in ceramics.
A rating of a few materials for noncavitating duty in the light of these ex-
periences is given in Table 1. Galvanic action is included as being undesirable;
low carbon steel was found unable to achieve high tensile strength because of it.
Glass in the form of Pyrex beakers was used to face the acoustic trans-
ducers used in the laboratory. The transducers (18 kc/s) were small, and so
could readily be encapsulated in a class beaker. Wet, clean glass was outstand-
ing in being nonporous, without nucleation sites, while possessing a wetting
angle approaching zero. Polyurethane was used for large prototype sonar
Cavitation, Tensile Strength, and the Surface Films of Gas Nuclei
e -^
BUBBLE DOES NOT
ADHERE TO SURFACE
r"-?
77 OS.^
^ 7
7
7
7
7
7- 7 7-
e 90--
BUBBLE ADHERES
TENACIOUSLY TO
SURFACE
Table 1
Rating of Materials for Noncavitating Duty
Ranking
Bernd
Solid materials were treated to remove gas from the surface. Physical
surface contaminants foreign to the material (oil, grease, dirt) were removed.
Thus the weak link under observation was the bond between water and solid.
Materials were selected over as wide a spectrum as possible. Correlations
were sought between known physical properties and bond strength so that entire
general categories of materials could be classified as being "cavitating" or
"noncavitating" on the basis of a reasonable number of tests.
It was assumed that the tensile strength of the bond between water and solid
was obtained when increasingly severe degassing treatments did not raise the
tensile strength any further. An initial treatment was soaking in ethyl alcohol
or water and then if necessary subjecting the solid immersed in these liquids to
higher and higher pressures. This forced gas to dissolve. Assuming adverse
conditions of geometry and wetting angle, the pore size filled in overcoming the
surface tension of water in this way is approximately as given in Table 2. Little
change was noticed above 100 psi, implying that pore sizes much less than a
micron were not present as a rule.
Table 2
Pore Size Filled in a Solid Immersed at Pressure
Pressure
Applied
(psi)
Cavitation, Tensile Strength, and the Surface Films of Gas Nuclei
One can roughly categorize materials by their typeof atomic bond: co-
valent or ionic, Covalent materials do not bond as well as ionic materials.
Langmuir showed this by a comparison of the heat of evaporation of alcohols
possessing different ratios of covalent (hydrocarbon) groups to ionic (OH)
groups in the alcohol molecule (3). Many materials are not strictly covalent or
ionic but a simultaneous combination of the two. Water is highly ionic (polar),
and bonds to adjacent molecules via hydrogen bonds. Thus there should be an
increasing adhesion to water as a material contains more ionic groups, or if the
groups themselves are more highly ionic.
One would therefore expect the poorest adhesion to water to result with low-
surface -energy, covalent compounds. If the tensile strength of such a poor bond
were appreciable in magnitude, then tensile strength with water as a general
case should be readily obtainable, since all other materials would be likely to
exhibit higher tensile strengths.
Surface energy (by definition) is the energy expended to create ideally a surface
where none existed before. For liquids, a related property is surface tension.
Water has a surface tension of 73 dynes /cm. This is numerically equal to the
surface energy of water. That is, 73 ergs would be expended to create a square
centimeter of water surface in contact with air, using water originating from
the interior of the liquid where no surface exists.
85
Bernd
Table 3
Tensile Strength with Water of Low-Surface-Energy,
Covalent Materials
Material
Cavitation, Tensile Strength, and the Surface Films of Gas Nuclei
Table 5
Tensile Strength Between Water and Polymers
Material
Bernd
in practice. Moreover, foreign materials in liquid form were found not to cause
cavitation where a similar material in solid form did. Thus a hydrocarbon oil
did not limit tensile strength, whereas a hydrocarbon solid surface did.
A few seaweed samples in sea water were tested. The weakest caused
cavitation at a 16.2-psi tensile stress; others were appreciably higher. The
cause of rupture appeared to be gas in pores on the surface of the seaweed.
Thus it may be necessary to prevent marine growths from accumulating in
order to maintain a "high- strength" surface.
Because of their small size, and the internal pressure created as a con-
sequence of surface tension, gas nuclei should dissolve within a few minutes in
still water (8), but paradoxically they do not appear to do so. It has been sug-
gested that this is due to organic surface films forming a shell about the gas
nuclei (9), creating a barrier that prevents diffusion of the gas from the high-
pressure area within the bubble into the surrounding water. To determine the
extent to which dissolving might thus be retarded, different waters were cavi-
tated to create gas nuclei; and the behavior of the nuclei was followed by meas-
uring the tensile strength of the water.
Tensile Strength
4a
P =
D X 69,000
where o is the effective surface tension (dynes/cm), D is the diameter of the
nucleus (cm), and P is the tensile strength (psi). If no surface films are
The above tests were done at room temperature. No measurements were made
close to O'C, where Briggs found the inherent tensile strength of water to be
300 psi as contrasted to a maximum of about 4000 psi at 10C (27). Briggs'
measurements were made in a glass tube, presumably without nuclei present.
88
Cavitation, Tensile Strength, and the Surface Films of Gas Nuclei
present at the interface between gas and water, the surface tension acting is
that of water, 73 dynes/cm. The surface tension acts to pressurize the gas
within the nucleus and also to oppose the growth of the nucleus when a tensile
stress is applied to the water. When the tensile stress in the water is greater
than the pressure within the nucleus, the nucleus expands and the water is
ruptured to cause cavitation. The equilibrium stress for the incidence of rup-
ture (versus nucleus size) is calculated to be as follows:
Table 6
Limiting Tensile Strength of Water Due to Nuclei
(Surface Films Absent)
Nucleus Diameter
(jU, or 10""* cm)
Bernd
ACOUSTICALLY TRANSPARENT
CONTAINER USED FOR SOME
SURFACE OF WATER SAMPLES
2'
TANK I'x I' X
TrZ'Zr^
UN WALL
lANR
/ / ^^""'^'' ACrSTl'^ANSDUCER
^q STRESS WATER
CALIBRATING PROBE
(NORMALLY WITHDRAWN)
a. TEST SET-UP
IDEAL DISSOLVING
'(NO SURFACE FILMS)
NO DISSOLVING (HEAVY
SURFACE FILMS) NUCLEI
RISE TO SURFACE
T = TIME
The nuclei produced are sorted out as to size by rising toward the open top
of the test tank inaccordance with Stokes' law. The maximum diameter of nuclei
retained in the water is approximately 0.01 cm. Dissolving is produced essen-
tially by the surface tension of the water creating pressure within the nuclei.
The water is maintained at saturated equilibrium with dissolved air. The trans-
ducers are of such size and frequency (18 kc/s) that the acoustic intensity de-
creases rapidly with increasing distance from the active face of the transducer.
Thus nuclei and water are stressed at maximum intensity very close to the face
of the transducer at a given height in the water. This height is held constant.
If no surface films are present, the curve for "ideal dissolving" is followed,
making for a rapid acquisition of tensile strength, as shown in Fib. 4b. If no
dissolving takes place, the subsequent increase in tensile strength due to rising
of nuclei to the surface is slow, following the "no dissolving" curve shown in
Fig. 4b. Waters possessing different film effects fall between these two
extremes.
90
Cavitation, Tensile Strength, and the Surface Films of Gas Nuclei
conclude that surface films must be acting for all slower dissolving waters.
Concentrated nitric acid was therefore tested to provide a standard for ideal
dissolving, since it is inconceivable that the conditions required for surface
film formation can exist. Nitric acid is highly oxidizing and should break down
organic materials to simple molecules and ions, whereas relatively long, high-
molecular -weight surfactant molecules are necessary for film formation. Cor-
rections were made for differences in diffusion coefficients, viscosity, and sur-
face tension where necessary.
Some results are given (Fig. 5) to show the range of nuclei dissolving en-
countered. Three general categories of water were identified, covering
approximately a 100:1 variation in the time required to reach appreciable
tensile strength. They were:
100
Bernd
These tests were done in still water; turbulent flow should considerably
increase the rate of dissolving.
Water Tunnels - The 36-in.-tunnelt water, the 24-in. -tunnel water, and
drinking water from the David Taylor Model Basin were tested, and were found
to be identical in surface film behavior (Fig. 6). There was a rapid, high gain
of tensile strength after cavitation, much higher in fact than any natural, "proto-
type" water that had been tested. This is directly opposite to what one would
prefer to see: little or no tensile strength gain. The rate of dissolving was
similar to distilled water (Fig. 7).
The water supply for the David Taylor Model Basin is principally Potomac
River water that has been treated. Chlorination is one of the treatments used.
The implication is that chlorination has destroyed the organic contaminants that
would normally be responsible for surface film formation. The tunnels are
closed systems using well water for makeup, so that there is little likelihood of
subsequent contamination.
A peculiarity of the test results is that the tensile strength versus time data
randomly fell on two curves. It was as if two types of surface films were capa-
ble of being formed, but the start of one a random event excluded the other. J
Both of the curves obtained represent rapid dissolving.
After March 31, 1967, renamed Naval Ship Research and Development Center.
tThroat size of nozzle in test section. See Ref. 10 for a description of the David
Taylor Model Basin tunnels and the towing basins.
tThis effect would not be noticeable at a low tensile strength since many nuclei
are present. Water possessing appreciable tensile strength generally has only
a few nuclei of a given strength in the volume of water (approximately 1 cc)
stressed to rupture.
92
Cavitation, Tensile Strength, and the Surface Films of Gas Nuclei
, IDEAL DISSOLVING
.' (NO SURFACE FILMS)
Bernd
Cavitation, Tensile Strength, and the Surface Films of Gas Nuclei
TIME - MINUTES
/ /
AFTER .EGG ALBUMIN IN DISTILLED
/ S*^ WATER - EXTENDED CAVITATION
-7^
/
EGG ALBUMIN IN DISTILLED
WATER - MODERATE CAVITATION
CAVITATION
A B
40
TIME - MINUTES
95
Bernd
One can conclude that certain types of hydrocarbons and proteins should be
suitable for forming effective surface films about gas nuclei, were it not for two
important uncertainties: Can a hydrocarbon dissolve and form an adequate film
from solution? Can a protein film prevent dissolving? These gaps in the pic-
ture were subsequently investigated experimentally.
It seems reasonable that a surface film about a nucleus can oppose dis-
solving in various ways, i.e., by:
96
Cavitation, Tensile Strength, and the Surface Films of Gas Nuclei
specifies a minimum molecular weight. Here again, there should also be a limit
to the maximum molecular weight suitable. The ability of a molecule to diffuse
and be transported to the surface decreases as the molecule weight increases.
In addition, the molecule may become too cumbersome to align readily at the
surface. Thus, for a given type of molecule, there should be a maximum molec-
ular weight beyond which film formation cannot take place readily.
strong and highly elastic, so that the film in its early stages can follow the mo-
tions of a cavitation void or bubble surface without being destroyed. Also,
strength would be desirable to prevent the crushing postulated by Fox and
Herzfeld as the end of the life of a nucleus. Thus, different mechanical prop-
erties should affect nuclei performance. One would expect a thicker hydrocar-
bon film (higher molecular weight) to be stronger in compression and more
rigid.
97
Bernd
extensive cavitation, thus implying that an insoluble protein film was being pro-
duced that subsequently could not redissolve to continue the film forming action.
A hydrocarbon film upon compression behaves similarly, but should ultimately
redissolve.
A barrier to gas diffusion should be selected on the basis that it have few
holes in it, and/or be thick. The molecules comprising the film should be
tightly packed. If the surface film of a protein could be highly compressed, as
may occur when a nucleus dissolves, examination of the molecular structure
leads one to conclude that some proteins should have a resistance to diffusion of
about the same order of magnitude as a hydrocarbon. A few tests in the litera-
ture on compressed protein films (on gases other than air) do show appreciable
resistance to diffusion (21), tending to support this supposition.
The general form of various linear, chain hydrocarbons capable of film for-
mation, and known to offer a barrier to gas diffusion, are given in Fig. 11a. The
molecules have no side branches, and so pack well together. The alcohol, fatv
acid, and amine shown each have different polar ends, i.e., OH, COOH, CH2NH2.
Otherwise the composition and form are similar. The length of the molecule is
varied by changing the number of repeating hydrocarbon units. To give an idea
of the length we are concerned
with, cetyl alcohol is 16 carbon
ALCOHOL units long. At a surface, these
molecules align side by side to
form a film as shown in Fig. lib.
In studies of the diffusion of water
Cavitation, Tensile Strength, and the Surface Films of Gas Nuclei
vapor through hydrocarbon surface films, has been found that a compressed
it
groups. Attached to this backbone are hydrocarbon chains from one to six
repeating units long, or chains with a COOH or NH2 group at the end. Each
chain is represented by the term R. The endless variety of proteins encoun-
tered in nature is due to the various different chains (R), and the different
sequences and patterns in which these chains are attached to the polypeptide
backbone (23). In an uncompressed form, the side chains R are stretched out
on the surface of the water. The R chains are identified by examining the
breakdown products of proteins. Several dozen of these amino acids are
known (24).
CO NH CH
99
Bernd
Thus, a protein film is thinner than a hydrocarbon such as cetyl alcohol, but
under favorable circumstances could have smaller spacings between adjacent
molecular groups. Hence, because the basic dimensions of the two types of
films can be "roughly" the same given the proper R chains in the protein, the
resistance to diffusion under such conditions should be of approximately the
same order of magnitude. It is conceivable that various mechanical properties
might also be somewhat similar. The problem of course is to find proteins of
the proper structure.
The first experimental step was to see whether hydrocarbon films would
form unaided from solution, as would have to take place in nature. Some infor-
mation was available for proteins (19).
Saturated solutions were used to promote film formation. They were made
by stirring an excess of the material at length in water, after using a wetting
agent. Desired was the maximum molecular weight capable of forming a film
within a few seconds rather than, as can be the case, minutes or hours. This
would then ensure that a surface film is present (in the cavitation test) from the
inception of a nucleus.
Testing for the existence of a surface film was done by placing the solu-
tions in a Langmuir trough and highly compressing the surface to see if a film
had been formed. The film was then swept off the surface of the water and the
creation of a new film checked immediately thereafter. The Langmuir trough
is a device for restraining a film between barriers, compressing the film to
occupy a smaller surface area, and measuring the reaction of the film to
compression.
Various gelatins and gelling agents were also tried with some success, as
listed in Table 8. Gelatins are obtained from animal proteins and are composed
mainly of amines and carboxyls, i.e., proteins or protein fragments. Polyhall
is a synthetic polyacrylamide (CH2CHCOHN2). Jaguar, a plant derivative, was
included even though it is primarily a carbohydrate containing only 5% protein.
100
Cavitation, Tensile Strength, and the Surface Films of Gas Nuclei
Table 7
Surface Film Formation* of Linear Hydrocarbons
from Saturated Water Solutions
No. of Carbon
Atoms
Bernd
make the solutions. The results are given in Table 9. Increasing tensile
strength means less retardation of dissolving.
Table 9
Effect of Monomolecular Films on Nuclei Dissolving
(Tensile Strength 30 Minutes After Cavitation)
2. The thickest possible hydrocarbon films were used. Thus the resistance
of the film to gas diffusion and the strength of the film were the maximum pos-
sible, so as to obtain the greatest retardation in dissolving possible.
4. The "best" hydrocarbon and protein films reduced the rate of nuclei
dissolving from the ideal by almost an order of magnitude. This should be a
useful difference.
6. Nevertheless, dissolving of the nuclei was not fully retarded. Tap water
in which algae were growing had negligible tensile strength gain due to dissolv-
ing. Thus nature had apparently done much better than we had. Since the mono-
molecular films used were the best possible, one had to conclude that the only
means by which dissolving could be further retarded would be that additional
materials must surround the monomolecular film. Therefore a "double" film
was devised that prevented virtually all dissolving.
In doing all this, one obtained a picture of what must take place in nature
when a heavy surface film prevents dissolving of gas nuclei. That is:
2. The film must have a structure built upon it by gel-like materials which
are in themselves nonsurfactant.
3. The molecular bonds formed must be weak and shear readily, so that
each type of material retains its original characteristics as the water moves
and flows, so as to be able to act when a nucleus is encountered.
COMMENTARY
has been shown that surface films that retard the dissolving of nuclei
It
come from trace organic materials normally considered insoluble. The term
"trace materials" implies considerable variability in the ability of water to
form surface films, as has been found to be the case. It is reasonable to expect
105
Bernd
wide variations in the amounts of trace materials carried in water, and differ-
ences in the characteristics of these materials.
Yet, the conclusion that a double film structure exists in nature implies
that almost any surfactant material is capable of forming monomolecular films
that are effective in retarding dissolving, provided that a second film forms
about the monomolecular film. The second film should be producible from a
wide variety of ionic/polar structural building materials such as gelatins,
starches, and sugars. Hence, the ability to form effective surface films about
nuclei could be widespread as also appears to be the case. By comparison,
the surfactant hydrocarbon materials used in this investigation for monomolec-
ular film formation were specially chosen to be capable of close packing a
category that may not necessarily be widely found in nature.
The testing of water from various water tunnel test facilities showed a
relative absence of film formation. As a consequence, when small nuclei are
produced by cavitation action, tensile strength probably can result in the water
approaching a test section. The characteristics of the body being cavitation
tested as well as the attendant flow conditions should markedly affect the
size of the nuclei produced. Testing for incipient cavitation should produce
small cavitation voids with small nuclei as the end product. Heavy cavitation
and long dwell times in a low pressure region should produce large nuclei.
Thus one is left with the conclusion that nuclei action in a tunnel must be cor-
related to the type of test at hand, as well as the film-forming tendencies of the
water.
The preceding discussion points out the gross variability of surface film
effects,whereas one would like to be in a position to control or limit them.
Several approaches might be possible in a water tunnel, such as: (a) marking
off an undesirable region of operation to be avoided, (b) having uniform effects
that can be corrected for, (c) using film-forming additives to retard dissolving,
and (d) deliberately injecting suitable nuclei. Using film-forming materials
would require periodic replenishment of the materials. Depending upon the
materials chosen, one can probably expect some spoilage due to bacteria, some
breakdown of the molecules due to cavitation forces, and, for a protein, insolu-
bility causing withdrawal from action. Also, fatty acids, acting as a soap, can
combine with minerals in the water.
REFERENCES
1. Olson, "Cavitation Testing in Water Tunnels," St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic
Lab Project Report 42, Dec. 1954
106
Cavitation, Tensile Strength, and the Surface Films of Gas Nuclei
8. Epstein and Plesset, "On the Stability of Gas Bubbles in Liquid-Gas Solu-
tions," J.Chem. Phys. 18 (Nov. 1950)
9. Fox and Her zf eld, "Gas Bubbles with Organic Skin as Cavitation Nuclei," J.
Acoust. Soc. Amer. 26 (Nov. 1954)
12. Adam, "The Physics and Chemistry of Surfaces," Oxford University Press,
1941
16. Archer and La Mer, "The Rate of Evaporation of Water Through Fatty Acid
Monolayers," J. Phys. Chem. 59 (1955)
17. Clark, Strenge, and Westwater, "Active Sites for Nucleate Boiling," Chem.
Engineering Progress Symposium Series, No. 29, Vol. 55, 1959
18. Devaux, "The Absorption of Egg Albumin at the Free Surface of its Solution
when the Concentration Varies from 10" ^ to 10"^," Comptes Rendus, 1935
20. Goldacre, "Surface Films, Their Collapse on Compression, the Shapes and
Sizes of Cells and the Origin of Life," in "Surface Phenomena in Chemistry
and Biology," Danielli, Pankhurst, and Riddeford, Pergamon Press, 1958
107
Bernd
21. Hawke and Alexander, "The Influence of Surface- Active Compounds upon
the Diffusion of Gases across the Air-Water Interface," in Ref. 14
22. Gorter, Ormondt, and Dom, "The Spreading of Ovalbumin," Proc. K. Acad.
Wetensch, Amsterdam 35 (1932)
23. Stein and Moore, "The Chemical Structure of Proteins," The Scientific
American 204, Feb. 1961
26. Hsieh and Plesset, "Theory of Rectified Diffusion of Mass into Gas Bubbles,"
J.Acoust. Soc. Amer. 33(No. 2), 1961
27. Briggs, "Limiting Negative Pressure of Water," J. Appl. Phys. 21:721 (1950)
DISCUSSION
C.-A. Johnsson
Swedish State Shipbuilding Experimental Tank
Goteborg, Sweden
The results for gas content ratio a/a^ = 0.6, corrected for wall influence
on water speed and cavitation number, are shown in Fig. Dl. You can see that
there is a considerable dispersion around the value of the pressure minimum
for the body, which corresponds to a = 0.6. Most of the tunnels have inception
values below 0.6, indicating negative cavitation pressures, but there are two
tunnels having high positive values. The pressure minimum being known in this
case, an approximate calculation of the cavitation pressures can be made. The
resulting pressures are shown in Fig. D2 together with results of measurements
of cavitation pressures in nozzles, reported elsewhere.
108
Cavitation, Tensile Strength, and the Surface Films of Gas Nuclei
^O T!
O
U -^
C 4-.
o d
> ^
O ^-(
'^^TJT" ^
109
Bernd
>>
Cavitation, Tensile Strength, and the Surface Films of Gas Nuclei
things which have been discussed in the report to ITTC, but I suppose that part
of the dispersion can be attributed to differences in water quality according to
the mechanism we have seen outlined here. However, the range of pressure
values is small in comparison with what we have seen reported here.
Finally one question. What is the reason for the increase in negative pres-
sure with increasing water speed? Is it increased diffusion speed due to de-
struction of the film because of mechanical agitation ?
DISCUSSION
Richard L. Hummel
University of Toronto
Toronto, Canada
Our boiling work and I believe that of Dr. Richard Gaertner also of the
General Electric Company has been under conditions which should not only ef-
fectively remove gas from the site, but also degas the liquid; but, with suffi-
ciently fresh Teflon enamel as starting material and proper processing, the
activity of the sites do not change with time, whether or not (a) boiling is con-
tinuous or (b) is periodically stopped with or without subcooling of the liquid.
However, at a certain age which is generally considerably short of the six-
month expiration date given by duPont, the Teflon enamel (which appears to go
on properly, and which gives initial activity before degassing is complete) will
become inactive for producing and maintaining bubbles for boiling within a
period of an hour or so.
Ill
Bernd
With regard to the hypothesis that stabilized gas nuclei could be formed
with some protein-hydrocarbon shell, such nuclei can aid cavitation only to the
extent they provide an unrestrained gas bubble. K the shell were impervious,
then its efficacy in aiding bubble formation on the exterior would not differ
whether gas were held internally or not. On the other hand, if gas is readily
released by rupture or rapid penetration of the shell, it will be rapidly depleted.
REPLY TO DISCUSSION
Leslie H. Bernd
ing water speed. The implication of the data is that comparative tests are desir-
able and necessary. But, one expects that considerable research will be neces-
sary before the means of producing uniform test results become obvious and
before the role of gas nuclei is adequately delineated.
112
Cavitation, Tensile Strength, and the Surface Films of Gas Nuclei
3. After a brief period of time, this rapid dissolving may be abruptly halted
(or greatly slowed down) by surface films. The size at which this change takes
place is highly dependent upon the initial size of nucleus. A small nucleus may
dissolve rapidly to obtain high tensile strength, whereas a large nucleus is
arrested from its rapid dissolving before high tensile strength can be developed.
The tensile strength obtained in the comparative tests are approximately in
accordance with the nuclei sizes obtained in our tests when surface films acted
to produce the above mentioned slow dissolving.
113
Bernd
needed to initiate cavitation.I am sure that many, including myself, have asked
If the stabilized nucleus enters a low-pressure area, the gas will attempt to
expand. The surface film may also elastically attempt to expand. The surface
film will then be expanded until essentially the surface tension of the water alone
acts to contract the nucleus. The protective "shell" no longer acts. It has
either been ruptured upon expansion, or it has expanded until it is ineffectual.
Thus the gas nucleus should be capable of expanding to form a cavitation void
or acquire additional gas in the form of water vapor or dissolved gas.
114
LINEAR AND NONLINEAR DISPERSION
OF PRESSURE PULSES IN LIQUID-
BUBBLE MIXTURES
L. van Wijngaarden*
Netherlands Ship Model Basin
Wageningen, The Netherlands
1. INTRODUCTION
Thirty years ago Minnaert (1) derived a formula for the oscillation fre-
quency Wg of an air bubble in water:
In (1.1) Rq is the bubble radius, p the density of water and Pq the ambient
pressure.
When many small bubbles are present in a cubic meter of water, n say, it
is equally well known that the mixture can be considered as a homogeneous fluid
with mass density nearly equal to the water density and with compressibility
arising from the gas content. For a small gas volume in a unit of volume of the
mixture, the velocity with which infinitesimal disturbances of pressure propa-
gate through the mixture (the sound velocity) is given by
^ ^ (1.2)
TTnp Rq^
Equation (1.2) follows from considerations in which the bubble character of the
air content is not taken into account in other words for wavelengths which are
large with respect to the bubble radius. How do waves with shorter wavelengths
propagate? This question is considered here.
Furthermore, it is well known that for finite pressure variations, growth
and collapse of a bubble are highly nonlinear. High pressures occurring during
115
Van Wijngaarden
the collapse of cavitation bubbles, filled with vapor and a small amount of air,
are in fact the cause of cavitation damage. For a bubble with initial pressure
Pq and collapsing under an outside pressure Pco the rate of change of the radius
R with time t , neglecting vapor content, will be seen from the next section to be
given by
The minimum radius appears to be about SpoRg/p^ and the associated pressure
in the bubblecan raise considerably above p^. The question arises how in a
mixture of collapsing bubbles the average pressure in the fluid behaves. This
question was considered in Van Wijngaarden (2) and is discussed here again in
connection with the results of linear theory.
The investigation presented here attempts to link single bubble theory with
homogeneous fluid theory both for linear and nonlinear oscillations of the indi-
vidual bubbles in the mixture.
2. LINEAR THEORY I
At t' = 0* the pressure in the region y' >h is increased by an amount Ap.
This gives in the mixture rise to variation of average pressure p, and average
velocity v . The averaging is over a region small with respect to h but still
containing many bubbles, so that it is required that
,-1/3 h . (2.1)
The time history of the radius of an individual bubble, neglecting the effects of
viscosity and surface tension, is given by (see e.g., Lamb (3))
^'^
R (")
dt' |l-.-p.
in which Pg is the pressure of the gas in the bubble. Equation (2.2) has been
used by many authors in order to deal with the collapse of a single bubble under
influence of pressure p^, far from the bubble.
Writing p = p< and assuming a polytropic change of the bubble pressure with
bubble volume given by
PgR^=Pg^RoV (2.3)
116
Pressure Pulses in Liquid- Bubble Mixtures
The essential point in the present theory (see also Van Wijngaarden (2)) is
that in (2.2) we insert for p the average pressure in the mixture at the location
of the bubble, so that for each bubble the "pressure at infinity" is the average
pressure in the volume element in which the bubble is one of the large number
of constituents.
^^.P=P. (2.4)
Recognizing from (1.1) that the factor in the first term of this equation is l/<^
we may also write
1 ^'Pg
:ji^^PE=P- (2.5)
For the average quantities p and v we now write down the continuity and
momentum equations:
^
By'
= 4TrnR2 H
3t
(2.6)
and
P By' ^^''
3t'
When small changes in the bubble radii are involved (resulting from a small
value of Ap) we may linearize (2.6). Then upon crossdifferentiation of (2.6) and
(2.7) we obtain
-^=AS|.
By'^ c^ Bt'
(2.8)
For Rq - the bubble frequency ^g tends to infinity. In that case (2.5) re-
duces to p = Pg and (2.8) to the well-known acoustical wave equation. Hence the
mixture, as described in the present model, behaves in the limit of infinite
bubble frequency as a homogeneous fluid with sound velocity c
The boundary and initial conditions of the problem posed at the beginning of
this section are
117
Van Wijngaarden
an
0: p - n ^ (2.9)
and
pulses emitted from y' = h and y' = -h arrive, and the pressure remains
= 3h/c a rarefaction wave of strength 2Ap arrives, etc.
Po + 2Ap until at t '
t t
Po + 2Ap [H( '
- h/c ) - H( '
- 3h/c ) + . .
. (2.11)
As long as t' < 3h/c the first two terms on the right side of (2.11) are nonzero,
which we can write as
00
or
00 00
1 f sin k (h + ct '
) If sin k (h - ct ')
(2.13)
P- Po = 2Ap < 1 dk
The expression (2.13) allows the interpretation for Pg- Pq as the integrated
result of a continuous progressing wave spectrum with wave number distribu-
tion 1/k, each wave traveling with the same velocity c .
^ (2.14)
and
"bV
(2.15)
With help of these relations elimination of either p^ or p from (2.5) and (2.8)
yields
^
il + - J .
(2.16)
3y2 3t23y2 BtV iPgJ
118
Pressure Pulses in Liquid -Bubble Mixtures
exp i(ky - at
k
a - .
(2.17)
,1/2
a 1
k 1/ 2 '
(2.18)
(l + k2)
da; 1
dk 3/2 (2.19)
(l + k2)
Only for very long waves (k ^ 0) the propagation is nondispersive, but otherwise
the group velocity is smaller than the phase velocity, indicating a normal dis-
persion pattern.
00
Sy
cosh
(8^+ 1)
Up- Po) = -^ (2.21)
S\
cosh
L(S^+ 1)
and
Sy
cosh
Ap L(S2+ 1)
^(Pg- Po) (2.22)
S(S2+ 1) S\
cosh
L(S^+ 1)
OJnh
\ (2.23)
119
Van Wijngaarden
The parameter ^ expresses the ratio between the period of free oscillations
of a bubble and the time for a disturbance to travel over a distance h with ve-
locity c With help of (1.1) and (1.2) k may be written as
.
^. ^ i^.n-R,')'"'. (2.24)
For a gas volume fraction 10"^ andh = io~^ m we obtain X ^ 10^^^ for Rq = 10"^ m
and X % for R,, - I0"''m. These figures pertain for example to a cloud of
10'''^
The transforms (2.21) and (2.22) cannot be inverted as they stand, but suf-
ficient information for the present purpose can be derived from these expres-
sions. For small times, we obtain allowing s to tend to infinity
and
cosh y
'^-Po^^P^^iin"^*^- (2.26)
For cr 1, k = i, which explains the nature of the signal for small values of t.
2Ap
S(l + S^)
y
/ .
exp
(2m +
,1/2
1 ) \S
(2.28)
(1+S2)
The first term (m= 0), as is shown in the Appendix, can be inverted exactly,
which results in
120
Pressure Pulses in Liquid-Bubble Mixtures
4Ap r sin kk kt
1 - cos .dk (2.29)
Bl J k
L (l + k^)
or
(00 Kk +
kt
/vk - kt
. dk
(l + k^)' (l + k^)
(2.30)
The integrands in (2.29) and (2.30) reduce for small k (long waves) to the cor-
responding expressions in (2.12) and (2.13).
CO
in agreement with the first term in (2.27). Higher terms are of the type
^2k ^k- 1 e"'^. Although these higher terms
can be obtained relatively easy, the
result is not easy to derive conclusions from. For larger values of t we pro-
ceed therefore otherwise and use (2.30).
At t % \ the main contribution to the first integral in (2.30) stems from the
neighborhood of k = for the values of k considered here. The first integral in
(2.30) can therefore at t % \ be replaced by
00
1 r 1 1
sin (\k + kt) dk = 2"
-J i^
The second integral has a similar contribution from k = but also an important
one from the stationary phase point where K/t equals the group velocity or with
help of (2.19)
1
(2.32)
(l + k2)-
A stationary phase exists only for t > k. At t = \ the stationary phase coincides
with k = 0. Therefore at t = \ the second integral in (2.30) is approximately
given by
121
Van Wijngaarden
2 ^
Pgi-Pc 3AP
which signal can be considered as the "forerunner" (see e.g., Brillouin (4)).
tionary point in the integrand of the second integral in (2.30). The arrival of the
total signal 2Ap is therefore not determined by the "sound" velocity c but by the
group velocity as given by (2.32). Writing
exp it dk
kt (l + k^) (2.33)
\k dk = Im
J r"^" 1/ 2
(l + k^)
and evaluating the contribution of the point of stationary phase, we obtain for
t > k
(t/A.)- 3/2 7T
1- (\/t)2/3 (2.34)
Po = 2Ap 1
(67Tt)l''2 (tA)2/3- 1
The expressions (2.31), (2.33), and (2.34) show how the pressure Pg in the
bubbles increases with time at the plate y' ^ 0. This forms an adequate descrip-
tion as long as t < 3a, since at that moment the "forerunner" associated with
the second term in (2.28) arrives at y' = 0. Schematically Pg as a function of t
is shown in Fig. 1.
p
pit_y = X P g at y3 patp^ ot y0
m
;
Po+24p
n*Ap
imiuiMimnimi
Next we consider the behavior of the pressure in the bubbles at the outer
boundary of the mixture. From the boundary conditions at y' = h and from (2.5)
it follows that at y ' = h
122
Pressure Pulses in Liquid -Bubble Mixtures
(2.36)
Comparison of the arguments of the cosines in (2.35) and (2.36) shows that in the
time interval between he and 3h/c the pressure pg in the gas bubbles varies
much slower at y' = than at y' = h. Then it follows from consideration of (2.5)
that, while at y' = h the difference Pg- p varies rapidly, this difference is small
at y' = 0, because the term (l/^g^) (32p^/3t 2>) jj^ (2. 5) is small at y' = 0.
-
The average pressure p in the fluid at the plate therefore rises at a slow
pace compared with wg^ to the value pg + 2Ap. In the nonlinear case the same
occurs qualitatively, but since the gas pressure reaches much higher values
(than the value p^ + 2Ap in the linear case), also the average pressure in the
fluid can assume high values, as will be made plausible in section 4.
LINEAR THEORY H
With a view to the nonlinear case, with which we occupy ourselves in the
next section, we deal with the linear case in another way.
+ P = P (3.1)
Bt'
Introducing
Bp
3t (3.2)
p (3.4)
T = P-P,
123
Van Wijngaarden
+ ^ V p = p-p (3.5)
We now assume that the operator working on p in the left side of (3.5) may
be approximated by 3^/By^. Then we may write instead of (3.5)
cosh y
P-Pg= (^P-Po-Pg)^^;^. (3.7)
cosh y
Ap 1 (3.8)
cosh A
Inserting (3.7) and (3.8) in (3.5) shows that reducing the differential operator in
(3.4) to 3^ 'dy^ is a reasonable approximation for small values of t and inde-
pendently for small values of y
where from the hyperbolic function in (3.8) only the first term in the expansion
in terms of k has been taken into account. This expression is identical with
(2.31), confirming what is said above about the validity of the used approxima-
tion for small t.
For other values of t, (3.8) yields at y = (cosh X."' being replaced by 2e"'^)
p - p ^ Ap n - cos 1, 2^^-X 2
(3.10)
1 -'0
This expression shows just like the results of the foregoing section a slow vari-
ation of the gas pressure at y= 0. Comparison of (3.10) with (2.34) shows that
due to the approximation used in this section the variation of the gas pressure
as given by (3.10) is considerably too slow.
Qualitatively, however, the results of this section agree with those of sec-
tion 2. Equation (3.7) indicates that for ^^ 1, the difference between p andp
>
124
Pressure Pulses in Liquid-Bubble Mixtures
4. NONLINEAR THEORY
Starting with the Eqs. (2.2), (2.3), (2.6), and (2.7) for p, p^, R, and v and
rendering p dimensionless with p r dimensionless with Rq (x = R Rq), and y'
,
dimensionless with o^/c (cf. (2.15;), it may be shown (Van Wijngaarden (2)) that
with the approximation used in section 3 and consisting in reducing (^VBy^)^^^,^^^^^
to (^^/^y^)x=const *-^^ following equation holds for the difference between aver-
age pressure p in the fluid and pressure Pg Ro''/R^ or x" in dimensionless vari- "*
^^y
(p-x-^) -x(p-x-^) = -i-
^
(
-'i
^\p-r')d^. (4.1)
and
Bearing in mind that x and y are independent variables, we can combine (4.1)
and (4.4) into
^!^-x^.O.
3y^3x Bx
(4.5)
(S^-x) ^-
dx
G = Sx2 n(x)
125
Van Wijngaarden
G =
-j: n(^) - r d^ (4.7)
For the unknown function n(x) we can now derive a relation, since (4.2) has not
been used yet. Doing this now, thereby writing
Ap + Po
(4.9)
p- X \ sinh
n(x)- X- (p-r')^"'d^ (4.10)
1/ 2 k(x)
cosh \(x) x^'' ^ cosh^
While (4.10) describes how the pressure in the mixture changes at the wall
with the pressure in the bubbles, an equation for the rate of change of the bubble
radii can be obtained in the following way. Inserting p instead of p^, in (1.3), we
obtain
(4.11)
j ^\p-r') d^
(4.12)
n(<f)-r' d^ =
r cosh \(x)-
The expressions (4.10) and (4.13) contain the information necessary for our
present purpose. First we note that for values of x near unity (4.10) reduces to
(3.7), if in the last expression we take y = 0. It can easily be shown that also for
X near unity (4.13) can be integrated to the relation (3.8). It is interesting to
note that while in the linear case cosh \ occurs in the expressions for the gas
pressure, in the nonlinear case k is multiplied with x^''^ which expresses the
126
Pressure Pulses in Liquid- Bubble Mixtures
physical fact that during collapse of the bubbles the volume of the gas content
decreases, which fact is ignored in the linear case.
(4.14)
- 4
A P
'^ - X
- 4 mi n
- X = (4.15)
cosh Mx,iJ''
- 4
10-2p4. (4.16)
mi n
Note for comparison that in the linear theory the maximum gas pressure is
1 + (2Ap/pq). Ifthe value of A.(x^.^)*/Ms not small, it follows from (4.15) that
the maximum pressure at the wall n^^^ can increase to a significant fraction of
the maximum pressure in the bubbles. High average pressures can therefore
be expected to occur.
5. CONCLUSION
Although the approximations of the present analysis do not permit accurate
quantitative results, the linear and nonlinear theories developed here make it
clear that water-bubble mixtures are strongly dispersive and that due to the
dispersion high average pressures in the mixture can occur during the non-
linear collapse of individual bubbles.
REFERENCES
1. Minnaert, M., Phil. Mag. 16:235 (1933)
127
Van Wijngaarden
APPENDIX
' ^
,St + AS/( 1 + S^)
dS (Al)
2^ J S(l + S^)
along a straight path a distance c to the right of the imaginary axis in the s
plane (Fig. Al). We deform this path to a closed contour as indicated in the fig-
ure. The contribution from the pole in
S = equals unity. To evaluate the con-
tribution from
the branch points S = t i
we have around the branch-
to integrate
cut indicated in the figure. We trans-
form now the s plane into a plane by* jj.
(A2)
(l + S^)
S 2\l/2
3 /x(1-m2)
Then (Al) becomes
00
i
[Mt/(l-/i^)'''2] ^^^ [Mt/(1-M2) 1
"^].-K^
1
d/j, + d/x
1.
^^ kt
sin r\k +
(l + k^) (l + k2)
dk + dk
128
Pressure Pulses in Liquid-Bubble Mixtures
DISCUSSION
T. Brooke Benjamin*
Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics
University of California
La Jolla, California
Let X and t denote dimensional distance and time, and define correspond-
ing dimensionless variables
X = x/h ; T = Cgt/h .
(1)
where
129
Van Wijngaarden
1/2 (4)
[l+Ca^A^)]
(cf (2.17) in the paper). This result shows that the phase velocity v/a and
.
group velocity dvMa. are a maximum for a - o, i.e., for very long waves; and we
note that this is a property in common with infinitesimal surface waves on water
of uniform undisturbed depth. According to a well-known principle which has
often been used in water-wave theory, the front of any wave propagating into the
undisturbed medium will eventually be composed only from Fourier components
with group velocities near the maximum. Hence a good asymptotic approxima-
tion to the properties of the wave front may be obtained by taking a first approx-
imation to (4) for small a^, thus
2\2 (5)
and using this in a Fourier -integral representation of the wave (see H. Jeffreys
and B. S. Jeffreys, "Methods of Mathematical Physics," Cambridge University
Press, 1946, 17.09).
For example, consider the solution p(X,T) of (2) that is initially a step func-
tion, such that
1, X < ,
p(X,0)
= 0, X > .
This solution is
P(X (6)
277i J a
with the path of integration indented under the origin. Substituting (5) for v and
then writing
\i'3
-'^^^"' 3
CO ,-| CO
p ,
(7)
130
Pressure Pulses in Liquid-Bubble Mixtures
where
Ai(z) =
M
- I cos zi + \ l,^ d^
is theAiry function of the first kind. The result (7) represents a waveform ad-
vancing as a whole at unit velocity (note p keeps a constant value at XT, i.e.,
at X = Cgt), but with a length scale increasing with time like T''^^ (cf. T. B.
Benjamin and B. J. S. Barnard, "A Study of the Motion of a Cavity in a Rotating
Liquid," J. Fluid Mech. 19:193 (1964), p. 205).
able for any waves whose dimensionless length is 0(1); and for waves traveling
in the positive X direction, it is equivalent to p and the other dependent varia-
bles satisfying
3p dp 1 3^p
BT ^
BX ^ ^ 3^ (8)
We note, for example, that (7) is a solution of (8). Equation (8) may be regarded,
therefore, as the most general governing equation in the case of one-way propa-
gation by long waves of very small amplitude. The effects of dispersion are rep-
resented by the third term on the left side, which can be regarded as a first-
order correction to the "acoustic" wave equation. We go on to find a correspond-
ing correction for the effects of finite wave amplitude, and finally we combine
the two.
The equation of motion and the equation of mass conservation are (in terms
of dimensional variables)
J^, ,^],^-_
Bx
(9)
,
Bt Bx /
and
If. c3t
v|^.p|^=
ox ox
0. (10)
As is well known, these two equations may be transformed to yield two in char-
acteristic forms, thus
131
Van Wijngaarden
+ (c + v) (v+ f) = (11)
BxJ
and
3t
(c- v)
3x
(V- f) = (12)
where
dpy/2
(13)
dpj
and
f =
J
f - dp
P
=
J
f
pc
dp
(14)
Equations (11) and (12) show that the "Riemann invariants" v + f propagate with
constant values along the respective characteristics
dx
dt
= V + c .
The net density of the mixture is given very closely by the expression
inwhich nV = (4/3) nn'R^ is the volume fraction occupied by the bubbles. Hence,
assuming adiabatic compression or expansion of the gas in the bubbles, we have
l/y
p = p. 1 - nV (16)
where the zero suffix refers to the undisturbed state of the mixture. (Here an
arbitrary value y of the ratio of specific heats is represented, rather than the
value 4/3 assumed in the paper.) Upon substitution of this relationship between
P and p, (13) gives
()'+i)/2r
(17)
where
-ypn 37P
(18)
^^/'wnRo'
132
Pressure Pulses in Liquid-Bubble Mixtures
27 (7- i)/2r
(19)
(/- 1) ^w Co
(Note that the propagation velocity c increases much more rapidly with the
pressure ratio p/p^ than it does when the whole fluid is a gas, in which case
c = (7p/^)i/2-p(>-i)/2r.)
The preceding exact equations for very long waves may be helpfully simpli-
fied ifattention is restricted to fairly weak pressure pulses. Writing
Po
= l + P
we assume P to be a fairly small fraction and hence obtain from (17) and (19)
the approximations
-'^'^ (20)
and
P . (21)
Pw Cf
y+ 1
=
1 + T- .
(22)
3t 27 Pw Cf
fy+l Po \
-^ + ^ + Q ^ .
(23)
BT 3X BX
The third term on the left side of (23) is the required simple representation of
the nonlinear effects.
Both Eqs. (8) and (23) have precise counterparts in water-wave theory, and
various schemes have been developed in that context for simultaneously obtain-
ing approximations to the effects of both frequency dispersion and nonlinearity.
133
Van Wijngaarden
BQ 3Q BQ 1 B^Q
This third-order nonlinear equation is often called the Korteweg-de Vries equa-
tion (see G. B. Whitham, "Nonlinear Dispersive Waves," Proc. Roy. Soc. A283:
238 (1965), p. 252), and a great deal is now known about its solutions. Its occur-
rence here indicates the possibility of several interesting wave phenomena in a
liquid-bubble mixture that would be analogous to water-wave phenomena known
to be described approximately by the equation. In particular, there appears the
possibility of oscillatory shock waves (analogous to undular bores or hydraulic
jumps) and of solitary waves (i.e., nonper iodic waves of finite amplitude but
permanent form). Note that the solitary- wave solution of (24) is
with
a = 3(C- 1) .
* * *
REPLY TO DISCUSSION
L. van Wijngaarden
I wish to thank Dr. Brooke Benjamin very much for his comments. His
suggestion, substantiated by his analysis, that there is an analogy between long
water waves and waves in a liquid-bubble mixture is most useful, both from a
theoretical and a practical point of view. Both types of waves display indeed
frequency dispersion and amplitude dispersion. However, upon looking deeper
in this matter, it appears that whereas in the theory of water waves there are
three characteristic lengths, viz., amplitude, wavelength and depth, there are
four lengths here, namely wavelength, amplitude, bubble size, and inter-bubble
distance. In the theory of water waves there are consequently tivo dimension-
less parameters, one giving the ratio between amplitude and wavelength, the
other the ratio between depth and wavelength. In the case of bubble -fluid mix-
tures there are three parameters. If e.g., bubble size plays the role of depth,
then the third parameter is the ratio between bubble size and bubble distance.
It appears that only when this ratio is of order 1, the analogy holds strictly.
The above mentioned ratio is essentially the cubic root of the volume fraction
nVg of the gas. Now in some of Dr. Benjamin's equations this fraction is as-
sumed to be of order 1 (Eqs. (9) and (10)), whereas in others it is assumed to be
134
Pressure Pulses in Liquid-Bubble Mixtures
small, for example in the derivation of Eqs. (19) and (21) from (16) and (17),
where p is taken equal to p^.
Inspired by Dr. Benjamin's comments I will publish the theory for both of these
cases in the near future. Also other aspects of the comments, as for example
the reduction to the Korteweg-de Vries equation will be dealt with in this forth-
coming paper.
135
ON JETS AND SHOCK WAVES
FROM CAVITATION
A. T. Ellis
California Institute of Technology
Division of Engineering and Applied Science
Pasadena, California
Some investigators at first refused to believe that the damage was not of an
exclusively chemical nature, but their number has been steadily declining since
the early part of this century. However, quantitative estimates of the pressure
involved covered an extremely wide range varying from thousands (4) to mil-
lions (5) of pounds per square inch. For a while there was also a strong reti-
cence to admit that both corrosion and erosion might play prominent roles de-
pending upon cavitation intensity and length of exposure. This feeling has lately
been largely dispelled due to good experimental work which is aimed at sepa-
rating these effects (6). Of course no one ever really believed that pressures
actually became infinite, but the problem was neatly bypassed by the convenient
fact that something involving real fluid effects or thermodynamic behavior was
always neglected.
137
Ellis
result was merely that collapse velocity became infinite at a lower rate (pro-
portional to the inverse one-haLE rather than the inverse first or three-halves
power for the acoustic or incompressible cases, respectively). The Kirkwood-
Bethe hypothesis (8) was used as a basis for Gilmore's theory, and this also has
not been proved or universally accepted (9) for the conditions involved in cavi-
tation. It should also be pointed out that the radiation condition (no incoming
waves) which is assumed in this approximation is obviously not applicable when
one considers the effects of nearby boundaries. If one is interested in the study
of cavitation damage, then boundaries must be considered.
One of the most recent and best treatments is that of Hickling and Plesset
(16). They make the assumption that the bubble contains a small amount of gas
(10" ^ or 10"^ atmosphere pressure at maximum radius). They include com-
pressibility and find numerical solutions including flow during rebound from a
Lagrangian formulation. They find the acoustic approximation to be valid at
high enough pressures that the peak intensity of the outgoing wave can be calcu-
lated. The results of these calculations are most informative and show that
peak pressures are very sensitive to gas content. Typical results are that at a
distance of the bubble maximum diameter from the collapse point the peak pres-
sure is 200 atmospheres for 10" atmosphere initial gas content and 1000 at-
-^
mospheres for 10" atmospheres initial gas content when the collapsing pressure
"^
at infinity is 1atmosphere. In the author's opinion, these values are quite rea-
sonable and should be expected to be confirmed by experiment if it proves pos-
sible to obtain a spherical collapse. They are sufficient to cause the typical
peening appearance or depressions of relatively large curvature observed in
soft materials and which cannot be reasonably explained by a jet impact mecha-
nism because of this large curvature (17). They are also capable of causing
"cold work" and ultimate fatigue damage in harder materials.
138
Jets and Shock Waves from Cavitation
develop higher pressures. The trouble with this is that the assumption of
spherical collapse ceases to be valid due to proximity of the solid surface.
That this is true, at least for bubble collapse which is not flow generated, has
been demonstrated by Naude' and Ellis (12). Very little work has been done on
single bubble collapse in a flowing liquid with the notable exception of Maurice
Rattray (18). His perturbation analysis breaks down during the later stages of
collapse but does indicate that spherical symmetry is not maintained If the bubble
is closer than about one maximum diameter from a wall or if the bubble has a
relative velocity to the free stream such as one would expect in the presence of
pressure gradients, which usually exist in cases of practical interest.
139
Ellis
was 1.0 microfarad in the case of Shutler and Mesler. Other things assumed
similar, this means that the period of the electrical discharge was fifty times
longer and therefore the hot arc was maintained during most of the bubble his-
tory. This conclusion is born out by the photographs which show the arc. It
does not seem reasonable to expect the jet to pass through the hot gas with any
vigor, and in fact it might try to move out to some radial distance and do peri-
pheral damage. However, a maintained arc should also be an excellent vortex
generator, and it is probably quite true that much damage producing cavitation,
especially in turbomachinery, has been vortex generated.
One should be very careful not to assume that all damage is done by jets
and none by shock waves, however. It is a natural tendency to associate shock
waves with spherically symmetric collapse and then to discard the idea of dam-
age from shock waves when one finds that such collapse near a boundary is an
extremely unlikely event. The point to be emphasized is that shock waves can
arise from nonsymmetric impact of portions of the walls of a cavity with other
portions or with solid boundaries. In the former case the shock wave may still
140
Jets and Shock Waves from Cavitation
"1
^^^*^-
travel to the boundary and do damage. In the latter the damage would be done
by the impacting wall which may or may not be in the shape of a jet. Figure 4
shows a spark- generated bubble from unpublished work of Naude and Ellis which
collapses unsymmetrically and yet generates a shock wave. The origin of the
shock wave is obviously not at the solid surface and hence must be at a colliding
liquid-liquid interface. The lack of sharpness of the shock is due to the rela-
tively long exposure time of about 0.1 microsecond in this case. It should be
emphasized that the behavior of spark- generated bubbles in the absence of a
flow was not necessarily expected to duplicate conditions of flow- generated
cavitation. They were studied mainly because theoretical treatment was more
tractable than the general case of collapse in a flow field, but it was felt that
141
Ellis
142
Jets and Shock Waves from Cavitation
angle pointing downstream. At least in the no-flow case, theory indicates that if
a bubble is shaped like in the center figure, then a jet will develop.
The theory for the flow situation is not yet complete, but it was felt that ob-
servations on an initially greater than hemispherical bubble in a flow would also
be helpful. Tungsten wires were extended into the stream from the minimum
pressure point of the circular foil, and the resultant sequence is shown in Fig. 6,
where the center and lower frames occur just before and just after collapse. In
this case, the shape in the center frame differs mainly from the no flow theory
in the development of an upturned tail on the downstream side. No explanation
has yet been advanced for this effect, although it seems to occur rather
143
Ellis
consistently for this type of bubble generation. Figure 6 also indicates that
shock waves from liquid- solid impact occur, since the collapse could hardly be
called spherically symmetric enough to cause appreciable gas compression.
The preliminary work just described on single bubble collapse in flow was
done by the author and Dr. B. J. S. Barnard just before both left for a year at
the University of Cambridge. Subsequent work done there in collaboration with
Dr. T. Brooke- Benjamin was on the collapse of single bubbles in the absence of
flow but with a new technique for bubble generation (30). In the author's opinion
this new method is much superior to spark generation for most experiments.
The basic idea was quite simple, but much time was spent in mastering the
technique required. The method was to generate a single hydrogen bubble by
electrolysis to act as a nucleus for the desired relatively large spherical cavity.
The hydrogen bubble, which is usually chosen to be about 10 -^ cm in radius, at
1/20 atmosphere pressure, is subjected to a tension wave in the liquid which
causes it to grow to typically 2 cm in radius, if desired. Thus, the volume dilu-
tion of the gas is of the order of 1 part in 10 ^. Since the growth occurs in a
few milliseconds and the water must have been deaerated previously to remove
extraneous air nuclei, there is little chance for additional gas to diffuse into the
cavity. Under these conditions the bubble should contain less gas than the usual
flow- generated cavitation bubble in nondeaerated water. The gas content can be
increased, of course, and the amount present is known from the observed size of
the nucleus bubble at known pressure and temperature. Figure 7 shows a typical
bubble of about 1.5 inches diameter. A scale in the background with large divi-
sions of one inch may be seen.
144
Jets and Shock Waves from Cavitation
mfsmimmmmmmmmmm
formed and impacted the opposite side of the growing rebounding cavity. This
behavior leads to speculation that rebounding cavities previously thought harm-
less might indeed be capable of damage if conditions were just right. Some evi-
dence for damage during rebound has been cited by Shutler and Mesler (26), but
they ascribed it to other causes than a jet.
To confirm that the jet was due to a pressure gradient pictures were taken
by Dr. T. Brooke -Benjamin and the author when the entire liquid and container
was in free fall. No jet was observed in this case.
The effect of a plane solid boundary at various distances was also investi-
gated and yielded results as shown in Figs. 9, 10, and 11. In Fig. 9 the cavity
has developed an elongated shape as predicted theoretically by Rattray (18), but
in addition a jet is seen to develop at the end farthest away from the rigid wall
and to travel toward the wall. Obviously the wall was too far away to be dam-
aged. Figure 10 shows a bubble closer to the boundary. The jet is seen to de-
velop at an angle both to the wall and to the vertical as should be expected since
both effects were present. (The container was not in free fall in this case.)
Figure 11 shows a bubble still nearer the boundary, which is of interest because
of the relatively thin and rapid jet which has formed and impacted the wall be-
tween the two consecutive photographs at the left in the bottom sequence. A
lower bound on the impact pressure in this case is about 8000 psi, but if the
collapsing pressure had been as high as one atmosphere, which is conservative
in practice, then pressures of at least 40,000 psi should be expected. This is of
the same order as the pressures estimated from the previously mentioned ex-
perimental piezoelectric data of Jones and Ellis for hemispherical collapse of a
spark generated bubble.
145
Ellis
bubbles in a pressure gradient and that jets occurring during collapse due to
solid wall proximity were sometimes much thinner than could be treated by the
perturbation theory of Naude' and Ellis. In addition, theoretical considerations
showed that for many deformable shapes such as may be assumed by bubbles,
the kinetic energy of the liquid may advantageously be written in terms of bubble
deformation rates and speed of the centroid. In this way the importance of mo-
mentum conservation and the Kelvin impulse in considering cavitation damage
mechanisms become more apparent. It appears that there are many more fac-
tors to be considered in studying the hydrodynamics of actual cavitation damage
than have been considered in the spherically symmetric case. One oversimpli-
fied but intuitively satisfying point of view is to regard a bubble moving toward
146
Jets and Shock Waves from Cavitation
In view of the many new qualitative observations and ideas it seemed most
desirable to construct new equipment at the California Institute of Technology in
which single bubbles could be generated and subjected to a known and repeatable
147
Ellis
149
Ellis
and the accelerometer record is much the same except that over a relatively
long period the time integral of the acceleration must be zero. A typical record
is shown in Fig. 15. The sweep rate is 2 milliseconds per large division, and
the spike on the upper oscilloscope trace indicates when a photograph was taken
of the cavity under observation.
I
wsssbbM
Typical cavities are shown in Fig. 16. The magnification is about four
times, but since flat windows had not yet been installed in the tube, there was
an apparent flattening in the horizontal direction. The cavity at the top is ac-
tually quite spherical. The second and third photographs show flattening of the
bottom, and after collapse the vertical jet and later the vortex ring may be
seen. This is in accord with the observations made at Cambridge.
REFERENCES
1. Euler, L., Hist, Acad. Roy. Science et Belles Lettres, Vol. 10, No. 227,
1754
150
Jets and Shock Waves from Cavitation
151
Ellis
10. Plesset, M. S., and Mitchell, T. P., "On the Stability of the Spherical Shape
of a Vapor Cavity in a Liquid," Quarterly of Applied Mathematics 13:419-
430 (1956)
16. Hickling, R., and Plesset, M. S., "Collapse and Rebound of a Spherical
Bubble in Water," The Physics of Fluids 7(No. 1):7-14 (Jan. 1964)
20. Jones, I. R., and Edwards, D. H., J. Fluid Mech. 7(No. 596) (1960)
22. Ellis, A. T., "Techniques for Pressure Pulse Measurements and High-
Speed Photography in Ultrasonic Cavitation," Paper No. 8 in Symposium on
Cavitation in Hydrodynamics, London, 1956
152
Jets and Shock Waves from Cavitation
23. Knapp, R. T., and Hollander, A., "Laboratory Investigations of the Mechanism
of Cavitation,"Trans. ASME 70:419 (1948)
25. Ellis, A. T., Slater, M. E., and Fourney, M. E., "Some New Approaches to
the Study of Cavitation," Proc. of International Association for Hydraulic
Research Symposium, Sendai, Japan, 1962
26. Shutler, N. D., and Mesler, R. B., "A Photographic Study of the Dynamics
and Damage Capabilities of Bubbles Collapsing Near Solid Boundaries,"
Trans, of the ASME, J. of Basic Engineering, 87D(No. 2):511-517 (June
1965)
28. Eisenberg, P., and Tulin, M. P., "Cavitation," in Section 12, "Handbook of
Fluid Mechanics," Streeter, McGraw-Hill, 1961
29. Barnard, B. S., Ellis, A. T., and Slater, M. E., "The Unsteady Flow Cavita-
tionTunnel at the California Institute of Technology," ASME Symposium on
Cavitation Research Facilities and Techniques, May 1964
30. Benjamin, T. B., and Ellis, A. T., "The Collapse of Cavitation Bubbles and
the Pressures Thereby Produced Against Solid Boundaries," Philos. Trans.
Roy. Soc. London (in press)
31. Ellis, A. T., and Fourney, M. E., "Application of a Ruby Laser to High
Speed Photography," Proc. of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, 51(No. 6): 942-943 (June 1963)
153
Ellis
DISCUSSION
Frederick T. Hammitt
Department of Nuclear Engineering
The University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan
by jets rather than shock waves. Figure Dl of this discussion shows profiles of
shallow craters produced in austenitic stainless steel by a water jet with a ve-
locity of about 4000 ft/sec (reproduced from Robinson and Hammitt* for conven-
ience) compared with profiles of cavitation craters produced on the same type of
material in a cavitating venturi using in one case water and in the other mer-
cury. The impact profiles are due to DeCorso.t For all these pits the diameter-
to-depth ratio is of the order of 100. Thus the pits are indeed relatively very
shallow, although this fact is obscured by the magnified depth scale used in the
figure. According to DeCorso the jet diameter is about 1/4 that of the resulting
pit, an approximate value also confirmed by Bruntont using lead as a target and
a somewhat higher water impact velocity (~5000 ft/sec). We estimate from
DeCorso's data as well as that of Engel that the jet velocity necessary to cre-
ate the cavitation pits shown is about 4000 ft/sec for water and 600 ft/sec for
mercury. This is not inconsistent with our experiment,* since the venturi
throat velocity used for the water tests was typically about 6 times that for the
mercury tests due to equipment limitations.
154
Jets and Shock Waves from Cavitation
SPEC 202
STAINLESS STEEL
,2mm y 3780 fps
RAGGED JET sCALES^StAL GOOD JET
1737
our own laboratory from a somewhat similar experiment (Fig. D2).* Since the
cavitation microjets also emanate from an accelerating concave liquid surface,
is not the similarity perhaps more than coincidental?
Finally, as shown by Dr. Ellis's Fig. 9 and also in various pictures of non-
symmetrical collapses which we have obtained! there is an indication of a pro-
tuberance both on the side of the presumed jet penetration and on the opposite
side. We have interpreted these to be local cavitation generated by the passage
of a high- velocity jet through a relatively quiescent liquid. Thus there is an in-
dication of local high liquid velocities both on the side toward which the jet is
traveling as well as that from which it has come. From simple considerations
of continuity this does not appear to be necessarily unreasonable.
*F.G. Hammitt, J.F. Lafferty, M. Pitek, P. Drucker, H.G. Olson, and M.J.
Robinson, "A Facility for the Study of High Velocity Jet Impact," ORA Techni-
cal Report 08153-2-T, Nuclear Engineering Departmient, University of Michigan.
tH.G. Olson, "High-Speed Photographic Studies of Ultrasonically-Induced Cavi-
tation and Detailed Examination of Damage to Selected Materials," Ph.D. Thesis,
Nuclear Engineering Department, University of Michigan, Aug. 1966. (Also
available as ORA Technical Report 07738-2-T, University of Michigan, Aug.
1966.)
155
Ellis
wrrr
X
*i
DISCUSSION
R. Hickling
General Motors Research Laboratories
Warren, Michigan
Professor Ellis's work over the past few years has clearly Indicated the
essentially asymmetric nature of cavity collapse and the undoubted role that
liquid impact plays in the cavitation damage process. The lack of symmetry in
the collapse of a cavitation bubble, however, does not necessarily imply that
centers of high compression cannot occur within the collapse. One can easily
imagine an irregular nonspherical collapse that may involve several centers of
high compression as well as the liquid impact effects discussed in Professor
156
Jets and Shock Waves from Cavitation
157
Ellis
If we accept that such centers of high compression exist, do they occur close
enough to damage an adjacent solid surface with shock waves emanating from the
rebound? Could a highly compressive collapse occur on a surface? It would be
interesting, I believe, to look at the emission from a collapse on or near a solid
surface, of single bubbles that contain a sufficient proportion of monatomic or
diatomic gas.
These results coupled with the apparently high density of centers of high
compression in a cavitation cloud would make it appear reasonable to believe
that the shock-wave mechanism of cavitation damage is not a negligible possi-
bility. I believe that the centers of high compression and the liquid impact ef-
fects discussed by Professor Ellis both have a role to play in the cavitation dam-
age process. Other mechanisms have also been discussed. It seems clear that
cavity collapse is a rather complicated process. I believe that it would be an
error at this time to single out any one hydrodynamic effect as the principal
cause of cavitation damage.
DISCUSSION
D. C. Gibson
Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics
University of Cambridge
(presented at the symposium by T. B. Benjamin)
158
Jets and Shock Waves from Cavitation
20 cmbelow the free surface of the water, and the walls and bottom of the con-
tainer were at comparable distances away. The ambient pressure and the
vapour pressure of the water were respectively 82.5 and 14.5 mm Hg absolute.
Earlier frames from the film show that the cavity initially expanded to a radius
of 1.76 cm and then collapsed in the familiar manner, with enormous rapidity in
the final stages of contraction. Frame A was taken about 0.15 msec after the
instant when the collapse was arrested, and the others were taken later at suc-
cessive intervals of 0.125 msec (i.e., the framing rate was 8000 per second).
The mean radius of the cavity when recorded in frame D is estimated to have
been 0.55 cm.
159
Ellis
prominence in frame C, but frame D shows them finally waning. It seems most
likely that thisphenomenon was an effect of the shock wave arising from the
first collapse of the main cavity. Presumably, after arriving at the free surface
as a compression wave, this was reflected as a wave of tension, which subse-
quently exploded an array of microscopic nuclei somehow accumulated in the
vicinity of the main cavity. The main evidence in favour of this explanation is
that the time from the end of the collapse to the first appearance of the effer-
vescence was approximately the same as the time of transit at the speed of
sound from the cavity to the free surface and back. The evident abundance of
nuclei near the rebounding cavity is not yet understood; but possible sources
may have been, first, electrolysis accompanying the spark discharge and, sec-
ond, the remains of needlelike protuberances of the cavity surface formed dur-
ing its initial, explosive expansion around the spark track.
REPLY TO DISCUSSION
A. T. Ellis
The author has believed for a long time that Monroe jets are very closely
akin to the jets which occur during bubble collapse. The details are different
from the usual shaped- charge theory because inertial forces more complicated
than those of a thin liner are involved and because one does not rely on a pass-
ing detonation shock front to determine initial speed of the interface. Current
work does show that the concave liquid surface and the sign of the acceleration
are important. Dr. Hammitt is certainly correct in suggesting that the simi-
larity is more than coincidental.
It should be pointed out that there is a thin jet in Fig. 11 but not, for ex-
ample, in Fig. 2. The jet is thicker in Fig. 2 and moves toward the solid as the
Naude'- Ellis theory predicts, but there is no present theory which would describe
the thin jet in Fig. 11.
160
Jets and Shock Waves from Cavitation
Figure 4 was introduced to illustrate the fact that there can be shock waves
generated from more than one center during a bubble collapse. This is evident
from the two shock fronts in Fig. 4. These shocks were assumed to be formed
from liquid-liquid impact because of the evident failure of the bubble to collapse
completely. It should also be pointed out that light flashes are produced by a
liquid jet striking a solid surface.* The source of this light is still in question,
but even if it does come from gas compression, it is compression caused by an
impacting jet.
agree with Dr. Hickling that cavity collapse is a complicated process and
I
that there are several hydrodynamic effects involved in cavitation damage. I do
believe that sufficient evidence has been accumulated to show that jet impact is
a major cause of damage even if it is not the only one.
REPLY TO D. C. GIBSON
I particularly want to thank Mr. Gibson and Dr. Benjamin for their illus-
tration of the effectiveness of shock waves from bubble collapse in generating
new cavities. I have long felt that this might be an important mechanism in
cavitation hysteresis. My experience, especially in acoustically generated cavi-
tation, is that the presence of one cavitation cloud is very effective in starting
another, even at some distance away. I have also noticed secondary bubble for-
mation both from spark generated bubbles and bubbles originating from gas
nuclei in a varying pressure field. I agree completely with the explanation
given, especially since the effect also seems to exist with other than spark gen-
erated bubbles.
161
THE INFLUENCE OF THE TRAJECTORIES
OF GAS NUCLEI ON CAVITATION
INCEPTION
INTRODUCTION
As discussed in Ref 1, it is understood that cavitation is the result of the
.
unstable growth of gas volumes caused by the reduction of the pressure sur-
rounding these "nuclei." The nuclei may be of three types: (a) quasi- spherical
entrained gas bubbles, (b) gas volumes stabilized in the crevices of entrained
solid particles, or (c) gas volumes stabilized in the crevices of the boundary
material. This report is directed to the first of these nuclei the entrained gas
bubble. As pointed out in Ref. 2, this type of nucleus is probably the important
one in most practical cases.
In flow where the boundary layer is not separated the minimum pressure can
be determined, and thus if the nuclei sizes present in the flow are known, the
condition for inception should be determinable. However, experience has indi-
cated that scale effects exist even in water tunnels where nuclei are of such a
size that critical pressure variations should not be expected. It is speculated
that in such cases the forces acting on bubbles entrained in the free stream may
tend to move the larger bubbles away from the body and thus leave only smaller
bubbles with more negative critical pressures to be active in the inception proc-
ess. The forces acting in this screening process are such that the screen will
be graded according to the relative size of the body, the speed of the flow, and
the oncoming nuclei sizes present in the flow.
163
Johnson and Hsieh
The conditions for the static stability of a spherical gas volume surrounded
by a liquid has been analyzed in Ref. 1. The equation relating the bubble size
and the surrounding pressure is given by
KV (1)
Gas Nuclei Trajectories and Cavitation Inception
Po-P,
= vapor cavitation number.
pUV2
Figure 1 shows the relation between the bubble size and the pressure given by
Eq. (1).
d/dc
Consider a bubble which is moving in a flow field; its size will vary due to
the pressure variation from place to place along its path. In order to find the
bubble size at a specific point P(x,y) in the flow field, Eq. (1) can be rewritten
as
8/W CT.. + C
,
(2)
where
K_ P - Pq
165
Johnson and Hsieh
Itshould be noted that p is now the pressure at point P(x,y) in the flow field, and
Rq is the initial bubble size at p^, which is the free stream pressure. Using
Eq. (2), the size of bubble can be calculated for the following physically possible
cases:
I. Cp + cr^ > .
K' = Ro;
H'^ 27 M^O
where
8/W
c* + cV = ^-^ . (4)
P / a X 1 / 2 '
3V3 1 +
CT.W
BUBBLE TRAJECTORY
The calculation of water droplet trajectories in air as they approach a body
has been carried out in Ref. 3, However, the trajectories of bubbles in a liquid
are entirely different from those of water droplets in air because (a) the bubble
is lighter than water, so that the pressure gradient produced by any obstacle in
the flow field may significantly affect its trajectory, and (b) the bubble size is
changing along its path as its surrounding pressure varies. By considering all
the forces acting upon a spherical bubble in a two-dimensional flow, the equation
of motion of the bubble is
1 4 "^^b 1
y
2
X ^77R'
3
""' V
^ -JT
dt
=
' TP(*-*h)
2
Iw-w.| CnTTR' ^
-
f
- |77R'3Vp+ 277pR'2(w-w^) ^ , (5)
where
P = liquid density
t = time.
In Eq. (5) the mass of the gas inside the bubble has been neglected, since it is
small compared to that of the added mass of the fluid. Since the spherical
bubble under consideration is in an accelerating field, Taylor (5) showed that
the pressure force acting on the bubble is 3/2 of its volume times the pressure
gradient. The last term in the right side of Eq. (5) was estimated to be negli-
gible throughout the entire path of the bubble except immediately prior to the
occurrence of instability and therefore was not included in subsequent trajec-
tory computations.
The drag of small, spherical gas bubbles in a liquid was found by Haberman
(4) tocoincide with those of corresponding rigid spheres. Thus, the experimen-
tal drag coefficient curve for a rigid sphere can be used, or
167
Johnson and Hsieh
^D '^b ^ , ,,
63 , _ 4 1 3f
,
1 + 0.197 H. + 2.6 X 10-^ ,
H. (6)
24
Equation (6) is an empirical equation which fits the experimental data very well
(3).
du^ 3 ^^v
(u-u,)--^;^- (7a)
^^"^b)-"-r^. (7b)
Gas Nuclei Trajectories and Cavitation Inception
the X and y direction at any point in the flow field can be expressed by
1 X
u = 1 + (9a)
x" + y
1
(9b)
X - y (9c)
3x (x2 + y2)'
3C, y 2x +
_P _ 3 (9d)
(x^ + y2)2
From Eq. (7), the bubble motion in the x and y direction are expressed by
dx ^b ^D
"x2-y2 +
dr
18
1.1 (10)
24
R2 Rj X' + y
dy _ 18
^1-
dr r2 R 24
W + y
Johnson and Hsieh
direction. To determine a starting point for the calculation of the bubble trajec-
tories, an initial bubble size of R = 0.02 in a flow field with u = 50 fps, cr^ =0.4,
h = 0.6 in., A = 1.94 slug/ft^, v = 1.05 x 10" ^ ftVsec, and / = 0.00497 lb/ft was
examined. Figure 2 shows the bubble trajectories when x^ = -20, -10, and -6 at
a fixed Yq = 0.01. It is seen that the difference in trajectories is negligibly
small. Thus, x^ = -10 is considered to be far enough upstream to avoid any
significant error and is thus used in later calculations. The star in Fig. 2 indi-
cates the location at which a given bubble becomes statically unstable.
The trajectories of the same bubble size were also calculated for different
Yo values, while the remaining parameters were unchanged. The results are
shown in Fig. 3 for yg = 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.10, and 0.20. As expected, the
trajectories are quite different for different values of y^.
1.4
">
1
Gas Nuclei Trajectories and Cavitation Inception
0.40
Johnson and Hsieh
1.4
Gas Nuclei Trajectories and Cavitation Inception
1 .4
Johnson and Hsieh
Gas Nuclei Trajectories and Cavitation Inception
1.0
Johnson and Hsieh
intersection of the R*^ and R*p curves, therefore, gives the value of vapor
cavitation number, for which there is only one size of bubble which can possibly
become unstable in the flow field for the specific body size, speed, and entrained
bubble population which includes all sizes, < r; < * .Let this bubble size be
defined as Rq j
That is, for a slight increase of the vapor cavitation number (an
.
increase of the free stream pressure) all bubble sizes will remain stable. On
the other hand, for a slight decrease of the vapor cavitation number, additional
sizes of bubbles will become unstable. Thus, the value of the vapor cavitation
number at the intersection of the R*^ and R*^ curves is the incipient cavitation
number 7^. Consequently, a curve of incipient cavitation number versus body
size can be deduced from the results presented in Fig. 7 and this curve (labeled
5 Rq < ) is shown in Fig. 8. In Fig. 8 the dashed curves present the com-
puted values of y.^ obtained when the bubble population in the oncoming stream
is void of bubbles below a specified size. It is interesting to note that the body
size effect becomes more and more significant as the value of the minimum
bubble radii in the bubble population is increased.
Another interesting point to note is that in Fig. 8 for each specific body
size, the R^^^ and Rg^ form an envelope of an unstable bubble zone. It is seen
that to have "minimum scale effect, we need the bubble with radii Rqj to be
present in the entrained bubble population. Furthermore, for a range of en-
trained bubble population of radius greater than Rq , it is always the smallest
s.
Gas Nuclei Trajectories and Cavitation Inception
size which controls cavitation inception; and for a range of entrained bubble
population of radius smaller than r^ .
it is always the largest bubble size which
,
Calculations, similar to those shown in Figs. 7 and 8, were also carried out
for u = 25 fps. These results are presented in Figs. 9 and 10.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The results of the analysis of the trajectories of gas nuclei entrained in a
fluid flowing past a two-dimensional half -body may be summarized as follows:
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.001
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.0001
0.00008
0.00006
0.00004
Johnson and Hsieh
0.7
Gas Nuclei Trajectories and Cavitation Inception
REFERENCES
1. Johnson, V.E., Jr., "Report to the Fourteenth American Towing Tank Con-
ference on Cavitation," Hydronautics, Inc., Sept. 1965
2. Ripken, J.F., and Killen, J.M., "Gas Bubbles: Their Occurrence, Meas-
urement, and Influence in Cavitation Testing," Proc. lAHR Symposium on
"Cavitation in Hydraulic Machinery," ed. Numachi, N.F., Sendai, Japan,
pp. 37-57, Sept. 1962
5. Taylor, G.I., "The Force Acting on a Body Placed in a Curved and Con-
verging Stream of Fluid," Reports and Memoranda 1166 (Ae 330), Apr. 1928
DISCUSSION
C.-A. Johnsson
Swedish State Shipbuilding Experimental Tank
Goteborg, Sweden
We have seen outlined here a very elegant mechanism for explaining the
scale effect at cavitation tests. In this mechanism the minimum diameter of the
bubbles present in the tunnel is an important parameter. I would like to men-
tion that another measure of this diameter can be obtained by calculating the
resorption capacity of the tunnel circuit. This will give you the largest diame-
ter for complete resorption and thereby the diameter of the smallest bubble
present. Equations for such calculations have been given by, for instance,
Silverleaf.
179
Johnson and Hsieh
The results from such calculations together with curves like those in Figs.
8 and 10 would give the inception cavitation number of the body for a certain
body-tunnel combination (with reservation for the assumptions made in the
calculations).
In connection with the analysis for the ITTC comparative head form tests
which mentioned in connection with Mr. Bernd's paper, we calculated the
I
maximum bubble diameter for complete resorption for some of the participating
tunnels using Mr. Silverleaf 's equations. From these results, which are shown
in Fig. Dl, it appears that for most of the tunnels the value of the largest diam-
eter for complete resorption falls below the lowest Rg value (0.002 inch) given
by the authors, indicating that no serious scale effect can be expected in these
tunnels if reasonable body diameters are used. For the resorber tunnels the
values of this diameter is appreciably larger. Thus large models have to be
used in these tunnels if scale effects should be avoided.
ff. 0002"
180
Gas Nuclei Trajectories and Cavitation Inception
DISCUSSION
L. van Wijngaarden
Netherlands Ship Model Basin
Wageningen, The Netherlands
The paper shows very clearly the effects of body size and bubble population
on cavitation inception.
At the Netherlands Ship Model Basin, experiments have been conducted with
cylindrical bodies with a hemispherical head. The value of Cp ^.^ is equal to
-0.74 for these bodies.
Can the authors tell us in what direction r^^ varies if, other conditions
being
held constant, Ic p mi n is increased.
' '
I
Secondly, can the authors give on the basis of the present work any sugges-
tion as tohow cavitation inception results from different water tunnels may be
compared ?
REPLY TO DISCUSSION
With regard to Mr. Johnsson's remarks concerning the necessity for larger
models to minimize scale effects when only very small nuclei are present (as in
tunnels with resorbers), our study certainly indicates this to be true. A similar
conclusion is that higher speeds are also necessary to minimize scale effects
when only very small nuclei are present.
following information.
The nuclei screening process described is most pronounced for bodies with
strong -stagnation regions followed by a short axial extent of low-pressure
region. The effect is probably negligible for bodies with small-stagnation
regions followed by low-pressure regions of long-axial extent, such as thin
181
Johnson and Hsieh
182
PREDICTION OF CAVITATION INCEPTION
SPEEDS ON ROUGH HYDRODYNAMIC
BODIES
Avis Borden
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
Washington, B.C.
ABSTRACT
Experimental studies of cavitation inception over two- and three-
dimensional roughness elements in a boundary layer (made at the Ord-
nance Research Laboratory (ORL) of Pennsylvania State University and
at the David Taylor Model Basin, respectively), have been used to derive
scaling laws for predicting cavitation on these elements under arbitrary
boundary layer conditions. It has already been shown that the cavitation
number of three-dimensional elements, computed in terms of the veloc-
ity of the oncoming flow in the boundary layer at the height of a rough-
ness element, is a function of the local Reynolds number, based on
roughness height and local velocity. In the present study, the ORL data
have been analyzed in the same way, and analytical curves have been
fitted to both sets of data. Methods are derived for computing cavitation
inception speeds on rough hydrodynamic bodies. Sample calculations
show the degrading effect of the various types of roughnesses on the
cavitation inception speed of a typical sonar dome.
INTRODUCTION
The prediction of cavitation inception on hydrodynamic bodies, such as ship
hulls, appendages, sonar domes, and propellers is one of the important unsolved
problems in naval architecture. The cavitation inception speeds predicted by
model tests and theoretical analyses are never attained under full-scale oper-
ating conditions. This disparity is partly due to the physical size of the body and
its surface finish. Recent experiments have shown that cavitation inception on
bluff bodies and those having sharp pressure minima is primarily a function of
Reynolds number. Reference 1 describes experiments on families of ogive and
disk models at several water temperatures in which Reynolds number trends
were definitely established. Reynolds number effects have also been observed
in the scaling of tip vortices from propellers (2).
183
Borden
The cavitation inception data obtained at the Model Basin and at ORL have
been reduced to local velocity conditions. Analytical curves have been fitted to
the data for each roughness geometry. Using Holl's formulas for computing
cavitation inception on a rough parent body, sets of curves and tables have been
compiled for use in computing cavitation speeds for a cavitating rough body of
known pressure distribution and boundary layer characteristics operating at dif-
ferent depths in the ocean.
-0 = "-^. (1)
where p is the static pressure in the water tunnel at the location of the rough-
ness element, p^ is the vapor pressure of the liquid, p is the density of the
liquid, and u is the velocity at the outer edge of the boundary layer. For a par-
ticular roughness element, (^^ is a function of h, the height of the roughness; ^,
the boundary layer thickness; H, the shape parameter of the boundary layer pro-
file; and the velocity of flow. In order to develop scaling laws for predicting
cavitation inception, it is necessary to determine the flow in the immediate
vicinity of the roughness.
y (2)
U
184
Cavitation Inception on Rough Bodies
where y is the distance normal to the surface, and u^ is the velocity at y. The
shape parameter H is the following function of the exponent m:
m+ 2
(3)
If and m are known, it is easy to find the velocity in the oncoming flow at the
S
Benson used the velocity at the tip of the roughness element u^ in defining
a local cavitation number and local Reynolds number. Thus
2 'm
(4)
local cavitation number 'y.
where is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid. When <y^^ for Benson's three-
i^
185
Borden
8 103
were fitted to the data in Figs. 1and 2 by the method of least squares. Values
of the parameters A and b for the different roughness geometries are listed in
Table 1.
Table 1
Values and B For Two- and Three-
of A
Dimensional Roughness Elements
Geometry
Cavitation Inception on Rough Bodies
good results by assuming that the pressure minimum of the element is propor-
tional to the average of the square of the velocity in the boundary layer out to the
height of the roughness (5). If a power law boundary layer profile is assumed
for the oncoming flow,
s^ifir- '"
For h <
2
1 /h\2/'"
H \h
(8)
U2
For h > s
,2
2
" (9)
U2
^ m+ 2 h
Ifthese expressions are used for the velocity at the tip of two-dimensional
roughness elements, the local cavitation number and Reynolds number become
^ =
u^
-0
= (10)
RI = u.h/i., (11)
where
[T?]''\ (12)
Figure 3 shows the ORL two-dimensional data plotted in terms of cr^^ and R^-
The constants A and B of the straight lines fitted through the points are listed in
Table 2.
A comparison of Figs. 2 and 3 shows that the points are shifted somewhat
but that there is not much difference in the amount of scatter in the two sets of
curves. In both figures, the triangular roughnesses show an increase in local
cavitation number with Reynolds number, which is characteristic of cavitation in
a separated flow region.
187
Borden
5,0
4.0
3.0
h _
Cavitation Inception on Rough Bodies
element appeared to be a reasonable value for computing the local flow parame-
ters. With this choice of local flow velocity, u^^ becomes equal to u, the veloc-
ity at the edge of the boundary layer, as soon as the roughness protrudes through
the boundary layer. Unfortunately no data were obtained for roughness elements
with heights of the same magnitude as the boundary layer thickness.
l-Cp=uVu^2 (14)
_ Pc-Py _ 2g (H^+H^-H^)
(15)
where Hg is the pressure head of the atmosphere and H^ is the pressure head of
the vapor pressure.
Thus o-Q in Eq. (13) is determined as a function of the free -stream velocity
u, the pressure coefficient Cp, the water depth H^, the atmospheric pressure
189
Borden
head H^, and the temperature or vapor pressure H^. It now remains to examine
the local flow conditions in the boundary layer and to determine the roughness
height which is compatible with the Reynolds number condition. This can be
done by a method of trial and error. For example, select a value of u^^ (or uj^ ).
Then obtain a^ from Eq. (4) or (10). Find the local Reynolds number from Eq.
(6), compute h, and compare h
b with y/S of the velocity profile. When the two
are equal, the problem is solved.
0.4
Cavitation Inception on Rough Bodies
" 0.1
15 20
these curves might very well apply to large sonar domes on destroyer leaders
or frigates. A temperature of 54 F was used as a representative temperature
of the ocean.
Figures 4 and 5 compare the cavitation inception properties of the five dif-
ferent roughness geometries. The critical roughness heights for cavitation
inception are plotted as functions of the flow velocity for two submergence
depths in Fig. 4 and as functions of submergence depth for three flow velocities
in Fig. 5. It is evident from these figures that two-dimensional triangular
roughness elements are most critical for cavitation inception. The cylinders
and cones, which also present sharp discontinutities to the flow, are the next
191
Borden
most critical. At flow velocities above 28 knots, all types of roughness must be
kept extremely small to avoid cavitation.
Figures 6, 7, and 8 show the effect of the shape of the boundary layer profile
on cavitation inception over three of the roughness geometries: triangles, cir-
cular arcs, and cylinders. Cavitation inception over the triangle and circular-arc
roughnesses is particularly critical to changes in velocity profile because of the
averaging process needed to represent the local flow velocity u^ over the two-
dimensional roughness elements.
0.20
\
0.16
0.12
0.08
0.04
0.16
0.12
0.04
Borden
0.5
\
0.4
0.3
0.2
^ 0.1
0.3
0.2
0.1
Cavitation Inception on Rough Bodies
0.60
0.40
0.10
O.OB
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.01
Borden
0.60
0.40
- 0.20
^^ ^^ ^ ^^^
f 0.10
g 0.08
0.06
0.04
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The foregoing analysis has not discussed such physical properties of the
fluidas dissolved air content, air nuclei, surface tension, and various chemical
and thermodynamic properties of the water. This paper is merely an analysis
of two sets of experiments performed in different laboratories. In both sets of
experiments, the data from cavitation inception on bluff bodies show a definite
dependence on Reynolds number. The Reynolds number effect was particularly
large on the cylinders and cones but was smaller on the hemispheres. The two-
dimensional triangular roughness elements showed less dependence on Reynolds
number than the bluff three-dimensional elements. The circular-arc rough-
nesses had a small height-to-length ratio and were not bluff enough to cause
separation. Cavitation inception on these roughnesses was essentially inde-
pendent of Reynolds number.
Although both studies indicate that small changes in air content did not af-
fect cavitation inception speeds significantly, these physical parameters should
be investigated further. The experiments should be repeated in other flow fa-
cilities, in other types of water, and at different air contents and temperatures.
Despite the limitations of the roughness data disclosed here, the results
point up the need for considering viscous effects in the scaling of cavitation on
bluff bodies or on roughness elements where flow separation may occur. Dis-
continuities from peeling paint or lapping seams can be likened to the
198
Cavitation Inception on Rough Bodies
REFERENCES
1. Holl, J.W., and Wislicenus, G.F., "Scale Effects on Cavitation," Transac-
tions of the ASME, Journal of Basic Engineering D83:386-398 (Sept. 1961)
199
Friday, September 30, 1966
Morning Session
MANEUVERABILITY AND
OCEAN PLATFORMS
Chairman: R. Brard
Page
201
SOME HYDRODYNAMIC ASPECTS
OF SHIP MANEUVERABILITY
J. N. Newman
David Taylor Model Basin
Washington, D.C.
ABSTRACT
Recent developments are discussed which further the understanding of
the hydrodynamic force and moment acting on surface vessels during
maneuvers. Photographs are shown of the flow past a model of a Mar-
iner class hull with several drift angles, to support the validity of sim-
plified mathematical models for the hydrodynamic force and nnoment
analyses. It is shown that memory effects due to separation and free-
surface wave motions, together with the non-analytic dependence of the
nonlinear viscous forces on drift angle, require a more complicated
mathematical model for the force and moment than the usual Taylor
series expansion in powers of the velocity and acceleration. Methods
for analyzing the added mass, circulation, free surface, viscous, and
propeller influences are reviewed and discussed. Experimental and
theoretical evidence of the existence of memory or frequency effects is
noted. Several recommendations are made for detailed problems which
could profit fronn further investigation.
INTRODUCTION
The study of maneuverability and control of surface ships had its genesis
when man first set forth with raft and paddle. In the ensuing millennium this
field has become progressively more refined and scientific. Nevertheless much
work remains to be done in order to advance our understanding of the hydrody-
namic phenomena which are involved when a ship undergoes a maneuver. The
purpose of this paper is to review recent accomplishments and also to indicate
possible directions for future research and progress.
The history of ship maneuverability and control can be traced back at least
as far as Euler (1749). Two centuries later, the paper of Davidson and Schiff
(1946) organized the subject of ship dynamics within a modern engineering
framework and served as a stimulus and basis for most of the subsequent re-
search in this field. Six years ago the David Taylor Model Basin was host to a
Symposium on Ship Maneuverability which included a broad survey of the field
by Norrbin (1960).
203
Newman
In recent years there have also been a few investigators who dared to attack
with more fundamental techniques the hydrodynamic aspects of the motions of
ship hulls in the horizontal plane. Low aspect-ratio wing theory has been ap-
plied to yield predictions of the side force and moment on a yawed ship. Similar
analytical methods have been used to estimate the free surface effects associ-
ated with wave motion at the air-water interface. And a parallel experimental
investigation has been carried out to compare the side force on a yawed surface
ship model with that of an immersed geosim double-body. As a result of these
studies and of closely related developments in the field of aerodynamics, one
can claim to understand qualitatively most of the separate mechanisms which
contribute to the hydrodynamic force and moment acting on the hull. However,
as in the field of speed and powering, we are less certain of the interactions be-
tween the separate aspects of the problem.
204
Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Ship Maneuverability
The practical description of the flow of water past a ship hull during a ma-
neuver poses one of the most complex problems encountered in the field of ship
hydrodynamics. Included to a significant extent are most of the phenomena
which can be associated with an incompressible Newtonian fluid. Under the cir-
cumstances it is not surprising that literature on the subject of ship maneuver-
ability is devoted primarily to experimental investigations and techniques.
Fortunately at least a qualitative description of the flow and associated force
and moment can be provided if the disturbance of the free surface is sufficiently
small, the boundary layer is thin, and there is no large-scale separation or
ventilation.
Over the forebody the perturbation of the basic flow by the drift angle is in
agreement qualitatively with the expected cross-flow; that is the streamlines
are curved down on the upstream side of the hull and up on the downstream side.
However on the afterbody the situation is reversed, to an increasing extent with
distance downstream, and the downward flow on the downstream side is espe-
cially pronounced immediately ahead of the propeller aperture. It should be
noted that this downward flow on the downstream side (Fig. 1, bottom photograph)
occurs first in the vicinity of stations 12 and 13, where it is confined to the im-
mediate hull surface, whereas further aft the downward flow has thickened so as
to be indicated on the outer (half-station) tufts as well. Thus it appears that
this reversal of the perturbation crossflow is confined to a boundary layer which
becomes increasingly thicker with distance downstream. A similar effect near
the bow can be noted in the bottom views of the downstream side of the hull
(Fig. 6) where there is a noticeable "phase difference" between the inner and
outer tufts which disappears with increasing distance downstream. However
this secondary flow occurs only close to the surface and at the bow, whereas
205
Newman
3 DRIFT ANGLE
-3 DRIFT ANGLE
further downstream the entire cross -flow perturbation is in the expected direc-
growth in thickness with distance downstream does not occur,
tion, so that the
206
Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Ship Maneuverability
207
Newman
208
Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Ship Maneuverability
209
Newman
i,,:^^~^r _
Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Ship Maneuverability
idealized analytical solutions for the hydrodynamic force and moment, in spite
of the complexity of the real physical flow.
211
Newman
In the first approach, following Abkowitz (1964), one assumes that the hy-
drodynamic force and moment at any instant of time are analytic functions of
the linear and angular acceleration, velocity and displacement of the hull at that
same instant and that they are independent of any other details of the motion ex-
cept for the geometrical properties of the ship and the physical properties of
the water. It follows that the six components of the force and moment can be
expanded as Taylor series in powers of the above variables, and this leads di-
rectly to a set of linear and nonlinear terms in the equations of motion. Of
course this does not furnish immediately the desired solution, since the coeffi-
cients of these terms remain to be determined either through analytical or ex-
perimental techniques; usually the latter are employed at this point, so that the
approach serves only as a method of curve-fitting. However it does offer the
very practical advantage of a basis for generalizing captive model experimental
results to free maneuvering problems.
J-co
where Kj is a kernel function which depends in general on all six velocity com-
ponents Uj and on the retarded time t - r. In the linearized case we have the
,
6 ^t
where the kernel Kj depends only on the retarded time and on the geometrical
properties of the ship and the physical properties of the fluid. As an example of
the necessity for this representation, we note that in the case of a captive model
which is given a short "pulse" disturbance and then returned to its original
steady restrained condition, an unsteady fluid motion (visible especially in the
free surface disturbance) and associated force and moment will persist there-
after, in principle ad infinitum.
212
Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Ship Maneuverability
for a slender body with transverse symmetry. (Here A and B are constants
which depend on the body shape and Reynolds number.) In the Taylor series
approach, on the other hand, second-order effects would of necessity be even
functions of the drift angle and are ruled out by the transverse symmetry con-
dition, so that the nonlinear effects are by assumption of third order in the drift
angle. This particular point has led to some controversy regarding the correct
mathematical model for curve -fitting of experimental data. Martin (1961) and
Norrbin (1965b) lump all of the nonlinearities in a second-order term, whereas
most other workers assume that the third-order correction is valid, unless
second-order (even) terms are present as a result of the asymmetry introduced
by the ship's propeller (Suarez, 1963).
and moment which can be regarded as inviscid in their origin can in fact be
represented by finite Taylor series in powers of the drift angle, so that the non-
linearities of these forces will be more amenable to the Taylor series approach.
These will include the higher order effects associated with both circulation (in
the idealized lifting-surface sense) and with the free surface. In summary, both
second- and third-order terms should be included in a nonlinear model, and it
may be expected that these will not always scale simultaneously since the sepa-
ration drag will generally depend on the Reynolds number.
213
Newman
(::> IW- ) dx
Y" = N. = I
xm(x) dx .
Circulation
The applicability of these theories, at least to the total force and moment,
rests on the validity of a Kutta condition at the ship's stern, as opposed to the
more physical boundary layer growth and separation which may be expected to
occur. In this context it is important to recall that the low aspect-ratio wing
theory is somewhat unreliable in the case of a wing with rectangular planform
and especially in the case of a wing whose span is decreasing towards the
214
Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Ship Maneuverability
trailing edge. Thus its applicability to a conventional ship hull with a long hori-
zontal keel profile is open to question, and it certainly would not be applicable
to ships with cut-away stern profiles.
The principal feature of the slender-body theory and low aspect-ratio wing
theory, in the context of the lateral force and moment, is that the differential
side force acting on each transverse section of the body depends only on the
geometrical characteristics of that section. This (steady) side force can be ex-
pressed in terms of the added mass of the same two-dimensional section for
horizontal motions, in accordance with the formula
which has been derived by Lighthill (1960). Here V is the forward velocity, /S is
the drift angle, and m(x) is the two-dimensional added mass of the section. In-
tegration of this differential force over the length of the hull gives the total side
force and moment in the form
Y = -V2/3
I
J-L/2
^ m(x) dx = v2/3m (-
^ |]
'
= V2 /? m(x) dx - V2^|m (-
^^
= \^fi V 2 \ 2
Note that we have allowed for the possibility of a non-zero added mass at the
stern, as would be the case for a finite trailing edge or vertical deadwood on the
hull, whereas we have assumed that the bow is sufficiently pointed that the added
mass vanishes at the forward end of the hull.
If the body is pointed at the stern, m(-L/2) = and the classical potential-
flow results are obtained:
Y =
N = V^/SY.
215
Newman
On the other hand for a flat low aspect-ratio wing of rectangular planform and
span 2T we obtain the well known results*
Y = 7rpV2/3T2
N = -j-rrpV^ /3T^L .
Table 1
Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental
Side Force Coefficients Y/QApV^ fiLT) Obtained
by Norrbin (1965a)
Unsteady effects associated with non-zero yaw velocity also can be analyzed
within the framework of low aspect-ratio wing theory or slender-body theory.
Lighthill (1960) has shown that the two-dimensional unsteady side force is sim-
ply given by the expression
*The formal extension of the slender-body theory results to this case is per-
nnissible for the lateral force and monnent in spite of the fact that the leading
edge violates the pointed-bow requirement (Ward, 1955).
216
Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Ship Maneuverability
where h(x,t) denotes the transverse displacement of the ship's centerline from
the original straight -ahead position. However, this approach does not produce
different results from the usual pseudo-steady state added mass, damping, and
restoring terms; its principal value is in showing that the pseudo-steady state
approach can be rationalized if the hull is sufficiently slender and if there is no
separation or shedding of vorticity along the length of the hull.
Free-Surface Effects
Michell's integral for the wave resistance of an idealized ship hull is so old
and well studied that it is surprising to find, with only two exceptions, no paral-
lel work in the case of the side force and moment on a yawed ship, even in the
simplest case of a steady drift angle. The force and moment on a yawed thin
ship or surface-piercing flat plate can be formulated in terms of a lifting-
surface integral equation, but the resulting kernel is complicated and no calcu-
lations have been attempted. However the following important qualitative con-
clusions can be established by this means:
1. In the limit of low Froude numbers the kernel of the integral equation
tends to that associated with the ship plus its simple mirror image above the
free surface, corresponding to the lifting-surface problem of a flat wing of span
equal to twice the draft of the ship and chord equal to the length of the ship.
2. In the limit of high Froude numbers the kernel of the integral equation
tends to that associated with the reversed image (negative angle of attack) of the
hull above the free surface, corresponding to the problem of a wing with a dis-
continuous asymmetrical twist.
217
Newman
-4 (J=
-A ai'= 0,10 V LEEUWEN (L T = 17 5)
- ai'= lO"
L_
0.2 3 4
FROUDE NUMBER ^ / \^
Fig. 7 - Comparison of theoretical side
force with various experiments (an as-
terisk denotes experinaents with bare
hull; in all other cases the data is for
base hull with rudder)
218
Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Ship Maneuverability
NORRBIN (L T = 17.5)
THEORY (HU) L, T = 20
- cj=
-A tj'= 10 1.. EEUWEN (L T = 17 5)
2 0.3
FROUDE NUMBER V / V^
Fig. 8 - Comparison
of theoretical drift
moment with various experiments (an
asterisk denotes experiments with bare
hull; in all other cases the data is for
base hull with rudder)
It should be noted that the free surface can give rise to a steady side force
without the existence of circulation, so that thickness effects as well as the an-
gle of attack must be considered, in contrast to the analogous aerodynamic situ-
ation. These can be analyzed in much the same manner as the wave resistance.
A cOHvenient starting place for such a study is with Kochin's equations for the
219
Newman
n/ 2 /COS
H(0)|22 sec''^ d0 ,
Vsin e I
where
Here v - g/v^ where v is the forward velocity, p is the fluid density, i> is the
velocity potential, and the surface integral may be taken over any closed surface
surrounding the body. We note that, as is customary in ship-wave theory, the
reference frame is with respect to the forward velocity so that a rotation of the
coordinates is required to obtain the following formula for the side force due to
a drift angle /3:
J-v / 2
For bodies with circulation this equation also can be applied provided the sur-
face integral defining the Kochin function v^^d) is taken over the body plus its
vortex wake.
Apparently no equally general formula for the yaw moment has been de-
rived; such an extension would appear to require the analysis of nonlinear free-
surface effects.
The above equation is of limited value since generally the Kochin function
is unknown, and it is more difficult to obtain rational approximations for ideal-
ized body shapes than in the parallel situation of wave-resistance theory, due to
the fact that the body is yawed. For example, the Kochin function for a yawed
thin ship will involve both source and dipole distributions, and it must be ob-
tained from the solution of an integral equation analogous to lifting surface
theory.However if the ship hull is assumed to be slender rather than thin,
some progress can be made.
+ 0(/32, 5^/2) ,
220
Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Ship Maneuverability
and thus the linearized side-force derivative, per unit drift angle, is given by
the integral
r/2
- 5)
Y^ =
^ pgi. f sec^ |(6 sec^ 6 (P|- + Q|,)
where*
The integrals with respect to x are taken over the body length and
S(x) = ^nr\x)
is the sectional-area function of the submerged portion of the hull, with r(x) the
local radius. S'(x) and S"(x) denote the first and second derivatives respec-
tively. The practical value of these equations is limited by the fact that the
side-force integral diverges unless the ends of the body are cusped, i.e., both
the first and second derivatives of the sectional-area curve must vanish at the
ends. However it seems likely that this non -uniformity can be accounted for
(Tuck, 1964, Handelsman and Keller, 1966) and it would then be worthwhile to
generalize the side-force integral to more general and realistic hull forms with
full midbodies and a sharp trailing edge, to account analytically for the free-
surface effects which have been observed in experiments.
Kochin's formulas have also been applied, but within the framework of thin-
ship theory, by Reinov and Shen Tszy-In (1964). They decompose the potential
into two terms, one due to thickness and one due to vorticity, and assume that
the vorticity can be approximated locally by the corresponding value for a wing
of low aspect-ratio in an infinite fluid. Integrals of the vortex distribution are
carried out only over the surface of the hull, with no account taken of the vortic-
ity in the wake. Unfortunately the results are presented graphically without suf-
ficient identification to permit comparison with other theoretical or experimen-
tal data.
Viscous Effects
In order to discuss the effects of viscosity we shall ignore the free surface,
or, more precisely, consider the simple image of the hull above the free surface
*We note that the term with the factor 5 in this side -force integral may be iden-
tified with the wave resistance as determined from Michell's integral, and in-
deed there is a similarity in fornn between the complete side -force integral
and Michell's integral.
221
Newman
SO that the problem reduces to that of an elongated yawed body in an infinite real
fluid. This is of course one of the fundamental unsolved problems of subsonic
aerodynamics; if the body is basically flat a lifting-surface theory is appropri-
ate and the circulation is prescribed by the Kutta condition at the trailing edge,
but for a bluff body such as a body of revolution or ship hull there is no conven-
ient way of prescribing either the location or strength of the shed vorticity. It
is known that the vorticity and lift force arise from separation of the cross flow,
with regions of large vorticity at the boundaries of the separated region which
can be idealized in terms of vortex sheets. A detailed mathematical model
based upon this idealization has been constructed by Brard (1964) for application
to ship maneuvering problems, and in that work unsteady effects are included,
but the final analytical results are limited to rather elaborate convolution inte-
gral representations for the forces, whose principal utility lies in indicating the
proper form for the mathematical modeling and interpretation of experimental
data. (Brard's experimental results will be discussed in a subsequent section.)
Y^ = (a^ cos /3 + Cj i
sin /3| ) sin /3 ,
Propeller Influence
It has long been known that the action of a screw propeller or propellers
during a maneuver was stabilizing or, in effect, that of a skeg (Davidson and
222
Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Ship Maneuverability
Schiff, 1946). Recent experimental confirmation of this has been given by van
Leeuwen (1964) who performed oscillator tests both with and without the propel-
ler. This stabilizing influence can be explained in terms of the velocity field in-
cident upon a yawed propeller in an open stream; if the propeller and stern are
swung, e.g., to port, then a stabilizing (positive to starboard) force reaction will
be exerted by the propeller blades when they are in that part of their revolution
moving to port, and vice versa. But the angle of attack of the blade will be in-
creased by the drift angle when the blade is moving to port, and decreased when
it is moving to starboard (if the propeller is operating in normal ahead condi-
tions). Thus the net reaction on each blade over a complete cycle is a stabiliz-
ing force tending to return the stern to the original centerline. If the ship is
backing or the propeller is located so as to pull at the bow, the opposite conclu-
sion would result.
quency of the oscillations, L is the ship length, V is the forward velocity and g
is the gravitational acceleration. For sufficiently small frequencies these two
parameters tend to zero and the pseudo- steady -state analysis is valid.
223
Newman
First we note that the two frequency parameters differ by the ratio of the
square of the Froude number, or
g
"
V Ul
so that for fast ships
^.O.lf^
and for slow ships
^ 0.03 (
Thus a tentative conclusion is that the reduced frequency will be the controlling
factor, or that unsteady viscous effects will become significant before those as-
sociated with the free surface, especially for slower vessels. The experimental
results which have been obtained with oscillator techniques have been limited
primarily to one Froude number in each case, or at best to a narrow range of
Froude numbers; it would be of interest to vary the Froude number sufficiently
in a given experiment to determine whether the frequency effects which are in
fact noted therein will collapse with respect to one or the other of the two non-
dimensional frequency parameters, thus giving a direct measure of the relative
importance of the two physical mechanisms involved. To a limited extent this
comparison can be made from the data of van Leeuwen (1964) which includes
results for the Froude numbers 0.2 and 0,3, and from Motora and Fujino (1965)
which includes results for 0.1 and 0.2. The preliminary conclusion is that such
a collapse of the data takes place, if at all, only in the initial stages of frequency
dependence. This is consistent with the conclusions that initially the viscous
effects come into play rather than the free surface effects.
224
Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Ship Maneuverability
The maximum frequency at which these effects are unimportant can be in-
ferred quantitatively from the above referenced oscillator tests, as well as from
those of Paulling and Wood (1962), Brard (1964), and others. Such results are
outlined in Table 2.
Table 2
Limiting Values of the Frequency Parameters Below
Which Frequency Effects are of Secondary Importance
References
Newman
~
coL _ IrrL
D~
where B is the distance run in one cycle. Typical values of this distance are six
to ten ship lengths* and it follows that the reduced frequency parameter is
roughly in the range of from one-half to one. Thus a 20 -20" zig-zag maneuver
is marginal from the viewpoint of frequency effects. Ship maneuvers which take
place more rapidly than this can be expected to involve significant frequency ef-
fects, which can only be accounted for by Laplace transform techniques or the
equivalent thereof, as outlined by Brard (1964). It remains to be determined,
however, what magnitude of error is incurred by neglecting this complication,
and it would seem desirable to carry out a numerical comparison of the two
predictions for realistic maneuvers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The items
listed herein are restricted primarily to those cited in the text
and A bibliography of the period prior to 1960 is in-
to the period 1960-1966.
cluded in the survey of Norrbin (1960) and a current, but as yet unpublished,
broad account of the field is given by Mandel (1966).
anon., 1950. Nomenclature for treating the motion of a submerged body through
a Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Technical and
fluid.
Research Bulletin No. 1-5.
Brard, R., 1964. A vortex theory for the maneuvering ship with respect to the
history of her motion. Fifth Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, Bergen.
(Revised March 1965.)
Chislett, M. S., and Strj^m-Tejsen, J., 1965. Planar motion mechanism tests
and full-scale steering and maneuvering predictions for a Mariner class
vessel. Hydro- and Aerodynamics Laboratory, Lyngby, Denmark, Report
No. Hy-6.
Cummins, W. E., 1962. The impulse response function and ship motions.
DTMB
Schiffstechnik, Band 9, Heft 47, pp. 101-109. Reprinted as Report
1661.
226
Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Ship Maneuverability
Davidson, K. S. M., and Schiff, L., 1946. Turning and course-keeping qualities.
Transactions of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Vol.
54, pp. 152-200.
Euler, L., 1749. Scientia Navalis. 2 Vols., Academy of Sciences, St. Peters-
burg.
Handelsman, R. A., and Keller, J. B., 1966. Axially symmetric potential flow
around a slender body. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, in press.
Haskind, M. D., 1946. Oscillation of a ship on a calm sea (in Russian). Izvestia
Akad. Nauk SSSR, No. 1, pp. 23-34. English translation: Technical and Re-
search Bulletin No. 1-12, S.N.A.M.E.
van Leeuwen, G., 1964, The lateral damping and added mass of an oscillating
shipmodel. Shipbuilding Laboratory, Delft, Publication No. 23.
Lighthill, M. J., 1960. Note on the swimming of slender fish. Journal of Fluid
Mechanics, Vol. 9, pp. 305-317.
Martin, M., 1961. Analysis of lateral force and moment caused by yaw during
ship turning. Davidson Laboratory, Report 792.
Motora, S., and Couch, R. B., 1961. Maneuverability of full bodied ships in re-
stricted waters. Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering,
University of Michigan.
Motora, S., and Fujino, M., 1965. On the measurement of the stability deriva-
tives by means of forced yawing technique. Journal of the Zosen Kiokai,
Vol. 118, pp. 48-56.
227
Newman
Norrbin, N. H., 1965a. Forces in oblique towing of a model of a cargo liner and
a divided double -body geosim. Publ. Swedish State Shipbuilding Experimental
Tank, No. 57.,
Norrbin, N. H., 1965b. Zig-zag-provets teknik och analys (the technique and
analysis of the zig-zag test). Swedish State Shipbuilding Experimental Tank,
Report No. 12.
Paulling, J. R., and Wood, Lloyd W., 1962. The dynamic problem of two ships
operating on parallel courses in close proximity. University of California,
Institute of Engineering Research, Berkeley, Series No. 189, Issue No. 1.
Reinov, M. N., and Shen Tszy-In, 1964. Application of wave integrals to certain
problems of resistance and course stability of ships (in Russian). Trudy
Leningradskogo Korablestroitel'nogo Instituta, No. 45, pp. 57-66.
Tuck, E. O., 1964. Some methods for flows past blunt slender bodies. Journal
of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 18, pp. 619-635.
228
Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Ship Maneuverability
Appendix
Cartesian coordinates (xq.Yq, z^) are taken to be fixed in space or, nomi-
nally, with respect to the earth, such that coincides with the general direc-
x^
tion of the "initial" motion of the ship and Zg is vertically downward. The as-
sociated coordinates fixed with respect to the ship are denoted (x,y,z), the
right-hand convention is applied so that y is positive to starboard, and y = o is
taken to be the plane of symmetry of the ship. The three components of force
(x,Y,z), moment (k,m,n), linear velocity (u,v,w), and angular velocity (p,q,r)
are all defined in relation to the ship coordinates (x,y, z). Angular orientation
of the ship is defined by the symbols ^ (roll), e (trim), and (yaw), in accord- si-
It will be noted that the above systems are not sufficiently general to de-
scribe translations as well as rotations between the fixed and moving coordinate
systems. In fact, it is customary to consider that the spatially "fixed" coordi-
nates (xg.yg.zo) are in fact translating with the origin of the ship's (x.y,z)
system but that the first system is fixed in space at each point in time to allow
the application of Newton's laws in this system. Such a shortcut is expedient if
free surface and viscous effects are ignored, but for a complete physical de-
scription it is necessary to consider the effects of translations as well as rota-
tions between the two coordinate systems.
must be associated not with the yaw angle 4> but with a constant value of the
"drift" or "sideslip" angle /3 = tan" (v u). The drift angle is used frequently
'
229
Newman
If the origin coincides with the ship's center of gravity the six equations of
motion of the ship are as follows:
Here a dot denotes time differentiation, m is the mass of the ship, g is the grav-
itational acceleration, ^yy ^zz) ^i"6 the moments of inertia of the ship's
(ixx-
mass, and (ixy Ixz- ^yz) ^^^ ^^e corresponding products of inertia. If the mass
distribution is symmetrical with respect to the plane y = (i.e., port and star-
board) the products of inertia I^^y and ly^ will vanish, and in practice for con-
ventional ships the fore-and-aft symmetry is sufficiently dominant that the re-
maining product I,^^ can probably be ignored. However, this assumption does
not appear to have been verified, and it should be emphasized that, in general,
the coordinates cannot be taken to coincide with the principal axes of inertia un-
less the usual assumptions that x is horizontal and z is vertical are sacrificed.
The left sides of the equations of motion, the external force and moment
applied to the ship, include all of the hydrodynamic effects which act on the hull.
For a conventional self-propelled ship there are no other components of the ex-
ternal force and moment if we assume that aerodynamic effects on the above-
water portion of the ship can be neglected and that there exist no internal
changes of the mass or its distribution. On the other hand, towed or towing
bodies such as barges or tugs and captive ship models will have additional
230
Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Ship Maneuverability
external force and moment contributions to the left side of the equations arising
from their associated towing constraints, and in special cases, e.g., ships
equipped with a flume stabilizer system, significant internal changes of the mass
distribution will exist.
COMMENTS
M. Gertler
David Taylor Model Basin
Washington, B.C.
Although I have not had time to study this paper in any great detail, I would
like to make a few comments with respect to the problem of "frequency effects."
The author divides the frequency effects into two categories: those that
stem from vorticity shed from the oscillating hull and those that stem from the
unsteady motion of the hull at the free surface. The characteristic nondimen-
sional frequencies governing these two phenomena are given as L/V and V/g, -
Since 1958, the David Taylor Model Basin has carried out carefully con-
ducted planar-motion-mechanism tests on well over a hundred models of sub-
marines and other types of submerged bodies. In general, the experiments
were carried out over a range of .^jL/v values at least up to about 4, which is
well beyond the realm of practical interest for most submarine and submerged
body applications. Except for a few isolated cases involving forms which were
extremely poor from a hydrodynamic standpoint, the data from the oscillation
tests showed no significant evidence which could be interpreted as a variation of
the pertinent hydrodynamic force or moment coefficients with frequency within
the range mentioned. This was true of both the out-of-phase quantities (rotary
derivatives) and in-phase quantities (acceleration derivatives). Furthermore,
the coefficients derived from planar-motion-mechanism tests have been used in
conjunction with quasi steady-state equations of motion to make predictions of
the trajectories of submarines in various types of maneuvers such as spirals,
zigzags, and turns. These predictions, in a number of cases, have been com-
pared with the results of free-running model tests and full-scale trials and the
correlation has usually been excellent. Thus, we are firmly convinced that, in
the case of deeply submerged submarines, frequency effects can be neglected
both in predicting motions and in stability and control analyses.
231
Newman
On the other hand, the Model Basin has moved cautiously in applying the
planar-motion-mechanism technique to the case of surface (displacement) ships.
This was primarily due to concern over frequency effects which it was believed
would be caused by the waves generated by the oscillating hull. However, in
view of our experience with submarine forms and the authors assurances that
the viscous effects are more to be feared than the free-surface effects, plus the
recent experiences of other investigators, we should be able to proceed with
planar-motion-mechanism tests on surface ship models with full confidence.
COMMENTS
Roger Brard
Bassin d'Essais des Carenes
Paris, France
In order to support his first point, Dr. Newman describes the flow over the
model Mariner class ship in yawed conditions. The observations were car-
of a
ried out in the circulating water channel of the David Taylor Model Basin. They
show that the flow inside and outside the boundary layer differs substantially
according as the model is in straight or in yawed conditions. However, in yawed
condition, the areas of separation are of a limited extent. From that Dr. New-
man concludes that a theoretical inviscid fluid model based on the low aspect
ratio wing theory or on the slender body theory, should lead to an acceptable
description of the flow over the entire hull for angles of attack less than about
10 degrees.
232
Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Ship Maneuverability
Moreover, when a ship is turning, the local angle of attack varies along the
length of the ship. The transverse flow, when the ship is turning to port comes
from port on the forebody and from starboard amidship and on the aft body.
When the radius of gyration is small, there are string eddies on the port side
near the stern.
The ship herself must not be too much idealized if we want to obtain suffi-
ciently accurate predictions for practical purposes. It is well known, for in-
stance that the behavior of a ship is very sensitive to differences in the block
coefficient, the angle of entrance, the extent of the deadwood, and so on.
The controversy that Dr. Newman mentions in page 213 of his paper is fa-
miliar to me. This controversy originates in the fact that, if the force and mo-
ment are considered as nonanalytic, the use of Taylor series expansions is not
permissible. But limited expansions are polynomial, and it is always possible
to use polynomial expressions provided the functions, which are to be approxi-
mated, are continuous. Another controversy concerns the low aspect ratio wing
theory. This theory is useful, but it is necessary that it take into account the
effect of the angular velocity.
In my opinion the real problem is to represent the force and moment by ex-
pressions which contain as few terms as possible, while ensuring the smallest
discrepancy with respect to the results of the experiments, and which lead to
the best understanding of the effects of the shape of the hull and of the appendages
on the behavior of the maneuvering ship. For instance, Casal's thesis seems
particularly interesting because it helps to understand why, in yawed condition,
the force is acting near the bow and even ahead of the bow while, in turning con-
dition, it is acting behind the middle transverse section. For analogous reasons,
the dimensionless expressions of the force and moment must be able to account
for their rapid variation when l 2R, that is the reduced angular velocity, is in
the vicinity of the zero value.
233
Newman
The last part of Dr. Newman's paper is devoted to a discussion of the fre-
quency effects, or to the "memory" effects. He explains why initially the vis-
cous effects rather than the free-surface effects come into play.
My own paper read in Bergen in 1964 was aimed at drawing the attention to
these viscous effects. The experiments which were carried out at the Bassin
d'Essais des Carenes at the time, using a planar motion mechanism, showed
that these effects could be of importance in certain cases. Since then, new ex-
periments have been undertaken. They have shown that it is necessary to en-
sure a very accurate angular setting of the sine-cosine potentiometer used for
the integration, with respect to the driving shaft of the struts, or else significant
errors would affect the calculation of the out-and-in force and moment. This
has been a problem for sometime, but it is now solved. And now when experi-
ments are repeated with identical conditions, the results obtained are quite con-
sistent. This was not the case before. The curves given as examples in my
1964 paper must be considered as erroneous. Now, as is correct, the curves
giving the coefficients of the so-called quasi steady motion versus the reduced
frequency always show a horizontal asymptotic line. For instance in the case of
motions parallel to the horizontal plane, we have found that the asymptotic value
of the derivative dCy/3/3 may be 50% greater than the value corresponding to the
steady motion. For ^iy/^ the variations are insignificant and this is in agree-
ment with the fact that 3^y/Bi/^ is very small in steady conditions. The variations
of ^Cn/^/S are small but B^j^/30 decreases when the reduced frequency increases.
The asymptotic values of the coefficients which are sensitive to the reduced
frequency are reached for practical purposes at a reduced frequency of about
ten. That leads to the feeling that the history of the motion may be of impor-
tance in the case of rapid transient motions. However the problem of determin-
ing the magnitude of the error when the effect of the history of the motion is
neglected is not yet solved in a satisfactory manner. In any case, it is to be
noted that, when a planar motion mechanism is used for obtaining the added
mass, the exact values of the corresponding coefficients are the asymptotic val-
ues and not the limit values for f^L u - 0.
234
Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Ship Maneuverability
brilliant synthesis of the work already done, but concerning the work which is
now to be undertaken, he has formulated numerous pertinent personal views
which, in my opinion, will be very fruitful. For those reasons, I think that Dr.
Newman fully deserves to be very warmly congratulated.
Nils H. Norrbin
Swedish State Shipbuilding Experimental Tank
Goteborg, Sweden
This paper offers interesting reading still, I suppose, that will apply even
more to the next paper by Dr. Newman on this subject.
We remember the concepts of Nonweiler for the viscous flow around a body
of revolution, touched upon by the author: the crossflow is decelerated in the
boundary layer along the body, and at some distance aft of the bow the up-wash
is reversed, on the leeward side of the afterbody the radial displacement flow
will change into an in-flow, and only more near to the stern the roUing-up of
two trailing vortices will be completed. This physical picture suggests that
viscous ring vortices at the after part of the hull should be added to the ideal
flow model, characterized by a double-vortex line along the axis in the parallel
middle-body connecting ring vortices bound at bow and stern. These added ring
vortices are shed away in trailing line vortices from positions rather far aft;
there effect is to reduce the negative lift on the afterbody by say 50 or 60 per-
cent. In our experiments with the divided double-body ship model, referred to
by the author, this reduction amounts to about 85 percent, bringing the result
quite close to that of the wing analogy.
The double-vortex line along the axis of the body of revolution induces an
up-wash angle, which close to the hull is equal to the angle of attack. If we now
look back to Fig. 2 or 3 of Dr. Newman's paper we do not find the additional up-
wash associated with the ideal flow around the slender body, but we might note a
local separation along the bilges.
If the low-aspect-ratio wing analogy does apply, then I think the normal
force on the forebody will be very close to the force on the total hull, as indicated
235
Newman
by our experiments quoted on page 216 of the paper. The form of the tail is of
minor importance in this case, and the addition of a rudder does not improve
the trailing edge condition but means the addition of an isolated lift force, which
in turn may give an unstable moment on the low side (Cf. Fig. 8).
Finally will make a brief comment on the formal higher order approxima-
I
tions. From
physical considerations the cross -flow -drag lift suggests a square
term, which we have found to agree with experimental results. Due to the finite
time required for the development of the cross-flow boundary layer, however,
the contribution from sections with small fullness might be of a higher order,
and this contribution might in turn be reflected in the small nonlinear moment
term.
REPLY TO DISCUSSION
J. N. Newman
236
Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Ship Maneuverability
a surface ship and would not be expected for a submarine. Thus, I would cer-
tainly agree with Admiral Brard's statement that "generally speaking, the flow
can be idealized, but in a manner specific to each type of ship." As regards the
approximation of the lift force and moment by Taylor series or polynomials, I
feel that the important distinction from the mathematical viewpoint is that the
resulting expansions must be one-sided, with discontinuities in the even-order
derivatives, in order to account properly for the cross-flow drag effects. The
recent experimental results quoted by Admiral Brard, in modification of his
paper at the last Naval Hydrodynamics Symposium, are extremely interesting
and I look forward to the opportunity to study them in more detail when they are
published.
237
RESEARCH ON THE MANOEUVRABILITY
AND PROPULSION OF
VERY LARGE TANKERS
J. D. van Manen, M. W. C. Oosterveld, and J. H. Witte
Netherlands Ship Model Basin
Wageningen, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT
This paper deals with the results of investigations into the manoeuvra-
bilityand propulsion of large tankers, equipped with an advanced stern
arrangement for propulsion and ship-control. Authors suggest to
eliminate partly or completely the rudder, provide the ship with an ex-
tremely cigar- shaped afterbody having a shrouded propeller with a
large hub-to-diameter ratio and fit both bow and stern thrusters to the
ship. The application of cargo-pump-driven lateral thrusters working
on the ejector principle is discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
The requirements for the manoeuvrability and propulsion of very large
tankers, to be built in the near future, open the question whether conventional
solutions for the stern arrangement still have to be maintained.
239
van Manen, Oosterveld and Witte
model as suggested by the authors is shown. Figure 2, shows the bow and stern
thruster fitted to the model.
WATER INTAKE
Tf i\ n
240
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very Large Tankers
Fixed and controllable -pitch impellers are the most common prime moving
devices located in transverse thrusters. In recent literature the use of cargo-
oil pirnips of tankers as bow thruster devices has been suggested. Such a sys-
tem has the drawback that the efficiency is low due to the large kinetic energy
losses in the slipstream. These losses can be diminished by using an ejector in
which a high-velocity jet with a low mass flow rate can be converted into a
lower velocity jet with a higher mass flow. Therefore, the authors suggest to
use bow and stern thrusters working according to this ejector principle. Figure
3 shows schematically an ejector bow thruster.
The trend in the design of tankers has been toward large dimensions at
nearly constant speed and therefore high-powered ships. The high required
shaft horsepower and the nonuniformity of the flow at the propeller disk may
lead to vibration troubles and cavitation-erosion damage on the propeller blades.
241
van Manen, Oosterveld and Witte
First, the considerations will be given which have led to the choice of the
shape of afterbody and propulsor of the tanker discussed in this paper. Then,
the results of resistance and self -propulsion model tests will be presented for
each of the conventional and the suggested versions of the tanker.
AFTERBODIES I
20 FPP
APP
AFTERBODY M
APP 20 FPP
rudder shoe.
242
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very Large Tankers
243
van Manen, Oosterveld and Witte
Among the special types of propulsors which have as their object an im-
provement in the propulsive quality of the ship, the ducted propeller takes an
important place. The ducted propeller is now extensively used in those cases
where the ship screw is heavily loaded or where the screw is limited in diame-
ter. The possibility of using the ducted propeller for the propulsion of tugs,
towboats, and trawlers has been adequately demonstrated in practice in the
course of the last thirty years.
NOZZLE No. 19
244
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very large Tankers
and
s =
ND
TANKERS
SINGLE SCREW COASTERS TRAWLERS TUGS
CARGO SHIPS
Ka 3-65 SCREW SERIES IN NOZZLE
Ka4-70 N0|9<
Ka5-75
B 4-70
0.70
245
van Manen, Oosterveld and Witte
Figure 6 shows clearly the reasons why ducted propellers are used at heavy
propeller-loadings occurring in tugs, trawlers, and large tankers. As tanker
sizes continue to grow, the advantage of ducted propellers, higher efficiency,
and reduced optimum diameter, will become greater.
Analysis of the reduction in SHP due to the use of a nozzlehas been made
for tankers with an installed power of 30,000 SHP and different deadweight. The
rotative speed of the impeller has been fixed at 100 RPM. The result is given
in Fig. 7 which clearly shows the great reduction in SHP which can be obtained.
For a tanker of 100,000 tons deadweight, a reduction of 8 percent in SHP is
attainable.
1
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very Large Tankers
Table 1
EHP and SHP Tests 32,500-TDW Tanker
of
(design speed 17 knots at 16,000 SHP)
Speed
in
Knots
van Manen, Oosterveld and Witte
Table 2
EHP and SHP Tests with 48,500-TDW Tanker
(design speed 16 knots at 16,000 SHP)
Speed
in
Knots
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very Large Tankers
Model tests have been carried out to obtain a comparison between the pro-
pulsive quality of tankers with a conventional stern arrangement and with the
stern arrangement indicated in Fig. 1. The different stern designs have been
made for a 90,000-ton deadweight tanker, having an engine power of 18,000 SHP
and a speed of 15.75 knots. The principal particulars of the tanker are given in
Table 3.
Table 3
Principal Particulars of Tanker
Loaded Condition
The model with Hogner-type stern has been tested with three different noz-
zles. Nozzle No. 1 is derived from nozzle No. 19a by taking into account the ef-
fect of the hub shape of the flow. The taper of the hub is accounted for by locat-
ing the nozzle profile with reference to the direction of the undisturbed flow.
The direction can be determined if one assumes frictional effects and static
pressure variations to be negligible over the axial distance of the nozzle. It is
then a matter of satisfying the law of continuity. This method is only permitted
ifthe shape and the diameter of the hub are not too extreme. The design calcu-
lations for the ducted screw propeller were based on the method given in Refs.
9 and 10. The nozzles No. 2 and No. 3 have in comparison with nozzle No. 1, a
more pronounced converging part before the screw. This may be attractive
from a viewpoint of a more homogeneous flow in the nozzle. The particulars of
the nozzle profiles Nos. 1, 2, and 3 are given in Fig. 12.
250
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very Large Tankers
PITCH DISTRIBUTION
IN PER CENT
D =6700mm
van Manen, Oosterveld and Witte
NOZZLE No. I
No. X
252
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very Large Tankers
Table 4
Results of Resistance and Self-Propulsion Tests in Loaded Condition
van Manen, Oosterveld and Witte
Table 5
Results of Resistance and Self-Propulsion Tests in Light Condition
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very Large Tankers
Table 7
Hogner-Type Stern Better (+) or Worse (-) Than Conventional
Stern Arrangement at Light Condition
Speed
in
Knots
van Manen, Oosterveld and Witte
effect was also measured by the authors of Ref. 13; they went to higher v u val-
ues than English and established that the total side force and effective moment
acting on their model both had a minimum for V u at about 0.4 to 0.5.
This peculiar behaviour can be understood from the work of Keffer and
Baines (14). They found that for V U values higher than 0.2, a jet which was
initially blown through a hole in a wall perpendicular to the mainstream turns
90 and tends to cling to the wall creating a region of low pressure downstream
of the nozzle. This low pressure region creates a suction force which tends to
diminish the effect of the thrust unit. For ships with jet steering this is an im-
portant effect since the center of action of the suction force moves aft for higher
V/u values, hence the turning effect on the ship is no longer proportional to the
side force on the ship and must be assessed in terms of both side force and
turning moment.
A qualitative view of the effect of the forces and moments involved is given
by Fig. 13.
Ms=Tx-Sy Tc-
Ts = T-S
v=o
256
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very Large Tankers
I.U
van Manen, Oosterveld and Witte
Water mass flow from two mercury filled U-tubes connected with the ven-
turi nozzles.
Rudder angle h was adjusted on the servo motor moving the rudder.
Yaw angle / and the drift angle /3 were measured with a gyroscope mounted
on the model.
The nozzle exhaust velocity u was calculated with the aid of the continuity
equation from the measured water mass flow rate and the known nozzle exhaust
diameter. During the experiments the following quantities were changed: the
draft H, the ship velocity v, the nozzle diameter D^, the nozzle exhaust veloc-
ity u for the jet steering model, and the rudder angle for the conventional'
model.
Jet Steering
H = 8.13, 14.3 m
V = 5, 9, 13, 17 knots
D^ = 1.10, 0.357 m
U = 8.95, 12.1, 15, 17.9, 20.8 m/sec for D = 1.10 m
U = 18.6, 38.4, 58.5, 77, 97 m/sec for D^ = 0.357 m
Rudder Steering
H = 8.13 m, 14.3 m
V = 5, 9, 13, 17 knots
S = 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 degrees
For the adjustment of the nozzle exhaust velocity at model scale, Froude
scalingwas used. Thus the velocity ratio V/U for model scale and true scale
remained the same.
The experiments were done in such a way that the model propelled itself
with a certain desired model speed before rudder or jet action was initiated,
after which the response of the model to alternating rudder movement or jet
258
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very Large Tankers
One of the main reasons for this investigation was to devise criteria and
the possible regions of application for conventional rudder steering and jet
steering. It was clear that at service speed it would be difficult to improve on
the conventional system since the power requirements for jet steering might
become excessive.
A common yardstick for both steering systems was considered to be the
maximum value of the yaw angle rate 4'^^^. Figure 16 shows the behaviour of
as a function of time during the z manoeuvring tests. During the experiments
S,U
I
'2
259
van Manen, Oosterveld and Witte
RUDDER STEERING
<^ r l// z 0.
with the model with rudder steering, p^^^ could be measured as a function of
the rudder angle for a given ship speed v. When the model with jet steering
"o
was used, the dependence of ^^^^ on the jet velocity u was measured for a cer-
tain ship speed. For a known u, the cross flow parameter v u and the jet
power given by the expression N- = '^(pAU^) 75 HP, could be computed. The
experimental data are shown in Figs. 17-20 and Tables 9-11. The diagrams
illustrate the fact that the v^^gx "^^ ^ relation has a positive gradient and the /'^g,
vs v/u line a negative gradient.
260
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very Large Tankers
STtt-RINC,' H ^ 6 ll T)
oo^ Nj,(hP)-
Ob ,
t
van Manen, Oosterveld and Witte
lET STttBlMC
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very Large Tankers
ship speeds between zero and v, jet steering will produce larger turning mo-
ments than the rudder system. This will result in better manoeuvring capabil-
ities.
From the preceding discussion we conclude that for an evaluation of the jet
steering system it is necessary to compare (//^^^ at maximum rudder deflection
of 35 with the same 0^3^ generated by a certain nozzle with nozzle exit velocity
u. Table 8 shows the results which are obtained from Figs. 17, 18, 19, and 20.
Table 8
Points where ^^^^ for Rudder Steering with a Rudder
Deflection S = 35 is Equal to i'^^^ for Jet Steering
D^ = 1.10 m
van Manen, Oosterveld and Witte
Table 9
Jet Steering (h = 8.13 m)
V = 5 Knots, p^
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very Large Tankers
Table 11
Rudder Steering
H = 8.13 m
van Manen, Oosterveld and Witte
Recently the idea of using the main cargo pumps of tankers for steering
purposes has been put forward. It is intended to deliver sea water with these
pumps to nozzles situated at stern and bow, the efflux of these nozzles creating
a lateral force and a turning moment on the ship. The economic incentives for
using this system are that expensive machinery which is otherwise idle is put to
work for manoeuvring the ship without any additional rotating machinery. The
possible elimination of tugboat assistance is also an important consideration.
nozzle
12
'^nozzle
12pipe
~ 2 ^ ''^ '
8pQ2 / 1
AP,no z z 1 2
77^ VD"no zzle D".
*
,
pipe
266
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very Large Tankers
NOZZLE SHAPE
Q being the volume flow rate through the nozzle. The generated thrust at zero
speed amounts to
For the manoeuvring experiments described in the preceding section, the capa-
an installation supplied with a nozzle exit diameter of D^ = 0.357 m
bilities of
must be seen as representative.
The plain nozzle system has the drawback that cargo pumps have an unfav-
orable head-capacity relationship (high head, low volume flow rate) which re-
sults in a large kinetic energy loss in the jet leaving the nozzle. This is the
reason why the plain nozzle system has a low thrust per installed pump horse-
power of the order of 2-3 kg/hp at zero ship speed compared to 10 kg/hp for a
typical tugboat at zero speed.
By placing the exhaust nozzle described above in a tunnel with open ends at
both sides of the ship, an ejector system is obtained (Fig, 3). The jet leaving
the nozzle mixes with the surrounding water and creates a flow in the tunnel.
Since this installation increases the water mass flow rate and reduces the ex-
haust velocity a better thrust-horsepower ratio compared with the plain nozzle
installation is obtained. From experiments carried out on a special 100-hp
ejector test bench at the N.S.M.B., it was found that a thrust increase factor of
two over the plain exhaust nozzle can be achieved corresponding to a thrust of
4-6 kg/hp for a practical installation at zero ship speed. The main advantage
of this system is that a more favorable thrust -horsepower ratio is obtained
without sacrificing the basic simplicity and absence of moving parts of the plain
nozzle installation. The results of the manoeuvring tests with a nozzle diame-
ter D^ = 1.10 m should be seen as typical for the behaviour of such an ejector-
driven steering system.
267
van Manen, Oosterveld and Witte
vy//////////jfZLl.J_S^, V////////T7
-7ZZZZZZZZ7L ^^ r//////////
THRUST VECTOR
5. CONCLUSIONS
268
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very Large Tankers
jetnozzles with larger diameters than 1.10 m may lead to an extension of the
speed range where this type of ship control has a superior manoeuvrability,
lowering at the same time the required pump power.
Since it was found that at speeds above 5 knots the jet steering system can
only assist the rudder but not make it superfluous, the tail piece just behind the
propeller nozzle should be used as a rudder. Therefore it should be made mov-
able.
REFERENCES
1. van Manen, J.D. and Kamps, J., "The Effect of Shape of Afterbody on Pro-
pulsion," Trans. SNAME, 1959
3. Hadler, J.B. and Cheng, H.M., "Analysis of Experimental Wake Data in Way
of Propeller Plane of Single and Twin-Screw Models," Trans. SNAME, 1965
4. van Manen, J.D., "Size, Type and Speed of Ships in the Future," Third
Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, 1960
5. Hadler, J.B., Morgan, W.B., and Meyers, K.A., "Advanced Propeller Pro-
pulsion for High-Powered Single-Screw Ship," Trans. SNAME, 1964
6. Nichols, W.O., Rubin, M.L., and Danielson, R.V., "Some Aspects of Large
Tanker -Design," Trans. SNAME, 1960
7. van Manen, J.D., "Open Water Test Series with Propellers in Nozzles,"
1, No. 2 (1954)
International Shipbuilding Progress, Vol.
9. van Manen, J.D. and Superina, A., "The Design of Screw Propellers in
Nozzles," International Shipbuilding Progress, Vol. 6, No. 55 (1959)
10. van Manen, J.D., "Effect of Radial Load Distribution on the Performance of
Shrouded Propellers," Paper No. 7, The Royal Institute of Naval Architects,
March 29, 1962
269
van Manen, Oosterveld and Witte
11. English, J.W., "The Design and Performance of Lateral Thrust Units for
Ships," Trans. R.I.N.A., July 1963, Vol. 105, No. 3
14. Keffer, J.F. and Baines, W.D., "The Round Turbulent Jet in a Cross-
Wind," J. Fluid. Mech. 15, 1963, 481-496
15. Stuntz, G.R. and Taylor, R.J,, "Some Aspects of Bow Thruster Design,"
Trans. SNAME, 1964
DISCUSSION
H. Lackenby
British Ship Research Association
London, England
I was very interested to see the statement iii the conclusions that the 9 per-
cent improvement in SHP with the Hogner-type stern was of the same magnitude
as an extreme bulbous bow which leads to a 15 percent reduction in SHP in the
light condition.
In the first place, I would be glad to have some clarification on this matter,
that is, whether the 15 percent is the figure for the bulbous bow alone or
whether it refers to the bulbous bow and Hogner- stern together.
I should like to underline here that the bulbs I am talking about were very
much less pronounced than those dealt with by the authors, and to some extent
we were probably flapping around in the experimental scatter band.
270
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very Large Tankers
In some analysis work we have been carrying out recently, however, involv-
ing more pronounced ram bows, there is a fairly clear indication that the bow
modification is affecting the propulsive efficiency, and one has to be very care-
ful about considering the two ends of the ship separately and then assuming the
effects to be additive.
Perhaps the authors would comment on this question of bow and stern inter-
action.
DISCUSSION
J. Strom-Tejsen
David Taylor Model Basin
(after March 31, 1967 renamed the Naval
Ship Research and Development Center)
Washington, D.C.
It is certainly refreshing to read a paper like this in which the authors have
The stopping and backing are other examples of maneuvers which by many
are considered critical for the very large tankers. As shrouded propellers are
known to be inferior to conventional propellers with respect to the retarding
and backing force which can be produced in a stopping maneuver, it is necessary
271
van Manen, Oosterveld and Witte
in the case of the nozzle propeller propulsion to pay attention to this problem,
and it might be necessary to introduce special braking arrangements in order to
reduce the stopping length.
Finally, a short question. Has the comparison between the Hogner-type and
conventional stern given in Tables 5 through 8 been based on experiments with
jet tunnels installed in the model, thus actually taking into account the small in-
crease of resistance due to the tunnel opening?
DISCUSSION
S. Bindel
Bassin d'Essais des Carehes
Paris, France
Besides, it may be added that the rudder has a beneficial influence on the
propulsive efficiency, in reducing the energy loss due to the rotation of the flow
behind the propeller. Have the authors compared the supplementary resistance
due to the hull openings of the stern lateral thruster with the effective resist-
ance of the rudder ?
DISCUSSION
Orvar Bjorheden
KMW Maine Laboratory
Kristinehamn, Sweden
272
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very Large Tankers
Among the possible merits of a thruster steering system that the authors
mention are the reduced tug assistance costs. To illustrate the rate of these
savings I would like to submit some statistical data given to us by a well-known
shipping company in Europe. The figures apply to two 12,000-TDW sister cargo
liners which have been in service between Europe and the Far East for about
two years. One of them is equipped with a 600 -hp bow thruster plus a
controllable -pitch main propeller; the other has a conventional fixed-pitch
propeller. It appears that for the ship with bow thruster, tug costs are reduced
by about 80 percent compared with her sister ship without bow thruster. For
some of the ports along the trade the following numbers of tugs are needed in-
cluding both arrival and departure:
273
van Manen, Oosterveld and Witte
Manoeuvrability and Propulsion of Very Large Tankers
requires about 6 percent less SHP in the loaded and 9 percent less SHP in the
light condition. The application an extreme bulbous bow for this type of ship
of
will possibly lead to a 15-percent SHP reduction in the light and no reduction in
the loaded condition. The time this type of ship will sail loaded and in ballast,
will be about equal, so the improvements in SHP with the Hogner stern and noz-
zle fitted and with an extreme bulbous bow are of the same magnitude. At this
moment we do not have experience with respect to the resistance and the re-
quired shaft horsepower of ships with both an extreme bulbous bow and a Hogner
stern with nozzle fitted.
We agree with Mr. Strom-Tejsen that the jet system according to the paper
would require excessive power in order to produce at service speed forces
comparable to those obtained by a conventional rudder, due to the relatively
small nozzle diameters. The comparison between the EHP of the model with
the Hogner-type and the conventional stern has been based on experiments with-
out jet tunnels installed in the model. The increase in resistance due to the
tunnel openings (for these small tunnel diameters less than 0.5-1.0 percent) was
not taken into account.
We agree with Mr. Bindel that special attention must be paid to the problem
of course stability. Some remarks can be made already. Firstly, we are aware
that the Hogner stern will not affect favorably the course stability. On the other
hand we expect that the nozzle itself will form a positive element with respect
to course stability. Finally the tail piece will be an addition and forms a means
for further affecting (by increasing the lateral area) the course stability of the
tanker.
The data given by Mr. Bjorheden with respect to the reduction in tug assist-
ance costs due to the application of bow thrusters and his remarks with respect
to the stopping characteristics of large vessels are very interesting. Recently,
investigations were performed at the N.S.M.B. with respect to the stopping
abilities of a 100,000-TDW single-screw turbine tanker with an output of 28,000
HP at 85 RPM and equipped with different propeller types. The stopping abili-
ties have been derived from model test results by means of a qua si -stationary
method. Stopping times of about 32, 28, 23, and 18 min from full speed of 16
knots were found for, respectively, a conventional screw, a screw and nozzle
system, a contra-rotating propeller system, and a controllable -pitch propeller.
The head reaches were, respectively, 5100, 4800, 4450, and 2900 meters. For
an extensive discussion of this matter, we refer to the original paper of Hooft
and van Manen, to be read at the Spring Meeting 1967 of the RINA. From these
results it can be seen that the stopping characteristics of the ducted propeller
are better than those of the conventional screw.
275
CRUISING AND HOVERING RESPONSE OF
A TAIL-STABILIZED SUBMERSIBLE
A. Strumpf
Davidson Laboratory
Stevens Institute of Technology
Hoboken, New Jersey
ABSTRACT
Equations of motion are used as a basis for analyzing the inherent dy-
namic stability and limit maneuver response of a tail-stabilized sub-
mersible in cruising and hovering vertical plane motions. It is shown
that this type of vessel can perform adequately in cruising, but is sub-
ject to highly coupled, unstable hovering motion, especially in stern-to-
bow ocean currents. The stability of a submersible with both bow and
stern stabilizers, having fore-aft symmetry, also is treated. This lat-
ter type of design has inherent hovering stability, and its symnnetry
would have a salutory effect on the coupled motions of the vessel.
NOMENCLATURE
The basic nomenclature is adapted from SNAME Technical and Research
Bulletin No. 1-5. Three different right-handed rectangular coordinate frames
are used:
A sketch of the axes systems and the positive directions of the various angles,
velocities, and forces is shown.
277
Strumpf
Derivatives with respect to time are denoted by a dot over the symbol,
t
The length -^ and the frontal area A of the hull are used in forming dimen-
sionless coefficients, which are denoted by the prime of a symbol. Some exam-
ples of these are
x^ = Z' = Z/I AU2 M' M/f A^U2 m' m/f A-C q' =
J , , = , = ,
y '
z;
'w
= zy4
w/ 2 Au , z; = z /| a^u , h' -
^ ^ i', -
i.Vf A-e^
and
r-tAJ
278
Cruising and Hovering Response of a Tail-Stabilized Submersible
I. INTRODUCTION
In the present paper, motion equations are utilized to investigate some of
the stability and control problems that may be encountered in the operation of a
tail-stabilized submersible which must cruise and hover in an ocean current
environment. Most of the examples given to illustrate the behavior of the ves-
sel were obtained from a variation of parameter, digital computer study of the
vertical plane cruising and hovering limit maneuvers of a 43-ft-long, 8-ft-
diameter rescue submersible. The latter work was sponsored by the Special
Projects Office of the U.S. Navy, and the results were presented recently in a
Davidson Laboratory report (1).
During any given maneuver, it is assumed that the mass m, the pitch mo-
ment of inertia lyy, and the fluid current velocity Lf are constant. It also is
assumed that the submersible has geometric symmetry relative to its vertical
xz -plane and that the main hull is a body of revolution with fore -aft symmetry.
The latter assumption permits a relatively simple representation of the hydro-
dynamic forces and moments in hovering conditions where the angle of attack
can vary from to 2
tt. Extensive experimental data are lacking for these
conditions.
The equations of motion in the vertical plane are written using the body
axes (x,y,z) and an inertial frame (xpy^zj) which is fixed in the fluid. The
fluid axes form an inertial frame because U= (Uf,0,wj)is constant relative to
an inertial frame (x^.y^,, z^) fixed in the earth.
279
Strumpf
(a) AjU + A2W + A3(9+ k^ub \ k^\\x\'d "f AgWi9 + A^uU + AgwU + AgWu + k^^O'^
(b) BjU + B2W + B^'S + B4U^+ B5|u|6'+ BgW(9 + B^uU + BgwU + Bgwu + B^^'O^
(1)
+ Bii\'6\d + B12 sin 9 + Bjj cos 6 + Bj^Slulu = Z^,
(c) CiU + C2W + C^6 + C^u'e + Cslul^H- CgW(9 + C^uU + CgwU + CgWu + Cjo^^
where
Zc = Zs + Zb (b) (2)
Mc = ''b(Zs-Zb) (c)
- dr + x^(0) (c)
''o dr
'0 (3)
^o - f ^dr
dr + z(0) (d)
and
(4)
A3 = mzQ B3 = -mXQ Cj - -C4 - -mxQ
(Cont.)
A, = m -
I A^X;^ B, = - (m +
I A-^Z' ) C3 = I^y - 4 A^'M.'
280
Cruising and Hovering Response of a Tail-Stabilized Submersible
P
k-j - - -^ k\
'
W-B
Ao A^
An A.
Strumpf
The appendage moment must be zero when a = tk-n, and the product
Uw = u^ sin a has this property of symmetry, so it is suitable for estimating the
contribution of the appendage to the pitch moment in hovering flight.
The only experimental results which are available to check the validity of
this representation are those obtained at the Davidson Laboratory under spon-
sorship of the Lockheed Missile and Space Company (3). The hull was elliptical
in cross-section, and the hydrodynamic yaw moment coefficient N' was obtained
experimentally as a function of sideslip angle /3 in the range -15 ^ /3 < 90 for
the fully appendaged condition. Analogously to Eqs. (5a, b) the yaw moment N
due to sideslip velocity v is represented as
Setting
-
N
I UV^
= - N; sin 2/3 + N' sin /3 (8)
"i h a
The yaw moment coefficients tabulated in Ref. 3 are based upon ^:^ These are .
with the experimental data. The standard deviation of the test data from the
theoretical curve is 0.01, which is statistically equal to the standard deviation
of the test data among themselves. These results indicate that the theoretical
representation of the pitch moment in the equations of motion is accurate over
the whole range of angle of attack.
282
Cruising and Hovering Response of a Tail-Stabilized Submersible
given in Eq. (lb) has this property. The turning test results (3) are used for
comparison with the representation given by Eq. (11). The expression for the
side force which is analogous to Eq. (11) is
- au^y; sin /S
f ,
or in dimensionless form
Y' (12)
As before, the coefficient data (3) are converted to the A basis and least square
fitted to Eq. (12), giving the result
Figure 2 shows the comparison of Eq. (13) with the experimental data. Although
the standard deviation of the test data from the theoretical curve is greater than
the standard deviation of the data among themselves (i.e., 0.25 vs 0.091), part of
this discrepancy arises because the tests were made at subcritical Reynolds
numbers (Re) at the high sideslip angles (i.e., 45 < /3 < 90). This causes the
cross flow drag coefficient (which is equal to Y' at /? = 90) to be larger than
would be the case if Re were higher than the critical value. If the data at /3 = 90
had been obtained at Re ~ 1.0 xlO^ rather than at Re ~ 4,4x10^, it is expected
that much better correlation would have resulted. This conjecture plus the rea-
sonably good representation by Eq. (12) of the Y-force data in the range
-15 ^ /3 < 90 (even in the case of large variations in Reynolds number)
accounts for the retention of the simple expression for the Z-force in the mo-
tion equations. Additional test data over the whole range of attack angle and a
series of Reynolds numbers are needed for clarification.
283
Strumpf
30
When acceptable cruising conditions are possible, the vessel has inherent
dynamic stability relative to a level, straight course equilibrium state (u^.^^.s^),
where < u < u and |s| < s, u and s being the maximum attainable speed
and elevator angle, respectively. An inherently stable vessel can recover from
very high degrees of control saturation, whereas the inherently unstable vessel
cannot (4). In a proportional control, the degree of control saturation may be
defined as the ratio of the elevator angle s (or elevator angular velocity i> ) that
would be attained if there were no limit, to its limiting value s^ (or bJ).
Using small perturbation theory and Eqs. (1), it can be shown (5) that under
constant X^, and zero z^ and M^, conditions, a submersible is dynamically stable
in cruising flight if
and
where
W ^ 7- Au
p/2
2
^
and B'
p/2
Au.
284
Cruising and Hovering Response of a Tail-Stabilized Submersible
in the case where w = B (neutral buoyancy), the main operating condition of the
submersible. The expressions for e^ and s^ are obtained from Eqs. (1) under
the conditions that wj = 0, e^ is small, w = B, and Mg = (1/2)25. This gives
Wx,
(16)
(M;-iz;)fA^u,^-w.
and
-z;w''G
(17)
[(M;-|z;)f A^u/-w. Z',
Wxq^
>
(18)
(M;-|z;)f a^u.^-wzg
as a necessary condition for dynamic stability. For a body with tail fins, the
coefficients z^, z^, m^, and M^ can be represented by the relations (Ref. 6)
m;:.m;^.1z; (19b)
^^=^^h4^%^
Since the quantity
M ',
- 77 Zw
' - Mw. Z' > , (20)
2 *h
zo > (21)
z;W''G
< s .
(22)
m; -
^ z;) A-eu.^ - wz^ z;
f
285
Strumpf
The criterion given by Eq. (14a) now is applied to the case of a tapered body
of revolution with
and the mass coefficient m' for the neutrally buoyant case is 1.40. By substitut-
ing Eqs. (19) into (14a) and using the given numerical constants in the resulting
expression, it is found that the submersible has neutral hydrodynamic stability
when the tail appendage has a normal force rate coefficient z^^ = -0.86. Thus,
-z^ > 0.86 defines one of the limit curves for acceptable cruising performance.
Similarly, the criteria given by Eqs. (18) and (22) are applied to the hydro-
dynamically stable conditions defined by
*The critical speed for a given Zq is that for which the denominator of Eq. (16)
vanishes.
286
Cruising and Hovering Response of a Tail-Stabilized Submersible
A
Sa FT
Strumpf
(B) Hovering
When acceptable hovering conditions are possible, the vessel has inherent
dynamic stability relative to an equilibrium state with ^o^ - '^o^ = 0, e - 0^,
and where lu^l < u^, Iz^J < z^ and IZb^l < z^, z^ being the maximum vertical
force obtainable with either the bow or stern thruster.
K c
= '^r.
e
= 61^ = (9^ = w^ = and u = -u, (25)
5 = 0, Z3 = Zj , Zb = Zb , n^ = n^ . and W - B = .
(26)
Letting
and substituting Eqs. (25), (26), and (27) into the equations of motion give
2s = 2^ = -Zb (b)
^o = ^ (*)
288
Cruising and Hovering Response of a Tail-Stabilized Subnnersible
and the Ui,w^,(9j are constants depending upon the initial conditions. This sys-
tem yields an indicial equation of the form
where
do = Ai(B2C3-B3C2) - CiAjBj
^4 ~ A 16^ 17^ 12
d, d,d
(a) d. > and (b) d^ < -^ K
/
-
-^J
\
.
(34)
The other bases for defining acceptable hovering conditions are that lu^l <u
(or |nx^ I
< Hx^), and that each equilibrium vertical thrust force be less in mag-
nitude than z , or from Eq. (28)
and (35)
wIxgI
< Z. (b)
2x.
These hovering criteria now are applied to the submersible with the con-
stants given by Eq. (23) and
289
Strumpf
(37)
X.' = -0.07; X' = Z! = -1.273; M.' = -0.054, X' = -0.15. (b)
The values of Z^ and x^ were given by SP, a^ and b^ were determined using
propeller design charts (Ref. 7) for a three-bladed propeller with diameter of
4.0 ft and pitch-to-diameter ratio of 0.50, the coeffecients of Eq. (37) were ob-
tained using Eq. (19) and the previously given data (23b), the "added mass and
inertia" coefficients were estimated on the basis of Lamb's "accession to iner-
tia" coefficients for prolate spheroids, and the estimate of x^ is an average
value based on the fact that the submersible will operate over a range of speed
from to approximately 5 knots. The Schoenherr friction drag coefficients as
well as estimates of form drag were made for the main hull, tail appendages,
rescue skirt, thruster ducts and gear, and other exposed equipment to obtain the
given value of x^. However, a rough estimate of x^ is justified because it has
been found (1) that reasonably large changes in its value have little influence on
the measures of performance treated herein.
The cross-hatched area of Fig, 4 shows the region in the u^.Zq plane of
acceptable hovering performance defined by the criteria of stability, maximum
propeller speed, and maximum vertical thrust forces. The region is closed at
the top by the criterion u^ < 6.95 ft/sec which was obtained by arbitrarily as-
suming a maximum propeller speed n^^ of 20 rad/sec in Eq. (35a). The notation
in Fig. 4 that |xq| < 0.10 ft for Iz^ and Iz^, < 300 lb is the result of using
| |
only if Zq > 0. This latter condition accounts for the z^ = limit line in Fig. 4.
When Up > 0, Zq > 0, and |xq| < 0.10 ft, d^ and d^ are positive and condition
(34b) is satisfied if
+
(38a)
Z;(M;-m'x^) - (m' + Z;) M; > 0, for Up>0
or equivalently, if
Z;(M;-m'x^) - [m' + (Z' +Z; (M; +M; > 0, for u^ > ^^Sb)
)] ) ,
n ^ a h a
where the sign of each quantity is shown above its symbol. For the hydrodynam-
ically stable submersible considered, the first product of Eq. (38) is positive
(Stabilizing) and, although the second product gives a negative contribution (de-
stabilizing), its effect is diminished by the stabilizing influence of the tail ap-
pendage contributions Zq^ and M^^. Hence, Eq. (38) is satisfied, and the neu-
trally buoyant, tail stabilized submersible with a small margin of hydrodynamic
stability can hover acceptably in large negative (bow-to-stern) ocean currents if
z^. > and |x| is smaller than 0.10 ft.
290
Cruising and Hovering Response of a Tail-Stabilized Submersible
w
LB.
Strumpf
ii, > o
which means that the appendages have the following net effects on the rate
coefficients:
Use of these relations in Eqs. (38) and (39) with Xq = shows that the stability
criteria for u^ > and u^ < reduce identically to the same one, namely
"^'^'^ - ("^' +
2;,) m;^ > 0- (45)
or
K\ -
(y z;, ^ 2m;Jz;^ . [z;^m;^ - (m' .z;j] m;^ > o .
(46)
Substitution of the bare hull hydrodynamic coefficients given by Eq. (23b) and
the mass coefficient m' = 1.40 into Eq. (46) and solving for z' shows that if
the bow- and stern-finned vessel will be hydrodynamically stable in both posi-
tive and negative ocean currents. It is noted that the value of zi for neutral
hydrodynamic stability of the submersible with only a stern appendage also is
-0.86. This type of result occurs generally because a stern appendage alone,
regardless of size, cannot stabilize the vessel when u^ is negative, and the bow
appendage alone, regardless of size, cannot stabilize it when u^ is positive (6).
293
Strumpf
X PT.
E.,rT.
U. FT/SEC
ur, FT/SEC
e,R'^o.
-0.5
X,,fT/SEC
E,, FT/SEC
S,RAO.
too t SEC
-0.5
294
Cruising and Hovering Response of a Tail-Stabilized Submersible
vessel reaches the prescribed execute pitch angle e^ = -0.80 radian. At time
tj, the elevator is deflected at the rate -o^ until it reaches the angle -b^ and
held there until the time t2 when the depth velocity z is zero. The run is
stopped when t tj. The run also is stopped at any time when > 1.57 rad
Figure 7 shows how the maximum depth z^^ and the time t^ vary with Z^
for the previously given values of the other parameters. There exists a value
z' ~ -1.3 for minimum z om and nearly minimum t ,. The submersible with
"a ' -i
0.86 < \z^J < 1.3 may also respond rapidly but because of its marginal stabil-
ity, requires larger depths than in the optimum case to complete the maneuver.
A submersible with |z^^| < 0.86 cannot complete the maneuver because the
pitch angle 6 exceeds the limit of 1.57 radians. For example, when z^ = -0.70,
exceeds 1.57 radians after only 26.0 seconds and while the depth velocity is
still increasing. This confirms the result of the previous stability analysis.
Lastly, when \z^J > 1.3, the vessel has an excessive amount of hydrodynamic
stability and requires greater depth and longer time to complete the maneuver
than in the optimum case. Since an automatic control with elevator deflected in
proportion to an error in would (in effect) add hydrodynamic stability to the
t^
system, it would be preferable to choose a tail fin with 0.86 < |z^ | < 1.3 than
one with |z' > 1.3.
|
2i
Strumpf
I60
20>
on cruising maneuver response. The standard condition with Z^^- = -1.5 was
used to obtain the fairly good collapse of the z^^ and tj data. These results
show that both the depth and time required to complete the maneuver decrease
as the maximum elevator force coefficient increases.
Figure 9 shows how tj, t^, and z^^ vary with metacentric height z^ for
conditions with s
m
= 0.175 rad, and zl7
= Zw
c
= -1.5. The total depth z and
296
Cruising and Hovering Response of a Tail-Stabilized Subnnersible
time tj are minimized when z^ =0.065 ft. The submersible with < z^, < 0.065
ftalso responds rapidly but its marginal stability causes larger depth excursions
than in the optimum case. All three measures of performance increase from
the values at Zq = 0.065 ft to infinite values at z^ = 0.137 ft. It can be shown
analytically (1) that the submersible with z\ = -1.50 and h fixed at o = 0.175
radians attains a steady, downward, straight course condition with It'T < 0.80
radians for z^ > 0.137 ft. It is for this reason that the execute angle of f = j
The limit value of Zq increases linearly with \z'^\ &^, and has a value of about
Therefore, it has been shown that for a given value of Z^ s^, there exists
a tail appendage force rate coefficient z^^ and a metacentric height z^ which
yields optimum cruising overshoot maneuver response. However, the optimum
Zg''
Strumpf
ae
^r.-> FT.
O.H -
0.2 -
(47)
W = B = 95,500 lb, Xq = z^ = 0.01 ft, Wj = 0, and z^ = 20 ft.
With the vessel initially motionless with zero pitch angle relative to the x^,y^,z^
inertial frame, the bow and stern vertical thrust forces z^ and Z^ are increased
from their respective equilibrium values Zb^ = -29.84 lb and Z^^ = 29.84 lb at
the maximum rate z^ = 100 lb/sec until the stern vertical thrust force reaches
the maximum value z^ = 300 lb and the bow vertical thrust force reaches the
value of 240.32 lb. These forces are maintained until time tj when the pre-
scribed execute depth z^^ = 20 ft is reached. At time t,, the z^ and z^ forces
begin to reverse at the rate -z^ until z^ reaches the maximum negative value
of -300 lb and z^ = -240.32 lb. These vertical thrust forces are maintained until
''^M' was determined analytically (1) using strip theory. The resulting expres-
sion is M' (1/16) z' + (1/4) z; .
298
Cruising and Hovering Response of a Tail-Stabilized Submersible
X^, ft.
H., f^T.
U FT/lEC 2 t
ur, FT/sec
e, RAO.
2.0
7 FT/sec
Strumpf
the time tj when the depth Zqj of 20 ft again is attained, and the run is stopped.
A run also is stopped if |z^| > 100 ft, \e\ > 1.57 rad, or t > 200 sec. In a com-
pleted hovering heave maneuver, there is a time in the interval (tj, tj) where
z^ - 0. It is noted that the control moment M^ and the longitudinal propeller
speed n^ have the equilibrium values M^^ = x^CZ^ - z^,^) and n^ for all time
(o, tj) in a hovering heave maneuver. Hence, any net unbalanced pitch moments
or longitudinal forces are due entirely to transient inertial and hydrodynamic
effects. Some of the measures of performance are Z^ z^ , tj, i9j, x^
, ^_^,
,
x^
lOO r
80
eo I-
sec.
MO
o.e 2.0
-20
O.XtO*, RAO.
z --o
e~0 , RAD.
fcO
300
Cruising and Hovering Response of a Tail-Stabilized Subnnersible
4.0
current velocity of 1 knot, the vessel attains a pitch angle 6 and longitudinal
displacement of almost 80 degrees and 4 hull lengths, respectively, before the
maneuver is completed. At slightly higher positive currents than 1 knot the
maneuver cannot be completed at all because the pitch angle exceeds the limit
value. On the other hand, for a negative current velocity of 1 knot, both the re-
sponse time 1 2 and the heave overshoot are significantly reduced and the cou-
pling effects are negligible in comparison with those obtained for the positive
1 knot current.
Because the pitch and surge motions of the tail-stabilized submersible are
so sensitive to the action of a pure vertical force z^ some amelioration of
,
these coupled motions can be obtained by reducing the magnitude of z^. Figure
15 shows this effect for otherwise standard conditions with u^ = 0. Decreasing
Z^ also reduces the heave overshoot and causes large increases in response
time. Therefore, if the slower response can be accepted, small vertical control
forces (50 or 100 lb) could be used to move the vessel vertically. This will per-
mit the hydrodynamic pitch moments arising from the vertical motion to be
counteracted by a pure control moment M .
301
Strumpf
Cruising and Hovering Response of a Tail-Stabilized Submersible
VII. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank Mrs. Kae Wilkens, Mr. Conrad Sedlak, and Mr.
Herant Deroian for their assistance in preparing this manuscript.
VIII. REFERENCES
1. Strumpf, A. and Eda, H., "Vertical Plane Cruising and Hovering Limit Ma-
neuvers of a Tail-Stabilized Submersible," Davidson Laboratory Report No.
1132, July 1966
2, Feldman, S. and Cathers, L., "Design of the Deep Submergence Rescue Ve-
hicle," prepared by U.S. Navy Special Projects Office
303
Strumpf
4. Strumpf, A., "A Simplified Analysis of the Direction Stability and Turning
Characteristics of a Finless Torpedo," DL Report 1051, January 1965
5. Strumpf, A. and Anguil, G., "A Study of Longitudinal Dynamic Stability Cri-
teria for Torpedoes," DL Report 1001, December 1963
304
ADEPT AT DEPTH
F. R. Haselton
Office of Naval Material
Washington, D.C.
It is the aim of this paper to bring into focus those technologies which may
be brought to bear in order to permit man to, indeed, be adept at depth. Of
course, for one to be adept, he must be adept at something. The less complex
the task assigned, the easier the design of a tool with which a man is adept. It
is not economically or technologically feasible to permit man to extend his full
dexterity through the pressure vessel. On the other hand, he will not be content
to merely observe. We must then decide which general tasks are worth perform-
ing and the most effective means toward those ends. In order that the scope of
this paper be bounded, let us postulate such a task to be performed and present
the means by which successful accomplishment could be attained.
What are the necessary elements which will permit success? The answer
is obviously a highly responsive vehicle and arm, but consider those elements
which contribute to responsiveness. For man to impose his will effectively,
there are three areas of concern. These may be classed as sensory informa-
tion,command translators, and the vehicle and arm dynamics.
305
Haselton
The closest attention to these elements is mandatory, for the entire system
performance is limited by the weakest link. Sensory information is not limited
to vision alone, but embraces acoustic as well as position and rate data and may
include feel in the form of feelback controls. The sensed information must be
displayed to the operator in meaningful formats and utilized effectively as inputs
to control systems. If this task is done well, the operator will know what is
happening and what needs to happen. The next concern is to permit the man to
impose his will upon the machine through manipulation of controls, Thest must
be meaningful controls embodying the best practices of good human factors ex-
perience. The allocation of all dynamic control tasks to a single operator is
mandatory. Last and most important, at least to hydrodynamicists, is the
method of generating and controlling reaction forces in the water medium. It is
to this element that the bulk of this paper is devoted.
Recent years have seen a growing interest in the general field of ocean en-
gineering, generating a need for maneuvering capability in the zero and near
zero speed range. Costeau's Saucer Vehicle is, of course, the best known ex-
ample of this new breed of craft. Other later examples are the Alvin, a craft
for oceanographic research, constructed for the U.S. Navy, and several com-
mercial vehicles which may be typified by the Deepstar, Deepquest, and Alumi-
naut. In each of these vehicles, the best-known proven state-of-the-art propul-
sion and control schemes were used.
For the task now at hand, the U.S. Navy carried out an exhaustive search of
maneuvering and control devices conducting many tests on those thought to be
the most promising, which could perform within the constraints enumerated
earlier. The two surviving schemes (Figs. 1 and 2) are generally referred to
as the ducted thruster with ring tail and the tandem propeller. The first needs
little or no explanation to this audience, being a combination of the well-known
bow thruster principle and steerable shroud. The tandem propeller is, perhaps,
a new concept to many of you, but is an extension of principles presented four
years ago at this symposium.
The departures from this design are the result of redirection of the per-
formance emphasis from high speed to low speed. The two principal changes
are (a) the tilting of the blade axis, resulting in swept conical surfaces, and (b)
increase in blade area. The first change permits the direction of the large lift
forces in the cross body axis without greatly reducing axial capability. The
large blade areas provide better force-to-power ratios by moving greater mass
through smaller accelerations and at lower rotational speeds. It is apparent
that very large force-to-power ratios are possible if blade size or thruster duct
306
Adept at Depth
diameter are unlimited. The two designs shown represent reasonable optimiza-
tions within the constraints imposed.
We will show some of the hydrodynamic test results which, when considered
along with such other criteria as mission power consumption, permitted a clear
choice to be made. Figure 3 compares large-scale-model test data, extrapo-
lated to full scale, in the sway or heave mode. The measure of excellence, or
performance factor, is chosen as developed pounds of thrust per horsepower
plotted against velocity in the applied direction. Performance in pitch or yaw is
easily derived from these data. Surge performance is derived in quite a differ-
ent way and posed, perhaps, the most difficult decision criteria. On the one
hand, an independent system is provided for surge, and, therefore, it and the
body shape may be optimized for this mode without undue penalty to the other
degrees of freedom. On the other hand, in the tandem propeller, surge is pro-
vided by the same system which provides the other degrees of freedom. While
it enjoys a redundancy factor in that either propeller can provide surge motions,
307
Haselton
KNOTS - SWAY
308
Adept at Depth
309
Haselton
surge mode through large fixed control surfaces rather than with the control
system, he reduces not only the maximum control rates attainable, because of
the added drag, and the time to attain these rates, but introduces also motion
crosscouplings.
310
Adept at Depth
VERTICAL
CONTROL
There have been discussed the many functions which, when properly inte-
grated, will enable the production of a vehicle which is indeed adept at depth.
311
Haselton
DISCUSSION
LCdr A. Skolnick
Deep Submergence Systems Project Office
Chevy Chase, Maryland
The author has stated privately that the historical event to which his first
sentence refers is Moses in the Red Sea. One can think of at least one other
biblical instance, i.e., Jonah, where the doubly aggravating circumstance of be-
ing in the depths of a whale in the depths of the sea was the case. The prospect
of mating a deep-diving manned submersible on the hatch of a distressed sub-
marine is in a sense an aggravation of the third power. The rendezvous and
docking of two vehicles in outer space is less difficult; the visibility is good
there, but this is hardly the case for the submersible; the space docking occurs
unbuffeted by winds, whereas underseas chaotic flow conditions can take place
as a result of water currents and the effect of local protuberances; finally,
space vehicles are smartly responsive, whereas submersibles are well noted
for their sluggishness. The requirement of mating upon an underway or hover-
ing mother submarine (present in support of the operation) portends no lesser
task than the requirement of mating upon the distressed ship.
312
Adept at Depth
DISCUSSION
Roy S. Rice
Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory Inc. ,
Most of you are familiar with the techniques developed at the Davidson Lab-
oratory and the David Taylor Model Basin for evaluating the hydrodynamic
characteristics of submarines when a dominant forward velocity exists. These
methods permit analysis of the nondimensionalized stability derivatives of the
vehicle in a convenient form and computation of the dynamic response charac-
teristics. Extrapolation of data to reasonably similar hulls may be made with
confidence, and preliminary design studies can result in obtaining substantial
insight into vehicle performance.
A second point of special interest brought out by the author has to do with
the generation of control forces. For the precision of location and attitude
needed for certain missions to be achieved, decoupled control of motion is in-
deed a necessity. Yet this capability must be attained within the constraints of
a design which is both energy and power limited on a vehicle having character-
istic response times severely mismatched with dynamic responses that the pilot
is well qualified to handle. Here, again, an understanding of the hydrodynamics
the distortion of the flow field due to motions of the hull resulting in disorientation
313
Haselton
In effect, the whole range of problems that have concerned the aerodynami-
cist in helicopter and VTOL designs is now facing the hydrodynamicist in the
development of the high-maneuverability deep-submergence vehicle.
REPLY TO DISCUSSION
F. R. Haselton
I wish to thank Dr. Skolnick and Mr. Rice for their comments, with which I
am fully in accord.
The time has arrived to open our eyes, roll up our sleeves, and go about
the business of producing a work boat capable of effective use in ocean exploi-
tation.
314
Friday, September 30, 1966
Afternoon Session
MANEUVERABILITY AND
OCEAN PLATFORMS
Chairman: W. P. A. van Lammeren
Page
315
A MODEL TESTING TECHNIQUE AND
METHOD OF ANALYSIS FOR THE
PREDICTION OF STEERING AND
MANOEUVRING QUALITIES
OF SURFACE SHIPS
J. Strf^m-Tejsen and M. S. Chislett
Hydro- and Aerodynamics Laboratory
-Lyngby, Denmark
ABSTRACT
A semitheoretical method of investigating steering and manoeuvring
qualities of surface vessels is described. A general mathematical
model, consisting of nonlinear equations of motion for a body free to
move in the horizontal plane, is used as a basis. The hydrodynamic
coefficients of the equations are obtained by carrying out captive -model
experiments for each particular vessel, after which any desired ma-
noeuvre can be predicted with the aid of a computer.
INTRODUCTION
317
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
A semitheoretical technique of this kind has been adopted at the Hydro- and
Aerodynamics Laboratory (HyA) for investigating steering and manoeuvring
qualities of ships and is dealt with in this paper. The HyA- method utilizes a
planar-motion mechanism system for experimental measurement of the hydro-
dynamic coefficients in the equations of motion, and uses the HyA-GIER digital
computer for the numerical solution of the equations. Before launching into
technical details, however, it is relevant to consider briefly the reasons which
make such an approach desirable.
Free-running model tests constitute the simplest and most direct means
of assessing the behaviour of a given ship design during the execution of a par-
ticular manoeuvre. The tests are made by simulating full-scale conditions as
closely as possible. The disadvantages of free-running model tests are firstly
that they can only be conducted with difficulty in a conventional long narrow
towing tank and preferably require a large manoeuvring basin. Secondly,
whereas free -running tests provide information enabling engineering decisions
to be made as to the suitability or otherwise of a given design, the reasons for
the observed performance are not apparent from the test results. The tests are
unsatisfactory in that little insight is gained into the hydrodynamic phenomena
involved, and a rational basis for improvements in design is difficult to estab-
lish. Finally, even when large facilities are available for making free -running
model tests, certain scaling problems are difficult to avoid. It is, for instance,
difficult to obtain the correct conditions of propeller loading corresponding to
the ship propulsion point. When making captive-model tests this is very simply
achieved by applying a towing force via the rigid connection to the carriage.
318
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
example the interaction effects between two ships passing in a shallow canal.
The difficulty in handling the more complex situations arises not, however, as a
result of the mathematical model, which even in a very general case is almost
ideally suited to computer solution, but rather in the determination of the hydro-
dynamic coefficients of the equations of motion.
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
The mathematical model at present in use at HyA for simulation of steering
and manoeuvring characteristics of surface ships is based on the general equa-
tions of motion of a rigid body moving in the horizontal plane. The detailed
derivation of these equations in terms of the now commonly accepted notation
(1,2) employed in steering and manoeuvrability work is given by Abkowitz (3).
For a body having freedom in surge, sway, and yaw but restricted in heave, pitch,
and roll* the equations, developed for a coordinate system fixed in the symmetry
plane of the body, are
X = m(u - rv - XqT ^)
N = ^ z^ ^ mX(-,(v+ ru) ,
where terms on the right side describe mass and inertial responses, and the left
side expresses the external hydrodynamic forces and moments acting on the
body (see Fig. 1).
f (u, V, r u, V, r
, ,
S) ,
\^)
*Rolling and heel have been neglected in the present model, since they are felt
to have little influence on the prediction of steering and manoeuvring charac-
teristics, with the possible exception of fast warships, which heel appreciably
in turns.
319
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
1
X = X.G + X, + X Au + 42 X...
'"uu~
Au^ + -i X uuu Au^
g
+ \ X^y +
I
X,,r2 +
I X,,b' + -| X,,^v^Au +
I X^^^r^Au + | X^^^S^Au
+ Y..V + 4g Y V vv v^ + 42 Y.._r
V r
vr^ + 42 Y.^cvS^
^v? 8' + Y.. vAu + 42 vuu vAu^
Y.. .
1
+ Yr r
+ -Y
g rrr r^ + -Y
2 rvv tv^ + -2 Y rSS'
..rh^ + Y' ru rAu + ^Y
2 ruu mu'
+ Y...vrl (4)
Equating the hydrodynamic forces and moments based on Eqs, (3) and (4)
with mass and inertial responses, Eqs. (1), then the nonlinear mathematical
model finally becomes (4)
320
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
where
The factorials, 1/2 and 1/6, have been dropped as they unnecessarily com-
plicate the bookkeeping, and the fourth-order terms Y^j,^ and N^^^^^ have been
introduced to obtain sufficient flexibility of expression for the influence of speed
on rudder action.
It is not suggested that the above mathematical model represents the ulti-
mate in sophistication.It is felt, however, that further significant elaboration
321
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
coefficients such as Y^^^, n^, and Xf,,. These coefficients in general depend on
the particular geometry and design of a ship, and they must be known with rea-
sonable accuracy before manoeuvres can be simulated by solving the mathemati-
cal model with the aid of a computer.
The range of motion and rudder parameters explored during testing should,
in principle,cover the range of subsequent simulation. Surge, sway- and yaw-
accelerations, speed loss, drift angle, yaw velocity, and rudder angle should
therefore be varied systematically up to the values corresponding to maximum-
rudder manoeuvres for the free-sailing ship.
Many methods have been used to measure forces and moments due to angu-
among them being such devices as curved models, curve-flow
lar velocity,
322
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
channels, and freely decaying oscillators. All of these systems have major dis-
advantages, being either inaccurate or unwieldy or both. The use of a rotating
arm in a circular tank is at present by far the most widely used approach and is
furthermore a most satisfactory means of obtaining crosscoupling terms in an-
gular velocity and drift angle, and angular velocity and rudder angle. The dis-
advantages of a rotating arm, apart from its high capital costs, are that it is not
practicably possible to measure acceleration derivatives and that it is not well
suited to the generation of small angular velocities.
A
planar-motion mechanism can be used in two different modes of opera-
tion, designated static and dynamic. In the static mode the model is constrained
to travel along a straight path at constant velocity, and the mechanism is used
to set discrete drift angles. Figure 2 schematically represents the three main
types of tests made in the static mode. Forces and moments resulting from
drift angle, rudder angle, and combinations of drift and rudder angles are
measured in these tests.
323
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
y^ y
^^v y^
jr>g t~:sr X
this type of test are shown in Fig. 4, the two developments of the "pure -yaw
test," i.e., the "yaw and drift angle test," and the "yaw and rudder angle test,"
constitute a means of measuring crosscoupling terms in the equations of motion.
324
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
thus enabling all of the terms in the above nonlinear mathematical model, Eqs.
(5), to be measured.
Reference to Fig. 5 shows that if the model is to move with a "pure yaw"
motion, i.e., with zero drift angle, then it must at all times move along the tan-
gent to its path. In terms of the body-axis system fixed in the model (Fig. 1),
this means that the side velocity v must be zero, or the total velocity vector u
of the origin of the axis system must lie along the model centre line. It can
be seen that for a model moving down the tank with carriage speed u,^ this is
achieved by moving the model perpendicularly to the carriage centre line with a
relative velocity Up. The magnitude of this velocity is given by
325
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
tan = (6)
where yp is the angular displacement from the tank centre line. Thus the gen-
eration of an angular motion and linear motion relative to the carriage results
in a pure angular motion of the model relative to the ivater.
planar-motion mechanism
326
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
t = time.
Then
Vft
- 3 sin ait
(nF_^\
"r "
d
dt \
2
/
" ^"^ "^"^
4>
T """^
/
1'^*
, ,
T
Also
sin \p -
2^ - 'J sin cos I oJt + -T )
^ '
1 a / \ aw
.
sin cos
^^-^ [cot + 77= t; cos -;r cos I Oit +
cos d 2 \ ^ 2/ Up 2 \ 2
(8)
^d
" cos
2 U,
tan| = -.
cod ,
(9)
.
327
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
Accepting that a phase angle between the forward and aft scotch-yokes given
by Eq. (9) results in pure angular motion of the model relative to the water, the
expressions for the model's angular velocity and angular acceleration are ob-
tained by differentiating Eq. (7) with respect to time:
a / <^\
angular displacement, = ~T
.
aoj^ (p I (p\ /1 1 \
angular acceleration, r = - ~~r- sin -z cos Iwt + -z
j
K^*-)
It is seen that angular velocity and angular acceleration are out of phase
with each other.
Similarly, when the scotch-yokes are in-phase (0 = 0), the model centre line
is always parallel to that of the tank and carriage, and the model experiences
pure swaying motions. In terms of body-axis parameters, lateral displacement,
velocity, and acceleration are then given by:
Mechanical Structure
328
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
The solid main shaft is driven via a 1:50 Moss worm-and- wheel reduction
gearbox and a 1:2 Power-Grip "timing" belt drive by a 2-1/2-hp Thrige syn-
chronous electric motor.
329
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
Both worm-and-wheel reduction gearbox and belt drive are designed and
manufactured to allow a chatter -free and vibration-free angular motion even
under the most rapidly changing load conditions. Current is supplied to the
motor by a Ward Leonard system installed on the carriage, enabling revolutions
to be continuously varied from 2 to 40 rpm. By these means a predetermined
revolution value can be maintained within fine limits, independent of loading.
The uniform rotary motion of the main shaft is converted to periodic trans-
latory motion in the horizontal plane by a scotch yoke attached to each end (Fig.
9). The amplitudes of the scotch yokes can be continuously varied from to 100
mm, and the settings are indicated with an accuracy of 0.1 mm by small built-in
mechanical digital counters. No appreciable wear has occurred in the brass-to-
steel block and slider systems after several hundred hours of operation.
330
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
331
Str0m-Tejsen and Chislett
Two modular force-gauges are attached to each end of the centre beam
(Fig. 11). The physical proportions of the gauges are such that they are flexible
in only one direction and they are orientated to pick up either the side force Y
or the longitudinal force X. Gimbals, also seen in Fig. 11, bolted to wooden
bulkheads ensure that the model behaves as a "simply supported" beam. The
model hull, force gauges, and centre beam form a closed loop, eliminating any
errors due to friction. Total x and Y forces and N moment acting on the model
are obtained from the gauge forces as follows:
X = Xp + x^
Y . Yp + Y^ (15)
N --
(Yp-Y,H
where the subscripts F and A denote forces measured at forward and aft gauges,
and I is the distance from the origin to the gimbal axis (1150 mm).
The electrical signals from the two X gauges pass through Disa control
summed, and then are recorded on a 10-inch-span Philips
units, are electrically
pen-recorder. The control units are used to adjust sensitivity and zero position
and also contain accurate reference (span-check) signals, which can conveniently
be regarded as equivalent to known forces at the gauges. When calibrated to-
gether with the gauges, these reference signals enable widely differing sensitivi-
ties to be used.
The signals from the Y gauges are processed in one of two alternative ways
dependent on the nature of the test. If the planar -motion mechanism is being
332
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
used in the static mode, i.e., if only constant forces resulting from drift and/or
rudder angles are to be measured, then the gauge signals are passed via control
units to pen recorders in exactly the same manner as the X forces, except that
the signals from forward and aft gauges are recorded individually and not
summed. When the mechanism is used in its "dynamic" mode, and periodic
forces are acting at the gauges, the signals are integrated before being recorded
on the pen recorders.
Basic Principles
The periodic forces acting at the Y gauges in "pure sway" and "pure yaw"
tests are composed of velocity -dependent and acceleration-dependent compo-
nents. Assuming in the following, in order to simplify the discussion, that the
periodic forces are directly proportional to the motions and that there is no
333
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
a J
sin '-^t + 82 cos ojt = a -^
sin {oA + e) ,
In the method chosen for the HyA planar -motion mechanism the force
signal is integrated electrically, with periodic reversals of polarity as illus-
trated in Fig. 12. It is seen that if polarity is reversed after half a period, then
the sine component is measured and the cosine component eliminated. If polar-
ity is reversed after one quarter and three quarters of a period, then the sine
component is eliminated and the cosine component measured. Figure 12 also
shows that if a constant force component is included to give the more general
expression
These simple concepts form the basis used in the HyA planar-motion
mechanism system for the measurement of periodic forces.
Integration Programs
The circuits are built up from flip-flops, pulse shapers, relays, etc., shown
in the circuit diagram, Fig. 14. The operations controlled by the programs
334
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
life
1>"*
? 1
4 Ih
o -a
-^tls
-.1^
o\
OlaO
p
H
"^
iK
W Li
a
* * -r*
a u ui
5^ 1
33.
& *
^3
PI h 'H rH
U ^ h
n M
O O iHo *"^
a a
o a M
^ Vi o 9
4 o o
C
WW
g
a o a
C -C O -H
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
336
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
a
u
&o
o
u
00
H
"^
^\
337
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
Table 1
Sequence of Events Controlled by Programming Circuits
Number of
Impulses
Received
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
Input 1 J I I 1
1 7
1
Input 2
Polaritj f OSCIL.
ohangea \ COIST.
Integration period
Hold Condition
Condensers resetting
Sxample of a
constant signal
Integrated using
the COHST.
progransne
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
the top of the forward scotch yoke. It is seen, for example, that an IN record
is characterized by margin-pen marks 90 - (0/2) after the start and stop of the
integration period.
The forward and aft IN @ and IN forces are of the same order of mag-
nitude but of opposite sign. This is natural, as mass and submerged lateral-
area are distributed nearly symmetrical about the origin, and because yaw ac-
celeration causes the forebody to swing the port while the afterbody swings to
starboard, and vice versa.
magnitude but of opposite sign, the aft force being positive. The centrifugal ef-
fect of the ship's mass acts in the same direction at both forward and aft gauges,
adding to the hydrodynamic force at the forward gauge and reducing the effect
of the hydrodynamic force at the aft gauge. The forward gauge-force is there-
fore usually of greater absolute magnitude than the aft. For ships with pro-
nounced rake of keel, however, the hydrodynamic force aft is greater than that
forward and the measured forces become of almost equal absolute magnitude.
By adding and subtracting the forward and aft IN and OUT components ac-
cording to Eqs. (15), side forces and turning moments are obtained as functions
of yaw acceleration and yaw velocity. When these values are faired, the slopes
of the fairing lines at the origin give the terms Yj. - mx^, N^ - i^, Y^ - mu, and
Nj. - itixqu. These terms contain the effects of known model mass and inertia,
which may be eliminated, leaving the hydrodynamic terms Y|^, N. Y^, and N^..
,
Ship mass and inertia values can then be reintroduced. This ability to account
for differences in mass and inertia between model and ship is convenient, as it
permits the model to be constructed without paying any regard to its inertia.
Model displacement is usually kept to the scaled ship value, and ballast is ad-
justed until the correct trim is obtained.
Typical records of forces measured at the forward and aft gauges, shown
in the bottom right of Fig. 17, are explained in similar manner to the results
of "pure yaw" tests. Forward and aft IN
forces are, in this case, of the
same sign because forebody and afterbody accelerate simultaneously to port or
341
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
tH
342
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
Out-of -phase force components resulting from sway velocity or drift angle
are generally to some extent frequency and/or amplitude dependent and are dis-
carded in favor of results obtained from tests made with steady drift angles in
the static mode.
It has been assumed in the foregoing that the periodic forces measured in
"pure yaw" and "pure &way" tests are proportional to the motions. This is,
however, not a necessary condition for the use of the integration technique de-
scribed but was introduced to simplify the discussion. When the forces are
related to the motions in a nonlinear fashion, the same principles can be used
to obtain the nonlinear hydrodynamic coefficients.
Suppose, for instance, that for a particular hull the hydrodynamic force or
moment resulting from yaw velocity is of the character shown in the top of Fig. 18.
343
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
When an oscillator technique is used to generate the yaw velocity, the force-
response at a particular instant is basically the same as in the steady state
provided frequency of oscillation is sufficiently low. If the sinusoidal angular
velocity is of small amplitude, the forces are proportional to the motion and are
also sinusoidal. This is the case within the range of linear force -response A-A.
Tests made within this area provide the linear terms Y^^ and N^ as discussed
above. It is, however, desirable to explore the full range of yaw velocities that
a vessel can experience, and this will probably extend into the nonlinear area
indicated by B-B. If an oscillatory test is made in which a sinusoidal angular
velocity of this amplitude is impressed on the model, the force -response will
be of sinusoidal character within the region of lesser yaw velocities, A-A, but
progressively deviate from sinusoidal in the regions A-B resulting in a gauge
force of the character illustrated in the bottom of Fig. 18.
A curve of the character shown at the top in Fig. 18 can be expressed with
good accuracy by a linear and a cubic term:
= '"max sin wt ,
it follows that the cyclic forces experienced by the force gauges (Fig. 18, bot-
tom) are expressed by
or
where a and b are constants in time. Integration over one period with a change
of polarity after half a period then gives
Y(r) - (Yr) = 4a + | b ,
i.e.,
integrated value 2
4 = ^ " 3^
= Yr r
max + 3 Y r r r
r^
max
344
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
0-30 o^s
Oimensionlcss Yaw Velocity, r:
345
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
Side forces and turning moments can be obtained from the gauge-forces accord-
ing to Eqs, (15), the cubic terms having been multiplied by 3/2 as described above.
Crosscoupling effects due to simultaneous yaw velocity and drift angle are
expressed in the mathematical model by the terms Y^,.^, N^^^, Y^^^, and N^^^.
Similarly the crosscoupling due to yaw velocity and rudder angle is expressed
t>y Ygrr> ^stt) YrS85 ^jid N ^ Thcse two sets of coefficients can be obtained
;, - .
from the "yaw and drift-angle" and the "yaw and rudder-angle" tests respec-
tively, outlined in Fig. 4. As the same principles are used for measurement of
both sets of terms, only the derivation of the crosscoupling between yaw velocity
and drift angle is described in the following.
The terms vrr and iw, shown diagrammatic ally in Fig. 20, constitute a
flexiblemeans of expressing the experimental data, while conforming to the
port and starboard symmetry condition f(r,v) = - f(-r. v). The two terms
have essentially the same character, as can be seen by replotting on a base of v
instead of r.
The side force acting on a model in a "yaw and drift-angle" test can be ex-
pressed on a time basis by
where v corresponds to drift angle, held constant during each measuring run,
and r(t) and f(t) are the sinusoidally varying yaw velocity and acceleration.
Again, the corresponding expression for N( t is exactly analogous. )
The first three terms in Eq. (16) are known from the "pure yaw" and "static
drift angle" tests. The manner in which the last two terms can be derived from
the "yaw and drift-angle" test is shown schematically in Fig. 21.
346
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
Wv^
347
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
The top of Fig. 21 illustrates two characteristic situations, one for positive
(P) and the other for negative (N) yaw velocity. It is again helpful to relate the
periodic forces, resulting from periodic motions generated by the planar-motion
mechanism, to the corresponding steady-state measurements shown at the cen-
ter in Fig. 21. Each of the two center diagrams in Fig. 21 illustrates one of the
two terms rw and vrr, assuming the other to be zero. The corresponding
forces acting at the Y gauges during one revolution of the mechanism are shown
at the bottom in Fig. 21.
It is seen that using the Oscil. program, the in-phase measurements ob-
tained from a "yaw and drift-angle" test correspond to Y|.r(t), and the out-of-
phase measurements correspond to Y^r(t) + Y^^^r(t)v^, whereas the forces cor-
responding to the remaining two terms are eliminated. The component Y^^yr(t)v^
is then obtained by subtracting the known value corresponding to Y^r(t).
The range of motion and rudder parameters explored during testing should
in principle cover the range of subsequent simulation. Sway and yaw accelera-
tion, speed loss, drift angle, yaw velocity, and rudder angle should therefore
be varied systematically up to the values corresponding to maximum-rudder
manoeuvres for the free-sailing ship. Typical values for the range of motion
parameters experienced by a cargo ship during the execution of a 35-degree
rudder-angle turning circle and a 20-20-degree zig-zag manoeuvre are given in
Table 2. Corresponding maximum values obtained with naval ships are often
1.5 to 2 times greater.
348
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
Table 2
Typical Range of Dimensionless Motion Parameters for a Cargo Ship
Motion
Parameter
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
.9.
= 06
9 0-5
I 0.4
C
z 03
E
I 02
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
the particular ship in question and can be used without reservation within the
performance envelope corresponding to the ship's rudder action, instead of only
being valid within a limited area.
and crosscoupling terms are of lesser influence (though many are far from negli-
gible) in the accurate prediction of manoeuvres.
In the last stage of the testing procedure, the forces and moments meas-
ured in the course of the various planar-motion mechanism tests, are analyzed
to yield the different hydrodynamic coefficients. The analysis consists, in prin-
ciple, of fairing the experimental data, using the mathematical model as the
approximating function, and obtaining the hydrodynamic coefficients as those
coefficients which give the best fit to the measured values.
The results from a "static drift angle" test would, for example, consist of
measurements of X and Y forces and the N moment as functions of drift angle
and rudder angle. According to the mathematical model, these forces and mo-
ments are described by the expressions
351
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
,2
are simply the coefficients of these expressions, when they are used as approx-
imating functions in fairing the experimental measurements.
Figure 23 and Table 3 further illustrate the principle of the analysis. The
figure shows results from a "static drift-angle" test carried out for the Mariner
hull-form. The test was executed at 15 knots, and forces and moments were
measured over the complete range of drift angles (/3 = -9.5, -7.5, -4.5, -2.0, -1.0,
-0.5, 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.5, 7.0, 9.5 degrees) and of rudder angles (s = to 40
degrees in steps of 10 degrees). The experimental points are plotted in the fig-
ure as circles, whereas the solid curves show the expressions obtained from
fairing the data.
Table 3 presents the corresponding output from the computer program used
in the analysis. The experimental and faired values are indicated bye and f,
and the fairing polynomials are given at the bottom of the table.
Similar principles are applied in the analysis of results from tests made
in thedynamic mode of operation. Figure 24 and Table 4 show, for example, the
analysis of forces measured in the "pure yaw" test.
The out-of -phase forces are in this case faired by the expressions
X = (Xrr-mxQ) r^
Y. (Y,-mu) r + |Y,r^
N = (N^-mx^u) r + fw^^^r^
Y = (Y._.-mxQ)f
N = (N- -I,) r .
352
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
(U
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
Table 3
Example Analysis of a Static Drift-Angle Test: Fairing
of
of Measured Side Force and Turning Moment
Drift
Angle*
(deg)
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
Table 3 (Cont'd)
Nondimensional Moment, NX 10
Drift
Angle* Rudder Angle in deg:
(deg) rms
-40.0 -30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0
7.0e 0.842 0.852 0.744 0.532 0.298 0.064 -0.137 -0.201 -0.217
f 0.867 0.884 0.770 0.567 0.320 0.072 -0.134 -0.253 -0.242 0.030
4.5e 0.751 0.715 0.649 0.452 0.233 0.006 -0.200 -0.314 -0.274
f 0.747 0.771 0.663 0.467 0.227 -0.013 -0.211 -0.322 -0.302 0.025
2.0e 0.654 0.609 0.539 0.348 0.146 -0.076 -0.289 -0.409 -0.395
f 0.625 0.652 0.547 0.355 0.120 -0.117 -0.309 -0.415 -0.390 0.026
l.Oe 0.605 0.586 0.497 0.311 0.103 -0.124 -0.335 -0.463 -0.414
f 0.578 0.605 0.501 0.309 0.074 -0.161 -0.353 -0.458 -0.432 0.022
0.5e 0.581 0.553 0.485 0.273 0.073 -0.140 -0.363 -0.506 -0.444
f 0.555 0.582 0.478 0.286 0.051 -0.184 -0.375 -0.480 -0.453 0.025
O.Oe 0.541 0.515 0.443 0.249 0.037 -0.177 -0.398 -0.543 -0.465
f 0.532 0.559 0.455 0.263 0.028 -0.207 -0.398 -0.502 -0.475 0.025
-0.5e 0.525 0.505 0.432 0.235 0.029 -0.199 -0.426 -0.579 -0.512
f 0.510 0.536 0.432 0.240 0.005 -0.230 -0.421 -0.525 -0.498 0.027
-l.Oe 0.483 0.489 0.396 0.198 -0.004 -0.231 -0.449 -0.593 -0.519
f 0.488 0.514 0.409 0.218 -0.018 -0.253 -0.444 -0.548 -0.521 0.022
-2.0e 0.453 0.449 0.345 0.134 -0.074 -0.299 -0.528 -0.651 -0.586
f 0.447 0.472 0.366 0.173 -0.063 -0.299 -0.491 -0.595 -0.569 0.030
-4.5e 0.379 0.407 0.306 0.059 -0.170 -0.415 -0.637 -0.757 -0.667
f 0.359 0.378 0.267 0.070 -0.171 -0.411 -0.606 -0.714 -0.691 0.028
-7.0e 0.344 0.353 0.268 -0.011 -0.268 -0.524 -0.749 -0.864 -0.773
f 0.299 0.309 0.190 -0.015 -0.263 -0.510 -0.713 -0.828 -0.810 0.042
-9.5e 0.303 0.288 0.215 -0.088 -0.345 -0.620 -0.859 -0.979 -0.871
f 0.274 0.273 0.142 -0.074 -0.333 -0.591 -0.803 -0.928 -0.920 0.044
rms 0.024 0.035 0.035 0.021 0.019 0.027 0.026 0.047 0.028 0.029
Fairing Polynomial t
NxlO^ = -t- 2.83 - 263. 5Xv + 1636X v'3 - 489.0xv'2s -i- 12.54X v'h^ + 136. 7x h^
- 138. 8xs
355
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
-S-2
>
CI C
nJ IT)
to JJ
ST 3 3 3
^
m
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
Table 4
Example of Analysis of a Pure Yaw Test
Hydro- and Aerodynamics Laboratory PMM Reduced Experimental Data
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
When the ship is sailing straight ahead with constant velocity Uj, the propel-
ler thrust, modified by the thrust-deduction effect, exactly equals the resistance
of the ship:
X = T( 1 - t ) - R^. = .
This equilibrium condition defines the initial propeller thrust and the cor-
responding propeller torque and revolutions.
It has been found that the X force and corresponding coefficients are com-
puted most accurately on the basis of the results from the open-water, resist-
ance, and self-propulsion tests. Table 5 shows examples of such calculations.
The thrust deduction coefficient t = 0.136 and wake coefficient w = 0.160 used in
the computation but not indicated in the table are taken from the self -propulsion
test. These values are assumed to be constant for all speeds. The correspond-
ing propeller thrust values are computed from the open-water propeller curves
assuming constant wake, and taking the type of engine and engine setting to be
maintained during the manoeuvre into account. As shown in the example, the
propeller thrust can be calculated assuming constant propeller revolutions, or
assuming the propeller torque to vary proportionally to the revolutions to a
certain power. If torque is assumed to vary inversely proportionally to pro-
peller revolutions, the thrust corresponding to a turbine powerplant capable of
maintaining constant power output would be obtained. If torque is assumed to
be constant during the manoeuvre, the corresponding condition for a diesel en-
gine would be obtained. Figure 25 illustrates the relationship between propeller
revolutions, torque and speed for these various conditions.
The three coefficients, x^, x^^, and X^^^, can also be obtained experimen-
tally by fairing x-force measurements made for zero rudder angle in a "rudder
angle and speed" test. Such experimentally derived values have agreed well with
the calculated coefficients.
359
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
Table 5
Derivation of Nondimensional Coefficients X^ X^^, and X^^^^j: Calculation
Examples for Constant Power, Constant Propeller Revolutions per Minute,
and Equilibrium Speed (Approach Speed) of 15.00 knots
J
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
Table 5 (Cont'd)
T
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
65 70 75
FVopcUer Revolutions /Minute
The term N^ - l^ measured in the "pure yaw" test contains the effect of
model moment of inertia l^. For prediction of ship-scale manoeuvres, it is
necessary, as mentioned above, to correct for the difference between model and
ship inertias.
362
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
The inertia of the model is found by first measuring the period of oscillation
of the model and yoke, and then the period of the yoke without the model. The
period of oscillation can be measured with sufficient accuracy using a stopwatch,
as the time for one complete oscillation is of the order of 2 minutes. The very
slow movement of the model precludes the possibility of significant aerodynamic
damping.
The inertia of the full-scale ship is normally computed on the basis of the
longitudinal weight distribution and the main dimensions.
Scale Effects
Most
of the hydrodynamic coefficients are obtained from model tests; hence
it reasonable to give some consideration to correlation between model and
is
full-scale results before applying the coefficients to the prediction of full-scale
manoeuvres.
363
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
Reynolds' number has no systematic effect on the lift-curve slope, whereas the
variation of maximum lift might be appreciable because separation or flow break-
down occurs earlier for the relatively thicker boundary layer around a model
body. As most of the hydrodynamic coefficients are due to related circulation
and viscous drag effects, scale effects should not be expected for any of the
first-order coefficients, Y^, Y,., Y^, N^, N^, N5 etc. In the case of the non-
,
Short descriptions of each test are given in the table, together with suggested
settings of the planar-motion mechanism, and the hydrodynamic coefficients ob-
tained from each of the tests are also indicated.
Typical values for the different coefficients and examples of predicted full-
scale turning circles, zigzag, and spiral manoeuvres are to be found in Refs.
4 and 5.
Forces and moments resulting from surge, sway, and yaw accelerations u,
V, and r have been found, in general, to be independent of the velocity of the
364
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
n 5 -H M
^
ag
05
Str^m-Tejsen andChislett
Table 7
Nondimensionalizing Factors
Quantity
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
>
ur24
UJ
|-8
-16
-24
-32
-40
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
Table 8
Experimental Results of Static Drift Angle and Speed Tests
(deg)
Prediction of- Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
-15000
-10000
- 5000
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
X) 20 30 AO -30 -20 - 10
moment N'
370
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
W 20 30 o
RUDDER ANGLE, degrees. RUDDER ANGLE, degrees.
(a) dimensionless plot of side force Y', (b) dimensionless plot of turning
moment N'
371
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
n 20 40 - -W n 20 30 40
RUXIER ANGLE, d(git& RUDDER ANGLE, dtgrces.
the forces generated by a rudder situated within it, it can be seen that these
crosscoupling terms will vary with engine characteristics and control settings.
Values corresponding to a particular type of engine or control arrangement can
conveniently be obtained, however, by carrying out model tests at predeter-
mined revolution and speed values which have been obtained from calculations
of the type described in the foregoing section.
372
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
Str0m-Tejsen and Chislett
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
iu'=!i^i
1
to
1
11
1
12
[
13
I
U. 15
Ship Speed , kn.
375
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
period =
277
where
o-^ = gk tanh kh
b = breadth of tank
For the HyA towing tank, when b= 2h, the first four resonant standing-wave
systems, according to these relationships, have periods of 4.07, 2.78, 2.26, and
1.98 seconds. The corresponding revolutions of the HyA planar-motion mecha-
nism at which tank resonance may be expected are then 14,8, 20.5, 26.5, and 30.3
revolutions per minute.
"Pure sway" tests and "pure yaw" tests were made with a 6-m model of
the Mariner class of vessels, for revolution of the planar-motion mechanism
covering the range from to 35 rpm. The object of the tests was to find the
low-frequency area in which the measured forces ceased to be frequency de-
pendent. The model used in the tests was the same as that described in Ref. 5,
and the tests were made predominantly at 15 knots ship speed and with 65 mm
amplitude at the scotch yokes. The raw forces measured at the Y gauges in the
"pure sway" tests are shown plotted in Fig. 33. Above about 12 rpm the forces
measured during a run down the tank varied in a manner akin to the "beating"
phenomenon resulting from the interference of two wave trains having nearly
equal frequencies. The ranges of variation of forces measured during a run
down the tank are shown by heavy lines, and when the forces were repeatable,
the values are indicated by single points in the usual manner.
It isevident that resonant standing waves occurred at about 15, 20, and 30
rpm exactly as predicted by theory.
376
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
^"^
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
Since such effects, while repeatable, are frequency dependent, they can be
assessed by comparing force measurements made at different frequencies, the
agreement of which may safely be assumed to preclude the possibility of sig-
nificant unsteady-flow effects.
The results of "pure sway" tests and "pure yaw" tests previously reported
(Figs. 4 and 5 and Tables 7 and 8 of Ref. 5), showed that forces resulting from
yaw velocity, yaw acceleration, and sway acceleration are quite independent of
frequency of oscillation, within the low-frequency range used during the tests.
Forces resulting from sway velocity, i.e., drift angle, were found to vary with
frequency but to approach the steady-state results of the "static -drift-angle"
test as frequency tended to zero.
The periodic motions generated by the HyA planar -motion mechanism are
of almost perfect sine and cosine character, and so during a given run the re-
sulting hydrodynamic forces at the Y gauges must necessarily be of the same
frequency as the motions. There are no grounds to expect periodic forces hav-
ing frequencies which are integer multiples of the frequency of oscillation, as
opposed, for example, to analyses of fluctuating thrust and torque in a propeller
shaft, when integer multiples of the basic shaft frequency would depend on num-
ber of blades, deadwood, etc. It is not therefore considered a disadvantage of
the synchronous -switch technique for integration of periodic forces, that the
Oscil. program is sensitive to uneven integer multiples of the frequency of the
motion and insensitive to even multiples, and vice versa for the Const, program.
Neither is it thought helpful to consider an alternative method of integration, in
which the force signals are multiplied by sin cot and cos ^t, as yielding the first
harmonics of a Fourier analysis (13).
CONCLUSIONS
378
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
forces and moments in the equations of motion. The mathematical model has
been reduced to a manageable form by retaining only those hydrodynamic coef-
ficients which experimental experience has shown not to be negligible. Roll and
heel have also been neglected in the mathematical model, since they are felt to
have little influence on prediction of manoeuvres, with the possible exception of
fast warships.
The planar -motion mechanism system designed and built at HyA is used in
a conventional towing tank and designed to oscillate the same large 6-to-7-
metre wax models also used for resistance and propulsion tests. The mechanism
is designed as a low-frequency, high -amplitude oscillator in order to reduce
possible frequency problems and to cover adequately the various velocity and
acceleration parameters encountered in ship manoeuvres.
The various tests which can be executed by the mechanism in its static and
dynamic modes of operation (outlined in Figs. 2 to 4) make the planar-motion
mechanism a versatile instrument for measurement of all of the hydrodynamic
coefficients, both linear and nonlinear, which appear in the mathematical model.
It has been found that resonance with a system of standing waves built up in
the towing tank precludes the possibility of oscillating models above a certain
critical frequency. The resonance is easily avoided, however, at the low fre-
quency of oscillation recommended for experiments, but the range of yaw veloc-
ities which can be generated by the present HyA planar-motion mechanism is
379
Str^m-Tejsen and Chislett
Forces measured in the low-frequency range have been found either inde-
pendent of frequency or to vary with frequency but approach steady-state re-
sults as frequency tends to zero.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The HyA planar-motion mechanism system was designed and developed
Hydro- and Aerodynamics Laboratory in 1962-1964.
jointly by the authors at the
The authors gratefully acknowledge the inspiration provided by Professor
Martin A. Abkowitz during his stay at HyA in 1962-1963; the support of Profes-
sor C. W. Prohaska, director of the laboratory; and their deep indebtedness to
Hr. Erik Wolstrup Pedersen, who in building and testing the electronic instru-
mentation sacrificed so many evenings with unfailing cheerfulness. Thanks are
also due to the staff of the laboratory workshops, especially Hr. Allan Boll, who
made much of the mechanical structure of the mechanism; and to Fru Gerda
Boetius for her fast and accurate typewriting and painstaking proofreading.
REFERENCES
1. "Nomenclature for Treating the Motion of a Submerged Body through a
Fluid," The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Technical
and Research Bulletin 1-5, Apr. 1952
2. Imlay, F.H., "A Nomenclature for Stability and Control," David Taylor
Model Basin Report 1319, May 1959
380
Prediction of Steering and Manoeuvring of Ships
5. Chislett, M.S., and Strjzim-Tejsen, J., "Planar Motion Mechanism Tests and
Full-Scale Steering and Manoeuvring Predictions for a Mariner Class Ves-
sel," Hydro- and Aerodynamics Laboratory Report Hy-6, Apr. 1965
9. Paulling, J.R., and Wood, L.W., "The Dynamic Problem of Two Ships Op-
erating on Parallel Courses in Close Proximity," University of California,
Series 189, Issue 1, July 18, 1962
10. Zunderdorp, H.J., and Buitenhek, M., "Oscillatory Technique at the Ship-
building Laboratory," Report 111 of the Shipbuilding Laboratory of the
Technological University, Delft, 1963
11. Bardarson, H.R., Wagner -Smitt, L., and Chislett, M.S., "Conversion of
Trawlers to Purse-Seiners - A Turning Ability Study including Full-Scale
Trials and Captive Model Tests with Alternative Rudder Arrangements,"
Hydro- and Aerodynamics Laboratory Report Hy-9, 1966
13. Van Leeuwen, G., "The Lateral Damping and Added Mass of a Horizontally
Oscillating Shipmodel," Netherlands Research Centre T.N.O. for Shipbuild-
ing and Navigation Report 65S, Dec. 1964
381
WAVE EXCITATIONLESS SHIP FORMS
Seizo Motora and Takeo Koyama
University of Tokyo
Tokyo, Japan
INTRODUCTION
Ithas been deduced theoretically by Ursell (1) and Hishida (2) that prisms
of certain sectionalshapes create no waves when they roll in a still water sur-
face, and experimental check has also been made by McLeod and Hsieh (3).
Bessho has extended this theme into motions of six degree of freedom and de-
veloped the theory of 'Wave-free distributions" (4).
In addition, Newman (5) has shown, on the basis of Haskind relation, that
the amplitude of radiated wave by an oscillating body in a free surface is di-
rectly related to the exciting force acting on the same body in waves.
These results indicate that there must be bodies which are free from ex-
citing forces in waves.
383
Motora and Koyama
where
V = volume of a body,
Zw = wave elevation,
Nz = damping coefficient,
g = acceleration of gravity,
y ^y i^y a^^* correction factors for the orbital motion of the wave.
The first two terms correspond to the body-wave interaction, and the third term
corresponds to the Froude-Krylov buoyancy. The first term is also an inertia
term due to added mass effect. Factor 73 has been known as Smith Correction
Factor.
Zw = Zw e ^ '^ '^
Zw - - o;"^ Zw .
The inertia term is reverse in sign in relation to the buoyancy term and will in-
crease rapidly as the frequency increases. In case of ordinary ship form how-
'^
ever, the first term is not large enough to cancel the buoyancy term in a fre-
quency range of ordinary wave encounter. However, if the form of a body is
chosen so that the inertia term is large enough compared to the buoyancy term,
it will be possible to eliminate the heaving force in a relatively low frequency
range.
Nz =
^Zvi
(two-dimensional case)
f/'g'h-
(3)
384
Wave Excitationless Ships Forms
where
K = wave number,
Substituting Eq. (3) into (2), we can get approximate value of the amplitude of the
heaving force F^^ as follows:
Therefore, heaving force will vanish when the frequency co takes the following
value:
73 gA
or
Let us call -Jq ^-S "excitationless frequency" for convenience. To bring this ex-
citationless frequency toward low-frequency range of probable wave encounter,
it will be necessary to make A/v smaller than usual proportion. It will be noted
that results of measured external force to oscillate different bow section models
by Paulling (7) indicate the similar tendency, though in his case the inertia force
includes the mass of a model itself.
2. TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASE
2.1 Submerged Circular Cylinder with a Strut
1) Theoretical consideration
In seeking a body which has relatively greater inertia force, one may be
aware that an extreme case of such a body is a completely submerged body.
The main part of the heaving force acting to a submerged body is an inertia
force which is reverse in sign of the wave elevation. Therefore, if a vertical
strut of narrower width is attached to a submerged body so that it gives small
amount of buoyancy, it will be possible to eliminate the heaving force at a speci-
fied frequency of waves.
385
Motora and Koyama
Fig. 1 - Geometry
of circular cylinder Calculated inertia force and buoyancy for dif-
type models ferent breadth of the strut are as shown in Fig. 2.
386
Wave Excitationless Ships Forms
The approximate values of the heaving force is obtained by Eq. (4) as shown
in Fig. 3.
At relatively low frequency range, the buoyancy is greater than the inertia
force (or under cancel), and the heaving force will be inphase with the wave ele-
vation. At oJq given by Eq. (5), heaving force is zero, and at higher frequency
than ojp, the inertia force exceeds (over cancels) the buoyancy, i.e., the heaving
force at this frequency range will be 180 degrees out-of-phase with the wave
elevation.
It is also shown in Fig. 3 that shifts toward lower frequency when the
breadth of the strut decreases.
Diameter - 2a = 20 cm
Breadth of the strut - B = 15 cm (1.5a), 10 cm (a), and 5 cm (0.5a)
To prevent the sway and pitch of the model a guide is attached to the model
as shown in Fig. 4. The heaving force was measured by a rigid spring attached
by a linear transformer as a pick-up.
387
Motora and Koyama
Figure 6 is a typical oscillogram of the heaving force and the wave eleva-
tion as (^Vg)a = 0.124, 0.238, and 0.402. At (ajVg)a = 0.124, where the buoy-
ancy is greater than the inertia force, the heaving force is in phase with the
^
0.5
388
Wave Excitationless Ships Forms
1.0
o
o O.
z
> LO
X
2
ui
I 4
UJ : 3.49 INERTIA FORCE < BUOYANCY
1.0
1.0
>^iXIJL^JJJL)j^XJUJJUUJLfjJJJ>U>>jLAiAtJJLJ^^
M-1 sec -J
W t 6.28 INERTIA FORCE > BUOYANCY
389
Motora and Koyama
wave elevation (under cancel). At (^Vg)a = 0.238, the heaving force almost
vanishes. At (oj^/g)a = 0.402, where the buoyancy is less than the inertia force,
the heaving force is 180 degrees out of phase with the wave elevation (over can-
cel). These oscillograms gave valuable information in determining a suitable
breadth of the strut.
To examine the effect of the breadth of the strut as well as the depth of the
cylinder, results are shown in Fig. 7. As predicted by theory, c.^o shifts to
lower frequency as the breadth of the strut decreases. However, change of
depth does not affect oj^. Frequency w^ for a = 10 cm, T = 30 cm is 5.03, which
corresponds to ^o = 0-873 for a full-scale ship of length 140 m and draft 10 m.
This frequency corresponds to wavelength 61 m for beam seas. However, in
case of longitudinal waves, this frequency corresponds to wavelength 200 m at
ship speed 18 kts.
To make the draft relatively small, an elliptic cylinder was chosen as the
main body. The ratio of major axis and minor axis was varied from 2 to 4,
where the breadth of the strut was kept to be a half of the major axis (Fig. 8).
Results are as shown in Fig. 9. Different from the result of the former
case, Wq seems to shift toward lower frequency as the depth increases. Abso-
lute value of the heaving force is about the same as the former case.
3. HEAVING AMPLITUDE
As shown in Section 2, there are several variations of bodies which are not
acted on by wave-induced heaving force at specified frequency. However, it will
be premature to conclude that these bodies do not heave at the specified
frequency.
390
Wave Excitationless Ships Forms
391
Motora and Koyama
B
=^- t 1
Fig. 8 - Geometry of ellip-
tic cylinder type models
t^o
0.4 0.6
(a) a/b=2
392
Wave Excitationless Ships Forms
= 12.5 cm b = B 15 cm
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 f'o'Or
It will be interesting to bring the resonant frequency equal to o.^. However, this
is proved not to be practicable for the following reason:
/pgA
resonant frequency of heaving = oj^
y m + m^ (7)
TsPgA
excitationless frequency = a;. =
(8)
Tim,
As the ratio 73/71 is almost equal to unity, a;^ cannot be equal to a)^ unless the
mass of the body is zero.
393
Motora and Koyama
02 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 16 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 <%i.
Heaving of a body with fins as described in Section 2.3 is also tested. Re-
sults are as shown in Fig. 14. Though the magnification factor diagram looks
like that of critical damping, actual damping is about one-third the critical
damping. Apparent critical damping of the magnification factor diagram is due
to rapid decrease of the exciting force as the frequency approaches co^.
394
Wave Excitationless Ships Forms
HEAVING AMPLITUDE
]2b
PzoH
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 %
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 ^'a
(a) a/b=2
HEAVING AMPLITUDE
+ -'
fe5^
10 u
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
the water level in the tank is always equal to that of outer surface at this
frequency.
395
Motora and Koyama
Wave Excitationless Ships Forms
Strut breadth Bi
Strut breadth B^
1.0
X Combined 7" = 2
^ Combined "^ = ^
-l
az 0.4 OJS
-f'
Fig. 17 - Geometry of
sphere type models
three-dimensional case provided adequate values for 7 are chosen, the amplitude
of heaving force of such a body is calculated by Eq. (2) as shown in Fig. 18.
In Fig. 20, heaving forces for different depths are shown. Reasonable
agreement with theoretical calculations will be noticed.
397
Motora and Koyama
This problem was treated by Okumura and Sugiura (11) for a prism of a
section shown in Fig. 13(b). A unit length of prism was cut off and kept free
from the main body and was supported by a rigid spring attached with linear
transformer as shown in Fig. 21, so that heaving force acting on this segment
was measured.
Results are as shown in Fig. 22. In Fig. 23, heaving forces in beam seas
as well as longitudinal waves are compared with calculated values. Reasonable
agreement between them will suggest that the strip method will be applicable
for obtaining heaving force as well as pitching moment of ships in longitudinal
waves. Therefore, there will be a possibility to eliminate pitching moment of
ships by the same technique.
Bessho has given in his paper "wave-free distribution" (4), a group of two-
dimensional bodies which are wave-free as they heave in a free surface. They
are derived by the following procedure:
398
Wave Excitationless Ships Forms
o
Motora and Koyama
LINEAR TRANSFORMER
SPRING
400
Wave Excitationless Ships Forms
I. Or
r^
lU.
0.5
.T-2.0 a
-T-2.5 a
^*"-^t:r:-- T:i;g
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0J& 0.7 0.8 -^a
1.0
T=2.5a
1^0.5
CA.lULArEp
will give a velocity potential which satisfies the free surface condition and should
not associate surface waves. Therefore, f(t) is a velocity potential around a
body which is free from surface wave as it heaves in a free surface.
401
Motora and Koyama
t + ih
f(t) + K lof (12)
t + ih
402
Wave Excitationless Ships Forms
3. To bring the excitationless frequency into low-frequency range such as
ordinary wave encounter frequency, it will be necessary to make the underwa-
ter volume large enough in relation to the water plane area. The underwater
volume can be replaced by a flat plate which has the same amount of added mass
as the underwater body.
REFERENCES
1. F.Ursell, "On the Rolling Motion of Cylinders in the Surface of a Fluid,"
Quart. Journal of Mech. and Applied Math., Vol. II (1949)
9. Y. Yamamoto, "On the Oscillating Body under the Water Surface," Journal
of Zosen Kiokai, Vol. 77 (1955)
10. F. Tasai, "On the Damping Force and Added Mass of Ship's Heaving and
Pitching," Journal of Zosen Kiokai, Vol. 105 (1959)
403
Motora and Koyama
11. Y. Okumura and M. Sugiura, "On Wave Excitationless Ship Forms, Special
Reference to Three Dimensional Cases," Graduation Thesis, Tokyo Univ.
(1966)
DISCUSSION
I want to congratulate the authors for presenting a paper which includes not
only theoretical observations of interest, but also includes experimental evidence
that the observations in theory are reasonably valid in reality. I will confine my
technical remarks now to the case of two-dimensional bodies only. The points
on which I will comment are:
Z= ^ + E ^2i.l/^^
404
Wave Excitationless Ships Forms
This transform has been used by myself and others for other purposes, and with
the proper choices of the coefficients a. and the number of coefficients, this can
also generate more or less smooth bulbous sections which display the particular
hydrodynamic behavior of interest here. The hydrodynamic coefficients for these
transform sections in forced vertical, horizontal, or rolling motion in fluid of
arbitrary depth can be calculated exactly (in the numerical technique sense) by
the methods I have previously used. The point is that exact procedures of anal-
ysis of continuous shiplike forms tend to confirm the results of the authors' ap-
proximate calculations for their forms.
405
Motora and Koyama
0.3
Wave Excitationless Ships Forms
DISCUSSION
W. Frank
David Taylor Model Basin
Washington, D.C.
The added mass and damping coefficient are evaluated by distributing wave
sources over the cross section of the submerged body, the source strengths
being determined from an integral equation obtained from the kinematic bound-
ary condition on the body. The amplitude of the heaving force in the authors'
normalized form was evaluated by the Newman- Haskind relation between the
damping coefficient of a sinusoidally oscillating two-dimensional body and the
exciting force on the Sa^ie body restrained in regular waves, as expressed by
Eq. (3) in the paper.
plitudes fairly well, and we notice good agreement between our theory and the
experimental data in the lower end of the frequency range.
407
Fig. D4 - Circular cylinder with strut, T = 3a
408
Wave Excitationless Ships Forms
DISCUSSION
Jerome H. Milgram
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts
During the oral discussion of this paper at the Sixth Symposium on Naval
Hydrodynamics, one person mentioned the possibility that wave-excitationless
forms might be used for a stable base from which waves could be measured in
the open sea. This possibility has been extensively explored with successful
results by a number of researchers; see e.g. Kerr (1) or Milgram (2). Both
Kerr and Milgram calculated the heaving force on their buoys by neglecting the
scattered waves and approximately the force caused by the incident wave alone.
A modified form of this calculation is given here.
Consider a body formed by two cylinders, one of which pierces the free
surface (Sketch 1).
(2)
Sketch 1
The vertical force on cylinder (1) is called Fj and the vertical force on cyl-
inder (2) is called Fj.
kF -k2/2 k/2
Fj = pghAje' ; - e cos (kx - wt ) (2)
For
409
Motora and Koyama
which is just Motora and Koyama' s result without all their "correction coeffi-
cients."
The results from the simple, straightforward theory I have given above
should be accurate when the scattered wave is small. With fixed, surface-
piercing two-dimensional bodies like those of Motora and Koyama, the scattered
wave will not be small so the simple theory would be inaccurate for them. How-
ever, when a two-dimensional body is totally submerged with only small append-
ages piercing the surface, the simplified theory may be accurate. Ogilvie (3)
has considered a submerged two-dimensional horizontal circular cylinder in
waves with the top of the cylinder more than one cylinder diameter below the
free surface, and he has shown that the forces when considering the scattered
wave agree within 10 percent error with the forces found when neglecting the
scattered wave. His results for no scattered wave reduce to Eq. (5) when ka is
small, a being the cylinder diameter.
The above facts as well as the very good agreement between the simple the-
ory and experiments with the FLIP buoy shown by Kerr (4) have prompted me to
calculate by the simple theory the heaving force on the sphere with vertical cylin-
der used by Motora and Koyama. The results are shown in Fig. D6. The simple
theory does not fit the experimental results of Motora and Koyama as well as
their theory, but their theory is "adjustable" by means of their four arbitrary
constants y^, y^^ ^zj 3-^^^ K^*
The disagreement of the simple theory with the experimental result is prob-
ably not due to the scattered wave alone. The diameter of the thinnest vertical
strut considered here is hali the diameter of the sphere so there is a large as-
sy metry about a horizontal plane through the center of the sphere. Therefore,
the body can develop vertical lift associated with circulation, in the presence of
horizontal currents, and the horizontal fluid velocity in the wave is in phase with
the pressure forces thereby maximizing the possible discrepancy due to lift.
There are many structures in use today where the bulk of the buoyancy is wholly
submerged and the surface-piercing elements are relatively small. For struc-
tures of this type the simple theory should give predictions suitable for use in
the engineering office.
410
Wai'?. Excitationless Ships Forms
REFERENCES
1. Kerr, K.P., "Stability Characteristics of Various Buoy Configurations," in
"Transactions of the 1964 Buoy Technology Symposium," Marine Technol-
ogy Society
0.4
A EXPERIMENT-MOTORA 8 KOYAMA
0.3
THEORY -MOTOR A 8 KOYAMA
THEORY -MILGRAM
02
0.1
2 0.3 4 5 6
REPLY TO DISCUSSION
The authors are most interested in measuring heaving forces of those ship-
like forms and in treating three-dimensional problem by strip method using
these sections.
411
Motora and Koyama
In comparing Fig. 3 of the paper to Mr. Frank's Fig. D4, there are some
discrepancies between the authors' approximation and the exact solution given
by Mr. Frank for greater strut width. The authors hope that those results will
give valuable information to refine their approximation.
It is very interesting to know that the Froude-Krylov force itself has nega-
tive sign to thewave elevation when a body is entirely submerged. This means
that the correction factor 73 in the authors' theory is less than they have esti-
mated, and therefore the excitationless frequency will shift toward a lower fre-
quency.
For example, let us take a body shown by Mr. Milgram (Sketch 2).
-KT
Aje
k; = (5)
-KF
0^
V
Ve
(6)
413
PROJECT MOHOLE DRILLING PLATFORM:
MANEUVERING, PROPULSION,
AND STATION-KEEPING
A. C. McClure and A. S. Hove
Project Mohole - Brown and Root, Inc.
Houston, Texas
The boundary between the crust of the earth and the mantle is defined in
terms of seismic measurements, indicated by a sharp increase in acoustic ve-
locity at the interface known as the Mohorovicic Discontinuity. This phenome-
non occurs at much shallower depths under the oceans than under the continents;
hence, the decision was made for the drilling to be carried out at sea. At the
selected drilling site, northeast of the island of Maui, Hawaii, the water is
14,700 ft deep and the mantle is another 16,000 to 18,000 ft beneath the ocean
floor.
415
McClure and Hove
design of the vessel with small water plane area and deeply submerged main
hulls. These characteristics make it difficult to obtain low resistance which is
a desirable characteristic for station -keeping. The photograph, Fig. 1, shows
that the configuration chosen will yield relatively low drag for the hulls without
sacrificing desirable wave transparency (1).
It is mandatory to the life of the drill string and riser that the platform be
kept within a prescribed distance of the hole, dependent upon water depth. At
the Mohole site, in 14,700 ft of water, the maximum safe distance off the hole is
400 ft. A circle of this radius is clearly too small for conventional ship-type
maneuvering. The platform is equipped with propulsion equipment which enables
it to turn at any radius, or to move in a straight line in any direction. While on
station it is intended that the vessel will be headed into the current if the cur-
rent is one knot or more, or into the wind if wind predominates. If both wind
and current are strong, a heading between the two forces will be chosen to min-
imize propulsive power. At times it will be necessary to move the platform
transversely through the water or at some large angle to the centerline in order
to hold station in a weak current from one direction while a strong wind is blow-
ing from another direction. As conditions change, a new heading will be se-
lected where propulsive power and resistance can be most favorably matched.
The platform will not automatically change heading but rather will maintain a
predetermined gyrocompass heading. Environmental conditions for design of
the positioning system were of necessity selected before the Mohole site was
chosen. Wind and current conditions were established which would permit oper-
ation in any of the potentially suitable areas. The design conditions do not
416
Project Mohole Drilling Platform
Two propulsion systems are provided: The main propulsion system con-
sists of a propeller at the stern of each lower hull powered by a 7500-HP DC
motor. The positioning propulsion system consists of six right-angle drive
units, one in each of the six main columns. These units each consist of a 5 ft
9 in. shrouded propeller driven through right-angle gearing by a 1000-HP DC
motor. The propellers are trainable and can be continuously rotated in either
direction to provide thrust at any desired angle. Both the main propulsion and
the positioning propulsion systems are controlled automatically in the station-
keeping mode.
In moving from one site to another the platform will be operated at light
draft, with the lower hulls on the surface. Since ample propulsive power is
available as a result of positioning requirements, the platform will be operated
self-propelled in transit. In this mode it will operate very much like a ship in
straight and curved maneuvers. No rudders are provided, only the main pro-
pellers will be used, controlled manually from a console on the bridge either at
the same speed for straight line travel or at different speeds to develop turning
moment.
It can be seen that propulsive power, rotation, and resistance in all direc-
tions are of interest. As an essential step in design of propulsion and control
systems, it was necessary to determine characteristics of the platform in
straight-line motion fore and aft, athwartships, and obliquely to the center line
and in curved maneuvers varying from turning about its own vertical center line
to turns at normal turning radius. These characteristics were required at the
normal drilling draft of 65 ft, and at the light or transit draft of about 29 ft.
Since the analysis and test procedures differ between the deep draft and light
draft conditions, these are treated separately. The most vital criterion of the
drilling platform is that it must remain on station within the prescribed limits.
This facet of operation received the most attention and is discussed first and in
most detail.
STATION-KEEPING
In order to verify the platform's ability to hold station, the resistance and
moment data were combined with the propulsion data in a comprehensive math-
ematical model for single plane performance. The mathematical route was
417
McClure and Hove
chosen over the experimental route due to the multiplicity of possible environ-
mental conditions, practical difficulties and expense in equipping a model with
the six right-angle drive units and automatic controls. The analysis served an-
other vital purpose; besides verifying design expectations, it has contributed to
design of the control system by providing time constants and values of system
constants to be set into the on-board positioning computer.
Drag and moment coefficients and other platform characteristics were de-
termined with the aid of model tests. Four types of tests were conducted:
The model was towed over a range of speeds at headings from zero to 180
degrees measured from the fore and aft center line. Figures 2, 3, and 4 give
drag force in the direction of motion, side force perpendicular to the direction
of motion, and yaw moment about the vertical axis as functions of speed and
drift angle measured from the bow.
These data are scaled directly from the model basin tests and are not cor-
rected for roughness and minor appendages. These tests were conducted early
in the program and the model incorporated elliptical cross-section diagonal
bracing in place of the present circular bracing. The effects of all of these
items are incorporated in the equations for the positioning system analysis.
In addition to the towing tests a composite test was used to estimate plat-
form resistance. To eliminate Reynolds number effect, tests were conducted at
high Reynolds number in a wind tunnel to determine the resistance of the fully
immersed body to which was added the wave-making component of drag meas-
ured by towing a cylinder in a water basin. Although a rigorous comparison is
not possible, agreement between the two methods is well within the limits of
required accuracy and the towing tests which yield the more extensive data are
considered entirely satisfactory for design purposes.
418
Project Mohole Drilling Platform
t
.3
bu .2
o .1-
McClure and Hove
SPEED KNOTS
Extrapolation of the data to full scale has been done by the simple lambda-
cubed relationship. Extrapolation by the customary ATTC friction line resulted
in negligible differences, indicating that friction is a minor part of the total, as
one would expect.
420
Project Mohole Drilling Platform
1200
biooo
s
a 800
McClure and Hove
propellers with both ahead and astern rotation and ahead and astern velocity.
Self-propelled tests were conducted to determine propeller-hull interaction.
Aside from the greater than usual importance of knowledge of propeller thrust
at negative speeds, there is nothing particularly unusual in selection of the main
propeller characteristics.
The shrouded steering propellers can be directed at any angle to the ves-
sel's center line. When
correcting an adverse heading, the positioning unit will
frequently be directed at a large angle to the direction of motion. Performance
data for these conditions were not available in the literature, so it was neces-
sary to conduct tests with varying inflow angles. The propeller is a modified
Kaplan type with four blades similar to the van Manen K 4-55 series. The noz-
zle is a van Manen No. 18 modified by opening up the inlet to compensate for the
hub nacelle. The positioning unit propeller and nozzle are described more fully
in Appendix B.
Tests in both open water and in the presence of a hull segment were con-
ducted at the University of Michigan Naval Tank using a 1:7.5 scale model.
Equations were fitted to the data (6) to complete the performance map and to
facilitate positioning analysis.
Ja = advance coefficient
For general application, Taggart (7) gave the following equations for
propeller-nozzle performance in open water as a function of pitch ratio. These
are based on the Mohole test data and tests by van Manen with the assumption
that pitch ratio effects measured in axial flow hold proportionately at other
angles.
422
Project Mohole Drilling Platform
5
McClure and Hove
0.09
where
Project Mohole Drilling Platform
Behavior of the platform acted upon by wind, current, and propulsive forces
was simulated mathematically with the aid of a digital computer program.
Written in Fortran IV the program has sufficient flexibility that any foreseeable
combination of wind and current can be imposed including time variations of ve-
locity and direction. Resistance, propulsion, and mass acceleration terms are
added vectorially to obtain equilibrium in the horizontal plane. In addition, any
desired propulsive thrust control formulation can be inserted. Movement of the
platform is calculated at frequent intervals affording a close approximation to
dynamic equilibrium. The equations and treatment of platform parameters are
stated in Appendix C.
Another variable in the thrust program is the instruction for the integrator
circuit. This device notes the distance off the hole and biases the range infor-
mation so that the platform can be moved toward the hole while maintaining the
thrust required for equilibrium with the environment. For the examples, we
have chosen a 60-second sampling interval and a correction of 1 percent of the
distance off hole.
425
McClure and Hove
The first example is a simple case of a step increase in wind. The vessel
is assumed to be holding position on-station and the wind arises from abeam.
At the start of the problem a command is given to change the heading of the
vessel by 90 degrees so that it will head into the wind. The vessel, therefore,
starts with zero velocity and with a 33 -knot wind from abeam. As the problem
proceeds, the platform is turned into the direction of the wind and is moved back
toward the hole after being forced off by the wind. The equilibrium point is a
function of wind force versus thrust. The integrating circuit gradually shifts
the x-y coordinate of the equilibrium point from an off -hole position to a posi-
tion over the hole.
The second example involves both wind and current. The initial conditions
for the platform are again zero velocity and zero position error. In this case
the vessel is assumed to be heading at 90 degrees, that is, in the direction of
the y axis. The wind is 33 knots and the current 3 knots, both in the direction
of the negative y axis. Since the vessel is headed into the wind and current no
heading change is called for. It is assumed that the integrator circuit has been
operating and that the thrust is nearly in equilibrium over the hole. It will be
noted in Fig. 11 that the vessel initially drifts only a short distance from the
hole, since the integrator has previously displaced the 50-ft-radius dead band
away from the hole. The integrator circuit is working and gradually displaces
the equilibrium point so that the vessel returns slowly to the hole.
426
Project Mohole Drilling Platform
5
'
t
-2 -10 FEET
10 9 8 76 5
TO
24
-20
In the event that conditions are more severe than the design conditions, it is in-
tended that the vessel would be under manual control. Under manual control the
main shafts can be rotated at different speeds or in different directions to apply
thrust and torque as required. Additional power may be obtained by reassigning
generator capacity from drilling functions to the main propulsion motors. The
power plant is designed so the entire 13,000-kw generating capacity of the DC
electric power system can be applied to the positioning units and main propel-
lers.
TRANSIT
Self-propelled transit from site to site was not initially a basic requirement
for the platform. A large main propulsion system was found to be needed to in-
sure that the platform could remain on -station through storm conditions which
might occur frequently and with little warning. It was advantageous to design
for utilization of this propulsion system for moving to and from drill sites
rather than having to rely upon auxiliary vessels. More important is the added
freedom and safety afforded the platform. In the event of a severe storm forc-
ing it can be moved into sheltered waters, into the open sea,
to leave the site, it
or possibly out of the storm track entirely. It is desirable to know the speed-
power characteristics of the platform at shallow draft although precise deter-
mination is not necessary.
427
McClure and Hove
to establish these facts was placed on model testing. Towing tests were con-
ducted to determine resistance, turning moment, and lateral force in straight-
line maneuvers. Also, steering tests were conducted with a self-propelled
model. From a qualitative standpoint it was found that the model could easily
be steered in a straight path down the model basin using manual remote control.
Spiral and zig-zag maneuvers were conducted to determine quantitative direc-
tional stability and control as illustrated in Fig. 12. In the zig-zag tests the
model was run in a straight path before a predetermined RPM
variation was ap-
plied causing the vessel to turn. After a specified angle was reached, the RPM
variation was reversed. The turns were repeated in both directions and the
overshoot and time to complete the cycle were noted. Results show that the
platform is about as controllable as a conventional ship hull of the same size.
1000,
30 20 10 10 20 20 10 10 20 30
VARIATION FROM COURSE VARIATION FROM COURSE
IN DEGREES IN DEGREES
428
Project Mohole Drilling Platform
trim tabs since in respect to other criteria they result in a slight improvement.
In any event, the overshoot angles are somewhat less than those usually encoun-
tered in conventional ships and it may be concluded that controllability of the
platform as designed is good. Other measures of controllability are the reach
(time required for the vessel to return to its original base course at the end of
the first half cycle), and the period (time to complete a full cycle). Small values
of these parameters are usually associated with good controllability. Results of
the tests show that reach is 335 seconds and the period 660 seconds. These val-
ues are in the same order as those encountered in ship hulls and are considered
indicative of satisfactory maneuvering performance. Speed during these tests
was nine to ten knots which is the range of speeds expected during transit from
one site to another.
The effect of wind on the platform may be expected to be greater than in the
case of conventional ship forms. The large superstructure does result in ap-
preciable wind force. Wind tunnel data have been utilized to develop the curve
in Fig. 14 which indicates the effect on transit speed of a head wind. These
were developed by adding the wind resistance at the relative wind speed to the
water resistance and balancing that against the propeller thrust. It will be noted
that under trade wind conditions the platform can still maintain a respectable 8
to 10 knots directly against the wind. Downwind, of course, the effect is re-
versed, but is of a smaller magnitude since the relative velocity is reduced.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to express their appreciation to the many persons who
participated in the hydrodynamic studies of the Mohole platform. Of special
note are the contributions of Dr. H. K. Beckmann of Rice University in planning,
analysis, and interpretation of tests, and Dr. E.G. Holt of Flice University in
analysis and programming, including preparation of Appendix D.
Permission to publish this paper was granted by Brown and Root, Incorpo-
rated, and by the National Science Foundation, funding and administering agency
for Project Mohole.
REFERENGES
1. McGlure, A.G., "Development of the Project Mohole Drilling Platform,"
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, November 1965
3. Michelsen, F.G., and Rabe, N., "Model Tests of Project Mohole Drilling
Platform," University of Michigan, Final Report, August 1964
430
Project Mohole Drilling Platform
Appendix A
PLATFORM MODEL
The platform model in the final configuration for towing and self-propulsion
tests is shown in Fig. Al. The positioning units were not installed since the
performance tests of these units determined the net thrust, that is the propeller-
nozzle thrust less drag due to struts, housing, etc. Different model scales were
used for different portions of the testing program. The largest model used was
built to a scale of 1:27-1/2 and was used for towing and self-propulsion tests at
the University of Michigan. Self-propulsion, maneuvering, towing and rotating
arm tests were conducted at the David-Taylor Model Basin with a 1:45 scale
model. Wind tunnel tests were conducted with above water and below water
portions of the platform built to a scale of 1:60.
STARBOARD PROFILE
431
McClure and Hove
the later tests.For the resistance and moment tests the model was fitted with
elliptical cross-sectionbraces instead of circular members. Also damping
tanks were not present. The data given in Figs. 2, 3, and 4 of the basic paper
are not corrected for these additions, but the data used in the positioning ma-
neuvers analysis have been appropriately increased. The shallow draft maneu-
vering tests were conducted earlier and in addition to the above changes the
lower hulls were 20 feet shorter or 370 feet long and were 10 feet closer together.
Appendix B
The drilling platform has six positioning units, one located in each of the
platform's stability columns. Each unit consists of a 1000-HP DC motor in-
stalled in the lower hull gland, and an external assembly consisting of double
right-angle gears, training assembly, housing, propeller, nozzle, and supporting
struts (Fig, Bl). The external assembly can be withdrawn or installed while the
platform is in operation through the positioning unit trunk extending from the
upper deck of the platform through the lower hulls. The flange of the position-
ing unit assembly rests on a mating flange and the trunk and inflatable seals en-
able the trunk to be kept dry during normal operation. The unit is steered by a
reversible AC motor and worm gear drive. It can be rotated continuously in
either direction at 2 rpm. The external assembly contains its own built-in
lubricating system and is pressurized to minimize risk of leakage.
432
Project Mohole Drilling Platform
Propeller Characteristics
Number of blades 4
Diameter 5'-9"
Design speed of advance
Design shaft horsepower 720
Design rpm 300
Pitch ratio at 0.7 R 0.92
Expanded area ratio 0.412
Design submergence to centerline 64.5'
-^L_3
-^ ' ^
- L -'
433
McClure and Hove
Appendix C
INTRODUCTION
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
MU = F^CX.Y.^P.U.V.R.U)
MV = Fy(X,Y,>I',U,V,R,V,R)
I3R = M^(X,Y,>P,U,V,R,V,R)
where
M^ = the total yaw moment acting on the vessel, positive when producing
yaw to port.
434
Project Mohole Drilling Platform
The total forces in these equations are made up of the hydrodynamic forces, the
aerodynamic forces, and the propulsive forces.
HYDRODYNAMIC FORCES
Forces Due to Acceleration
The forces that the water exerts on the platform due to its acceleration are
given by the formulas that follow:
M, = -AgeR- A26(V+RU)
where
General
435
McClure and Hove
Fx = -Ceol IVtIU
Fy = -Ccol IVtI V
where
where
Let Xq = -V/R
2_ I 2 T 3_, . 3
Fy = -C,.
-lat IVI V L1 + L2 -
X 2
M, = -C,3, |V| V
where
436
Project Mohole Drilling Platform
v,R = lateral and angular velocities of the vessel through the water
where
v^ = lateral velocity of the "nose" of the vessel through the water; the
"nose" being a point a distance L3 upstream from the vessel e.g.
Fy = -CdraglVflVf
where
Fy = -Ciift lulVf
where
This force due to wake formation drag is uniformly distributed over a part
of the length of the hull from Xj to Xj.
X, = L.
437
McClure and Hove
X - Xi U or -L4 ,
X, = L
X, = X, - I
I
V I
U or L, ,
Fy = -q |V| V(Xi-X2)
where
AERODYNAMIC FORCES
The forces that the wind exerts on the vessel are given by the formulas
below.
and
438
Project Mohole Drilling Platform
P = 0.00238 slugs/cu ft
a = arctan VAJ
Values of c^s and Cj^s are tabulated in the program as a function of a. The
tabulated values were based on a DTMB Wind Tunnel Report.* The formula for
Cj^S was also derived from the DTMB data for this item.
PROPULSIVE FORCES
The propulsive forces produced by the main propellers and positioning units
under the control of the positioning system computer are determined as de-
scribed in the steps which follow. Where numerical values are given, these are
the values typically used; they may be varied as desired from problem to prob-
lem.
The apparent position of the vessel with respect to the hole is determined
as follows:
AX = AY = 0.
Xg = X + AX
Y = Y + AY
*J. T.Matthews, "Low Speed Wind Tunnel Tests of a 1:60-Scale Mohole Drilling
Platform Model," David Taylor Model Basin Report, Aero Tests A551, June
1964.
439
McClure and Hove
where
The apparent bearing of the hole with respect to the vessel is given by
^yreqd =
^reqd ^^^ ^ = lateral thrust, positive to port.
The heading error is given by Aw = "Pq - l*, where ^^ is the ordered heading.
Heading is controlled by thrusting ahead with the positioning units on one hull
while thrusting astern the same amount with the positioning units on the other
hull. The main propellers are not used to control heading. The required thrust
per hull is computed as follows:
440
Project Mohole Drilling Platform
Thrust Produced
The main propellers produce the thrust F^ up to the limit of 240,000 pounds
forward or 120,000 pounds astern.
First the total thrust required from the unit is limited to 25,400 pounds.
Then the thrust obtained is calculated as
where
NUMERICAL VALUES
Numerical values of the constants can be varied as program input data.
Typical values as derived from analysis of test data are given below. It will be
noted that the dimensions Lj through Lj do not correspond to actual hull dimen-
sions but to an idealized equivalent cylinder.
441
L,,
Project Mohole Drilling Platform
These manual modes also provide smooth handling of the vessel for hole reentry.
Further descriptive material on this dynamic positioning system has been pub-
lished by H. W. Ragland.*
The received signals are amplified and filtered and then passed to the
Range -Measurement and Display Group, where the Range Counter generates and
displays on the ship's bridge the true slant range in feet. At the same time, the
Range -Deviation Counter subtracts the portion of the slant range outside the
vessel operating limits and supplies the resultant to the Digital-to-Analog Con-
verter, which provides an analog voltage to the positioning computer. Ancillary
to the basic system is an Alarm circuit which provides a warning if a malfunc-
tion occurs or if widely divergent range information is being received. In addi-
tion, Precision Depth Recorders are provided to permit visual presentation of
the signals both for monitoring and emergency use in the event of failure in all
digital range -determining circuits.
*H. W. Ragland, Honeywell, Inc., "A Dynamic Positioning System for the Mohole
Drilling Platform," in "Ocean Science and Ocean Engineering, 1965," p. 1145,
published by Marine Technology Society and the American Society of Limnology
and Oceanography, Washington, D.C.
443
McClure and Hove
The four coordinate values stored in the register are converted to an ana-
log voltage, and corrected for platform inclination by the Tilt Compensator.
The compensated coordinate values are sent to the computer, as well as for
display purposes at the vessel bridge. Accuracy of this reference subsystem is
expected to be approximately 34 ft under anticipated operating conditions.
444
Project Mohole Drilling Platform
The Reference System Selector is used to select range data from one of the
three reference systems for computation, and the Reference Point Selector is
used to select two or three of the four reference points for computation. Using
the selected range information, the X-Y Distance Computer computes the dis-
tance between the vessel and a coordinate center in X-Y coordinates. The Geo-
graphic to True Coordinate Converter then rotates these coordinates to a true
north coordinate system. Parallax Offset between the Long Baseline Sonar
transducer and the center of the vessel, and Coordinate Center Offset between
the coordinate center and the drill hole are then added by Offset Addition. The
resulting composite signal represents north and east distances from the vessel
to the drill hole.
The composite signal is routed to total Range to Hole, North Range to Hole,
and East Range to Hole indicators and to the Vessel Position Display. This dis-
play also accepts a gyrocompass input for displaying vessel heading as well as
vessel position.
The composite signal is also sent through the Set Point Offset Integrator,
which may be used to automatically generate set point offset signals. These
signals are used to generate thrust requirements in the Fore -Aft Positioning
Thrust Computer and the Port-Stbd. Positioning Thrust Computer.
Main propulsion motor thrust requirements are scaled from total fore -aft
thrust requirements and subtracted from this signal. Ordered Heading, gyro-
compass information and fore-aft thrust requirements are combined in Vessel
Heading addition circuits to generate required vessel turning force signals.
Positioning unit orders are generated in the Port Pos. Unit Thrust and Azimuth
Computer and in the Stbd. Pos. Unit Thrust and Azimuth Computer.
Propulsion unit control orders are available from either computer channel.
In addition, these orders are routed through Mode Select circuits for selection
445
McClure and Hove
of the operating mode. If the system is operated in the automatic mode, orders
are derived from the positioning computer. If the manual mode is in use, pro-
pulsion unit orders are manually introduced.
Positioning unit azimuth orders are routed to the Port Pos. Unit Azimuth
Indicator-Control and the Stbd. Pos. Unit Azimuth Indicator -Control, on the po-
sitioning control console, where this information is displayed and compared to
actual positioning unit azimuth. If a discrepancy exists, signals are sent to the
port and starboard Pos. Unit Azimuth Drive motor controllers which drive the
positioning units to the desired azimuth. Signals from Pos. Unit Azimuth Syn-
chros geared to the units are used to insure that ordered and actual azimuth an-
gles are the same.
Positioning unit thrust rpm orders are sent to port and starboard Pos. Unit
Thrust Indicator -Control modules where they are compared to the actual posi-
tioning unit propeller shaft rpm. If a discrepancy exists, signals are sent to
port and starboard Pos. Unit Gen. Field Control modules in the engine room.
These modules control appropriate generator fields which in turn control the
speed of the Pos. Unit Drive Motors. Port and Starboard Pos. Unit Tachometers
generate shaft rpm signals for comparison to rpm orders.
Main propulsion motor thrust orders are routed in a manner similar to the
positioning unit thrust orders. In this case, functions travel to Main Propulsion
Indicator-Control modules, Main Prop. Gen. Field Control modules and Main
Propulsion Motors, Main Shaft Tachometers generate signals which are used
for ordered and actual shaft rpm comparison.
446
TOWING, MOTIONS, AND STABILITY
CHARACTERISTICS OF OCEAN PLATFORMS
Robert H. Macy
Naval Architect and Marine Engineer
Pascagoula, Mississippi
GENERAL
For the purposes of this paper an ocean platform is defined as a floating
unit which can be towed or in some cases self-propelled to a location where it
is anchored or dynamically positioned to fulfill its function. In special cases
platforms are propelled slowly while working. However, in general, an ocean
platform is considered to be a unit which is designed for performing some type
of work in a more or less fixed location rather than one that is engaged in trans-
porting commodities. While single hulls such as ships or barges may be posi-
tioned for a working assignment, these are not considered as true platforms,
although they are mentioned in the paper. A platform is envisioned as a unit
that has a relatively large working deck of considerable width in respect to its
length, where the length to width ratio of the platform itself may be anything
from 1.0 to 3.0.
Such platforms have a variety of uses, and with modern technology new uses
are being developed. Some of these are as follows: oil well drilling; oil well
producing; oil well workover; oil storage; undersea mining; heavy lifting; pipe
laying; oceanographic research; weather stations; missile launching; beacons -
visual, radar, loran, etc.; landing platforms - air or water vehicles.
Ocean platforms fall principally into the following categories: fixed pile
structures having built-in buoyancy for towing only; single hulls - ship or barge;
catamarans - floating or submerged; fixed height noncolumn stabilized struc-
tures; jack-up platforms with or without bottom hull; column stabilized plat-
forms; and special types: (a) deadweight anchor type platforms and (b) spar
vessels.
Many of the types of platforms listed above are shown in Figs. 1 through 15.
Fixed pile structures such as that shown in Fig. 1 are not properly a part of this
paper as they are ordinarily transported to location on the deck of barges. How-
ever, a few have been towed either with the use of attached pontoons to provide
stability or by having at least two of the corner tubular members made suffi-
ciently large to provide stability and buoyancy. Such pontoons are lowered into
position by selective flooding. Once in position on the bottom, they are ordi-
narily regarded as being permanently placed, although it is not inconceivable
447
Macy
that some of these could later be removed by the same method by which they
were first placed.
Single-hull drilling rigs of the ship and barge type are shown in Figs. 2
and 3.
The platform size for a single-hull vessel is limited by stability and struc-
tural support considerations. A catamaran offers the possibility of having a
very large working platform with normal proportions for the supporting hulls
which is beneficial to mobility and maneuverability. Figure 4 shows the
E. W. Thornton, one of the few existing catamarans.
448
Towing, Motion and Stability of Platforms
common type of offshore drilling platform in the early days but is no longer be-
ing built except for relatively shallow water oil storage platforms such as that
shown in Fig. 11, a tank-battery platform.
Jack-up platforms are basically a buoyant hull which is at the same time
the working platform. Attached to this hull are legs which are lowered to the
bottom until they encounter soil resistance after which jacks on the columns
raise the hull out of the water to the desired clearance. The bottoms of the legs
may penetrate the soil independently like those of Figs. 5 and 7 or they may be
attached to a buoyant or a nonbuoyant hull as shown in Fig. 6. With a lower hull
much better soil bearing is obtained, but this is at the expense of additional
steel structure. Although a number of accidents have occurred with jack-up
platforms, the type is very successful and economical and there are perhaps
more platforms of this type in service than any other type.
Figures 13 and 14 show a small column stabilized platform for oil well serv-
icing having hinged stability columns. When the columns are each rotated 90
449
Macy
degrees in a vertical plane, the columns become catamaran hulls, and in this
mode the unit is moved by self-propulsion.
There are several special types which are not in common use. One of these
is the deadweight anchor type (Fig. 15), consisting of a hull with small columns
extending upward to support the platform. When the platform has arrived at lo-
cation, very heavy anchors suspended directly below the structure are lowered
to the bottom. Then with the use of winches, the unit is pulled under the water
so that the hull is below the maximum wave forces, with the working platform
remaining above the surface. The proportions of the anchor weights and buoy-
ancy members need to meet the following criteria:
1. The anchors must be heavy enough so that the upward components of the
wave forces will not lift the hulls and raise the anchors off the bottom.
2. The reserve buoyancy of the hulls must be enough so that the downward
components of the wave forces will not cause slack in the anchor cables, allow-
ing the platform to drop.
450
Towing, Motion and Stability of Platforms
451
Macy
452
Towing, Motion and Stability of Platfornns
If these two criteria are met the platform will be virtually motionless in a
vertical direction but must be restrained laterally by an anchoring system.
Another special type of rig is the new Production Platform No. 3 for the
Freeport Sulphur Company. This is actually a column stabilized platform: how-
ever, it is unique in that it rests on the bottom at the beginning of its assignment
in 50 feet of water, but it will eventually, due to subsidence of the bottom as the
sulphur is mined, find itself no longer on bottom but in water approaching twice
this depth. Eight spuds are provided which, once the bottom has started to sub-
side, will assist the stability columns in maintaining stability and, at the same
time, will prevent lateral shifting.
453
Macy
TOWING RESISTANCE
Ocean platforms were originally used almost entirely in the Gulf of Mexico;
distances between locations were not great, and towing speed was not an impor-
tant factor. Today, however, platforms are towed all over the world, and the
importance of speed is demonstrated by a recent performance where a 9000-
horsepower tug towed a platform having a hexagonal shape hull from Orange,
Texas, to Rotterdam, a distance of 5500 nautical miles with a towing time of 58
days. The average speed was only 4 knots. It is entirely possible that on cer-
tain days the rig lost mileage rather than gained. Many of the hulls of offshore
platforms are nothing but rectangular blocks without any shape. Some of these
hulls have a slot in them to permit the platform to get away from a finished oil
well. Such slots are usually placed aft when towing.
Figure 16 illustrates most of the hull forms used or proposed. Single hull
vessels having the proportions of ships or normal cargo barges have much
greater towing speeds, but their deck space, stability, and motion character-
istics are not ideal for use as ocean platforms. Floating catamarans are ca-
pable of high towing speeds and several of them have been built, one of which
is self-propelled, the E. W. Thornton, shown in Fig. 4.
The type of high load and space capacity platform that has the best working
and motion characteristics is the column stabilized platform, which is usually
a square, or nearly a square, or a triangular working platform. The first hulls
for such column stabilized platforms were of a grid pattern, which was practically
454
Towing, Motion and Stability of Platfornns
square in plan. These hulls have extremely poor resistance and maneuvering
characteristics, and it is usually necessary to have one or two tugs ahead as
well as a tug astern to control yaw.
The Sedco 135, Fig. 8, is a column stabilized platform with elliptical foot-
ings at the bottom of each column. However, the speed-to-length ratio is very
unfavorable due to the short length of each footing. On the contrary the
455
Macy
speed-to-length ratio of long catamaran hulls is very low and results in a low
resistance per ton as compared with that of individual footings.
Figure 17 speaks better than words in describing the vast variation in re-
sistance of platform types. It is difficult to obtain a sufficient quantity of good
data on towing resistance on some of the unusual forms that are used. This is
due to the fact that most model tests are made by the individual companies for
their own use, and at the present time such data is regarded as confidential.
Extreme refinement in hull forms for elevated deck ocean platforms is not
justified, because the large platform structure raised on columns high above
the hull has wind resistance which is a large component of the total resistance.
Furthermore, high freeboard in the hulls of column stabilized platforms is not
necessary from a stability standpoint, as the columns provide stability anyway
when the hull is being submerged. In addition, the presence of an excess hull
volume compared with the column volume results in the center of buoyancy be-
ing unfavorably low for stability. Therefore, there is a tendency to keep not
only the displacement but the freeboard of the hulls to a minimum. This has a
disadvantage in towing in that even moderate waves will wash over the hull and
strike the columns, causing a considerable augment in resistance. While most
of this is due to the large stability columns, there is considerable effects on
the smaller support columns as well.
456
Towing, Motion and Stability of Platforms
^^ZXAimS
457
Macy
PB
B BD D BB
MyiViyKlL^
y^'HSAJtifif
'/////}//////////////f""f""/'/W^^/"ll/
458
Towing, Motion and Stability of Platforms
n
c TD
d^ SHIP
WITH CENTER WELL CATAMARAN
r^
J
NARROW BARGE WITH
OVERHANG & BALLAST SPONSON AW OLE CATAMARAN
WIDE BARGE
WITH SLOT
cg: XD
CtX XD
QUADRAMARAN
CZZD
'^ J
OUTRIGGER
Nearly all of the forms shown in Fig. 16 have a tendency to yaw, with the
exception of the forms which have single or multiple parallel hulls.
STABILITY
459
Macy
and this load can be fully effective as soon as the bit is raised off the bottom
when pulling it out of the hole. For this reason, high-capacity single-hull
drilling rigs ordinarily drill in a well on the center line.
460
Towing, Motion and Stability of Platforms
pads at the bottom of each leg. At least one platform has been lost due to the
presence of buoyancy in such footings. If these spaces are insufficiently filled
with water ballast, during raising and lowering, the center of buoyancy of the
entire assembly may be too low and the platform may capsize. Where it is nec-
essary to have ballast in the lower hull, arrangements should be made so that
this ballast is added automatically by an open stand pipe extending up to a pre-
determined height. This insures that such tanks will be filled at an early stage.
461
Macy
70
Towing, Motion and Stability of Platforms
The calculation of righting levers for complex platforms which not only
have stability columns but also secondary structural support columns which
may or may not be vertical is rather complex, and Ref. 5 describes a method of
facilitating such calculations by the use of optical projection in which a beam of
light is projected through a scale model of the platform onto a screen.
Unless the stability columns contain some watertight subdivisions, the flood-
ing of one column will usually result in the loss of the platform. This is espe-
cially true of a three -column platform. A four column platform may survive
actual loss when one column is damaged but will be inclined at a very great
angle. A platform having six columns can survive at a moderate angle the
damage to any one column; but for commercial purposes six columns are not
used due to economic considerations. The platform proposed for the Mohole
project, however, will have six columns.
463
Macy
cost. The second method is to provide scour coamings of the "cookie cutter"
type which extend 4 or 5 feet below the bottom of the hull. These are also of
benefit in preventing lateral shifting on bottom during storms. Care must be
taken to have vent pipes through the hulls to prevent trapping air behind these
coamings. The coamings are somewhat vulnerable to damage, and in very soft
bottoms such as encountered in the Gulf of Mexico off Louisiana they would have
to be uneconomically deep to do any real good. A third solution is to provide
the platform with a number of spuds which penetrate deep into the bottom of the
sea. While these do not acti^aUy prevent scouring, they will prevent lateral
shifting, and if the spuds are of sufficient number and capacity and are wedged
or locked into their guides, they will help to prevent undue settling of one
corner or one edge as a result of scouring.
In soft bottoms such as in Louisiana it is not at all unusual for the lower
hulls of platforms to be completely buried in the mud after a long period on sta-
tion. To remove an imbedded hull from the bottom requires considerable pre-
cautions. Water jet piping is a necessity, but care has to be taken in pumping
out water ballast that the platform does not suddenly break loose from the bot-
tom and emerge at an excess velocity. It is ordinarily preferable to try to get
one end free before the other end. With a column stabilized platform disaster
could hardly occur, because as the platform starts to come up, the displace-
ment of the stability columns falls off rapidly, functioning as a natural hydro-
static brake. Old type platforms which had large buoyant lower hulls and only
small-diameter columns did not have this advantage of rapid change in dis-
placement on emerging and could conceivably come up to the surface of a
terrific rate.
Ocean platforms exceeding 100 gross tons, other than those which rest on
Guard regulations, and rather complete
the bottom, are subject to U.S. Coast
stability calculations are required.
MOTION
Aside from the usual considerations of comfort and structural design, mini-
mum motion is a necessity to facilitate the work assignment of a platform. Ex-
cessive angular motion or surge in an oil drilling platform will cause bending
stress in the rotating drill pipe, while heave will result in tension or compres-
sion in the drill pipe. Telescopic sleeve joints just above the bit prevent cyclic
lifting of the bit off the bottom.
Experience has shown that if a flared structure like a curved inverted funnel
is fittedbelow the derrick substructure, that a half angle of as much as 20
464
Towing, Motion and Stability of Platforms
degrees can be tolerated. The sleeve joints in the drill string consists
of roll
of multiple sections, and enough of them can be used to permit tolerating a
heave of around 20 feet. The platform must be reasonably restrained laterally,
and a rough rule of thumb is that a drift from the vertical of 10 percent of the
water depth is acceptable. Even so, all these motions must be kept to a mini-
mum, and platforms of various types have greatly differing motion properties.
Broadly speaking, the usual types of platforms may be separated into three
categories as shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Platform Categories
Platform Type
Macy
Many of the earlier drilling platforms were equipped for drilling off one
end or over the side. Aside from stability and trim control problems, this is
undesirable because the vertical components due to rolling or pitching are
added to the heaving motion. If the drilling is done at the center of flotation,
the vertical component of roll and pitch is zero, and there remains only the
small horizontal components. But unless the platform contains some type of
slot in one end, or has a Y, A, or catamaran configuration, the platform could
not be withdrawn from a permanent pile supported production platform. This
has led to the development of sub-sea completions, of which many forms have
been proposed and some tried with success. However, it is still far from a
routine operation.
1.108 K
T =
x/GM
2tt
T =
In the case of a wall- sided vessel, where the tons per foot of immersion is
constant, D/t may be replaced by the draft d, and the formula becomes
277
466
Towing, Motion and Stability of Platforms
The metacentric height may be adjustedin several ways to change the roll-
ing period. Figure 18 is the ballasting curve of a four -column grid hull plat-
form, and shows the wide choice of GM available with only moderate draft
adjustments.
The devices outlined in the preceding paragraph also change the tons per
foot and are therefore effective in changing the heave period. Another obvious
way to modify the heave period is to change the displacement, but increasing the
draft to do so results in an increase of surge force and mooring line tension.
Heave damping plates have been tried and are sometimes effective if placed
deeply enough. Otherwise, if they are in the larger wave particle orbits near
the surface, they could actually augment heave.
MOORING
Motion and mooring are closely related in that minimum motions may be
obtained from high tension in mooring lines, literally "tieing down" the rig.
This is at the expense of greatly increased mooring equipment, which on a large
platform can easily reach $1 million in cost.
468
Towing, Motion and Stability of Platfornas
Mooring lines are commonly of the following types: all wire rope, wire
rope with a nylon section, wire rope with a chain section, all chain, or wire rope
from the winch to the buoy and chain from the buoy to the anchor. The resil-
iency afforded by the second and the last types are attractive but complicate the
winding of lines on drums or wildcats. This is less serious than would appear
as most platforms are not maneuverable enough to set their own anchors, and
this has to be done by auxiliary supply vessels. Anchors are usually of the
Navy LWT or Danforth types.
Model tests show that for minimum motion the mooring lines must not be
placed too low. A showed that
test of a platform 140 feet high at 70 feet draft
raising the point of attachment of mooring cables from 30 feet above the bottom
to 100 feet resulted in a reduction of heel due to aerodynamic lift from wind
under the platform deck from 8 degrees to 1 degree. This was accompained by
a reduction of mooring line tension of 40 percent.
PLATFORM SELECTION
Table 2gives an indication of the suitability of several common platform
types. Water depth is a relative term; water deep enough for a platform 50 by
SOfeet is shallow for one 2 50 by 2 50 feet. However the table is based on relatively
large platforms. While spar platforms are shown, their primary field seems
to be in oceanographic research, where a great load capacity is not required.
The principal conclusions drawn from this table are (a) that below 50 feet plat-
forms should rest on bottom, (b) between 50 and 300 feet platform types are
available which can float, rest on the bottom, or be semisubmerged, and (c) above
300 feet the floating or semisubmerged platforms seem the best.
469
Macy
Table 2
Relative Characteristics of Several Common Platform Types
Towing, Motion and Stability of Platforms
471
Monday, October 3, 1966
Morning Session
OCEAN WAVES
Chairman: G. Neumann
Page
473
LOW-FREQUENCY TAIL OF THE
OCEAN WAVE SPECTRUM
Walter H. Munk
Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics, La Jolla Laboratories
University of California, San Diego
La Jolla, California
Further down the frequency scale I would like to refer to one of the few
clear-cut results in some long-time efforts to make sense of the low-frequency
oscillations (4). We used an array of instruments separated by various dis-
tances along shore, ranging from 1/2 mile to 20 miles. By a suitable analysis
one can find the description of wave energy in o), k-space, where a; is the tem-
poral frequency and k is the spacial frequency. Suitable units are cycles per
475
Munk
hour and cycles per kilometer, respectively. It turns out that nearly all the en-
ergy is concentrated along two or three narrow bands, thus defining empirically
the corresponding Gij(k) relations. We have computed the corresponding rela-
tions for trapped edge waves, using the observed off-shore topography, and these
agree very satisfactorily with the empirical relations. There can be no doubt
that most of the energy is in the form of low-order trapped edge waves. Ap-
proximately equal energy travels up and down the coast. At the frequency under
consideration (cycles per hour), the effect of the Coriolis force leads to a slight
splitting of the co(k) curves. As one approaches daily frequencies, the situation
changes radically, and present remarks are not applicable.
REFERENCES
1. Snodgrass, F.E., Groves, G.W., Hasselmann, K.F., Miller, G.R., Munk,
W.H., and Powers, W.H., "Propagation of Ocean Swell Across the Pacific,"
Philosophical Trans. Royal Soc. London A2 59:43 1-497 (1966)
2. Barber, B.F., and Ursell, F., Philosophical Trans. Royal Soc. London A240:
527-560 (1948)
3. Hasselmann, K., Munk, W., and MacDonald, G., "Bispectra of Ocean Waves,"
in "Time Series Analysis," pp. 125-139, New York:Wiley, 1963
4. Munk, W., Snodgrass, F., and Gilbert, F., "Long Waves on the Continental
Shelf," J. Fluid Mech. 20(Part 4):529-554 (1964)
476
CONTINENTAL SHELF WAVES
L. A. Mysak
Harvard University
Cambridge, Massachusetts
INTRODUCTION
When a static, normal stress distribution acts upon the sea surface, it
reacts as an inverse barometer. In the literature such a response is often
termed "isostatic"; however, in this paper we shall call such a response 'Taaro-
metric." In the past it has also been assumed that the sea surface responds
barometrically when the distribution is time-dependent, such as in ordinary,
moving weather systems, provided the fluctuations are of sufficiently low fre-
quency (considerably less than the Coriolis parameter). Recently, however,
Hamon (1-3) and Hamon and Hannan (4) have observed that the daily mean sea
level fluctuations at the Australian coast are not barometric: At four stations
on the east coast the behavior is appreciably less than barometric (that is, the
magnitude of the "barometric factor," the ratio of daily mean sea level changes
to atmospheric pressure changes, is appreciably less than the expected value of
1.0 cm/mb), and at two stations on the west coast the behavior is appreciably
greater than barometric. An analysis of a simultaneous record of the daily
mean sea level fluctuations at Lord Howe Island, on the other hand, indicates a
barometric behavior.
477
Mysak
observed wave speed at the east coast. However, the solution does not yield any
information about the variation of sea level behavior with latitude. Also, Robin-
son's mathematical representation of the forcing atmosphere pressure variations
is questionable in view of the fact that at midlatitudes ordinary weather systems
tend to progress eastward rather than northward.
The solution to this problem (given in the next section), when applied to the
Australian stations where an anomalous sea level behavior has been observed,
does in general predict the observed behavior, provided the forcing frequency
lies in a small neighborhood of an eigenfrequency. However, the behavior is
indeterminate when the forcing frequency is equal to an eigenfrequency, since
both viscosity and nonlinear effects have been neglected. In view of this short-
coming, we also obtain the solution (given in the third section) for the same
geometry and driving force as used in the next section but with bottom friction
incorporated into the equations of motion. The solution given in these next two
sections also predicts the existence of circularly traveling shelf waves which in
the case of the southern hemisphere, move in the observed direction, namely,
counterclockwise. However, the theoretical wave speeds are somewhat less
than the observed, especially for the values of the parameters which apply to
the east coast. In the fourth section the geometry of the model is modified so
as to include a finite-slope continental slope region. The unforced solution for
this geometry does give a west coast wave speed which lies well within the error
bounds of the observed speed; however, there is still a significant discrepancy
between the theoretical and observed speeds for the case of the east coast. In
view of the fact that the theory does not take into account the intense current and
associated stratification which is present off the east Australian coast (6,7), this
discrepancy is, perhaps, not too surprising. In the last section the change in
wave speeds due to deep-sea stratification (idealized by a two-layer model) and
a uniform, upper-layer deep-sea current is determined.
In view of the nature of the phenomena we are considering, we shall use the
equations of linear shallow-water theory with the addition of the Coriolis param-
eter. Therefore, in terms of a cylindrical polar coordinate system (r. ^ z ) cen- ,
tered at the origin of the continent with z measured vertically upward from the
undistorted sea surface, the adjusted sea level fi(T,4i,t) and velocity components
J.
( r, t )
i//,and u ( r V^ t ) satisfy the equations
, ,
478
Continental Shelf Waves
- fO, . g = (1)
Bt 3^ ,
(2)
Bt r r 30
Here f 2fi sin 6'q (-0.59x10-1 sec'i for Australia), g is the acceleration of
gravity, -h(r,i/') the equation of the sea bottom, and
V ^-cp (4)
from exact barometric behavior. It is thus our purpose to derive an equation for
fj and examine its magnitude relative to cp.
where ^ ^ is a constant of order 10 cm. The choice of Eq. (5) as a model for the
ordinary weather systems which progress across mid-Australia is motivated by
two facts: (a) the weather systems essentially progress from west to east, and
(b) for a specified season and at any given station the power spectrum of the daily
mean atmospheric pressure fluctuations, which have an amplitude of about 10 cm,
has a single, albeit broad, maximum (1). In particular, the spectrums for "win-
ter" (April- September) and "summer" (October- March) are peaked at 9 days
{..'^ = 0.81 X 10" ^ sec" ^ ) and 5 days ( ^ = 1.45 x
10" ^ sec' ^ ) respectively. As a
-
479
Mysak
In view of Eq. (5) we assume a simple harmonic time factor exp (-ic^t) for
all the unknown quantities:
Employing Eq. (6), Eqs. (1) and (2) yield, for aj2 ^ i\
Bt] f Bt7 \
iw '
(7)
f2_^2 \^ 3r r Bi///
f ^
Bt]
+
ico Bt]
2^11]. (8)
For the circular geometry described in the Introduction, h(r) takes the form
where D depth in the deep-sea region, d is the depth at the edge of the
is the
shelf, -i sheK width, and P is the continental radius. For Australia,
is the
D = 5xi05cm, d = 2X10^ cm, ^,3,, ^^^^, ^j. = 5xl0^cm, l^^^, ^^^,, l^ = -- --
7.5 xlO^ cm, and R = 2.05 xlO^ cm. Equation (9) is to be solved separately in
the deep-sea and shelf regions, subject to the boundary conditions |t7(R,s^)| < M
(a constant) and 17(00, = At the edge of the shelf we stipulate that
i/;) . andu^h 17
In Eqs. (7), (8), and (9), we assume that ^^ f ^ Hence in the deep sea
region, Eq. (9) reduces to
where fi^ - f ^/gD. Upon examining the forcing term in Eq. (10), we note that
for - k"
r and /^^
*
k^, 77 = Oifi^^)^/'^^), which implies that in the deep-sea
region the amplitude of 17 is much smaller than that of w For the case of .
^T7.ff + -^.^ - i7V<^ - eacpg exp(ikR cos 0), < ^ < 1, (11)
480
Continental Shelf Waves
for e = -t/R 1 and y = -il/coYi, a = f ^R^gd, B/3^, and 'd/'^^j each of order
unity; the dimensionless variable ^ is defined by <f = (r - ^)/l. Hence
7? = 0(ea(pQ/7), which implies that the shelf sea-level behavior is also essenti-
ally barometric unless resonance occurs. The unforced equations obtained
from Eqs. (10) and (11) together with the above stated boundary and continuity
conditions constitute an eigenvalue problem with eigenvalue y. Since y^or^, it
follows that when the forcing frequency is in a small neighborhood of an eigen-
frequency, 17 on the sheK is amplified, thereby leading to a nonbarometric be-
havior. For a nonresonant response however, the Australian shelf sea level
behavior is also barometric to within 0(10" ^).
The appropriate homogeneous solutions to Eqs. (10) and (11) which are
single-valued in are given by
E A^K^ W{U+^)]
m
exp(im^), ^ > 1 ,
v = (12)
kind, and Jg the zeroth order Bessel function of the first kind. Application of the
continuity conditions to Eq. (12) implies that A^ = Bq = and implies the eigenvalue
equation
where K^ and K^ are evaluated at ^= 1 and A = d/D. For /3RK^/K^ =0(1) and
e/A 0(1), Eq. (13) implies that to be consistent with our earlier approxima-
=
tions we must take the eigenvalues to be given by the zeros of Jg Let k^.^ .
Finally, in view of Eq. (14), the adjusted sea- level eigenf unctions can be written
in the form
ro(A), ^ > 1
481
Mysak
waves" for the fi- ^'s. These waves correspond to Robinson's plane -traveling
shelf waves (5).
3. In both geometries the waves are nondispersive and the phase velocity
(wave speed) of the jth mode is given by
c. = -4f^V^j .
(16)
From Eq. (16) we note that the wave speed is proportional to the sheK width and
isindependent of the depth and acceleration of gravity, which is quite unlike the
case for gravity waves and edgewaves. In the circular geometry the waves travel
counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere and clockwise in the northern
hemisphere.
Forced Solution
To solve the forced problem, we expand tj on the shelf in terms of the eigen-
f unctionsgiven in Eq. (15) with a ^ in the exponent replaced by oj. The unknown
coefficients are then determined from Eq. (11). The complete solution takes the
form
^(^,'A, t) = eacpg
2_^
\%]m J 1 ( 2v%]m) m (7 - y^ )
X
Jo (2V7^~^) exp[i(m^-ajt)] (m M) (17)
Equation (17) explicitly shows that unless the forcing frequency ^ lies within a
"resonant" neighborhood of x ^ defined by ^
the sea level behavior on the shelf is very nearly barometric. However, if ^^
lies within a resonant neighborhood of m. ^, then v has an amplitude of o(lOcm),
the leading contribution being n ^, the j,ni the term of Eq. (17). In such a case
the theoretical sea-level amplitude on the shelf is given by ; + n
J with in ' ,
the resonant neighborhood (Eq. (18)) will be largest for the eigenfrequencies
corresponding to = l.
j Hence we conclude that an anomalous sea-level behav-
ior on the shelf is essentially determined by U + Nj J with within the reso-
nant neighborhood of ^j ^ given by Eq. (18) with = i. The following question j
482
Continental Shelf Waves
now arises. For a specified or l^) and season (summer or winter), which
f (^j-
a-, ^'s are most (It should be made clear here that although
likely to be excited?
the theoretical shelf wave N, propagates around the whole continental shelf (of
,^
width ) with a fixed frequency given by Eq. (14), we now wish to apply the theory
I
locally to a small region of the coast in view of the two scales of ^ involved, viz.,
Z and I Hence Eq. (14) implies that the eigenfrequencies corresponding to
.
each regi'on will differ.) Figure 1 shows the winter spectrum of the atmospheric
pressure at Sydney as a function of frequency along with the eigenfrequencies
oij ^ as given by Eq. (14) with f = l-^. For this case it is evident that g
and -
j
Wj g are most apt to be excited since only these eigenfrequencies lie at the peak
of the spectrum. For ^ i^, a similar analysis reveals that
I
5 and
xj ^ are -
S^(0,a;;^) - | cp + N ^ ^
^,^^/cp.
|
where
A^ = eaj rkR)/0.62(m7- 1.44) .
It isclear that when s^ > l or < l the behavior is greater or less than baro-
metric. From Eq. (19) we note that when A = 0(1), the sea-level behavior
does depend on (as well as on m, w, and l). Hence it is not too surprising
/'
that the observed Australian sea level at the east coast is quite different from
that at the west coast. In Figs. 2 through 5 the amplitude s^ is plotted as a
function of frequency for those east and west coast stations where an anomalous
sea-level behavior has been observed during winter and/or summer. These
stations are listed in Table 1 along with their observed behavior (<and> repre-
sents respectively a less or greater than barometric behavior) and position >//.
(We have taken the origin of our coordinate system to lie at Alice Springs,
which is the geographic center of Australia.)
fects have been neglected. To determine the amplitude when the forcing fre-
quency is equal to an eigenfrequency (within the framework of a quasi-steady
model), at least one of these effects must be incorporated into equations. In
the next section we obtain the solution for the amplitude which is damped by
bottom friction.
483
Mysak
0.89
Continental Shelf Waves
FREMANTLE
GERALDTON
1.36
1.50 (cu,,,o)
485
Mysak
Table 1
Australian Stations with Observed Anomalous Sea- Level Behavior
Station
Continental Shelf Waves
the neighborhood of the east coast {I - -i^), therefore, this wave travels north-
ward with a speed Cj = 200 cm/sec, which is half the observed speed of 400 cm/
sec. In the neighborhood of the west coast (-& = l^), the wave travels southward
with a speed Cj = 310 cm/sec, which just lies within the error bounds for the
observed speed, viz., 300 to 600 cm/sec.
^-,..H|S.i(K.-F,). (20)
where
Fg,GB = r.i// components of the frictional stress of water on the ocean floor,
Upon combining (20) and (21) with the continuity equation, it can be shown that
for typical values of the parameters, the forcing terms due to F^ and G^ are an
order of magnitude smaller than the term due to the atmospheric pressure fluc-
tuations; henceforth we take f^ = G^ = 0. We assume (8)
Fg = K U ^^
^ ' (22)
where K is a small positive constant of dimensions sec ' ^. For our problem we
take K to lie in the range 10"^ to 10'^ sec"^, which is obtained by equating the
bottom stress as given by Eq. (22) to the well-known expression for the bottom-
layer Ekman stress in which the vertical eddy viscosity (for the shelf region) is
taken to lie in the range 1 to 10" ^ cm Vsec (see page 482 of Ref. 9). The same
estimate for K is also obtained if we equate Fg, Gg (with velocities u^ = o(10"-^
cm/sec), and u^ = o (1 cm/sec)) to the well-known bottom-frictional force ex-
pression kpu^, where k is a drag coefficient usually taken to have the value
2.5 xlO-3 (see page 136 of Ref. 10). From Eq. (20), Eq. (21), and the continuity
equation, we obtain, for h = h(r), the following equation for f):
g- 2) g"
hLV^Ti + h'(L^, ^+ fr-if;,^) + (L^ + f ^
)
i 77, ^ = (L^ + f ^ cp,
^ , (23)
where L - B/3t + K.
487
Mysak
Substituting Eq. (24) into Eq. (23), and assuming that oj'^ f^, K oj, e l,
and i^V
gd, and that B/3^, B/Bs//, and y are each of order unity, we find that
the solution for 77 is the same as that given in the preceding section. However,
in view of Eq. (24), the unforced shelf waves now decay with time, in contrast to
the inviscid case. But since K << w, the effolding time of these waves is of the
order of several years.
i Jn,(kR)
7](^,0,t) ::: eacp^
J^ K/^)
rt: Vroj'" Ji(2 V7oj"i) ^(y-yoj - i^oj
Hence, to compare the theoretical sea-level behavior at the coast with the ob-
served behavior, we consider
where
1/2
A = eaj (kR)/0.62 [(ym- 1.44)^ + (1.44 K/co)^]
and
Equation (26) is the generalization of Eq. (19), so that S^ has the same physical
interpretation as S^. But Eq. (26) differs from Eq. (19) in one important way:
when CO - ojj ^ (a resonant response), Eq. (26) implies that S^ is finite because
of the nonzero term (1.44 K/co)^ in the denominator of A^. Further, for the val-
ues of K quoted above, S^ = 0(1) when w = co^ m> ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ hypernonbarometric
behavior which occurs in the inviscid model when co - co, is now eliminated.
Finally, we note that for k
w the behavior as given by s^ will be essentially
the same as that given by S^^ except for w in the small neighborhood \co-co^ J <hco
where hco = 0(10-^ to 10"^ sec"^).
given station and in the neighborhood of a particular ^^i ,, we regard the behav-
ior in this case as distinctly greater or less than barometric respectively. With
this interpretation we note that at the east coast the behavior is distinctly less
than barometric (the observed behavior) in 50 percent of the cases. In partic-
ular, at Newcastle, Sydney, and Port Kembla during winter, the behavior in the
neighborhood of Wj g is distinctly less than barometric for an "off- resonant"
response to the left. (That is, s at these stations has a minimum when
488
Continental Shelf Waves
3 a t-,
x: o
<->
o -t->
3 O "S
"g s
II 0) "O
3 ^ >
M -C ^
Xi Icrt .
c^ -C W 13
^
.(-I
C
.^ .^
CO
CUTS
c
^
a>
5 M <i>
** J3
1-3
I
CO
01 ^
^
(U
CO
--Jo
> II
gtilc/)
Q
Mysak
To answer this question we assume that between the deep-sea and shelf
regions there exists a uniformly sloping continental slope of width with depth t '
where q- is a constant of order unity and A' = d-f (D- d){. For the case of
'
Australia we take i'-^ = 7.5x10^ cm and C^ = 12.5x10^ cm. For these values of
-t' we find that A^ =6x10-^ and a; = 7x10"^. Equation (27) therefore implies
that a continental slope region produces a significant shift in the eigenfrequen-
cies. For j = 1 the eigenvalue equation implies that qj = -0.9 and -1.1 for the
From Eq. (27) the new wave speeds are now readily determined; the results
are given in Table 3, along with the theoretical values computed for the previous
model and the observed values. From Table 3 we first note that with a continen-
tal slope the wave speed at either coast is increased by about 30 percent, which,
as conjectured earlier, is much greater than the increase for edgewaves. The
theoretical wave speed for the west coast now lies well within the error bounds
490
Continental Shelf Waves
Table 3
Observed and Theoretical Lowest- Mode Wave Speeds
Mysak
///////////////////// ^
Fig. 6 - The uniform, basic
Two-layer model.
flow Vq confined to the deep-sea region and
is
to the upper layer. For the east Australian
coast region, typical values of the parameters
shown are Vq = 100 cm/sec, d^ = 2.5x10'* cm,
Do = 5 X 10^ cm, ? = 5 X 10^ cm, d = 2 x 10" cm.
p - 1.025 g/cm^, and p' - p = 2.5x lO"'' g/cm''.
where ^ = xZ-C, x = kx, and v = -ik-i/co. In obtaining Eqs. (29) and (30), we have
imposed the boundary conditions |N(0)| < M, N(oo) = 0, and |z'(oo)| < m. Appli-
cation of the boundary condition x'(^) = yields Aj = 0; application of the con-
tinuity conditions to theupper layer solutions implies the eigenvalue equation
are each of order unity. The physical reason for this change in the eigenvalues
is that the motion of the surface wave 7] in the deep-sea region is now coupled to
that of the interfacial wave C' through the conservation equations, so that new
modes of oscillation result. Finally, from Eqs. (28) and (31) we observe that the
waves are still nondispersive and progress northward at the east coast of a con-
tinent which lies in the southern hemisphere.
492
Continental Shelf Waves
In Fig. 7 the lowest- mode wave speed Cj (= -^fl/v^, where i^, is the lowest
eigenvalue as determined by Eq. (31)) is plotted as a function of Vg for the case
of the east Australian coast in the neighborhood of Sydney to Coff's Harbour
(f = -0.73x10"'* sec"^). From Fig. 7 we observe that for Vq in the range 50 to
100 cm/sec (typical East Australian Current speeds) and for all values of A^
considered, there is now excellent agreement between the theoretical and ob-
served wave speeds. Even for Vg = 0, it is interesting to note, Cj is only about
10 percent greater than the observed speed; this is to say, the main shortcom-
ing of the earlier models was the absence of deep-sea stratification. However,
the wave speeds are relatively insensitive to changes in stratification (Fig. 7).
Finally, we conclude this paper by noting that in each A^ curve, cj decreases
(essentially linearly) with increasing Vq
. This result suggests that we can the-
oretically determine the speed of an essentially surface deep-sea current which
flows alongside a continental shelf by analyzing the sea level at the coast. How-
ever, since the wave speed in any small coastal section (distance of the order
Mysak
100 km) is determined by computing the cross spectrum of daily mean sea level
data from two stations bounding this section, the theory can at most predict
seasonal current speeds, or the seasonal difference in the current speed be-
tween two widely separated regions (distance separation of the order 500 km).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Professor A. R. Robinson for introducing me to the subject of con-
tinental shelf waves, for many valuable discussions, and for reading this manu-
script. This work was jointly supported by the National Science Foundation
Grant GP 3533-44-709-7869-2 in oceanic dynamics to Harvard University and a
Special Scholarship from the National Research Council of Canada.
REFERENCES
1. Hamon, B.V., "The Spectrums of Mean Sea Level at Sydney, Coff's Harbour,
and Lord Howe Island," J. Geophys. Res. 67:5147-5155 (1962)
5. Robinson, A.R., "Continental Shelf Waves and the Response of the Sea Level
toWeather Systems," J. Geophys. Res. 69:367-368 (1964)
6. Hamon, B.V., "The East Australian Current, 1960-1964," Deep-Sea Res, 12:
899-922 (1965)
9. Sverdrup, H.U., Johnson, M.W., and Fleming, R.M., "The Oceans: Their
Physics, Chemistry, and General Biology," Prentice-Hall
11. Munk, W., Snodgrass, F., and Carrier, G.F., "Edgewaves on the Continental
Shelf," Science 123:127-132 (1956)
494
Continental Shelf Waves
DISCUSSION
Bernard D. Zetler
U.S. Department of Commerce
Institute for Oceanography
Silver Spring, Maryland
With reference to the history of the ratio of sea level changes to atmos-
pheric changes varying from a value of 1, Ted Saur reported on this in AGU
several years ago and the Coast and Geodetic Survey published on this over 100
years ago, using a four-year record of tide and pressure at Boston.
In considering additional forces related to the problem, I note that you set
the wind stress on the surface as equal to zero. I suggest that although it is an
order of magnitude less than the term due to atmospheric pressure fluctuation
and thus not large enough to account for the variations noted, it still can be a
significant disturbing parameter.
495
NONLINEAR PROCESSES IN
LONG-CRESTED WAVE TRAINS
ABSTRACT
This paper is a commentary on some recent findings in water-wave
theory which have been reported in previous papers by the present au-
thors, and which relate closely to ideas developed recently by Whitham
and by Lighthill, The principal aim here is to clarify the practical
significance of the new results, with regard both to ocean waves and to
waves fornned in model basins.
497
Benjamin and Feir
The complete text of this paper was not available for publication,
498
COMPUTER-BASED PROCEDURES FOR
PREPARING GLOBAL WAVE FORECASTS
AND WIND FIELD ANALYSES CAPABLE
OF USING WAVE DATA OBTAINED
BY A SPACECRAFT
Willard J. Pierson, Jr., and Leo J. Tick
New York University
Bronx, New York
and
Ledolph Baer
Lockheed California Company
Burhank, California
NEED
Techniques are needed for improved descriptions of waves on the surface
of the sea. Improvements are needed both in accuracy and in detail of the de-
scriptions. With such descriptions, ships can be routed across the ocean more
economically, and search and rescue operations at sea can be carried out more
efficiently and safely. Warnings of conditions which could produce hazardous
events such as the recent damage to the Michelangelo could be given. An ade-
quate knowledge of the prevailing wave conditions on the ocean would permit the
design of better merchant ships and military vessels. A concept under investi-
gation by the Maritime Administration involving surface effect ships would
require very accurate wave forecasts. Coastal recreation areas need wave
forecasts.
PRESENT DATA
Present knowledge of conditions at sea is gained from ship reports, from
wave recorders, and from special scientific installations
ships with shipborne
499
Pierson, Tick, and Baer
and investigations such as those made at Argus Island and from FLIP. The esti-
mates of waves reported by ships are of dubious quality. The World Meteoro-
logical Organization's instructions for observers are so nebulous in their state-
ment of what is to be done that the reported wave heights can, and do, differ from
the significant wave heights that are observed instrumentally by a factor of twQ,
either too high or too low. A great contribution to the problem of observing and
forecasting ocean waves at sea could be made by improving the instructions for
the visual observation of waves.
The winds reported by ships are also of dubious quality, except for those
cases where the ships are equipped with calibrated anemometers and the height
of the anemometer is known. Finally, the ships report a quantity called the air-
sea temperature difference which ought to be quite useful in determining the
turbulent structure of the wind over the water. However, the method of record-
ing the sea temperature leaves much to be desired, and there is considerable
debate as to the accuracy and usefulness of the values currently reported.
In addition to the conventional transient merchant ship reports and the visual
estimates by weather ships of wave heights, waves have been recorded since
about 1952 by the British weather ships using the Tucker shipborne wave re-
corder. These data are perhaps the most valuable, because they cover the wid-
est range of conditions and because they are in a part of the ocean where a great
deal of variation in wave height occurs from day to day.
The Argus Island installation is also an extremely valuable one for record-
ing waves. has been used as a primary standard of calibration for many other
It
kinds of wave recorders which are under development at the Naval Oceano-
graphic Office, and the amount of data, though less in quantity to that available
from the shipborne wave recorder, is sufficient to permit useful interpretation
and analysis.
FLIP has been used for one month at a station halfway between Hawaii and
Alaska by Snodgrass et al. (1) to measure waves in the North Pacific. It is evi-
dent, however, that new techniques for observing waves on a much broader scale
over the oceans are needed and that the installation of shipborne wave recorders,
or other wave recording techniques, on many ships at sea would provide much
valuable data for problems connected with both the analysis of the wind field and
the waves over the ocean. In a later section of this paper, the potentials of a
special kind of radar on a spacecraft will be discussed in the context of a pro-
cedure for enhancing the quality of data obtained over the oceans.
500
Global Wave Forecasts Using Spacecraft Data
been summarized by Bunting (9). These results have been used by Wachnik and
Zarnick (10) in the study of aircraft carrier motions. This file of climatological
wave conditions for the year 1959 is proving to be of great value in a number of
other investigations that have not yet reached the stage of publication.
The numerical technique that was developed at that time involved the analy-
sis of the surface wind field over the Atlantic Ocean on the basis of reports from
weather ships at sea and from conventional ships, the description of the wave
spectra at 15 frequencies and 12 directions at each of 519 grid points, the prop-
agation of the various spectral components at their group velocities, certain
dissipation mechanisms essentially based on gross Austausch turbulence, and a
wave growth theory obtained from a study of the data tabulated in the reports by
Moskowitz, Pierson, and Mehr.
AVAILABLE THEORIES
At the time that the work described above was completed in 1964, theories
for the growth of waves due to the wind were available but they had not been
checked, and indications were that they did not account for the observed growth
of waves at sea. Since that time, some field work has led us to the conclusion
that perhaps these theories can be used in a modified way to describe wave
growth, and the purpose of this section is to review the available theoretical re-
sults on wind-generated gravity waves in the context of our computer-based
procedures.
The shape of the spectrum of a fully developed wind sea was studied in the
work completed prior to December 1964. This analysis by Moskowitz (5), Pier-
son and Moskowitz (6), and Pierson (7) seems to have resolved a number of the
important discrepancies in this part of wind-generated-wave theory. The major
source of the discrepancies seems to have been a combination of calibration
effects,which explain the very low values obtained by Darbyshire (11), and dif-
ferences in the elevation above the surface of the sea at which the wind was
measured. A correction for these differences places many of the theories within
reasonable range of each other.
The propagation of waves is also quite well understood, based on the work
of Barber and Ursell (12), Pierson (13), and the more recent study of Snodgrass
et al. (1) in the Pacific. There can be no doubt that each spectral component in
a wind sea propagates at group velocity in an appropriate direction, according
to where it lies in the directional spectrum, and that such components can be
tracked on a great-circle route for a distance comparable to half the circumfer-
ence of the earth.
The problem of the growth of the spectrum of a wind-generated sea has re-
ceived considerable attention. Recent work, starting with that of Eckart (14),
and continuing through the work of Miles (15) and Phillips (16) laid the theoreti-
cal foundations for this problem. It has been found that the growth that can be
calculated from these theories is apparently too low to explain the observed
growth of the spectral components in a wind sea. The fascinating field study by
Snyder and Cox (17), however, does show that the growth of a particular spectral
501
Pierson, Tick, and Baer
component has the behavior predicted by these theories in that the growth is at
first quite slow and linear and then growing to the full amplitude rather quickly
once a certain minimum is reached. The evaluation by Snyder and Cox, for ex-
ample, led to the conclusion that the Miles term was about eight times smaller
than is actually needed to explain the growth of the spectral component they
investigated.
Inoue (18) in some recent work has attempted to use the functional forms
postulated in the theories of Miles and Phillips with constants picked in such a
way that the growth will match the growth which was observed in the data pro-
vided by the British shipborne wave recorder. The first effort employed a flat
growth independent of frequency for the Phillips term, and the functional form
of the Miles term increased by a factor of about eight to model the Miles term.
This effort indicated a growth of significant wave height versus fetch (and dura-
tion) very much like that obtained by Sverdrup and Munk many years ago. Cur-
rent investigation involves the study of a more realistic Phillips term in which
the spectral growth will be a function of both frequency and wind speed. The
spectral growth from a flat, calm ocean with a 40-knot wind according to Inoue
(18) is shown in Fig. 1.
S(
m^sec ff^sec
120
100
80
60
40
20
Global Wave Forecasts Using Spacecraft Data
There remains the problem of how waves are dissipated at sea. If there
was no dissipation mechanism, the spectrum of the waves on the open ocean
would soon become isotropic, with spectral components traveling in all direc-
tions at nearly every point. This is observed not to be the case, and there is
some process by which waves traveling against strong wind-generated seas are
rapidly attenuated. The study of Snodgrass et al. (1) on the propagation of waves
from the South Pacific to the North Pacific found that the greatest amount of
attenuation was right in, or near, the generating area and that the swell could
then travel through the subtropical highs and the trade wind regions without very
much additional loss.
It seems to us that the primary reason for the dissipation of the waves is
the turbulence generated by the breaking waves in a wind-generated sea. An
attempt has been made to model this effect by taking the simple theories pro-
posed by Lamb for viscous attenuation and using an Austausch coefficient in its
place that enhances this effect. This method very strongly attenuates waves that
travel against the wind. This dissipation, as discussed in a later section, seems
to be an important contribution to the decrease of waves after a storm passes
and the wind shifts. There is certainly plenty of room for improvement in this
particular aspect of our computer-based procedures. However, it does appear
to yield consistent results when tested against available sequences of wave spec-
tra computed from wave records obtained from both Argus Island and from the
British weather ships. As an example, for the square North Atlantic grid system.
Figs. 3, 4, and 5 show the results near the Weather Reporter for the original
503
Pierson, Tick, and Baer
S(f)
m^sec
Global Wave Forecasts Using Spacecraft Data
00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12
DEC 16 DEC 17 DEC 18 DEC 19 DEC 20 DEC 21 DEC 22 DEC 23 DEC 24 DEC 25 DEC 26 DEC 27 DEC 28
q I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12
DEC 16 DEC 17 DEC 18 DEC 19 DEC 20 DEC 21 DEC 22 DEC 23 DEC 24 DEC 25 DEC 26 DEC 27 DEC 28
505
Pierson, Tick, and Baer
GRID POINT
OBSERVED (OWS)
72
73
84
85
00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12 00 12
DEC 16 DEC 17 DEC 18 DEC 19 DEC 20 DEC 21 DEC 22 DEC 23 DEC 24 DEC 25 DEC 26 DEC 27 DEC 28
Finally, the character of the turbulence in the wind over the ocean should
play an important part in determining the rate of growth of the waves. A great
deal of new theoretical work on turbulence is becoming available in the litera-
ture. These results suggest that the drag coefficient, and the roughness length,
depend on atmospheric stability and on the height of the sea present in that par-
ticular area. It would be highly desirable to develop a better way to modify the
growth of a wave spectrum on the basis of how high the waves are at the time of
the observation and on the basis of the stability of the air over the water. Miles'
theory states that the rate of growth of a particular spectral component is deter-
mined by the ratio of the curvature of the wind profile to the slope of the wind
profiled at that elevation above the sea surface where the phase speed of the
waves equals the wind speed. Since the phase speeds observed in fully developed
seas are considerably in excess of the winds measured 19.5 meters above the
surface, this means that knowledge of the wind profile over the water must ex-
tend both theoretically and observationally to elevations well over 70 meters.
Also, since the wind profile changes its character as a function of stability, the
rate of growth of different spectral components will be quite different depending
upon how the particular ratio mentioned above compares to the ratio that would
exist under neutral conditions.
506
Global Wave Forecasts Using Spacecraft Data
plus a wave propagation procedure that has new and desirable features for large
oceans. It will include procedures for specifying the wind field over the oceans,
and the turbulent structure of the winds. The wave spectra will be computed at
each grid point by three steps for each 2-hour time step. The three steps are
called: growth, dissipation, and propagation. The procedures under develop-
ment for specifying the wind field, and for the three steps of the wave spectra
computation will now be described.
Wind Fields
Presently, the wind field is described by a direction and speed at each grid
point. The speed is that which would supposedly be observed at an elevation of
19.5 meters over the sea surface under conditions of neutral stability, under the
assumption that the drag coefficient given by Sheppard (22) as a function of the
wind at 10 meters is correct.
The surface pressure field is used to obtain a first estimate of the wind
field by means of a regression equation given by Thomasell and Welsh (3). The
weather ships are used next to correct the winds at the points on the grid closest
to the ships. The anemometer heights of the weather ships are used to compute
the wind at 19.5 meters under the above assumptions.
All other ships with anemometers are then used. If a grid point is cor-
rected, subsequent ship reports are not allowed to change the wind at that grid
point.
Finally, the transient merchant ships are used as if the reported wind had
been observed at 19.5 meters above the sea surface. These winds were also
first treated as if they had been observed at 10 meters above the sea surface
and increased according to the logarithmic wind profile to 19.5 meters above
the sea surface. This led to waves that were much too high.
The wind fields are obtained on a JNWP grid (23) and interpolated to the
wave forecasting grid.
In the system under development, the number of points on the JNWP grid
will be quadrupled by halving the distance between grid points. This will pro-
vide better resolution in areas of strong winds and strong wind shear. Also
more ships will be used in correcting the wind field from the regression analy-
sis. Recent Russian papers (and unpublished work by P. S. DeLeonibus) suggest
that air-sea temperature differences and wave height can be used to modify the
wind profile over the waves in a way that will influence the curvature and slope
of the profile so as to permit a modification of the growth rate for different
spectral components.
Growth
The growth portion of the computer program is based on the concept that if
the wind blows uniformly in direction and speed over a large enough area for a
507
Pierson, Tick, and Baer
long enough time, and if swell does not enter the area from some other region,
the spectrum in the area will settle down eventually to the fully developed spec-
trum represented by
(2)
for -7T/2 < 0* < rr/2 and is zero otherwise {0* being measured with reference to
the direction of the wind).
The fully developed sea develops as the waves originally present propagate
out of the area, which may take a long time, and as the effect of fetch and dura-
tion become established.
by
f
J
+ Af J
9 .+Ae .
where Eqs. (1) and (2) define S(27rf, 0, Vjg j), the (9. are 0, 15, 30, etc., and
all A^'s are 7.5.
f . + Af 6 .+A9 .
After the procedure has gone through a number of time steps, there will in
general be 360 values of s (f ^. ) at a particular grid point. For the particular
. ,
time step a wind speed v and a wind direction 0^ will be given for that grid
point.
508
Global Wave Forecasts Using Spacecraft Data
and represents the sum of all contributions to the spectrum for a given f j trav-
eling within 90 to the wind. If S^ (f j) > S (f j), there is no change in the values
of s ( f J 6* ) , but if S^ ( f i ) < S< ( .), there will be growth during the next time
,
.
step. The growth of each frequency band f ^ is then given by the solution to the
ordinary differential equation
Sw(fi)
Sw(fi) = A(v) 1- + B(v, fi)S,(fi)
Jt Sco(fi).
1/2
Sw(fi) Sw(fi)'
A(v) 1 + B(v. i.) S^({.) (7)
Sco(fi)J s(fi)
where
and
17(c/v)^
B(v, f) = 6.27 (v/c)2 e' 2fAf (9)
for those frequency bands where 2Af = 1/180 and where Eq. (7) has units of
feet Vhour and v and c are in knots (18). Equation (7) can be integrated for the ini-
tial value s^(f. ) = to yield s^(f .; t^) so that one can solve for the effective
time tp corresponding to s^(f ) at the start of the time step. From this,
.
s^ ( f j; tg + At) for the end of the 2-hour time step can be found. The incre-
mental growth
problem. As the wind direction changed, such a procedure would tend to produce
spectra in excess of Eq. (1), whereas this procedure avoids this, at least in part.
A modification based on the work of Snyder and Cox (17) and Barnett (24)
for the term A(v) in Eq. (8) is under investigation. The Phillips term would then
be a function of both wind speed and frequency (but still not direction according to
509
Pierson, Tick, and Baer
A%^-" (27Tf)"" d
A(v,f)
(0.33)2 \T /v \ 2 (10)
(0.52)2 + - sin + - cos 6/ - 1
v/c
the wave spectrum for a 40-knot wind with Eq. (10) replacing Eq. (8) is shown in
Fig. 6.
U,g
J
= 40 knots
Duration In hours
Fig. 6 - The growth of a spectrum for a 40-knot wind with Eq. (10)
replacing Eq. (8) in Eq. (7)
There are several possibilities for further modification of Eq. (9). The low
frequencies do not seem to grow fast enough, so that a change in the two con-
stants is still possible. Also, from the analysis of the stability and roughness
length, it may be possible to represent the wind profile at each grid point by an
equation of the form
510
Global Wave Forecasts Using Spacecraft Data
the ratio
d2v(z)/dz2 dvM(z)/dz
R = ^
(14)
dv(z)/dz d2v^(z)/dz2
can be evaluated at Zf. to get FB(v, f), which will replace B(v, f) in Eq. (7).
Stable conditions will probably make R near one for high frequencies and
less than one for low frequencies because the greatest variation in the wind pro-
file is near the surface. Unstable conditions will probably make R greater than
one over the whole frequency range.
The effect will be to produce more rapidly developing seas in unstable air,
but the fully developed spectrum will not be changed. Whether or not this cor-
responds to all aspects of reality is open to question. Present data do not seem
to show any dependence of the fully developed spectrum on air sea temperature
difference (5).
Dissipation
The spectral components traveling against the wind will not receive energy
from the wind and must undergo some form of dissipation. This dissipation in
our model is governed by the height of the wind sea. With S^ = X s,^,(fi),
where Sg ( f 6?^ )
. , is a component traveling against the wind, s^ ( f 6'. ) is the .
,
Sd(0-10.^) ^-0.1248
So(0.10, 77) " ^
511
Pierson, Tick, and Baer
for a 2-hour time step, so that in 16 hours the component will decay to l/e of
its original value. A frequency of 0.20 sec"^ is attenuated 16 times faster, so
that the local chop traveling against the wind rapidly disappears, whereas a fre-
quency of 0.05 takes more than 10 days to be attenuated to l/e of its original
value.
The effect of this attenuation isshown in Figs. 3 and 4, where it has not
been included inone computation and it has been included in a second computa-
tion. The effects of propagation accoxint for a major part of the variation at the
weather ship, but attenuation appears to be needed to explain the full sequence of
observations. This attenuation is only effective if the spectral component is
traveling against the wind. In Figures 3, 4, and 5, for example, the wind shifted
after the peak of the December 17 cyclone, and this kind of dissipation provides
for closer agreement between theory and observation. For the peak of Decem-
ber 22-23, the wind speed decreased, but the winds did not change direction, so
that the dissipation term did not operate. Although, without dissipation, the peak
waves are too high, the decrease after the peak is at the same rate and is due
to the effects of propagation in all of the figures. The correct determination of
the effect of dissipation will be extremely important, because Eq. (7) indicates a
quite different behavior, depending on the initial value of s^( f )
.
.It would be
highly desirable to replace the above dissipation computation by some measure
of breaking waves and white caps in the wind sea, but this problem is not yet
clearly enough understood for this to be possible.
To forecast both local sea and swell, the winds from essentially the entire
ocean area are needed at some time. Thus if the spectral component is travel-
ing at 33 knots, the effects of the winds 12 hours ago and 400 miles away from
the forecast point will be needed. Similarly, day-old information is needed from
800 nautical miles away and 2-day-old information from 1600 nautical miles.
Other components travel at a different velocity, so that data over most of the
ocean is needed to make a single forecast. By judicious scanning of all of these
wind fields, one might conceivably drop many of the areas and reduce the prob-
lem to manageable size for a single forecast point. However, for many require-
ments, such as ship routing, wave forecasts are needed for such large areas
that it is worthwhile to consider forecasting for at least a large region of the
ocean and perhaps for all the oceans.
One of the problemsis how to represent the wave conditions over such a
large area. From the previous discussion it is obvious that the spectrum can
have an infinite number of different shapes, so that no simple system can repre-
sent the condition at a particular location. We have therefore searched for a
simple function which could represent the spectrum and be remembered in the
computer by a reasonable number of parameters. Many such functions are
available, but they are not amenable to the components being propagated inde-
pendently. We have therefore been forced to use individual discrete frequency
and directional components to represent the spectrum. After rather extensive
testing, we found that 15 frequencies and 12 directions did well for the North
Atlantic. An increase to 24 directions is planned in the present development
512
Global Wave Forecasts Using Spacecraft Data
and should be fairly optimum for the time and space scales and quality of data
expected. The very high frequencies are always treated as fully developed and
can therefore be handled quite simply.
The time scale chosen must be compatible with the space scale such that
the fastestwave components do not skip grid points during a particular time
step. Because of the general smoothness of both the wind and wave fields for
the longer faster components, the time constraint can be relaxed slightly without
serious error. The time interval was therefore chosen as 2 hours to be an in-
tegral divisor of the normal 6 -hourly meteorological charts.
Since wave energy propagates along great circle routes, it would be desir-
able for the lines connecting the grid points to be great circles. Then the energy
could travel directly from one grid point to another grid point. It would also be
desirable for the spacing of these points to be constant for the entire ocean and
for as many directions as possible.
513
Pierson, Tick, and Baer
In order that each grid point will represent approximately the same area, a
multiple -projection system was developed. This will keep the maximum distor-
tion on each segment of the projection relatively small. But, the problem of
bridging between the segments of the multiple-projection is thus introduced.
The system, named an "icosahedral-gnomonic projection," is a separate gno-
monic projection," is a separate gnomonic projection on each face of an icosa-
hedron circumscribed about the earth. A similar projection was described by
Fisher (26) but emphasized land and was therefore not suitable for the present
use.
Table 1
Properties of the Gnomonic Projection on a Face of an Icosahedron
The orientation of the icosahedron relative to the earth sphere was opti-
mized for wave forecasting purposes by (a) having as many vertices as possible
on land, (b) having as many edges as possible along shore lines, (c) using as few
faces as possible for the ocean area, and (d) optimizing for the Northern oceans
where a choice is necessary. To accomplish this, a clear plastic icosahedron to
circumscribe a globe was prepared. For several interesting orientations thus
approximated, detailed computations were made and a "best" one chosen. The
final location of the 20 centers and orientations are listed in Table 2, and the
triangles are shown on a Mercator projection in Fig. 8. It must be remembered
that each triangular face represents the same area, since a presentation is sub-
ject to severe distortion. A further simplification is to put small extensions on
the few triangles which have edges only slightly offshore. This eliminates
bridging without significantly increasing distortion. Two possible arrangements
of the polynomonic projection on a plane are shown in Figs. 9a and 9b. An inset
in Fig. 9a shows how the map folds into an icosahedron, and Fig. 9b is the work-
ing projection that shows the coordinates of all grid points.
515
Pierson, Tick, and Baer
Table 2
Location of the Tangent Points and Orientation
of the Icosahedral Faces
North
Latitude
Global Wave Forecasts Using Spacecraft Data
points. While this is an important advantage of the system, it is not the only one.
The area represented by each point is hexagonal, as shown in Fig. 10, which
minimizes the maximum distance from the grid point to any point in the area.
Hence, the value of some parameter such as wind speed at the grid point may
be a better description of the entire area represented by the grid point than for,
say, square unit areas. Also, each grid point in the hexagonal system has six
natural directions associated with its neighbors. Twelve directions are exactly
defined within 1.7 grid units. This compares with only eight exact directions in
the square grid. And for the hexagonal system, the 12 can be increased to 24 if
we accept a reasonable approximation. To achieve the desired representation
for each grid point, each side of the triangle is divided into 48 intervals of 94.8
nautical miles by 49 grid points. Thus, an average grid point represents 6469
square nautical miles of the earth's surface. Extremes are therefore 6469/0.83
and 6469/1.66.
Since the gnomonic projection is not conformal, the change in direction from
true geographical direction and the change in scale in the various directions be-
tween "radial" and "transverse" must be considered. For a general triangular
projection of this size Fig. 7 also illustrates the changes in scales and the
changes in directions at the vertices of the triangle compared with an infinitesi-
mal circle at true scale at the point of tangency. The circle is transformed to
an ellipse at any point other than the tangent point with the major axis in a radial
direction.
517
Pierson, Tick, and Baer
m
Global Wave Forecasts Using Spacecraft Data
(0
-t
C!
^^
nJ
_)
.s ^
o c
(0
c
V
o
o
00
519
Pierson, Tick, and Baer
Neither wave nor wave component fields representing the spatial distribution
are continuous to first order. For example, regions of zero spectral variance
are adjacent to regions where waves exist. Allowance for these possible dis-
continuities is a serious problem. As shown by Baer (2), propagation by multi-
plying the linear gradient as computed from grid points by the velocity to get the
change at the grid point is inadequate for such discontinuities when repeated
many times. Use of higher order gradients can cause other more serious er-
rors. Allowance for discontinuities was accomplished in the previous North
Atlantic work by assuming that all values were discontinuous. This was possi-
ble because in the region of the projection that was used the scale did not vary
significantly throughout the field. It was thus possible to "jump" the values
from all grid points in the field to the adjoining ones simultaneously after, of
course, waiting the required time for the wave components to travel that dis-
tance. This caused some temporary irregularities in the component fields.
520
Global Wave Forecasts Using Spacecraft Data
It was pointed
out previously that the 60 grid provides six primary direc-
tions, six secondary directions, and 12 tertiary directions. Propagation along
the six primary directions is relatively simple in that the energy moves from
grid point to adjacent grid point. However, in the other directions, the great
circle along which the energy propagates skips either one or two rows of grid
points. Thus, if the great circle path is taken too literally, winds a long way
from the grid point of interest will have an effect rather than just winds at the
adjoining grid points. Since both the wind and wave fields are relatively smooth,
and since the accuracy of the method cannot exceed the grid point spacing, and
to alleviate this proximity problem, we use a zigzag propagation scheme.
This zigzag is accomplished by choosing the location from which the energy
travels by alternating between the grid points stradling the desired great circle
path at successive time steps as illustrated in Fig. 11. For the secondary direc-
tions the two intermediate grid points are used alternately. For the tertiary,
the grid point to one side is used thrice and the other once. This results in a
slight but unimportant error because of scale changes.
There are discontinuities in the particular projection chosen along the three
internal triangle sides. As a great circle crosses these lines it changes direc-
tion dis continuously. These direction changes can most easily be seen by refer-
ence to the breaks in the latitude and longitude lines in Fig. 9. Near the center
of the triangle sides there is little or no effect, but near an apex there is up to a
30 change depending on the direction of the great circle. This change in direc-
tion must therefore be taken into account.
521
Pierson, Tick, and Baer
A
PRIMARY
USE DIRECTLI.
SECONDARY
TERTIARY
To facilitate solution of this problem a set of grid points has been chosen
such that they fall exactly along the borders. The 24 direction increments are
then split into two parts so that 12 are in the coordinates associated with each
of the adjacent projections. Specifically, the 180 components representing out-
going directions are in the coordinates of the projection. This is simplified,
because the two directions along the discontinuity are common to both projec-
tions. Before allowing energy to enter the region of the projection the incoming
spectral components are curve-fitted (piecewise) and integrated over the appro-
priate directional limits found from the 7.5 limits within the projection. This
introduces some smoothing and error which would be significant if repeated
many times. However, for the entire North Pacific only a maximum of three
such corrections are required.
522
Global Wave Forecasts Using Spacecraft Data
The usual starting point is a flat calm ocean, s (f e. ) = 0, for all fre-
. ,
quencies and directions, and it takes about one week for the North Atlantic to
begin to behave realistically. The initial condition for each time step is the
spectrum at each grid point, and the computations then proceed without inter-
ruption. Interesting effects have been observed in the results for the North
Atlantic obtained to date. At times, several bands of swell are present plus a
local sea. The swell off of North Africa is quite evident. Sometimes spectral
values are present for all 360 of wave direction.
These procedures will be tested against data from the Weather Explorer,
from Argus Island, and from FLIP (1) as kindly provided by Dr. Walter Munk.
This will provide an independent check against the instrument used in measuring
the waves.
523
Pierson, Tick, and Baer
SO, the running time we have been able to achieve with a rather obsolete com-
puter was 50 seconds for a 3 -hour time step. It was estimated that the running
time could be reduced to about 35 seconds if the program is recoded in machine
language.
The North Pacific, on the other hand, does present some very difficult pro-
gramming problems. The amount of active data is approximately one million
numbers. Even with the latest computers having large core memories, large
word sizes, and packing, it would not be possible to hold all the data in the main
store. Use of external lower speed mass storage is required. In addition, for
reasons indicated in previous sections, the program itself will be very large.
Since the basic nature of the operations required is that of having a matrix
first in row order for growth and dissipation and then in column order for prop-
agation, a careful layout of the data on this external storage medium is essential
if the program is not to spend an inordinate amount of time exchanging the data
between the main memory and the mass memory. One of the latest of the new
generation of computers will be required for operational use.
The preparation of the wind fields present the usual problems of dealing
with data from a remote source. The errors in the format have to be discovered
and corrected, and data must be removed from the transmission medium into
the computer with a minimum of human intervention. These, of course, are now
standard problems, and most any organization can deal with them.
524
Global Wave Forecasts Using Spacecraft Data
would measure radar scattering cross section, a-^ versus the angle 4> of the
radar beam to the sea surface and present a graph of ctq versus <P. If is 90
when the beam points straight down, then cr^ is high for low waves at = 90
and low at small 0. Conversely for large waves cr^ is low for <P = 90 and high
for small 0. The variation of a^ for 4> defined in this way is shown in Fig. 12.
The difficulty is that present measurements are presented equally often in terms
of either wind speed or the ill-defined term, sea state.
20
+10
o
Ul
Yi -10
5 -20
-30
-40
Pierson, Tick, and Baer
of satellite data to improve on the initial specification of the conditions over the
ocean so as to obtain improved forecasts of the weather and wave conditions.
For a particular pass, one can think of the data as a series of values along
the line describing the subsatellite path. For the North Pacific again, as an ex-
ample, one pass would be completed in 20 minutes and would be essentially
synoptic. Were the satellite to pass over an extra tropical cyclone, the data
would provide either a wave section or wind speed section through the cyclone.
The data can be compared with the winds and waves obtained from a con-
ventional wind field analysis and the wave computed from the above procedures.
A discrepancy would indicate a correction for the wind field to bring the results
into agreement, and the final result would be an improved surface wind field that
would yield improved meteorological and wave predictions.
The final goal of this effort will be to use actual data from a spacecraft in
real time to generate wave forecasts and wind field forecasts based on wind
fields and initial wave conditions corrected by means of the spacecraft data.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research is being supported by two separate Task Orders with the
Naval Oceanographic Office under Contract N62306-1042. The purpose of one
Task Order as funded by Code RAAD-22, Airframe Design Branch of the Air
Systems Command, is to develop a wave hindcasting procedure for the North
Pacific and produce a wave climatology for one year of weather data. The pur-
pose of the second Task Order, monitored by the Spacecraft Oceanography
Project of Navoceano, is to extend the results to the entire globe and develop
ways to integrate data from a satellite into the problem of describing and pre-
dicting the surface winds and waves.
We have been assisted in this work by Miss Catherine Vail, Mr. Louis
Adamo, Mr. Tokujiro Inoue, Miss Ming Shun Chang, Mr. Vincent Cardone, and
Mr. Hong Chin. The personnel of the Naval Oceanographic Office have been
526
Global Wave Forecasts Using Spacecraft Data
REFERENCES
1. Snodgrass, F.E., Groves, G.W., Hasselman, K.F., Miller, C.R., Munk, W.H.,
and Powers, W.H., "Propagation of Ocean Swell Across the Pacific," Phil.
Trans. Roy. Soc. (London) A259(No. 1103):431-497 (1966)
4. Moskowitz, L., Pierson, W.J., and Mehr, E., "Wave Spectral Estimated
from Wave Records obtained by OWS Weather Explorer and OWS Weather
Reporter," (I) 1962, (II) 1963, (III) 1965, School of Engineering and Science,
New York University
5. Moskowitz, L., "Estimates of the Power Spectra for Fully Developed Seas
for Wind Speeds of 20 to 40 Knots," J. Geophys. Res. 69(No. 29):5161-5179
(1964)
6. Pierson, W.J., and Moskowitz, L., "A Proposed Spectral Form for Fully
Developed Wind Seas Based on the Similarity Theory of S. A. Kitaizorod-
skii," J. Geophys. Res. 69(No. 24):5181-5190 (1964)
8. Pierson, W.J., and Tick, L.J., "The Accuracy and Potential Uses of Com-
puter Based Wave Forecasts and Hindcasts for the North Atlantic," Second
U.S. Navy Symposium on Military Oceanography, May 6, 1965
10. Wachnick, Z.G., and Zarnick, E.E., "Ship Motions Prediction in Realistic
Short Crested Seas," Trans. Soc. Naval Architects Marine Engrs. 73:100-134
(1965)
11. Darby shire, J., "The One Dimensional Wave Spectrum in the Atlantic Ocean
and in Coastal Waters," in "Ocean Wave Spectra," Prentice-Hall, 1963
527
Pierson, Tick, and Baer
12. Barber, N.F., and Ursell, F., "The Generation and Propagation of Ocean
Waves and Swell," Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. A240:527-560 (1948)
13. Pierson, W.J., "A Unified Mathematical Theory for the Analysis, Propaga-
tion and Refraction of Storm-generated Ocean Surface Waves," Parts I and 11,
College of Engineering, Research Division, New York University, 1952
15. Miles, J.W., "On the Generation of Surface Waves by Shear Flow, Part 2,"
J. Fluid Mechanics 6:568-583 (1959)
17. Synder, R.L., and Cox, C.S., "A Field Study of the Wind Generation of Ocean
Waves," (in press, 1965)
18. Inoue, T., "On the Growth of the Spectrum of a Wind Generated Sea accord-
ing to a Modified Miles-Phillips Mechanism," School of Engineering and
Science, New York University, GSL Report TR-66-6, 1966
19. Phillips, O.M., "On the Dynamics of Unsteady Gravity Waves of Finite Am-
plitude, Part I, The Elementary Interactions," J. Fluid Mechanics 9:193-217
(1960)
20. Hasselman, K., "On the Non-linear Energy Transfer in a Gravity Wave
Spectrum," Part I, J. Fluid Mechanics 12:481-500 (1961), Part 2, J. Fluid
Mechanics 15:273-281 (1963), Part 3, J. Fluid Mechanics 15:385-398 (1963)
21. Pierson, W.J., "Third Order Steady State Solutions for Intersecting Trains
of GravityWaves," School of Engineering and Science, New York University,
GSL Report 64-3, 1964
22. Sheppard, P.A., "Transfer Across the Earth's Surface and through the Air
Above," Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 84:205-224 (1958)
24. Barnett, T.P., "On the Generation, Dissipation, and Prediction of Wind
Waves," Ph.D. Thesis, Scripps Inst, of Oceanography, (in preparation, 1966)
25. Baer, L., and Adamo, L.C., "Pacific Ocean Wave Forecasting Study," Lock-
heed Report 19354, 1965
26. Fisher, I., "A World Map on a Regular Icosahedron by Gnomic Projection,"
Geographical Review 33:605-619 (1943)
528
Global Wave Forecasts Using Spacecraft Data
27. Ewing, G.C., "Oceanography from Space," Woods Hole Oceanographic Ref-
erence 65-10, 1965
28. Moore, R.K., and Pierson, W.J., "Measuring Sea State and Estimating Sur-
face Winds from a Polar Orbiting Satellite," presented in Miami at the
International Symposium on Electromagnetic Sensing from Space, Univer-
sity of Miami (in press, 1965)
DISCUSSION
John W. Miles
Institute for Geophysics and Planetary Physics, LaJolla Laboratories
University of California, San Diego
LaJolla, California
It seems quite unlikely that the profile discrepancy, (b) above, could account
for an order-of-magnitude increase of 8 in /i, relative to the value calculated on
the hypothesis that the mean flow can be regarded as laminar. It is, however,
entirely plausible that the wave-induced turbulent Reynolds stresses could ac-
count for this discrepancy, at least for kz^
i, although it seems unlikely that
the energy-transfer processes associated with the quasi-laminar and turbulent
mechanisms would be effective in the same proportion for all kz^.
529
Pierson, Tick, and Baer
likely to rest on ad hoc hypotheses, the validity of which can be established only
by a series of careful measurements. This will require time; meanwhile, prac-
tical necessity dictates the use of semiempirical models, in which the theoreti-
cal developments can be accommodated in the best tradition of engineering.
Dr. Pierson and his colleagues have led the way in the development and testing
of such models and are to be congratulated on their success.
DISCUSSION
Klaus Hasselmann
Institut fiir Schiffbauder Universitat Hamburg
Hamburg, Germany
and
Institute for Geophysics and Planetary Physics, LaJolla Laboratories
University of California, San Diego
LaJolla, California
REPLY TO DISCUSSION
Since the preparation of our paper we have had the opportunity to study the
two possible sources, suggested by Dr. Miles, of the discrepancies we found.
530
Global Wave Forecasts Using Spacecraft Data
He has put his finger on the exact sources of the difficulties we encountered in
applying the then available results of Dr. Phillips and him. We are most pleased
to be able to report that by combining the original work of Miles (15) and Phillips
(16) with the material in a recent text by Phillips (29)* and with a variety of re-
sults on the wind profile and on the roughness length over a wind sea, Inoue (30)
is now able to compute a realistic wave spectral growth in which the discrepancy
between Miles' theory and the observations is reduced to a factor of less than 3
and in which the fit depends on the constant relating friction velocity to rough-
ness length.
The new work of Phillips (29) provides realistic exponential growth rates
for the low-frequency end of a wind sea spectrum by means of wind- induced
components of the Reynolds stress. The original work of Miles (15) with a fac-
tor of less than 3 is then capable of accounting for the high-frequency end using
an improved version based on the work of Barnett (24) of the linear growth term
of Phillips. The earlier factor of 8 resulted from the need to get reasonable
results at low frequencies and overdrove the high frequencies. An abstract of
the results of Inoue (30) can be found in the Spring 1967 program of the Wash-
ington, D. C, meeting of the American Geophysical Union. The results should
appear shortly in greater detail.
The departure of the wind profile from a simple logarithmic form was also
of concern to us. Cardone (31) has, we believe, made progress on this part of
the problem by introducing the form for the roughness length Zg proposed by
Kitaigorodskii and Volkov (32) and by including the effects of the Richardson
number and the thermal wind. Variation in stability and in Zg (as derived solely
from the wave spectrum) makes it possible to obtain as selective subsets all of
the various previously obtained curves on how the drag coefficient should vary
with the wind speed. The natural variability of the underlying waves and the
effect of atmospheric stability are quite capable of producing the wide scatter of
data points usually associated with attempts to study C lo- The results are again
given in abstract form in the program of the Washington AGU meeting and should
appear shortly in published form.
There are a few more places in the structure of our numerical model where
traces of semiempirical techniques can be found, but they are no longer as glar-
ing as that factor of 8 that has now been considerably reduced.
'Additional references to those of the paper are given at the end of this reply.
531
Pierson, Tick, and Baer
ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
29. Phillips, O.M., "The Dsmamics of the Upper Ocean," Cambridge University
Press, 1966
30. Inoue, T., "On the Growth of Ocean Wave Spectra in Terms of a Miles-
Phillips Mechanism" (abstract only). Trans. A. G. U. Vol. 48(No. 1):139
(1967)
31. Cardone, V.J., "Specification of the Wind Distribution in the Marine Bound-
ary Layer for Wave Forecasting" (abstract only), Trans. A. G. U. 48(No. 1):
139 (1967)
32. Kitaigorodskii, S.A., and Volkov, Yu.A., "On the Roughness Parameter of
the Sea Surface and the Calculation of Momentum Flux in the Near-Water
Layer of the Atmosphere," Izv. Atmospheric and Oceanics Physics Series,
VoL l(No.9):973-988 (1965)
532
Monday, October 3, 1966
Afternoon Session
OCEAN WAVES
Chairman: J. K. Lunde
Skipsmodelltanken
Trondheim, Norway
Page
533
INTERNAL WAVE INTERACTIONS
O. M. Phillips
The Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, Maryland
ABSTRACT
The second-order resonant interaction equations are derived for three
internal wave modes in a fluid with constant Brunt -Vaisala frequency,
N. These specify the energy interchanges among the modes, the redis-
tribution of energy from one wavenumber to another. Integrals are
shown to exist, representing the partition of energy among the modes
and the conservation of energy among all three modes.
INTRODUCTION
The interactions among modes in wave motions have been studied consider-
ably in recent years, and it is becoming evident that they are involved in a sur-
prising number of physical phenomena, some of which have long been observed
but not understood. Probably the most striking such example is the instability
of the classical Stokes wave discovered by Benjamin and Feir (1) and described
in the paper before the preceding one. The effect is well known; it is common
knowledge among wave -tank people that if a plunger generates a smooth train of
finite amplitude waves in a long tank, then as the waves propagate down the tank,
they gradually degenerate into chaos, and that the steeper the initial wave, the
sooner this happens. This has been regarded as a nuisance, probably "some-
thing to do with the plunger," and it was not until Benjamin and Feir's important
work that this has been recognized as a genuine hydrodynamic instability of the
wave train itself. Although their analysis is set up in terms of small perturba-
tions to the Stokes wave train, with wavenumbers parallel and almost equal to
that of the primary wave, it has since been shown (2) that the Benjamin-Feir
535
Phillips
the z axis being vertically upward and p^ being the reference density. If the
velocity field is represented as u (q.w), where q represents the horizontal
:::
vectorial component of the velocity and w the vertical component, then the dis-
turbances to the fluid are governed (9) by the equation
^'
V=w*N'V,=
'' ' '""^ "-r 3b 3 /
^ (2)
^
3t2 3xBz3t \ J Bxj / *"
L ^ 9x. 3t \ J 9x.
where v^^^ = b^/Bx^ + B^/By^, and where the summation convention is used with j
536
Internal Wave Interactions
b = -gp'/Po
u = a cos X , (3a)
b = N^^-^
n
sin X, (3b)
where x= k-x-nt+e and visa unit vector vertically upward. The vector a
specifies the maximum particle velocity in the wave motion and, in virtue of the
incompressibility condition v u = 0, is always normal to k:
a k = .
Note that the particle trajectories are in the vertical plane, so that [a.k.v] = 0.
The frequency of the wave motion is given by
n = N cos ^ , (4)
where d is the angle between the wavenumber vector and the horizontal in the
same vertical plane. Note also that
ki + kj = kj ,
(6a)
Hj + Hj = nj . (6b)
It has been shown (2) that provided the rates of shear in the internal wave modes
are small compared with the Brunt-Vaisala frequency, the energy exchange is
limited to this set of wavenumbers; the other components generated by the inter-
action (for example, the component with wavenumber kj - kj) are bounded in
amplitude and remain small. They play no part in the resonant interaction and
in the continuing energy exchange from one mode to another, at least to this
order.
u = V a^. cos X^ + u ,
(8a)
r= 1
537
Phillips
^
a V
y
b = sin X, + b ,
(8b)
where x^. = k^ x- n^t + e^., and G and b represent the small forced (nonreso-
X1 + X2 = X3+ e ,
e = 1+ ^2- ^3 '
then, in particular, the terms with wavenumber k^ and frequency n^ must bal-
ance. This condition leads, after some algebra, to
where
In general, in the weak interaction, the time scale of the variation of the
wave amplitudes is long compared with the wave period:
laj/njaj 1 ,
538
Internal Wave Interactions
SO that the terms on the left side of Eq, (9) of the second order in the time de-
rivative can be neglected. This then reduces to the pair of first-order equations
2n J
k j^ cosfi'jO.j = "Gjjttja^ sin e, (12a)
2n J
k j^ cos t'jttjej = ~ G23 cij a^ cos e. (12b)
Similar pairs of equations specifying the rate of change of amplitude and phase
of the other two components can be found in a similar way. They are
(13a)
and
2n3 kj^ cos Q -^0-2, ~ ^i2^i^2 ^i" ^
(14a.)
where
.In (k^+kj2 _ [(k^+k^) -u] (k^ COS 0^^ + k^ COS 9^^ . (15)
The individual phase angles e^.ej.ej can be eliminated from the second of each
of these sets, giving
2 -i -i -i '^l ^^2
-G.3 ,/ , ^3. ,/ -".. ,.' ' . (16)
kj COS
\
-^
(9
J
kj COS '6' ^{' cos'' 6^/
provide four equations for the four unknowns, e the relative phase and the three
amplitudes aj,a2,a3 of the wave components involved. They are characteristic
539
Phillips
Two partition integrals follow immediately from Eqs. (17). From Eqs. (17a)
and (17c),
Since a^^ represents the mean energy in the component with wavenumber k^.
these evidently describe the partition of energy among the three component
modes. Not all of G23, G31, and Hjj can have the same sign. If, say, Hjj and
G23 do have the same sign, then as the energy of the k, component increases as
a result of the interaction, that of the kj and k^ components decreases; this
continues until (from Eqs. (17)) either a^ or a^ vanishes. At this point ij = 0;
the energy in the 1 component is a maximum and decreases at later times as
energy is transferred back to the 2 and 3 components.
The conservation of total energy in the three wave components can be dem-
onstrated, either from these partition integrals, or directly from Eqs. (17):
It is perhaps not obvious that the term containing the interaction coefficients on
the right vanishes identically. The proof of this involves some elementary but
tedious algebra and requires the use of the auxiliary conditions (6), a v - 0,
[a,k,i/] = 0, and the set
540
Internal Wave Interactions
(since k^. a^ - o), together with its permutations. The details will not be given
here; suffice it to say that the right side vanishes identically and that
Consequently, the internal waves capable of resonant interaction with the steady
motion have wavenumbers that form the two equal sides of an isosceles triangle
as indicated in the following figure. Clearly,
2 sin
The motion then represents the interaction of two internal waves of the same
frequency but of opposite inclination to the vertical with a steady, horizontal
motion whose variation in the vertical is specified by kj. Under these condi-
tions, the interaction coefficients simplify considerably:
G23 = ,
(23a)
541
Phillips
The first of the interaction equations, Eq. (17a), vanishes identically, since
cos 0j = also, and the other two, Eqs. (17b) and (17c), become
(24b)
Clearly,
a^ + a^ - const. , (25)
SO that from Eq. (21) a^ = const. The energy density of the shearing motion is
unaltered in time; though it plays a central role in the interaction, it does not
partake of the energy exchange.
1
Ty k cos 6 sin 8 aj
V
J
so that if a^ = and a3 = a at t = ,
ttj = -A sin at ,
(26a)
a^ = A COS at , (26b)
where
a = 2 COS 9 sin 6 aj k^ .
(27)
The energy density of the component with wavenumber kj then varies as sin^at
and that of the k3 component as cos^ at; the energy oscillates completely from
one component to the other with a frequency that is proportional to the vorticity
in the steady shearing motion.
542
Internal Wave Interactions
with equal inclination; this continues until all the energy is extracted from the
first wave and has drained off to the second one. This, in turn, interacts with the
shear, producing the first wave again traveling upward. As a result of this con-
tinual interchange between components whose propagation directions are inclined
upward and downward, the internal waves are confined to a horizontal channel, in
which the energy density in the upward and downward moving components are, on
the average, equal. The kind of channeling is quite distinct from the well-known
effect of the thermocline itself in restricting internal gravity waves to regions
where n < N, and may have consequences that are equally important. If a local
source generates internal gravity waves in the presence of steady motion, with
an irregular velocity distribution, the resulting disturbance is limited to a range
of depths surrounding the source, as shown in the following figure, even though
SOURCE
the stratification may be uniform far beyond. This range can be estimated sim-
ply from Eq. (27). The interaction time is t = 1/(1/2) cos 6 sin 6 a^ki, and the
group velocity is c = (n/kj) sin6i in the direction normal to kj, or (n/kj)
cos 6 sin d in the vertical. The distance that the disturbance propagates in the
interaction time is therefore
Z = c_ COS d T
The maximum depth of the disturbance zone is found when 6 = 45, and the dis-
turbance frequency equals N/'/T; in this case z 2N/ajki^. When n-0, e-^-n/i,
==
the level of the source. The low-frequency limit is of particular interest in the
oceanic and atmospheric case. It implies that low-frequency internal wave dis-
turbances distribute themselves horizontally but very little vertically a result
that is consistent with the commonly observed zones of horizontal motions in
the atmosphere, whose vertical extent is very limited.
543
Phillips
REFERENCES
1. Benjamin, T.B., and Feir, J.E., "The Disintegration of Wave Trains on
Deep Water, Part 1 - Theory," J. Fluid Mech. 27:417 (1967)
4. McGoldrick, L.F., Phillips, O.M., Huang, N., and Hodgson, T., "Measure-
ments on Resonant Wave Interactions," J. Fluid Mech. 25:437 (1966)
5. Ball, K., "Energy Transfer Between External and Internal Gravity Waves,"
J. Fluid Mech. 19:465 (1964)
DISCUSSION
T. Brooke Benjamin
Institute ofGeophysics and Planetary Physics
University of California, San Diego
La Jolla, California
{on leave from the University of Cambridge)
544
Internal Wave Interactions
the application of general interaction theory made in the paper. Use is made of
a method that has previously been applied to various other problems of wave
propagation in periodically structured media, as discussed, for example, in
Brillouin's well-known treatise.* It will be shown that, for a given current dis-
tribution and given wave frequency, channeling of waves occurs not only at the
particular wavenumber determined in the paper but over a set of wavenumber
bands whose widths increase with the amplitude of the current.
PERTURBATION EQUATIONS
The basic state is taken to be a stratified fluid with constant Vaisala fre-
quency N,as defined by Eq. (1) in the paper, and with a steady velocity U(z) in
the horizontal x direction. The wave motion is considered as a small perturba-
tion from this basic state: thus the velocity vector is expressed in the form
where h is a unit vector in the X direction, and then the equations of motion are
linearized in u '
Let us now assume u' to be periodic in time and in the horizontal coordi-
nates X and y, hence seek to determine its possible dependence on the vertical
coordinate z When u is found to be a periodic function of z free propagation
. ' ,
Accordingly we write
,i(ax + /3y-nt)
= u'(z) (D2)
and from the linearized equations of motion we may derive a set of ordinary
differential equations for the components (u,v,w) of u'(z). Some simplification
of the resulting equations is justified on the basis of the assumption (made im-
plicitly in the paper) that -p^^ dp/dz = N^ g
k, where k is a typical wavenum-
ber. (Alternatively, we may consider the linearized form of Eq. (1) in the paper,
also using the incompressibility condition v u' = and the equation
Phillips
where
f = -^U(z). (D5)
Note that in the absence of the steady current ( f = 0) Eq. (D3) shows y to be
simply the vertical wavenumber, and Eq. (D4) gives the dispersion relation
\ a'' + /3'^ + 7^ /
ANALYSIS
If f(z) is any periodic function, then Eq. (D3) becomes a form of Hill's
equation and resort may be made to the extensive theory available for equations
of this general type. However, let us keep to the simple example treated in the
paper. Thus we take
U = u cos kj z ,
(D7)
and further assume that is small in comparison with the phase velocity n/a in
the X direction, so that f = au/n l. Hence Eq. (D3) becomes approximately
dz 2
+ (7^ + kj2 a cos kjZ) w = ,
(D8)
with
^ ^' - 1^ f . (D9)
sin 25 V^
This is Mathieu's equation, and so the problem is now cast in a very familiar
form.
546
Internal Wave Interactions
2 k,(lS) ,
(DID
k.f
2 sin2(;
a = 7 cot 6 cos k J
cot d cos (D13)
where ^ is the angle between the x direction and the horizontal component of
the wavenumber vector k = (a,/3,7), we have
Z_ = 8N
(D14)
kj^ (Ucos0) cos 2(9
This expression for the minimum value of the "penetration depth" Z may be
compared with Eq. (7) in the paper (here cos = aj in the paper), but unfor-
tunately the two results are not in agreement as regards the factors depending
on 6 .The reason for the disagreement has not yet been fully uncovered. Note
that, as would be expected for obvious reasons, the penetration depth depends on
the mean-velocity component cos ^ in the horizontal direction of wave propa-
gation.
547
Phillips
Using Eq. (D6) again, we can rewrite Eq. (D14) in the form
, ,3/2
8 (N^ - n^)
(D15)
kj^ (U cos 0) |2n-
which shows clearly that the penetration depth for y - V^/2 is least when the
wave frequency approaches the Vaisala frequency. Note also that z^-* (i.e.,
there is a window for transmission upward or downward) when n -N/v^ and so
d - 77/4. At a given frequency the horizontal wavenumbers a and /3 correspond-
ing to y - ki/2 are given by
2 (N^ - n^)
and the limits of the channeled range of wavenumbers are given approximately
by this expression times l a.
7 = -|ki ,
s = 2, 3, 4 (D17)
But the widths of these higher ranges become progressively narrower with in-
creasing s . Also the respective minimum penetration depths corresponding to
Eq. (D14) are proportional to f " ^ approximately for small f, and so they
greatly exceed z^ in the first range. The higher wavenumber ranges in which
channeling occurs appear to be much less significant, therefore, than the first
range discussed in the preceding paragraphs.
REPLY TO DISCUSSION
O. M. Phillips
Further work (which will be described elsewhere in due course) has indi-
cated that the discrepancy has arisen as a result of different specifications of
the current structure, which in both cases is periodic in the vertical direction.
548
Internal Wave Interactions
In the paper, I considered the steady motion as the limit of a zero frequency in-
ternal wave. In an internal gravity wave in a uniformly stratified fluid, the
magnitude of the variations in density op and velocity 5u are intimately related:
I I
I
Su I
3/0
N 3z '
549
RADIATION AND DISPERSION
OF INTERNAL WAVES
T. Yao-tsu Wu
California Institute of Technology
Pasadena, California
ABSTRACT
For small perturbations of a basic flow having a prescribed stratifica-
tion of entropy and a vertical shear of horizontal free stream in a grav-
ity field, a linearized equation for the vertical component of velocity is
derived. The dispersion function is examined in detail for the special
case of incompressible stratified flows with a uniform specific-density
gradient and without shear. This dispersion relationship is applied to
consider the radiation of internal gravity waves due to (a) an oscillating
dipole and (b) a steadily moving singularity. Analyses of these two
problems are also carried out in order to present a self-contained dis-
cussion of the results.
INTRODUCTION
Consideration of the propagation of gravity and infrasonic waves in the at-
mosphere or ocean generally requires full- wave methods. Previous treatments
of this class of flow problems have shown that the integral representations of
the solutions of steady and quasi- steady flows involve, in general, some branch
points on the path of integration. The indeterminancy of the branch cuts had
been a subject of discussion for some time (see, for example, a review by Yih
(1), p. 65 ff .), until a clarification by the approach of an initial value problem
was given by Crapper (2). It is of interest to examine if the solution can also
be made determinate by the consideration of the propagation of wave energy
alone. One of the purposes of the present investigation is to discuss and com-
pare these two approaches.
For the general purpose, a linearized equation is derived for the vertical
velocity component of a perturbed flow while the basic flow is entropy- stratified
and has a vertical shear. The gravity-acoustic mode and the effect of shear are
not considered further here; discussions of some phases of these problems can
be found in the recent literature, e.g., see Bjerknes (3), Hines (4) on isothermal
atmosphere without winds, Weston (5), Pierce (6) on isothermal atmosphere with
constant winds. The dispersion relation is investigated in detail for an incom-
pressible flow with a constant specific-density gradient in the absence of shear.
551
Wu
found that the group velocity and phase velocity of these internal gravity
It is
waves can differ drastically from each other in both magnitude and direction.
Based on this dispersion relation, the radiation of internal waves is traced for
two specific problems: (a) an oscillating dipole and (b) the three-dimensional
fundamental solution of a steady flow. From the comparison with the corre-
sponding analytical solutions, it is found that the usual dynamic concept of the
group velocity associated with the propagation of wave energy remains valid
here.
momentum dt
~ ~ p" g'"^^ p + X(x,t) , (2)
dS /
energy dF " ^^'
(3) states that the processisentropic along a material line, which is a valid
is
assumption for not too rapid change of state in the absence of heat conduction.
At the surface of a solid boundary the condition, as usual, is that the veloc-
ity component normal to the surface vanishes,
q n = (6)
552
Radiation and Dispersion of Internal Waves
dF/dt = on F = , (7)
p is continuous across F= .
(8)
dp/dt = , (9)
stating that p remains constant along a material line. Then Eq. (1) reduces to
The momentum Eq. (2) remains the same in form, with X = -ge^. The dual role
ofboth hydrodynamic and thermodynamic nature played by p in the general case
now reduces to one of only the hydrodynamic origin in incompressible flows.
The basic flow is now characterized by a shear and a density stratification
When the flow is steady the time derivatives of all flow quantities drop out
from the above set of equations. In this case there exists a useful transforma-
tion, due to Yih (1,9,10), by which flows of nonhomogeneous fluids can be reduced
to flows of homogeneous ones (called the related flows) under certain conditions.
However, the related flow involves, in general, a nonuniform force field and an
additional shear in the free stream.
u = 3i///3z ,
w = -a^/Bx . (12)
Then density p and the total head H remain constant along each streamline,
553
Wu
The differential equation for 41 (in a source free region) can be written
which is due to Dubreil-Jacotin (11) and Long (12). In terms of the pseudo-
stream-function 0(x,y) of Yih (10), such that
(15)
These equations have been often used as a starting point for studying steady
flows of finite amplitude.
and
-l/y Sq/c^ -l/y S/c,
e " P e r
const
^oPo = pp , (19)
where 7 = Cp/c^ is the ratio of the specific heats. The local speed of sound
relative to the medium of the basic flow is Cq , where
Substituting Eq. (17) into Eqs. (1-3), assuming qi, pj, Pj, Sj all small com-
pared with their appropriate counterparts of the basic flow, we obtain the lin-
earized equations as:
554
Radiation and Dispersion of Internal Waves
where
^= ^^"(^>l^^^(^>|; (24)
Now p^, ui, vj can be readily eliminated from Eqs. (21), (22), and (23) (e.g.,
first eliminate p^ in (21) and (22) by substitution of (23), then eliminate
(Buj/Bx + Bvj/By) calculated from (22) by using (21)), giving
(D^ + N^) Wj
h^ii-^'
3z
c.
)Pi (26)
where
V,2.ii+li,
'
D' = U'A+V'^,
3x By
N2
^0
(27)
Bx2 By2 \"-o
where
Wj(x,y,0, t) = DC (29)
D^
dz
- gV^-DD' w, = on z = (31)
or
T^U^l-^P^
Bz pQ
pJ = on z = (32)
555
Wu
noteworthy that the compressibility effect does not appear explicitly in the
It is
above boundary conditions on free surface.
(34)
effect of: inertia gravity Shear- stratification
interaction
density gradient Shear
in which
D'
,3 ,3 3 d
3x 3y
Po
D^V^ +
Bz
^ = ^^(^oDQ) (35)
This equation may be called the Love Equation (Lamb (13)), although Love (1891)
first derived it for u' = v' = 0. For two-dimensional flows (in x-z plane), all the
y -derivatives in (33) and (34) of course drop out.
Bw
O^D^ -^ gV' w,j - UoVg^ = Fr .
556
Radiation and Dispersion of Internal Waves
is not uniformly valid at infinity. The third term in the square bracket of (34)
represents the effect of shear, which depends linearly on the shear gradient u"
V" and is independent of the shear scale u' , V The latter, however, may play .
where
N' = - ;^ Po = 2/3g .
(38b)
elliptic >
parabolic according as w^ = n^ . (39)
hjrperbolic
For 0)2 < N^, Eq. (37) has two real mathematical characteristics (straight lines):
, \ 1/2
557
Wu
When co^ -^ N^ , it is expected that the nonlinear effects will become important.
Dispersion Relation
where
1/ 2
k,2=k,2+k/. (43)
Hence
k^2 >
k.
(l<z>0) (45a)
(k^2 +/32_cr2)
558
Radiation and Dispersion of Internal Waves
Oscillator y-in- z
mode
Wu
Oscillotory - 2 mode
1.0
2.0
Radiation and Dispersion of Internal Waves
It issignificant to note that Cg^ is always opposite in sign to c^, and Cg /cg^ =
Cy/c^. Since Cg gives the direction and speed of propagation of wave energy,
this means that c, Cg and e^ are always coplanar, and a wave group propagates
with its vertical component in the direction opposite to the phase velocity of
individual wavelets. Furthermore, Cg has the magnitude
Hence for fixed k, c > c for o < 6 < cot" ' x/l- e2, and c < dor e <e < 77/2.
And
n = ec , Cfl = A cos (50b)
These basic features are illustrated in Fig. 3. These waves may be superim-
posed to give standing cellular waves, such as can be observed in a heated room.
The amplitude of these waves increases upward, proportional to e^^, so that the
energy in each cell is the same.
561
Wu
For the mode aperiodic in z, given by Eq. (45b), the phase velocity c is
horizontal, and its value can be obtained much the same as before. However,
calculation of Cg should depend on the physical circumstance of the problem.
For instance, boundary conditions and nature of disturbances give rise to a rela-
tionship (often an eigenvalue problem) between w, k^., and a- (other than that in
Eq. (45b)); consequently a is no longer arbitrary. Even new modes may arise,
such as the irrotational wave modes in a stratified deep ocean. Some classical
examples can be found in Lamb (13) and Yih (1); another will be discussed later.
Consider the flow due to a point singularity oscillating up and down with a
fixed (circular) frequency w in a uniformly stratified fluid (/3 = const.) which is
unbounded and otherwise at rest. First we consider the case w < n. Since w is
fixed, all the steady- state waves that are oscillating in z must have their wave
vector k ending at the hyperbola (see Eq. (45a))
1/2
k^ + fi^ = M^k, (51a)
or
/3V
(51b)
and (51b) gives k for each 6 lying in this range, as illustrated in Fig. 4. The
group velocity of these waves therefore has the components (by substituting (51)
in (49))
562
Radiation and Dispersion of Internal Waves
The wavelet for each specific e is propagated along the straight line
f=^=-4cot^. (54)
and all these waves therefore exist only in the sector outside the vertical cone
bounded by r = Mz Since the waves are all outgoing, with wave front normal
.
57 = - tan 5 .
(55)
Upon elimination of 6 from (54) and (55), and integrating the resulting equation,
we obtain the constant-phase surfaces as
(57)
For large t ( N" '), the extent penetrated by these waves will be (Cgt), which
depends on i9, as illustrated in Fig. 4. The solution is singular as - ^^ (or
r = Mz), which are the mathematical characteristics.
Furthermore, there are also waves with w < N that propagate in horizontal
directions, with their amplitudes varying exponentially in z. The wave number
k^ and exponential factor a satisfy the relation (see (45b))
Hence all real values of k^ lying in (0, /3/m) are admissible to this class of
waves, and the solution will be of the form
./3/M
ySz-iwt o" I z I
+ ik , r
I = e f(k J dk. ,
(59)
in which a = (/J^- M^k^^^ 1/2 assumes the positive branch, and f(k^) depends on
the description of the singularity. For large values of r and z , the above in- |
|
563
Wu
_ 1,2
r2
B^k/2 1,
+ /S^ B^ = 1 > o] . (61)
.{^J
Hence all positive real values of k^ may be used to construct the solution as for-
mally expressed in (59), except the upper limit of integration is cd. From this it
follows that, as can be verified by using the method of steepest descent,
relative to the moving disturbance must have their wave number vector k sat-
isfy the relation
kU = w = ck , (63)
where U is the velocity vector of the moving disturbance, so that the frequency
of these stationary waves will appear to be zero with respect to the disturbance.
But U-k = -Uk sin 6 cos qp (see Fig. 5), hence from (63)
/32)i/2
U cos cp = -N/(k2 + . (64)
The solution k of (64) is real if u |cos(p| < N//3 and 77/2 < cp < i-n/i; then
564
Radiation and Dispersion of Internal Waves
z
Wu
x= Ut - |c
^''
|t = Ut(l -e) sin26i,
(66)
z = c t = -ut (1 - e) sin 6 cos 6 ,
in which use has been made of (49) (with cp = w) and (64), and
which is generally small. Eliminating 9 in (66), we obtain the locus of the sta-
tionary waves produced by the disturbance at Q as
which is a circle with diameter joining the points x= o and x = ut (l- e). This
result is shown in Fig. 5 (with ut normalized to 1); also shown in Fig. 5 is the
slope of constant phase lines for several wave elements.
X = ut - |cg I
t = ut |l - cos^cp [(1- e) cos20+ e]i ,
y = c By t = Ut sin cp |
cos cp |
[(1-e) cos ^6' + e] , (69)
z = c t = -Ut I
cos cp| (1- e) sin 9 cos ,
Ut (Ut - x)
[x(Ut- x)-y2] ,
(70)
(Ut- x)2 + y^J
which is the equation of a closed surface bounded in the sphere y^+ z^ = x(Ut - x).
It is seen that the waves are nearly horizontal directly above and below the
origin, and vertical along the inner rim of the surface near x = ut
DIPOLE RADIATION
where D = B/Bt, v^ is the Laplacian in (x,z), n^ again given by (38b), and H(t)
566
Radiation and Dispersion of Internal Waves
is the Heaviside step function. By applying the Fourier transform (denoted with
a tilde over w) with respect to x, and the Laplace transform (denoted with a bar)
with respect to t as defined by
,
/OO - 00
w(k, z, )
= e-"* dt e-^"^" w(x,z,t) dx , (72)
'0 J - 00
4- 2/^f--
dz
kMl +
o2
8(z) (74)
Ldz^ \
^/3z-ml z
G = - 42 (s + iaj)m
I
(75a)
and
1/2
m(k, s) = ,.^,.,. (75b)
The function m(k, s) has two branch points in the complex k -plane. An appro-
priate branch cut is to be introduced such that m-|k| ask->co along the real
k -axis in order to ensure the convergence of the Fourier inverse integral. By
using the translation s j = s + iw in the Laplace inversion, we have
G(k,z,t)
^ '' '
= ^
27T1
e^^-i'^* /^' F(k,z,Si)-
ds
^1
J
, (76)
where
and r is an integration path parallel to the imaginary Sj-axis in the right half
plane. The large time solution of G(k,z, t) can be evaluated by applying the
Tauberian theorem which states that
provided that a certain necessary and sufficient condition is satisfied (which can
be verified separately). Now for small positive s ^ the branch points of m are
567
Wu
k = 1 + 0(s.2)l
;(N2-a;2)
(I) w < n:
G(x,z,t) = ^ e^^"''^* I
J_00
e''"' F(k,z,(}f ) dk
2.2, .2
zl//3^-M^k dk
477
J- CO V/S^-M^k^
where M^ is defined in (51a). With the branch cut so chosen and the integral
path indented as shown in Fig. 6, it follows that
.( 1)
where Hg denotes the Hankel function, and Kq the modified Bessel function of
the second kind. Equation (78) shows that there is an outgoing wave in the region
x^ > M^ z^, its phase being constant along x^- m^ z^ - const, at any instant. These
salient features have already been predicted by our previous geometric construc-
tion of the waves. In the region x^ < M^ z^, however, our previous approach was
only strong enough to predict the argument of the functional dependence.
Itnk Imk
(w<N) (o) > N)
-/9/M
fi/ -0/1*
568
Radiation and Dispersion of Internal Waves
(n) oj > n:
^00
1 /Sz-iat ikx- I z I
//3^ +B^k^ f^k
G(x,z, t
^ (80)
2t7B *^o \B^
This problem has also been investigated by Gortler (14) and Wong (15).
where
1 ,
i< ,y
G(k G(x, y z) dx dy (83)
.S-) =
J/^""""
^ ,
569
Wu
under the assumption that G vanishes sufficiently rapidly at upstream infinity,
(81a) is transformed to
where
Hence
P _ _ 1 /3z-m I z
(86a)
2m
with
1/2
m(k,(p) = (k^- a2 csc\ + /3^) (86b)
the positive branch of m (so that m -> k as k - + co) being understood. Regarding cp
where
X = r cos y = r sin (89)
and the path r is taken along the positive real k-axis except that it lies below
the branch cut from k = to k = b; this choice of r can be justified by the large
time limit of a corresponding initial value
problem (see Wu (18)). The path of integra-
tion r may be further deformed for -(tt- 5)
< cp < 6* to proceed along the entire negative
fl< ^<ir + e
( )
570
Radiation and Dispersion of Internal Waves
steepest descent. The final result for a >> /? may be cited here as
^PCx.y.z) (91)
A(x,y, z)
1/ 2 (92)
(x2+y2+ z2) [(y2+ z2)^ + x2y2]
and there are no internal waves on the upstream side (x < o). A characteristic
wavelength of G is
1/2
27T
a
= 277
U
-
N
= 277U
/
- ^0 -T (93)
\ i/^o
which agrees with (65b). The equiphase surfaces v^ = const, are given by
n + (n=0, ...).
'^n - 4 T 1, 2, . (94)
they being the wave crests. The surface w^ = const, is plotted in Fig. 8, which
is typical of all v^ = const. They all descend downward in the streamwise di-
rection to form a long-trenched valley, starting from x^ = (2n + i)\/4 to oo. The
steepest path of descent is the circular arc in the symmetry plane y = The .
level lines on w^ = const, are hyperbolas, along each of which the amplitude A
decreases monotonically with increasing x. These salient features are in quali-
tative agreement with the previous discussion of the wave field based on the
propagation of wave energy, and it should be noted that some of the fine structure
571
Wu
of the flow field is lost in the above analytical result under the assumption
of a yS.
REFERENCES
1. Yih, C.S., "Dynamics of Nonhomogeneous Fluids," New York:The Macmillan
Co., 1965
13. Lamb, H., "Hydrodynamics," 6th ed., Cambridge University Press, 235,
1932
16. Mei, C.C, and Wu, T.Y., Phys. Fluids 7:1117 (1964)
17. Wu, T.Y., and Mei, C.C, "Note on Two-Dimensional Gravity Waves in a
Stratified Ocean," to be published
572
DAMPING OF GRAVITY WAVES
BY SURFACE FILMS
John W. Miles
Institute ofGeophysics and Planetary Physics
University of California, San Diego
La Jolla, California
INTRODUCTION
Let k and o- denote the wave number and angular frequency of an oscillation
determined on the hypothesis of an inviscid liquid, and let v be the kinematic
viscosity of the actual liquid. Then l k is an appropriate length scale for the
irrotational component of the velocity field, and
= (2v/cr)l/2 _ (1)
e := kS 1, kh, (2)
where h is the mean depth of the liquid. The dispersion relation between cr and
k then is
573
Miles
a^ = Ae + 0(e2) , (4)
where A depends only on the geometrical shape of the container and the partic-
ular mode; see Eq. (32) and Eqs. (33).
It can be shown(cf. Ursell (1) and Case and Parkinson (5)) that this result also
is valid,within a factor of l + 0(e), for a bounded surface, but it then is negli-
gible compared with a^^,. (Case and Parkinson and others have retained a^> in
the calculation of a for closed basins, but this is clearly inconsistent unless
terms of O(e^) and 0(e) are included in the dissipation in the boundary layer on
w and in the mean energy of the oscillation, respectively.
Available measurements (Benjamin and Ursell (2), Case and Parkinson (5),
Keulegan (6), Van Dorn (7)) reveal that (the theoretical value of) a^ does not
provide an adequate approximation to a for gravity waves in laboratory-size
basins except under special and carefully controlled conditions and that the ob-
served values of a/a^ may be as large as three.
Van Dorn (7) attributed the observed discrepancies to a surface film pro-
duced by spontaneous contamination. He found that "while the observed attenua-
tion agreed with that computed for the solid boundaries [a^] when the water was
fresh, the former tended to increase with time to some higher limiting value,
usually within an hour." He also reported that "the fully contaminated surfaces
exhibited no obvious visual manifestation" and that "the water always appear[ed]
to be in every respect as clear and fresh as when uncontaminated." He obtained
an adequate approximation to the limiting value of simply by adding to a^ the
i
4''-T-^- (6)
The observation that surfactants, such as oil on water, can lead to appre-
ciable damping of surface waves goes back to antiquity (Pliny the Elder, in the
first century A.D., is cited by Levich (8) and by Davies and Vose (9), and
Benjamin Franklin (10) attempted a phenomenological explanation in 1774). The
574
Damping of Gravity Waves by Surface Films
first satisfactory explanations appear to have been given by Reynolds (11) and
Aitken (12), each of whom invoked the variations of surface tension with wave
motion; Aitken also carried out laboratory experiments. Lamb provided the
necessary mathematical analysis in support of the Reynolds -Aitken model in the
second (1895) edition of his "hydrodynamics," but abbreviated the analysis to that
for an inextensible film in the sixth edition (4b). Subsequent analyses, dealing
with the physicochemical as well as the hydrodynamical problem, have been
given by Levich (8,13), Dorrestein (14), Goodrich (15), and Tempel and Riet (16).
Davies and Vose (9) have made careful measurements of the damping of
150-cps capillary waves by various types of surface films. Their experiments
were carried out in a "draught-free darkroom"; their apparatus was "cleaned
with hot chromic acid followed by washings with syrupy phosphoric acid, hot
tap water and distilled water" before each run. In their experiments on clean
water, "the surface was cleaned prior to the observations by spreading ignited
talc on the surface and then sucking off the talc and any contamination through
a fine capillary," a procedure that was repeated between observations. They
monitored surface tension continuously. They found that a did approximate a^^
for clean water and also confirmed Dorrestein' s prediction that a increases
from a^^ to approximately 2a^^' and then decreases to the limiting value a^^^
with increasing concentration of an insoluble surfactant. They also obtained
qualitative confirmation of Dorrestein' s calculations for the effect of surface
viscosity. They found that ag was typically smaller for soluble surfactants pro-
vided that the relaxation frequency for solution was above that of the capillary
waves; however, their results were not in complete agreement with the
575
Miles
predictions of Levich (we recall that Levich did not establish, at least in any
systematic way, regimes of validity for his various approximations).
Benjamin and Ursell (2), Case and Parkinson (5), and Keulegan (6) all at-
tributed the observed discrepancies between a and a^^, to capillary hysteresis at
the contact line of the meniscus, but none of them attempted a direct calculation
of this effect. Although Benjamin and Ursell appear to have been the first to
recognize the significance of capillary hysteresis for surface-wave damping, the
basic phenomenon is well known in the literature of surface chemistry (see, e.g.,
Schwartz et al. (17)), and Adam (18) refers to A. A. Milne (19) for an everyday
observation.
We have reexamined the results of Case and Parkinson (5) and Keulegan (6)
and regard it as probable that both surface contamination and capillary hystere-
sis were significant in their experiments. We emphasize, however, that these
two effects are not likely to be entirely independent, for both the modulus of
compression for the surface film and capillary hysteresis at the meniscus de-
pend on the contamination of the free surface through mechanisms that are far
from being fully understood.
FLUID MOTION
v20+k20 = .
(8)
576
Damping of Gravity Waves by Surface Films
V = V0O - u , (9)
where V0q denotes the tangential component of V0 at the boundary, and u denotes
the actual tangential velocity at the boundary (u= on w). Evaluating v^g at z =
from Eq. (7) and remarking that the velocity in the surface film must be parallel
to V0O, say u = (l-C)V0oj ^^ obtain
u = (l-C)V0e^"* , (10a)
where c is a constant that is determined (in next section) by the equality between
the viscous shearing stress in the liquid and the tangential stress in the surface
film. Following Stokes (3), who remarked that "the effect of [viscosity] may be
calculated with a very close degree of approximation by regarding each element
of the [boundary] as an element of an infinite plane oscillating with the same
linear velocity," we obtain (cf. Landau and Lifshitz (21a))
r = -p{ivcr)^''^v (11a)
= -Cp(ii^a)/2v^ei'^t (lib)
SURFACE FILM
We neglect surface viscosity (a more detailed investigation reveals that
surface viscosity is likely to be significant only for very short capillary waves)
and assume that the surface tension is uniquely specified by the superficial
concentration of the surface film, say T = T(r). The shearing stress associated
with small variations of r about the equilibrium concentration, say r^ then is ,
given by
577
Miles
Substituting Eq. (14) into Eq. (12) and invoking Eq. (10a) and Eq. (8), we obtain
Equating Eq. (15b) and Eq. (lib) and solving for c, we place the result in the
form
where
We extend this last result to soluble surfactants on the hypothesis that the
relaxation time for equilibrium between the material in the film and the dis-
solved material in the underlying liquid is negligible compared with l-n/cr (there
can be little departure from this assumption for gravity waves; cf the relaxa- .
tion times given by Davies and Vose (9)). We then can relate the changes in
surface concentration to the corresponding changes in bulk concentration, say
7- 7o, by the linearized equilibrium equation
and the right-hand side of Eq. (13) is replaced by the transfer rate DCBy/Bz)^; D
is the bulk diffusion coefficient. Solving this set of equations for y - y^ and
r - Tq, we obtain results that differ from Eq. (14) and Eq. (15) only by an addi-
tional factor of [1 + 1/2 (1 - i )t7]- on the right-hand side of each, where
^
T) -- (2D/cr)l/2(dr/d7)-/. (20)
578
Damping of Gravity Waves by Surface Films
DISSIPATION
where < > implies an average over one cycle of the oscillation, say t = (0. 2n/cr).
Introducing the Rayleigh dissipation function
D = - i-dE/dt , (24)
equating its mean value to the corresponding mean value implied by Eq. (23),
and anticipating that a. = 0(e), we obtain
The total energy of the undamped oscillation is equal to twice the mean
kinetic energy and is given by
o{\\<y<p>^d\ (26a)
where
I = ||(v0)2ds -
k^JJ^^ds. (27)
for a flat plate oscillating with the velocity v and is given by (21b)
579
Miles
^''^
1 [( ->
El = -P
Y^ JJ^^S.
s
(28)
To this we must add the dissipation associated with the motion in the film,
namely,
Ej = JJ T.udS
If... .
(29)
s
Substituting rfrom Eq. (11a) into Eq. (29), adding the result to Eq. (28), and
averaging with respect to t we obtain ,
Cr-Ci
The maximum value of C^- Cj is 2 and is attained for = 2 and 77= 0. Dr. T. B. <f
Benjamin (private communication) has pointed out that the film velocity u is in
quadrature with the irrotational velocity v^g at this point, in consequence of
which |v| ^ = 2 Ivi/'l ^, thereby doubling the dissipation rate for an inextensible
film, for which u = and v| ^ = Ivs/^l ^.
|
581
Miles
ofcommon knowledge (see, e.g., Franklin (10)), and both Keulegan (22) and Van
Dorn (23) found that the addition of detergent prevented the formation of sensible
waves by winds of at least 12 m/sec. There appears to be little doubt that the
primary effect of a surface film is to increase the dissipation, and hence the
energy that must be supplied by the wind, although associated changes in the
velocity profile of the wind also could be significant. (Dorrestein (14) suggested
that a surface film inhibits the transfer of energy from wind to waves through
tangential stresses, but it is now generally accepted that this transfer takes
place primarily through normal pressures.)
where s -
pJp^ is the air/water density ratio, c = a- /v. is the wave speed, Uj is
a reference wind speed, and /? is a dimensionless energy-transfer coefficient
that depends on c/Uj. Equating -a^ to a^'\ as given by Eq. (6), and solving for
u as a function of c AJ
1 j
we obtain
,
^/^
= 150 (c/Ui) 1/3/3' cm/sec , (37b)
Where Eq. (37b) follows from Eq. (37a) after setting g = 980, v =10-2 ^^^
s = 1.2x10"^ in cgs units. Invoking the theoretical model (24,25) for an equiva-
lent laminar profile of the form u = Uj log y + const., we find that the minimum
value of Uj predicted by Eq. (37b) is about 1 m/sec at cAJj ^ 3, corresponding
to a nominal wind speed of about 12 m/sec and a wavelength of about 6 m. The
predicted critical wind speed of 12 m/sec is at least consistent with the observa-
tions of Keulegan (22) and Van Dorn (23) and is roughly an order of magnitude
larger than that predicted by a similar calculation based on a^ namely, ^
A
rather different energy-transfer process, which depends on the existence
of a viscous sublayer for the wind structure very close to the water, may be ef-
fective for cAli < 3 (26). Hidy (27) has obtained qualitative confirmation of the
theoretical model, but found it necessary to postulate increased dissipation,
relative to that based on a.\^^ in order to obtain approximate, quantitative
,
avoidably present [and] could easily account for the systematic deviation be-
tween [the theoretical and experimental results] shown in the data." The origi-
nal theoretical predictions (26) were carried out for a wind profile that is linear
in the viscous sublayer and logarithmic above this layer with a free- surface
damping given by a^>. Replacing a^ by a^'> in these calculations, we find
>
582
Damping of Gravity Waves by Surface Films
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
1. Ursell, F., Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), Ser. A 214:79 (1952)
2. Benjamin, T.B., and Ursell, F., Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), Ser. A 225:505
(1954)
3. Stokes, C.G., Trans. Cambr. Phil. Soc, 9:8 (1851); "Mathematical and
Physical Papers," Vol. 3, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1-141, 1922
a. Section 348
b. Section 351
c. Section 257
9. Davies, J.T., and Vose, R.M., Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), Ser. A 286:218,
1965
11. Reynolds, O., Brit. Assoc. Rep.; Papers, Vol. 1, p. 409, 1880
14. Dorrestein, R., 1951 Nederl. Akad. van Wetenschappen B 54:260, 350, 1951
15. Goodrich, F.C., Proc. Roy. Soc. A 260:481, 490, 503 (1961)
16. Tempel, M., and Riet, R.P., J. Chem. Phys. 42:2769 (1965)
583
Miles
17. Schwartz, A.M., Rader, C.A., and Huey, E., "Contact Angle, Wettability, and
Adhesion," Washington: American Chemical Society, pp. 250ff, 1964
18. Adam, N.K., "Physics and Chemistry of Surfaces," Oxford University Press,
1941
19. Milne, A. A., "Waiting at the Window," in Now We are Six," London: Button,
1927
20. Keulegan, G.H., and Brockman, M.R. (unpublished work at the U.S. National
Bureau of Standards), 1962
21. Landau, L.D., and Lifshitz, E.M., "Fluid Mechanics," London: Pergamon
Press, 1959
a. p. 90
b. p. 93
27. Hidy, G.M., "The Growth of Wind Waves on Water in a Channel" (unpublished),
1962
584
i
GENERATION OF WAVES BY
TURBULENT WIND
Klaus F. Hasselmann
Institut fur Schiffbau der Universitdt Hamburg
Hamburg, Germany
and
Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics
University of California, San Diego
La Jolla, California
ABSTRACT
Interactions between random gravity waves and the turbulent atmosphere
boundary layer can be treated by an extension of wave-wave interaction
theory. The energy transfer resulting from various interaction combi-
nations can be characterized by transfer diagrams corresponding to the
Feynman diagrams of wave-wave interactions. The complete set of
lowest order transfer diagrams is shown to include Miles' and Phillips'
theories of wave generation and a further set of wave-turbulence inter-
actions which have not been considered previously. The predicted wave
growth for the various interactions is compared with existing measure-
ments. But a conclusive answer to the question of wave generation
must await nnore detailed experiments correlating wave nneasurements
with turbulence measurements in the atmosphere boundary layer.
INTRODUCTION
The fundamental papers of Miles (1) and Phillips (2) marked an important
advance in our understanding of the basic processes by which waves can be gen-
erated by wind. It has been widely hoped that the growth of waves could be largely
accounted for by a superposition of these two processes. However, it is known
that although the theories describe independent aspects of the wave-atmosphere
interaction, they are not entirely complementary; there remain interactions which
are included in neither theory. Miles considers the coupling of the wave field
with the mean atmospheric boundary -layer flow, but ignores the wave -turbulence
interactions. These are similarly neglected in Phillips' treatment, which is
concerned only with the external excitation of the waves by the undisturbed turbu-
lent field.
585
Hasselmann
study of Snyder and Cox (3), which indicates that the combined Miles- Phillips
mechanisms fail to account for the observed wave growth by almost an order of
magnitude.
The problem may be divided into two parts: the analysis of the coupling
between the wave field and the turbulent boundary- layer flow, and the determi-
nation of the energy transfer due to the coupling. The first part concerns the
details of the interaction expansion. The second part may be regarded as a
particular application of a general transfer theory for random wave fields in
weakly coupled systems.
WAVE-ATMOSPHERE INTERACTIONS
We present here only the general structure of the interaction analysis; a
detailed derivation is given in Ref 4. Let . be the surface displacement,
l,
The equations of motion of the coupled wave -atmosphere system may then
be expressed in the form
Cfc
+ ct2^^ = S[^^, u^, SuJ (z=0) , (3)
586
Generation of Waves by Turbulent Wind
case to the unmodified turbulent surface pressure). Miles ignores the nonlinear
term Q in Eq. (1) (i.e., the wave-induced perturbation of the turbulent Reynolds
stress) and the u' -dependence of R in Eq. (2). This reduces Eqs. (1) and (2) to
linear, constant -coefficient equations, and the boundary- value problem of deter-
mining Su becomes tractable.
tion, the general case can be approached by introducing a second iteration loop
in which Q and the u' dependence of R are treated as further perturbations.
The nth iteration is obtained by solving Eqs. (1) and (2) with the (n - l )th itera-
tion substituted in the right-hand sides. In this manner, the wave-induced
velocity field is obtained as a power series in the components ^^ and u'^, and
the forced-harmonic-oscillator equation (Eq. (3)) takes the form
^"k
+ ^'^k = Pk +B,^, + L
kj tkj :k
q 1
,
2
Ck
1
u'
2
+
.
(4)
The first two terms on the right correspond to the Phillips and Miles approxi-
mations, respectively; P^ denotes the external forcing term due to random
turbulent pressure fluctuations; and B^, C^jk^, are coupling coefficients,
which are determined by solving the Orr-Sommerfeld equation, Eq. (1), under
boundary condition (2). In general, this is possible only by numerical methods
or by restriction to simple boundary -layer models. (It is known that a simple
constant-velocity or constant- slope profile is inadequate in the Miles approxi-
mation, in which the energy transfer is determined by the local profile curvature
at the critical layer. However, the detailed properties of the velocity profile are
probably less important for the higher order processes.)
587
Hasselmann
and
L (6)
where s^ = l Equation (5) follows from the homogeneity of the physical sys-
.
tem and applies to all interactions. An energy transfer between the interacting
components occurs only if the additional resonance condition of Eq. (6) is also
satisfied.
The net energy transfer is found by summing the contributions from all
combinations of resonant interactions. The final expression consists of a num-
ber of integrals containing various spectral products, which can conveniently be
divided into two classes. Integrals in which the transfer conditions of Eqs. (5)
and (6) occur as S factors are associated with scattering processes, the remain-
ing integrals are associated with parametric processes.
entering a vertex and a single wave component k^^ leaving the vertex. The com-
ponents satisfy the transfer conditions of Eqs. (5) and (6). Components associ-
ated with a negative sign s. = -l are indicated by a cross stroke.
The structure of the various transfer expressions can be deduced from the
transfer diagrams with the aid of a single transfer rule: the rate of change of
the energy spectrum of any wave component in a transfer diagram is proportional
to the product of the spectral densities of the ingoing components. Thus for any
interacting system, the set of all transfer expressions for a particular wave field
w is obtained by applying the transfer rule to all wave components w in all possi-
ble transfer diagrams (Fig. 1).
588
Generation of Waves by Turbulent Wind
9^n f
dk^dk^dk^
(n.1.2 ,^-2,1)
(i)
'* FF^F^dkclk.
dt J
(li)
It isimportant to note that the transfer diagrams reflect only the structure
of the transfer expressions. They are normally not directly related to the basic
component- interactions responsible for the energy transfer. Thus although all
transfer expressions are due entirely to resonant interactions, the resonant in-
teraction conditions of Eqs. (5) and (6) occur only in the scattering, not the
parametric transfer diagrams. The structure of the interaction analysis can be
summarized independently in terms of interaction diagrams (6). (However, for
conservative wave-wave interactions, the interaction and transfer diagrams are
very simply interrelated (8).)
589
Hasselmann
9F(k) r.
^.
.
n
dF(k)
, ,
iiv) (r)
diagram and wave -turbulence interactions, diagrams (iv) and (v). The trans-
(ii),
fer expressions derived from the transfer rule are also shown. Only the depend-
ence on the wave spectrum is given explicitly. The transfer functions Tj, T, ,
depend on the coupling coefficients, and in the case of diagrams (iii), (iv), and (v),
on the atmospheric turbulence spectra. The expressions are given in full in
Ref. 4.
wave dispersion surfaces oo - cr(k) = (gk tanh kH)^^^. Only the pressure fluc-
tuations in resonance with free gravity waves, i.e., on the dispersion surface,
transfer energy to the wave field.
590
Generation of Waves by Turbulent Wind
wovt -tyrbi/ltnc*
icotlrring intfroetlens
"turbultne*
Linear wave interactions with the mean wind lead to pressure fluctuations
of the same wavenumber and frequency as the wave components. Miles' pres-
sure spectrum is therefore represented by a two-dimensional distribution on
the dispersion surface.
number and frequency of the first wave component. Process (iv) is due to a
similar cubic interaction between a wave component (k, a) and a complex con-
jugate pair of turbulence components (k', oj'), (-k', -w'), again producing a pres-
sure fluctuation of wavenumber k and frequency a-.
591
Hasselmann
Since atmospheric turbulence spectra are normally peaked at much lower wave-
numbers and frequencies than wave spectra, it may be expected that for most
interactions k' << k, w' << a, so that the resultant pressure distribution lies
rather close to the dispersion curve. Furthermore, the maximum of the dis-
tribution will lie close to the wave spectral maximum. The strongest wave
generation may therefore be expected for frequencies close to the wave spectral
peak, in accordance with the observed sequential development of the wave spec-
trum form high to low frequencies, the waves growing only in a narrow fre-
quency band about the momentary wave peak. (However, other explanations of
the sequential wave growth have also been suggested.)
CONCLUSIONS
The recent field study of Snyder and Cox (3) indicate that both Miles' and
Phillips' theories are incapable of explaining the wave growth observed in the
ocean, strongly suggesting that one or more of the remaining lowest-order
processes, in particular the wave -turbulence interactions, are the principal
source of wave energy. However, the question of wave generation must be re-
garded as open until further measurements and transfer computations have
been made. Although a complete theory of expansible interactions has been
developed, the expansions are valid only for weak spacially uniform interac-
tions. Strong, local effects, such as flow separation at the wave crests, are
therefore not included in the theory.
REFERENCES
1. Miles, J.W., J. Fluid Mech. 3:185-204 (1957)
592
Tuesday, October 4, 1966
Morning Session
Chairman: G. P. Weinblum
Page
593
SECOND-ORDER WAVE THEORY FOR
SUBMERGED TWO-DIMENSIONAL BODIES
Nils Salvesen
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan
{now at Naval Ship Research and Development Center
Washington, D.C.)
ABSTRACT
The main object of this work has been to investigate the importance of
nonlinear free-surface effects on flow past submerged two-dinnensional
bodies. For a foil-shaped body the surface waves and the wave resist-
ance have been obtained both experimentally and analytically, including
second-order effects.
The wave profiles have been nneasured by a capacitance wire, and the
wave resistance data have been obtained by three techniques: (a) drag
measurements, (b) wave survey, accounting for second-order effects,
and (c) second-order wave theory.
The results show, for low and nnoderate speeds, amazingly good agree-
ment between second-order theory and experiments both for the wave
resistance and the wave elevations. Especially encouraging is the ex-
cellent agreement at the very low speed, where the difference between
linear and second-order theory is large. The theory gives less satis-
factory agreement with experiments at high speeds, however.
Useful information and data are included on wave breaking for snnall
submergences.
595
Salve sen
INTRODUCTION
The determination of the wave resistance of ship hulls is one of the most
important and challenging problems the naval architect has to contend with. In
the last century, many outstanding scholars in the field have been engaged in
this subject; moreover, the last several years have brought a renewed interest
in the theory of ship waves. Due to the complexity of the problem, however, we
are by no means able to predict theoretically the wave resistance of a ship with
sufficient accuracy.
The three methods in use for obtaining the wave resistance are (a) model
testing, subtracting the estimated viscous drag from the measured total drag
force, (b) wave survey behind the model, assuming small waves and using linear
wave theory, and (c) theoretical analysis, using linear theory and representing
the hull by some singularity distribution. The correlations between these three
techniques have been far from satisfactory. In many cases, the differences are
as large as 40 to 50 percent (1). Fairly good agreements have been achieved
only by introducing artificial correction factors; however, very little is known
in general about how these factors are related to physical parameters.
The author believes that a main part of the discrepancies between analytical
and experimental results could be due to the neglect of nonlinear effects at the
free surface and that the viscous effect is probably not as important as often
stated. This nonlinearity is investigated here, and in particular its effect on the
wave resistance.
The first nonlinear wave theory for irrotational flow of an ideal fluid was
derived by G. G. Stokes (2). Applying this theory to the problem of flow past
submerged two-dimensional bodies, one can easily relate the wave resistance of
the body to the far downstream wave height. On the other hand, no relationship
between the shape of the body and the wave elevation or the wave resistance can
be obtained from the Stokes wave. Appendix A gives a detailed discussion of
"Stokes Waves and their Application to Wave Resistance Problems."
596
Submerged Two-Dimensional Bodies
and in this speed range at least, it is therefore doubtful if his theory is appli-
cable.
2. The fact that the difference between the linear and second-order theory
increases as the Froude number decreases may indicate that the second-order
wave resistance approaches infinity as the Froude number approaches zero.
Unfortunately, no data are shown by Tuck for Froude numbers smaller than 0.47.
The object of this work has been to investigate the accuracy of second-
order wave theory by a comparison of analytical and experimental results, and
also to clear up some of the uncertainties in previous work. To perform such a
comparison the author has applied second-order wave theory to a streamlined
two-dimensional body and conducted experiments on an 11 -foot-long strut of
13 -inch chord length. Wave resistance data have been obtained by three tech-
niques: (a) drag measurements, (b) wave survey, accounting for second-order
effects, and (c) second-order theory. In addition to these data, the wave profiles
have also been measured and computed for the selected body shape. This is the
first time wave profiles correct to the second order in wave amplitude have
been computed for flow past a body.
MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION
An infinitely long cylinder is supposed to move with a constant velocity U in
a direction perpendicular to its axis and at a fixed distance below the free sur-
face. The problem is to determine the surface waves and the wave resistance.
597
Salve sen
The flow will be treated as steady in a coordinate system moving with the
cylinder. A two-dimensional coordinate system will be used, with the y axis
vertical, and the x axis a distance b below the undisturbed free surface. The
direction of decreasing x coincides with the direction of motion of the cylinder.
The fluid will be assumed to be inviscid, incompressible, and without surface
tension. It will also be assumed that the flow is irrotational and that the dis-
turbances at the free surface are all small.
Inview of the equation of continuity, the velocity potential <> is a solution of the
Laplace equation
V2<t> = <I)
XX + yy
= . (2)
^ '
- I
grad <D|' + -+ gy = Ci ,
(3)
There are two boundary conditions to be satisfied on the free surface. The
kinematic condition states that any particle which is on the surface remains
there. Thus if y = b+ 77(x) is the equation of the free surface and WCx.y) the
stream function, then
on the free surface. The dynamical condition requires that the pressure above
the free surface is constant, here set equal to zero. By Eq. (3), the Bernoulli
equation, it therefore follows that
I
grad $1 + gy = constant on y = b + '7(x) . (5)
The nonlinear conditions above are often referred to as the "exact"* free-
surface conditions.
The boundary condition to be satisfied at the wall of the cylinder is clearly
^=0.
on
(6)
*In this work, "exact" in quotation marks refers to exact within the potential
flow theory.
598
Submerged Two-Dimensional Bodies
in which 3/Bn represents differentiation along the normal to the surface wall.
For two-dimensional bodies with a sharp trailing edge the Kutta-Jukowski con-
dition specifying that the trailing edge is the stagnation point should also be
satisfied.
The depth of the water is assumed to be infinite, which results in the condi-
tion
tial W(z) = a)(x,y) + iw(x,y) and assuming that a perturbation about the flow past
the body in an infinite fluid can be carried out, we write the expansion
where e is some physical parameter which vanishes with the disturbance at the
free surface. The potentials wq^, wg^, etc., are analytic everjrwhere outside
the body and are chosen so that the terms in parentheses in Eq. (8) satisfy the
cylinder -wall condition exactly. On the other hand, wp^ and wpj are analytic
for all im z < b and are the first-order and second-order free -surface contri-
butions.
Italso follows from the assumption of small disturbances at the free surface
that the body singularities wq^, wg^, etc., are of one order higher in e near the
free surface than near the body. The expansion near the free surface, therefore,
is of the form
with
599
Salve s en
Re at z = X + ib (11)
Re ;(2) + iv V^(2) at z = X + ib
irf(''> (12)
where
- f(x) = ^ Iw^'M
^
- Im w(i) Re z z z
In this work the complex potential will be used only to determine the wave
elevation and to obtain the wave resistance from momentum considerations in
the far field. We will not need, therefore, the general expansion given by Eq. (8)
but only the expansion given by Eq. (10), which is valid near the free surface
and in the far field. The expansions and boundary conditions to be used for the
more general problem are discussed by Giesing (5). It is seen from Eq. (10)
that we have two second-order terms, ewg^ and e^wp^. Tuck (4) has shown that
in obtaining the wave resistance for a circular cylinder it is more important to
include the second-order free-surface term e^wp^, than the body correction in
term ewg^. Assuming that the same applies to the problem treated here, we
will disregard the term ewBj and simply represent the body by its singularity
distribution in an infinite fluid. This implies that the cylinder-wall condition is
satisfied only to the first order of approximation.
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTION
Complex Potential and Wave Elevation
600
Submerged Two-Dimensional Bodies
0.04
(65- 3j ) when 3 < j < 10 ,
(14b)
168
The stream function for this singularity distribution in a uniform flow (ve-
locity = U) with no free surface is
The body is given by the streamline ^ = 0. Hence the equation of the body is
-1 y
L =
}
27T\]I
]
X- (j/10)
(16)
The cross section of the body is seen in Fig. 1. In terms of the selected
unit length, the chord length is 1.09 and the thickness is 0.374. The unit length
used here is, for numerical examples as well as for the experimental work, set
equal to 1 foot.
601
Salve sen
10 10
10
In accordance with the assumption that the cylinder -wall condition will be
satisfied only to the first-order approximation, it follows from Eq. (12) that the
second-order complex potential vi'-^^z), must satisfy the conditions
1. V^ w( 2) = , (19a)
2. Re ;(2) f (x) at z = X + ib ,
(19b)
pu
where
- 1 (1)1 .(1)
7'(''>
I.., - Im Re z z z
2
( 2)
4. 1 im w as Re z - -co . (19d)
This is exactly the same differential system as for the linear problem of a
fixed pressure distribution f(x) on the free surface of a uniform stream of ve-
locity U. Thus f(x) may be interpreted as a pressure distribution due to the
first-order wave system.
602
Submerged Two-Dimensional Bodies
The solution to the differential system of Eqs. (19) is therefore the same as
the well-known solution to the moving pressure distribution problem, given by
Wehausen and Laitone (6b), namely.
where the function f(s) is defined in Eqs. (19) and can be written by virtue of
Eq. (17) as
f(s) = pUM2i + 2
r 10
+ 4
j =
^
j =
27tU\
\(S.2
,
+
,2
b^) s/ + b'
With
Salve sen
Rtl{wi-+io)}
For later reference we shall write the two terms in Eq. (23) as
^(2)( ^
ds f(s) Re I[ii^(x- s + iO)] ,
77U2 J
(24)
Plots of the final results, the surface elevation according to the first-order
and the second-order theory, are given in Fig. 5 for the case of 1.25-foot body
604
Submerged Two-Dimensional Bodies
'^'\x)
-^^
u:4 oft/(c a b= i ft
u^ 2.5 ft/tC
"n yf 'I ,
-.2".
//
2-
X^J'
ARROW INDICATES
LOCATION OF TNAILINS eOe
605
Salvesen
submergence and for four different speeds. This is, to the author's knowledge,
the first time that waves created by a body have been computed to the second
order.
where the second-order term e^r](^\x) was assumed to be one order smaller
than the first term er]'- '^x). The experimental results to be discussed will,
however, show that the second-order waves agree surprisingly well with the
measured waves for these lower speeds.
Wave Resistance
The wave resistance will be obtained from the asymptotic form of the ve-
and the wave elevation.
locity potential
It is well known that the first-order wave height, Eq. (22), far downstream
takes the simple form
From Eqs. (26) and (28) it can be realized that far downstream we have two
Stokes waves. One has the form
606
Submerged Two-Dimensional Bodies
and the other, which has a phase shift t and an amplitude of second order in
a, has the form
7]2(x) = S COS y(x-T) + ... , (30)
where both Eqs. (29) and (30) are correct to the second order in a.
From the theory of Stokes waves (Appendix A) it follows that the velocity
potential for these two Stokes waves can be written as
and
^jCx.y) = - SUe^^^~ ^ sin v(x-r) (32)
Assuming now that the potential and the wave elevation far downstream can
be written as the sum of the two Stokes waves above, we have that
and
Tj - Tjy-k- Tj^ - a COS VX+ ~ va^ cos 2vx + 8 cos v{x- t^ . (34)
Note that the potential, Eq. (33), and the wave elevation, Eq. (34), are valid far
downstream, and that both are correct to the second order in a.
The "exact" formula for the wave resistance derived by Havelock (8) and
by Wehausen and Laitone (6c) using energy considerations and also derived in
Appendix B by momentum considerations, is
b + 7,(x )
R
^M
= -^ ^x'c^o'y) + <^y'(''o.y)
1 ,
(35)
where c/>(x,y) is the "exact" velocity potential, t7(x) is the "exact" wave eleva-
tion, and Xq denotes any vertical plane behind the body.
Evaluating this expression far downstream using the velocity potential (Eq.
(33))and the wave profile (Eq. (34)) it can be shown that the wave resistance
correct to the third order is
607
Salvesen
(38)
R = 4 Pg ^
where H is the wave height obtained from the second-order wave theory. This
is exactly the same result as obtained in Appendix A using a second-order
Stokes wave theory.
R = -^PE<^' (39)
with a denoting the first-order wave amplitude far downstream. Again we see
the large difference between the first-order and the second-order theory for the
lower speed range.
Submerged Two-Dimensional Bodies
A computer program was written which could trace the streamlines around
the singularity distribution including the linearized free surface. This is a
rather time consuming computation, especially because we do not know a priori
the value of the stream function at the stagnation points. The streamlines were
therefore only traced for two speeds, V = 4 ft /sec and v = 6 ft/sec, both with
the same submergence b = 1.25 ft. Each case took about 10 minutes on the IBM
7090 computer. The results are shown in Fig. 7.
U I FT SCALE
609
Salvesen
It is interesting to note that the body can be made closed simply by applying
a small angle of attack and hence without introducing any new singularities. In
other words, a closed body can be obtained by an appropriate rotation of the line
on which the 11 sources are located. The amount of rotation necessary to close
the body will obviously depend on the velocity and the submergence of the
cylinder.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
An experiment was conducted to see how well this second-order theory can
predict wave elevations and wave resistance for submerged two-dimensional
foil-shaped bodies. The experiment was performed at the University of Michi-
gan model tank (360 ft by 20 ft by 9 ft) on an 11-ft two-dimensional strut seen in
Fig. 8. The model's cross-sectional offsets are given in Fig. 1. The instru-
mentation for measuring horizontal drag force and wave elevation is schemati-
cally shown in Fig. 9. The horizontal drag force was measured on the middle,
2-foot section of the model by waterproofed strain gages mounted on two small
cantilever beams (Fig. 10). The wave elevation was measured by a 0.0016-in.
capacitance wire attached to a small carriage which could move on a 10-ft rail
as shown in Fig. 11. The change in capacitance of this wire as caused by
changes in water elevation was registered by a highly sensitive capacitance
bridge (Wayne Kerr B541) from which results were traced on an x-y recorder.
The X coordinate was used for the position of the carriage, and the y coordinate
was used for wave elevation. With this capacitance wire we were able to obtain
the wave profile to a good accuracy, about 0.03 in. for speeds up to 4.5 ft/sec.
610
Submerged Two-Dimensional Bodies
n. OO
oo
o "V" oo
aaosal oo
CAPACITANCE
X-Y RECORDER STRAIN BRIDGE X-Y RECORDER
GAUGE
BRIDGE
611
Salvesen
-i
where H is the actual measured trough-to-crest wave height, this equation being
correct to the third order in wave height.
The wave elevation curves for 1.2 5 -ft submergence are shown in Fig. 12.
Good correlation in wave height can be seen between the measured waves and
second-order theory for speeds up to 4.5 ft/sec. The figure shows, on the other
hand, some discrepancy between measured and theoretical wavelengths. We note
especially the excellent agreement at the lowest speed, where the difference in
elevation from first-order and second-order theory is extremely large. The
wave resistance curves plotted in Fig. 13 show exactly the same trend. We do
observe from these figures a poor agreement at speeds above 4.5 ft/sec, how-
ever. This is believed to be caused by the inaccurate mathematical representa-
tion of the body at higher speeds.
612
Submerged Two -Dimensional Bodies
u = 2 5 fl/ec
613
Salvesen
4 5
SPEED U , ft/sec
show that the rather large discrepancy at higher speeds between the theory pre-
sented here and the experiment is indeed due to the inaccurate body representa-
tion.
Figures 14 and 15 show the wave profiles and the wave resistance curves
for 1.50-ft submergence, and as expected the agreement is even better at this
larger submergence.
614
Submerged Two-Dimensional Bodies
.05"
Salvesen
We note that for the 1.0-ft submergence the waves break for speeds between
about 2.5 and 5.5 ft/sec and that for lower speeds when the waves do not break,
the second-order theory agrees fairly well with measurements.
616
Submerged Two -Dimensional Bodies
Salve sen
618
Submerged Two -Dimensional Bodies
2.S
4-
/ ^ \
-2.5
TOP VIEW OF
FOIL AND 1^
BREAKING WAVE
619
Salve sen
CONCLUSIONS
This work clearly proves the importance of the effect of nonlinearity at the
free surface, and it shows how much better results can be achieved by the
second-order theory than by the linear theory. The speed range and submer-
gences are also indicated for which linear and for which second-order theory
may be applied.
The following conclusions can be drawn for free-surface flow past sub-
merged two-dimensional foil-shaped bodies:
2. At very low speeds the second-order theory predicts wave heights sev-
eral times the size given by the linear theory. The agreement between experi-
ment and second-order theory is surprisingly good at these very low speeds.
5. Both the linear and the proposed second-order theory give rather poor
results at higher speeds (u/Vib > 0.72). This is believed to be due to the inac-
curate mathematical representation of the body at these speeds.
Further research should be carried out in this area. Presently the author
is applying a consistent second-order theory which seems to predict the wave
resistance and the wave profiles very well also at higher speeds. In addition to
this work the two following problems deserve attention:
620
Submerged Two-Dimensional Bodies
ADDENDUM
The author would like to mention briefly some additional work completed
after the preparation of this paper. This additional work is included here in re-
sponse to the discussion following this paper.
It is shown in this paper that at the free-surface and in the far-field the
complex potential has the two following second-order terms:
The author only included one of these second-order contributions, namely the
free-surface term e^wp The only justification for this was that Tuck (4) has
.
shown that for a circular cylinder this is the most important higher-order con-
tribution to the wave resistance. On the other hand, Giesing and Smith (5) have
developed a method which neglects the second-order free-surface term e^Wj,
but includes the second-order term from the body boundary condition ewg .
The author has applied the method by Giesing and Smith and combined it
The reason that the body -condition term is so important for the wing-shaped
body treated here is that in addition to the singularities introduced in closing
the body a circulation term must also be introduced such that the Kutta condition
is satisfied at the trailing edge. It can be shown that it is mainly this circula-
tion term which gives rise to the large higher order effect at higher speeds
(u/^iF > 0.75).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To Professor Finn C. Michelsen and Professor Chia-Shun Yih I express my
deep gratitude for their unending inspiration, encouragement, and guidance in
621
Salve sen
oa
Submerged Two-Dime nsional Bodies
3. Bessho, M., "On the Wave Resistance Theory of a Submerged Body," The
Society of Naval Architects of Japan, 60th Anniversary Series, Vol. 2, 1957,
pp. 135-172
4. Tuck, E.O., "The Effect of Non-Linearity at the Free Surface of Flow Past
a Submerged Cylinder," J. Fluid Mech. 22:401-414 (1965)
6. Wehausen, J.V., and Laitone, E.V., "Handbuch der Physik," Vol. 9, "Surface
Waves," Berlin rSpringer-Verlag, 1960
a. p. 489
b. p. 601
c. p. 458
10. Parkin, B.R., Perry, B., and Wu, T.V., "Pressure Distribution on a Hydro-
foilNear the Water Surface," J. Appl. Physics 27:224-240 (1956)
11. Giesing, J. P., and Smith, A.M.O., "Potential Flow about Two-Dimensional
Hydrofoils," Douglas Aircraft Company Engineering Paper 3541, 1965
Appendix A
STOKES WAVES AND THEIR APPUCATION
TO WAVE RESISTANCE PROBLEMS
It was first shown by Stokes* that the velocity potential and the stream
function given by
*G. G. Stokes, "On the Theory of Oscillatory Waves," Trans. Cambridge Philo-
soph. Soc. 8:441-455 (1847).
623
Salvesen
is not only the linearized wave solution but also satisfies the free-surface con-
ditions correctly to the second order, for the case of infinite depth. Lord Ray-
leigh''' pointed out that this solution can also be shown to be correct to the third
order. In the present work, however, we will only be concerned with first-order
and second-order terms.
The equation of the wave profile (^ = o) follows from Eq. (Al) by successive
approximation:
C
U
+
2
B^ + B cos z^x +
2
/S^ cos 2vx + ...
(A2)
c^ = - u/3^ (A3)
^
We note that Eq. (A4) coincides with the equation for a trochoidal wave to the
given order of accuracy.
The solution, Eq. (Al), with the wave profile, Eq. (A4), must, to be valid,
also satisfy the condition of constant pressure (p = 0) at the free surface. Ap-
plying the Bernoulli equation
we have that
we therefore have
624
Submerged Two-Dimensional Bodies
where only terms to the order /S^ have been included. Hence, the pressure is
constant (p = 0) on the free surface if
V - (A8)
1. The pressure at the horizontal plane y = -h ash-co must be the same far
upstream and far downstream.
- +
^ U^ (-2z./3e-^'' cos vk + v^ fi^ e' ^''^) - gh = ,
(A9)
P = Pgh . (AlO)
Hence, to satisfy the pressure condition 1, we have that the undisturbed free
surface far upstream is given by y = 0.
T7
udy r I'xdy
[ (All)
lim ; = 1 im ;
h - CO
j Udy (A12)
u
h - 00
625
Salve sen
- h 1
lim r = lim T- (Ut7 - U/Se'^"' cos vx + Uh)
h h^co h
Having concluded this we may now obtain the wave resistance for any two-
dimensional body in terms of the Stokes wave far behind the body. The "exact"
formula for the wave resistance, as derived in Appendix B, is
where x^ denotes any vertical plane behind the body. Evaluating this expres-
sion far downstream, using the velocity potential, Eq. (Al) and the wave eleva-
tion, Eq. (A4), it is seen that the wave resistance correct to the third order in /3
is
Let us now compare the wave resistance, Eq. (A15), obtained by the second-
order Stokes wave to the resistance obtained by the linear theory. The linear-
ized velocity potential and wave elevation are
where a is the linearized wave amplitude. The well-known wave resistance for
the linear theory is therefore
R=\pga'. (A17)
/S = a + 0(a2) , (A18)
626
Submerged Two-Dimensional Bodies
In other words, the Stokes wave theory gives us the form of the potential
(Eq. (Al)) and the shape of the wave (Eq. (A4)) correct to the second order; how-
ever, the magnitude of the wave elevation cannot be obtained without solving the
complete second-order problem.
A very useful result can be obtained from the theory of Stokes waves. By
the wave profile, Eq. (A4), it follows that
^ 2
where H is the wave height. Therefore the wave resistance, Eq. (A15), becomes
R=|pj4T^0(H^). (A19)
4 "^ V2
Applying this result to experimental work, we have that Eq. (A19) gives the wave
resistance from measured waves correct to the third order in wave height.
Appendix B
where $ = Ux + 0. Introducing the Bernoulli equation, Eq. (3), and the continuity
condition
r $x dy = I'x dy , (B2)
I
we have that
R -y dy dy " (B3)
= pg
J
+ pg
I
y dy + ^ r {^^ - <^^)
^ f (^y'" "^x") ^V
627
Salve sen
And as a --oo it follows that the "exact" wave resistance formula under the as-
sumption of ideal fluid, irrotational flow, and negligible surface tension is
T)( C )
We note that the plane x = c may be taken at any distance behind the body and
that V is the wave elevation measured relative to the undisturbed free surface
far ahead of the body.
Sharma* shows that if the continuity condition, Eq. (B2), is not applied,
however, the wave resistance becomes
R -
y r (-0x' + -^y') dy + |- gT]^ + pV ^ U dy - pU
Jx=c
(U - J dy .
(B5)
x = c x = a
He then introduces the linearized velocity potential and wave profile and gets
the "variable resistance paradox"
R - a^ + pga^ sin vx .
(B6)
This paradox shows the kind of erroneous conclusions which follow from a
first-order theory if the equations are applied directly without a specific knowl-
edge of the order of magnitude of each term involved. Equation (B6) was ob-
tained using a linear theory; hence continuity is satisfied only to the first order.
Therefore any second-order terms resulting from the continuity condition have
no meaning and should have been disregarded by Sharma.
628
Submerged Two-Dimensional Bodies
DISCUSSION
J. p. Giesing
Douglas Aircraft Company, Inc.
Long Beach, California
J_
277
ir^^Un z + E D^,
q)
q= 0, 1, 2,
where r(^) are all real but D^^^ are complex. In the vicinity of the body sur-
face the effects of the free surface may be expanded as a Taylor series as
follows:
wp
^
= ^E n- 1
C^^^-". q=l, 2, ... ,
where the C^''^ are complex. With these definitions and the aid of the Blasius
theorem, it can be shown that the wave resistance of a symmetrical body at
zero incidence is
629
Salve sen
.{o 0(1)
) ( 1
+ Re Cn.in(n+1) 0(e)
(2)
+ Fe E(0
Dn
)
C,,,n(n+1) 0(62)
The terms enclosed within the rectangle are the second-order terms arising
from the boundary condition on the body surface. These terms are neglected by
the author.
V"
Re E(0
Dn
) ( 2)
C^+in(n+ 1) > Re 2^ Dn
(1) ( 1
C.in(n+1).
The term Re [ir^ ^^Cj^^] is just the wave resistance of the first-order cir-
culation. The zeroth-order circulation is zero, since the body is symmetrical
and at zero incidence. The first-order wave system causes a nonuniform flow
field that, in general, produces a first-order circulation, this circulation being
required to maintain the Kutta condition at the trailing edge.
*E. O. Tuck, "The Effect of Non-Linearity at the Free Surface of Flow Past a
Submerged Cylinder," J. Fluid Mech. 22:401-414 (1965).
ij. P. Giesing and A. M. O. Smith, "Potential Flow about Two-Dimensional Hy-
drofoils," Douglas Aircraft Company Engineering Paper 3541, 1965.
630
Submerged Two -Dimensional Bodies
DISCUSSION
E. O. Tuck
David Taylor Model Basin
Washington, D.C.
This isa most admirable piece of work, and is precisely the kind of more
realistic study I hoped would be prompted by my work on the admittedly aca-
631
Salve sen
Last, I should make it clear that my use of the word "true" corresponds to
the author's use of "exact," as defined by his footnote. That is, by the "true
wave resistance" of the circular cylinder is meant the x component of force on
the body in the "exact" potential flow of an inviscid fluid past it, irrespective of
whether this flow is a good representation of reality or not. For a circular
cylinder there is no question that this flow does not represent reality, but in the
present case of a streamlined body there is plenty of evidence to suggest that it
is a good approximation.
would seem from this fine paper that the mild warnings I gave at the end
It
of mypaper have been strengthened a little, and it is now clear that it was not
the bluffness of the circular cylinder that caused free-surface nonlinearity to be
so important. The question remains was it the two-dimensionality ? The
analogous results for three-dimensional bodies now become even more interest-
ing, and I understand some work is being done at Stevens Institute on a sub-
merged sphere. If the nonlinear effect persists for submerged three-dimensional
bodies, it can hardly be less important for nonsubmerged bodies.
DISCUSSION
F. C. Michelsen
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan
can be concluded that a much simpler model should be studied, and this
It
is exactly what the author has done. He selected a two-dimensional submerged
strut which was shaped in such a way that a flow separation as well as viscous
boundary layer would hopefully have a negligible influence on the results.
Because of close contact with the research described in this paper I find
myself at a handicap in the role as a critical reviewer. On the other hand, I do
not believe there is much I could have said anyway. Research objectives are
well formulated and only in one or two cases does the author express ideas
632
Submerged Two-Dimensional Bodies
which may be broadly construed as matters of opinion. Thus, there is very little
room for argument and I must restrict myself to comments of general nature.
First, I submit that the author has presented a remarkable paper. It is not
every day that one can study what may be referred to as a classical problem
and be able to supply information not already available. This is exactly what he
has been able to do, however. Theoretical findings which are here presented
for the first time are of the greatest significance for the basic understanding of
the physical and mathematical features of the second-order wave theories. This
is particularly true when viewed against the background of experimental data
which are here indispensable. One can only imagine the author's feeling of re-
lief when measured data verified the large differences predicted between first-
order and second-order theories. It is comforting indeed to observe the close
correlation between second-order theory and experiments, although this leads
to the nagging question of convergence of the perturbation expansion of the ve-
locity potential. The less satisfactory agreement between experiments and
theory in the higher speed range may be due to the fact that the sources and
sinks are not suitable representation for the strut. I ask the author if he could
comment on this.
It is stated in the paper that because the cylinder -wall condition is satisfied
only to the first order of approximation it can be argued that the second-order
theory presented here is not consistent. It is my opinion that for the depth of
submergence used by the author only higher than second-order resistance terms
will be influenced by the cylinder -wall conditions, provided the traced stream-
lines are made to form a closed body. This matter ought to be carefully inves-
tigated for at least one speed.
vS ^ COS 2v(x - t)
In closing I wish to point out that the apparatus designed by the author will
be used at the University of Michigan for further studies into some of the areas
of continued research outlined by him. This work is being sponsored by the
David Taylor Model Basin. I wish therefore to thank the author for his direct
contribution to the education of new talent so vital to our profession.
633
Salvesen
DISCUSSION
L. van Wijngaarden
Netherlands Ship Model Basin
Wageningen, The Netherlands
Dr. Salvesen has calculated the drag by calculation of the wave energy. An-
other method to calculate the wave resistance is with help of the pressure dis-
tribution around the submerged body. Looking at the contours as given in Fig. 7,
which shows open bodies, the question occurred to me whether there is also a
vertical force on the body and of which order of magnitude.
DISCUSSION
W. D. Kim
Davidson Laboratory
Stevens Institute of Technology
Hoboken, New Jersey
In line with Tuck's earlier endeavor, given as Ref 4, this paper points out
.
the nonlinearity effect from the free -surface condition which may partly be ac-
countable for the disagreement between the analytic and measured values of the
wave resistance of a body translating beneath the free surface. The author suc-
cessfully presented his contention through an extensive experiment in which the
addition of the nonlinear correction term clearly improves the prediction of the
wave profile.
In Tuck's procedure, at outset, all the lengths of the problem were made
dimensionless by dividing with a typical length u^/g, which is a ratio of the
forward speed squared to the gravitational acceleration. Then the solution is
expressed in an asymptotic series with respect to the square of the dimension
less radius
g -
634
Submerged Two -Dimensional Bodies
It appears that for the problem of a symmetrical foil the author chose a new
parameter
s = -Ls
in terms of one-half the maximum foil thickness S = 0.187 ft. It follows then for
the lowest to the highest speeds tested, u = 2.5 to 5.5 ft/sec, the corresponding
values of the perturbation parameter s ranges from 0.92 to 0.20, while the
Froude numbers defined in a customary manner by use of the full chord length
correspond from 0.43 to 0.92.
here a being the perturbation parameter, the actual radius of the sphere a di-
vided by the typical length u^/g and where, for example, one finds the first-
order potential as
^Re
1-2
i f cos ^d^if^^ /i.^^r
^2^] (qi)^ucosd?d^+ 2j
, X
(q2)^u cos n
t? + 0(a^u2)
2;fJ 2
Tr -77 --rr/O
635
Salvesen
^^^^ = ^^" 2
i;^^
E,(2hsec ^) sec.
and
2
-2h sec^e .^^^2 z,n3
(qj) = e (sec'^^).* .
* *
REPLY TO DISCUSSION
Nils Salvesen
The author is grateful to the discussers for their contributions to this work.
Mr. Giesing, Dr. Tuck, and Professor Michelsen questioned the assumption
of omitting the second-order contributions related to the body-surface boundary
condition. These very important second-order contributions have recently been
investigated by the author, and the results have now been included in an adden-
dum to this paper.
Dr. van Wijngaarden raises the question of "whether there is also a vertical
force on the body and of which order of magnitude." For this symmetrical body
at zero incidence the first-order theory will predict no vertical force, while the
second-order theory clearly will give a vertical force due to the nonuniform
flow caused by the first-order wave system. In this work only the surface waves
and the wave resistance were investigated; however, the vertical force can
easily be determined from the consistent second-order potential.
In closing the author would like to express how pleased he was to hear that
Dr. Kim at the Davidson Laboratory is now applying Tuck's procedure to the
three-dimensional problem of a sphere and that at the University of Michigan
one of Professor Michelsen 's students is studying boundary layer effects for the
same two-dimensional body treated by the author.
636
ADDED RESISTANCE OF
SHIPS IN WAVES
W. P. A. Joosen
Netherlands Ship Model Basin
Wageningen, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT
An expression is derived for the drift force acting on a slender ship in
waves. The speed effect in the added resistance is taken into account
by using the frequency of encounter. Numerical calculations based on
a two-dinnensional strip theory are carried out for various ship forms
and the results are connpared with experimental data.
INTRODUCTION
After the work of Havelock (1) and Hanaoka (2) the first complete analysis
of the drift forceswas obtained by Maruo (3). He derived expressions in terms
of the Kochin function. The drift force appeared to be composed of two effects:
the motion of the ship and the reflection of the waves. Maruo carried out cal-
culations for simple ship shapes.
The work of Maruo was extended by Newman (4), who included the determi-
nation of the vertical moment. He further obtained approximate expressions for
slender ships in waves of moderate or large lengths.
637
Joosen
DRIFT FORCE
First we shall consider a ship at zero forward speed in the presence of in-
cident plane progressive waves.
The ship is supposed to be slender, i.e., the beam -to -length ratio e - B/L is
small. Moreover, the wave amplitude h and the amplitude of the ship motion a
are assumed to be small; consequently a linearized theory can be used. The
motion is assumed to be harmonic in time with frequency W27t The fluid ve- .
X = 2x/L ,
ey = 2y/L , ez = 2z/L , h = 2h/L , a = a/h ,
k = c^2B/2g , (D = gL/2w
h0 e"^'^* .
In this coordinate system the transverse coordinates are stretched in the ratio
e" * ; therefore the longitudinal and transverse dimensions of the ship are of the
same order of magnitude. The cross section curves c are given by the equation
y= f(x, z) sgny. The frequency parameter is assumed to be of order unity.
where ji is the angle of wave incidence relative to the x axis. Let (t>^ be the
disturbance potential due to the presence of the body. 4>^ must satisfy the La-
place equation, the free surface condition, the radiation condition, and a bound-
ary condition at the ship's hull. This last condition reads in the slender body
approximation
-rr - - -^ ikf ^
a (1 - f /)
^
av av
where v is the direction normal to the ship's hull S. Since the problem is
linear 4>^ can be split up in two other potential functions
01 = 0j + a0^ ,
with
3x/ 'bv
638
Added Resistance of Ships in Waves
and
at S. 4>d
is the diffraction potential due to the incident wave c^q, and 0^ is the
radiation potential due to the oscillatory motion of the body for the case of am-
plitude unity.
The mean force and moment acting horizontally on the ship can be related
to the rate of change of linear momentum within the fluid domain bounded by the
ship's hull, the free surface, and a control surface at infinity. The result is de-
rived by Maruo (3) and Newman (4) and reads for the two force components
F^ = -j ^
-^/ogh^B^L
=
^
16776
2
(cos + cos /3) |H(0)|^de , (1)
Jo
and
^
F =-^
=-r-A (sin e + sin yS) |H(e)i'd^, (2)
'-1 ''c ( X )
We shall apply this result to a slender ship for the case of k being of order
unity.
The first order term in the series expansion of Eq. (1) and Eq. (2) with re-
spect to e will be derived in the next section.
ASYMPTOTIC EXPANSION
The expression for H(0) can be written as
639
Joosen
H(0) dx a Gj(x, z, y) dz
-r, C(x)
-k f dx r G2(x,z,0)e^'^(''/')(^^^"^^^>dz ,
~'- 1 Jc ( X )
where
if^ + (i sin ^ -
]k(z+iy sin
f
and
[
dx dz r d^ dC g(5)d? Ja, e^"^'^)^"-^)"'
1677^6"
J-
f
1 C( X )
J- 1 C( f ''0 t
6^^'''^^^^''"^^^''^^**'^'^^ 3*^^''^*^'^^''"^^''^^'^''^'^^
+ A + A
where
k^
-i^
F^ = cos /?
'" Ai x.^U Ai X dz ,
J"
'-1 1
-^c ( X )
'
and
640
Added Resistance of Ships in Waves
In the next part of the paper we shall restrict ourselves to the longitudinal
force component, since this component is important for the computation of the
added resistance of a ship in waves.
cos /3
^
|P(x)| ^dx ,
(3)
8^2 J_ 1
where
P(
-1 -'C( X)
ifz + (i-fz) ?
k( z+iy)^
^ d2
,
and a is the dimensionless amplitude of the ship motion at the point x . Let the
heave amplitude be given by ze^^' and the pitch angle amplitude by "^e^^^. In-
troducing the dimensionless quantities
we obtain
a = z^ +
7t2 T
^2.1,2
x'^ ^p + 5;
277L
x z cos (e 1
- 3)
-'C(x)
0^ = Ae'^^^'^'y')"^^ .
641
Joosen
A
P(x) = i-e^ i
and
|P(x)|' = ^ k-
n = A^ ^ . (5)
1 OJ^
^^ "
T T^^o ^0 ^'" ^ + Pq^o sin y')
where B^ is the amplitude of the exciting force for heave, ^^ the amplitude of
the heave motion, and y the phase lag. Pq 0^, and y' are the same quantities
,
where N and N' are the damping values. This expression is exactly the same
as Eq. (4) except for the coupling term of heave and pitch.
ADDED RESISTANCE
In order to obtain the added resistance of a ship moving in waves, it seems
necessary to derive a theory in which the forward speed effect is included.
Let us consider, however, the case of a slender, sharply pointed body which
oscillates in short waves, the frequency parameter k being of order unity. If
the body is moving forward at speed v, we have to assume the order of magni-
tude of the Froude number in regard to the slenderness parameter in order to
develop a correct asymptotic expansion with respect to e.
The speed V appears in the first order term of the velocity potential if we
assume the Froude number to be of order unity or the parameter "jV g to be
close to 0.25. When considering practical values, however, it seems reasonable
to suppose the Froude number to be of order v'^. From (5) we know that this
642
Added Resistance of Ships in Waves
assumption leads to a first order term in the potential which does not contain
forward speed effects. We may expect, therefore, that the expression for the
added resistance is also independent of the speed.
Therefore we shall apply the expression for the drift force at zero forward
speed to the problem of the moving body as well: ar= f,^. For the determina-
tion of the frequency parameter k, we shall use the frequency of encounter:
Although not being consistent with the mathematical theory we shall apply this
procedure, since we know that it gives very reliable results in determining the
ship motions.
Numerical results are obtained for a "Series 60" model (Cg = 0.65) in head
waves at zero forward speed. To compare the results with experimental data,
the model was tested in the sea-keeping laboratory of the Netherlands Ship
Model Basin. The results are plotted against the wavelength ratio \/L in Fig. 1.
The agreement between theory and experiment is satisfactory for wavelengths
r
Joosen
Of the order of the ship length. For short waves, however, a rather serious
discrepancy occurs. This can be explained by a simple theoretical considera-
tion.
The expression for the longitudinal drift force depends on the radiation
potential only. It is proportional to the square of the motion amplitude. The
diffraction effect of the waves is of negligible order of magnitude. This is cor-
rect provided that the motion amplitude is of the same order of magnitude for
the whole frequency range. For short waves, however, the motion amplitudes
appear to be much smaller than in the case of larger wavelengths. Therefore it
is to be expected that for higher frequencies the diffraction effect becomes more
and more important in relation to the radiation effect. In the limiting case for
infinite small wavelength the added resistance is caused by the diffraction effect
only. To get an impression about the diffraction effect a correction term is
added to the theoretical curve in Fig. 1. For this correction term an expression
is taken for the drift force in very short waves, obtained by Havelock (8) de-
pending on the wave diffraction only:
2e- sin a dy ,
where a is the angle between the tangent of the water plane curve and the x axis.
The agreement between theoretical values and experimental data then becomes
much better.
Finally, experimental data of Sibul (10) are compared with theoretical cal-
culations. For three "Series 60" models (Cg = 0.6, 0.7, 0.8) the results are
plotted in Fig. 3. The model with block coefficient 0.8 shows a remarkable
discrepancy. In Fig. 4 the peak values are represented as a function of the
Froude number.
CONCLUSIONS
644
Added Resistance of Ships in Waves
0.3 1.1
(c)
AR
Joosen
Ships which are moving forward at constant speed have a peak of added re-
sistance in the neighbourhood of A./L = l Using the frequency of encounter, the
.
From the theoretical calculations it can be concluded that the added resist-
ance decreases with increasing block coefficient. This cannot be verified by the
available experimental data.
REFERENCES
1. Havelock, T.H., "The Drifting Force on a Ship Among Waves," Phil. Mag.
33 (1942)
3. Maruo, H., "The Drift of a Body Floating on Waves," J. Ship Res. (1960)
4. Newman, J.N., "The Drift Force and Moment on Ships in Waves," David
Taylor Model Basin Report, 1965
7. Tasai, F., "On the Damping Force and Added Mass of Ships Heaving and
Pitching," J. Zosen Kiokai (1959)
646
Added Resistance of Ships in Waves
647
SECOND-ORDER CONTRIBUTIONS
TO SHIP WAVES AND
WAVE RESISTANCE
K. W. H. Eggers
Institut fur Schiffbauder Universitdt Hamburg
Hamburg, Germany
For (b), the theories of wave resistance used nowadays are of second order,
based on linearized flow models. For calculation of wave resistance, only a
far-field component of this flow has to be known explicitly; for any consistent
approach to third-order resistance contributions, however, the knowledge of the
entire first-order flow is essential. Aside from some semiempirical approaches
to alternate formulations of linear theory, which we shall submit to some criti-
cal examination, and aside from an indirect approach as successfully carried
out by Kajitani recently, the tool for a systematic perturbation attack to the
higher order flow components has been provided by Wehausen (1-3) in a series
of papers starting with that read before this audience in 1956 up to his contri-
bution to the Ann Arbor conference. As, however, the step to formulate
649
Eggers
resistance expressions was not performed, credit is generally given to Sisov (4)
for first dealing with these. We should, nevertheless, be aware that expressions
given by Sisov so far essentially contain divergent integrals due to the selection
of an improper radiation condition for Green's function of the pressure point. In
our present investigation, we will rederive some of Sisov 's results from a
Green's theorem approach essentially following Wehausen. We will, in particu-
lar, show some simplifications which make calculations straightforward once a
Fourier representation of first-order flow components is given. It will become
evident that integration over the undisturbed free surface has to be performed
only in a small domain where local flow is significant; third-order wave resist-
ance is, therefore, much more tractable to numerical evaluation than is appar-
ent from what was formulated by Sisov, provided we decide on an appropriate
definition of wave resistance.
Regarding the third problem, i.e., ships of minimum resistance within low-
est order theory, our investigation should throw light on the question as to what
degree third-order contributions might counteract the tendencies predicted. At
the present stage, however, our calculations are limited to a two-parameter
class of hull forms having parabolic waterlines. This is mainly due to the fact
that we preferred analytical evaluation of integrals over the geometry of the
ship. An extension of our program for local flow, to include contributions from
empirical surface elements is feasible, but loss of closed integration would
probably increase time for computation and weaken control of accuracy. More-
over, the necessary degree of hull subdivision will in general depend on the
Froude number and is not known beforehand. Even for analytical ship forms,
the development of formal expressions for closed integration cannot be done by
the computer and provides many opportunities for errors in evaluation of singu-
lar regions of integrands for local flow.
with earlier work (6). As far as possible we otherwise use notation consistent
with Ref. 3. However, the direction of normal vectors is reversed resulting
from our definition of Green's function with an opposite sign. Extension of the
results to unrestricted water is straightforward.
650
Ship Waves and Wave Resistance ^
vertical tank walls s^ and Sg, where T = b/L and b = tank width. Let s^ stand
for the free surface Z = UX,Y) for x^ < x < X3 and T < Y < T, and let s/' stand
for the undisturbed free surface z = with the water-plane area of the ship ex-
cluded. Let S^ stand for the wetted surface of the ship, and let S^ stand for
the part of the surface up to Z= 0. Let D stand for the domain of the complete
flow, bounded by s^, Sj, s^ s^, s^ ,s^ and s^, and let D describe the corre-
,
sponding domain if S^ and S^ are replaced by 5^ and Sj' Let 0^ ^^ stand for .
the Michell type first approximation to the exact potential 0. Let P stand for a
point in D or D with coordinates X, Y, and Z, and let P' represent a point on a
boundary surface with coordinates ^, 77, and ^. Let G(P,P' ) stand for the po-
tential of a source of output ^-n as defined in the appendix.
where A stands for SVSX^+ h'^/hY'^^ sVSZ^ and S means the Dirac delta function,
which is zero if P is unequal P' (Condition A implies that G becomes singular
.
at - l/|P-P'| .)
( 1)
"Xo^ -Xn G, + Gxx = 0.
Fig. 1 - Nomenclature
651
Eggers
For the exact potential i//, no such condition holds. But we define a function
S(X,Y)by
G = 0( 1 ) as X - -00 ;
G = 0(X" ^ ) as X - +C0 ,
Application of Green's theorem shows that // '' and can be defined sub- Z-
ject to thesame modes of asymptotic decay, provided the quantity H^.Y) will
then turn out to be well behaved. The symmetry of functions 'P and 0^ '^ with
regard to the lateral coordinate Y will be taken for granted by the symmetry of
the ship sections and the tank profile.
We should bear in mind that (3) for the function P existence as a harmonic
function is if at all guaranteed only in domain D but not necessarily in D.
However, low-order approximations have been derived (3) which are found to
exist in the whole interior of D For the moment we seek terms up to second
.
degree only; we shall in the following formulate the problem for the domain D
with boundaries known a priori in favor of a less intricate analysis, and derive
approximate solutions to this auxiliary problem by perturbation techniques.
Then, for point P within D we may apply Green's theorem to functions p and G
,
From conditions C and D we may conclude that the contributions of S^, S^.,
The integral over s/*, where the normal derivative is in z direction, may
be transformed by integration regarding ^ and use of B:
652
Ship Waves and Wave Resistance
^ = x.
J.
(^zG- 0G^) dS (^x^" 0G^)
47T
^^ It f = x.
dTJ
4777,
K^.OGdS (^xG-^G^)d77 ,
(2)
^^-Xo J,
where the line integral around the ship's load waterline Lp has to be understood
in counterclockwise sense when viewed from above (compare Eq. (19) of Ref. 3).
for X < Xp, then, due to the finite size of s^ with conditions F, we may infer that
the contribution of s^ becomes insignificant as we let x^ tend to -00. Similarly,
if and ^^ ^^^^^ to zero as X->oo, then, due to boundedness of g and g^, the
contribution of S^ may be neglected with x^ becoming large. But the contribu-
tions of Sg and S^, must be independent of position x^ and X^ inasmuch as the
contribution of the defect 6(X,Y) may be neglected. Considering higher order
terms, however, we will see that independence from x^ cannot be assumed in
general.
For the first integral in Eq. (2) over the wetted surface s^ we shall make ,
the assumption that condition E for holds even for parts of the hull not included
/'
For the second integral over s^ we substitute the actual components of the
normal vector to obtain (compare Eq. (18) of Ref. 3)
^47T f
J_
0G dS'
4t7 JJ
>A k, eF(f,0. ^ 6Fx(G^ + G")
653
Eggers
^j F(^,0^(GYY
+ G;Y)d^d^ +^ |J0(G;-G;)d^dC
-^ f
0F(^,O) (gJ + G") d^. (6)
-^ J (^xG-G^0)d7^ = -
^ r Lj^(G* + G-) -0(GJ + G-)] Fx(^,0) df
k
4t77o
/^(^' V^Xx(G' + G-) - 0(G^^+G^^) d^ (7)
= -
^ II F(^,0(G^ + G^)d^d^ +
4^ 11
S(^,77)Gd^ dv
4777^
J_ ^
F(^,O)0xx(G*+G-) d^ -
^ I"
F(^,0 >Ax(G^ + G^) + 02(G^+G^) d^dTj
^x(^,V,0)G -4^(^,V,0)G^
if.
f=x.
+ >Axx(^-^'OG- 0x(^'-^.OG^ da d77
f = x.
Ifwe here neglect the contributions of S^ and S^, the remaining expression,
proper behavior of &(X,Y) assumed, really makes this omission legitimate due
to the properties stated under F for the function G.
654
Ship Waves and Wave Resistance
So far, we have
not used any considerations regarding the smallness of
e = B/L. We
should note that G is defined even for 17 = 0, i.e., for P' within the
ship's hull, and is well behaved there, if P is not too close to P' By develop- .
and
G; = +eFG;^ + 0(e2), (Qb)
which shows that the factor of ^ in the last integral is small at least of order
e 2 In general we have
.
inserting into Green's formula and collecting terms of equal order in e, we find
i)
that ^'^^ is just the expression from Michell's theory with ( = o and no con-
For examination of ^^ 2) ^g must go into the nature of < 2)(x, Y). From
Ref. 2, page 464, Eq. (10.12), we find with p = const, and replacing 3/a^ by -B/^x
and -g by y^ for our nondimensional representation.
(It should be observed that only the local component of ^^ ^> contributes to the
expression brackets in the second term due to structure of G see the appen-
dix.) Sisov's expression corresponding to Eq. (12) is incorrect.
the decay of G and its derivatives as 0(X-^) for x- +oo, causing the
From
same mode of decay for ^^ ^ it may be seen that s(^'>
^ , = 0(X' 2) for x - +co, and
the Green's formula expression may be neglected. If now we can assume that
the potential
655
Eggers
and its x derivative are uniformly bounded for x < x^ and to prove this for not
too peculiar ^^ ^^ should be possible with moderate effort then we may drop
the contribution of S^ as well as x^ tending to infinity and may finally write
0(2), ^(2), ^(2)^
and
( 2)
02 '(X,Y,Z) .(2)(^,^) Gd^ dr;.
4777o (14)
3. A line distribution of sources around the ship's load water line of output
corresponding to the local breadth times the wave slope in the X direction along
the ship's contour according to linear theory.
One should observe that the potential appears only in derivative form. On
the other hand, no differentiability of the hull surface function F is required to
make the expression for 0' ^' meaningful.
For numerical evaluation, the following approximations are made: (a) cal-
culating the potential from a distribution &(X,Y) extending over the entire undis-
turbed free surface Z = including the waterplane area, and (b) inserting the
flow components calculated for the plane v= rather than on the hull surface.
Both these steps require continuation of the flow potential and some of its de-
rivatives into the domain occupied by the ship. This is achieved by extension of
the corresponding Fourier series in v- Insofar as these series would not con-
verge for 77 = in the usual sense (for example, the series for ^y) we treat them
as generalized functions. The second term of 5(X,Y) in Eq. (12) will in general
become singular at bow and stern; however, for a symmetric hull we will find
that it can be left out for calculation of wave resistance.
656
Ship Waves and Wave Resistance
noted that Eq. (13) for A^j^^ can be retransformed by partial integration in f and
C to a representation by a source distribution over s*, eliminating the line in-
tegral, so that
0(^)
^ ^{Wx']^ [f4'1 '^"'"^ '''^''- ^^^^
=
\l
Jci,fd^
'^[J\
We should observe that the source density corresponds to the change of internal
flow with coordinate rather than to the normal velocity.
Equation (15) may be compared with Eq. (43) of Ref. 3, in which the influ-
ence of trim and sinkage is included. We see that all line integrals presented
there can be eliminated under validity of our assumptions.
Having thus selected a model for the approximation of the flow, there is a
decision to be made for definition of wave resistance to the corresponding de-
gree of approximation. Three different approaches may be considered: (a) in-
tegrate pressure components over the wetted part of the hull bounded by the
calculated wave profile, retaining only terms up to third order, (b) start with
expressions for the energy flow through a vertical plane behind the ship, as
given in Eq. (8.6), page 460 of Ref. 2, and evaluate these for approximate flow,
using the wave contour from this approximate flow, or (c) consider the approxi-
mate second-order flow to be physically real in the domain D, that is, consider
a closed surface, part of which is the wetted hull, and from the fact that mo-
mentum in the enclosed volume D should not change with time, infer that action
of pressure on the hull can be expressed through flow of generalized momentum
across the rest of the surface.
It can be shown easily that for the linearized flow model one and the same
expression for the resistance can be derived by either approach (see however
the objections raised by Sharma (9)). Up to third order, however, (a) and (c)
should only give equivalent expressions R^ and R^, if the boundary condition on
the hull is already met exactly by the approximate flow, as otherwise we may
have substantial flux of momentum into the ship's interior. The formula for (b)
was derived under assumption of a free surface under constant pressure and
composed of streamlines. For a second-order flow, it is unrealistic to maintain
this assumption. We should therefore expect that resistance R^, calculated by
this formula applied to the approximate flow, could, even in a nonmonotonic way
depend on the location x^ of the vertical control plane where data are taken.
657
Eggers
where v is the flow vector in any system of reference either at rest or in uni-
form translatory motion and n is the unit normal vector directed outward. If
we now select
R.
V/JJ02 ^^^'n - ^'^^^
pc2(L/2)2yg 1 7o '/'xS^Y
V+0z'
.s ^x'^7 ^^^'n + 7, IJ-JJ dr]di (18)
Reference to conditions C and D shows that the surface S^, s^ and Sj^ may be ,
left out. The integral over s may be transformed to line integrals along the
boundaries and an integral containing the function &(X,Y) in a similar way as
was done for the potential given by Eq. (2). The contribution from S^, including
the line integral from 5^ tends to zero as x^ ^oo due to F. Thus, we are left
,
with
2 2 ^^ dr]
+ ^0 ,
-'-H
(19)
where the line integral over the load waterline Lp is again in counterclockwise
direction when viewed from above.
658
Ship Waves and Wave Resistance
c = e
Therefore, with
+ lP
(c
(v
n)
X
=
n)
(v
X c
n)
dsy =
assumed even
R^ + p
N (v
But this is just fig, the resistance defined from pressure integration over the
hull,because the nonstatic pressure is /o[(v c) - (v v)/2] and we thus have
^^^^^^
AR = pg ^ (Z- O dZd77 = pg j.
^
dv .
(23)
Now the perturbation procedure gives the first-order wave elevation (2) as
^'''-
^t^X. i.e.,^=^0i^\x,Y,O).
(24)
and adding this in nondimensional form to Eq. (19), we see that this correction
just cancels the line integral around Lp, which we therefore can happily discard
(8).
andR^^^ = R^i^^ + rI,^^ (corresponding to the partition ^^^= i/;^!^^ +i//^^^), with
659
Eggers
,( 3 C \ I ,<')/( 2 ) ^ r [,(!),( 2) ^
+
,( 1) ,(2) (1) (2)
dC dT? (26)
^ 4^2 ^1^ - ^X '/'l^
and
.(3)
S^'^C^.^) 4*^ d^d77
^0 It Jx^
,( 1) ,(2) ( 1) (2) 1) 2)
^X ^^2^ + ^Z "^'22 - ^X
( (
Let us now, only to save labor in writing down formulas, assume that the
depth of the tank is large enough that we may put H= . If 0( i) can at X= X^ be
represented by a system of free waves (we omit terms nonsymmetric in Y for
reasons of simplicity) as
where AU = 77/(7oT) and U^ = vAU = sec ^^^ sin 0^, M^ = l + 4U^^ K^= (l + M^)/2= sec 2^^,
*v = Vk7 = sec^^, A^^^ = Ail\ and B^^) - B^;^) (where e^ stands for the angle of
wave propagation against the X axis), then (6) we can evaluate the integrals in
closed form as
CD
( 2) 2 - COS'
R = T A + B Xn (29)
(This formula reflects the fact that the resistance is essentially equal to the av-
erage energy in the wave components times the difference between the ship's
speed c and the x component of the group-velocity, divided by c.)
K ,(
(//j
1)
has a corresponding far -field representation
( 2)free KrnZ
(30)
*x 7] aJ'^ cos (W^7oX) + b['^ sin (W^y^X) COS (U^7oY) .
.(3)
then R*^ as interference between both systems can be written down directly as
( 2) .( 1) _(2) ( 1)'
R<,'>=Tf'(2-cos^fi,)(A',;'A: + B, B. (31)
660
Ship Waves and Wave Resistance
For evaluation of Eqs. (29) and (31) we have to keep in mind that for v- the
Green's function G has a representation for ^ >> X as a system of free waves
like
00
K^^o(Z+0 (32)
^x - /_, gv COS W.7o(X-^) cos (U^7oY)
V =- CO
(33)
and
(34)
Therefore
(35)
(36)
( 1)
F(^,0) ^xx sin (W^7o^) d^, (37)
2^7o J_^
and
-
^^ r F(^,0) V'xi^ cos (W^7o^) d^ (38)
661
Eggers
The above expressions can in general be evaluated in closed form for mathemat-
icalelementary hulls, save the contributions of the local flow ^A^ '^ to the inte-
grands, where however the v integration may be interchanged with closed-form
^,C integration.
Y^ K(^)
T
(2 ) r S free
d0 =
Gx (^,7j.0,X,Y,Z) dT7d^ (40)
^:;;7
J.J
with
CD
free y(^'^
W,7o(X-^) COS (U,7oY) cos (U^ro77) (41)
K.rnZ
d02^^ = - 2T 2^ (S.KyM,T) e"-'^ [cos (W^7^) cos (W,7oX)
K now for ^\^^ as well, only free waves are significant at X= X^, i.e., if we have
,rnZ
4'' =
4'^'^'^ = COS (W.7oX) +
sin (W,7oX)l e''- " cos (U,7oY)
2Z k''
V=- 00 L
Bi'^ ,
(44)
( 2 ( 3
then di/^j will make up a contribution to Rj as
662
Ship Waves and Wave Resistance
(3) K
dR -T 2] S,(2-cos2^J^ A^^ cos (W^7o^) - R^'^ sin (W^7o<f) d^. (45)
Thus
CD
(3)
dR - 2T kl'^ cos(W^7o^) + B^'^ sin (Vl^y,^)
( 1 ) free
(47)
-r
This is not yet the whole contribution of the strip to Rj(3) ,
however; from Eq
(27) we have to add
(3
dR ^\^<V) 4^x\^'V,0) d77d^. (48)
.(3)
(49)
J- 00 J- T
with
-y (1) ( l)free
(50)
The above integral, Eq. (49), will have significant contributions to resist-
ance only from the vicinity of the ship, as & has strong decay ahead and the
factor 0x shows a decay aft. The overwhelming contribution should therefore
come from the rhombe-shaped region bounded by a Kelvin angle drawn from the
bow and an opposite angle from the stern.
The expression for Rj^^ could have been derived directly as the Lagally
force of the wave field due to the surface disturbance 8(^,^) acting on the sin-
gularities creating the first-order flow field of the ship. It would, therefore,
have been found by Sisov under use of the proper radiation condition. For the
case of a nonsubmerged body, we felt that formal application of Lagally 's law
even for higher order contributions deserved caution. Inserting Eq. (13) we have
663
Eggers
[Erad^<-.];-,<-'[,X".4i']JJ(4"-*r""')-dV.
|_
"'
[
"
(51)
-T ^00
( 3)
[grad0^*^] 0x^\-X) dXdY = - [grad^^^)] ^jcx^"^)^^^
J-J J-O) J- J J- CD
00
and
CO
4'\x,Y,0) =
2^ 7^(X) cos (U,7oY) with y^ = y_^ ,
(53c)
V=- CO
where according to Eqs. (33) and (Al) the coefficients a^ , /3^, and y^ depend on
hull geometry given by Y= eF(X,Z) through the relations
H^(X,Y,Z) = -^ ^^
,0'
[sign(X-^)- 1] e'^'^^'o^ F(^, O cos [W^7o(X-f)] d^dC
-0* -'v=o
U dV
- U^ sin (V7oO d^d^ (55)
J U'* +
V^
and u^, M^, w^, K^, and u as given by Eq. (A4b); then we can express
664
Ship Waves and Wave Resistance
R</>- P<^>.,
fij .W...3..-
7o4L/(/B-'cO
as
/*C0 00 03
due to the Fourier orthogonality relations for y integration, where the X inte-
gral may be truncated soon after x exceeds 1 in absolute value.
The above formula can easily be extended to the case of infinite tank width
as T->oo; however, for practical evaluation it is recommended to consider T as
inverse of spacing in integration by trapezoidal rule and let T be just large
enough, dependent on X, that for <f = X the actual wave pattern is well within
|y| < t, i.e., that no tank effect can be felt.
and
(compare Eqs. (18), (25), (26), and (27)), where fl^^^ and fl^^^ are the actual
third-order and second-order resistance components.
NUMERICAL RESULTS
For most of the computations done so far, at the present stage the author's
caution predominates over the temptation to have them presented prematurely.
From the field of wave pattern analysis, however, two typical examples shall be
shown.
For a ship with parabolic waterlines and a draft/length ratio equal to 1/20,
in Fig. 2 we have plotted our calculations for
It has been shown by Ward (14) that this quantity, measured by him as an inte-
gral over the product of X force and Y force experienced by a vertical cylinder
placed at distance y from the ship's path, is representative for the portion of
the total wave resistance R^ ^^ which is manifested in the energy transport of
665
Fig. 2 - Portion of resistance obtainable from cylinder
force measurements by Ward's X-Y method: ship with
parabolic waterlines, draft/length = 1/ZO, 7o - ^^ ^""^
F^^^=
n
10. The curve with the percentages
J. o labeled is
that of the wave resistance from the various cuts i - rj
truncated at X = 10.
666
Ship Waves and Wave Resistance
waves passing through the plane 77= y between c= -X and - - X, Roughly speak-
ing, the diagram shows that at least a record of five times the ship's length
within the Kelvin pattern is necessary to attain 80 percent of the resistance.
Our calculation showed that omission of the local wave components did not sig-
nificantly change the result even for Y less than 1,
SUMMARY
With the above analytical considerations, an attempt was made to coordinate
the intuitive approach of Sisov with the rigorous procedure of Wehausen. Allow-
ing some simplifications, we found that even the latter leads to a representation
of the second-order wave potential by sources only, located on the undisturbed
free surface and on the longitudinal centerplane of the ship; in particular, all
line integrals can be eliminated. Additional resistance can be expressed in
terms of first-order flowcomponents which determine these singularities. Only
a region of the free surface close to the ship need be considered.
667
Eggers
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Development of the fundamental program for computations was initiated
during the author's National Science Foundation Fellowship at the University of
Notre Dame and continued under support of Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.
The author wishes to express gratitude to Deutsches Electronen Synchrotron,
Hamburg, for generosity in making available their IBM 7044 computer facilities.
He also thanks the H-5 Panel of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine En-
gineers for their continued interest in his work.
REFERENCES
1. Wehausen, J.V., Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, Washington, D.C.,
1956, pp. 109-133, National Academy of Sciences - National Research
Council, 1957
4. Sisov, V.G., Izvestiya Akad. Nauk SSSR Otdel. Tekhn. Nauk, Mekh. i
11. Bauer, F.L., and Stetter, H.J., "Numerische Mathematik 1,208,220 (1959)
12. Bessho, M., Anniversary Series Soc. Nav. Arch, of Japan, Vol. 2, pp.
136-170
668
Ship Waves and Wave Resistance
APPENDIX
A FOURIER SERIES REPRESENTATION OF THE SOURCE
POTENTIAL IN A TANK OF FINITE WIDTH
with
AU = 77/(7oT) ,
ree _ free
f
'1/ 6- V [sign(X-0 -1] ^ e^^^^^'^^ sin W^7o(X- ^) ,
K = Vl + 4U^2 ^
W^ = yii; = sec 6^
and
669
Eggers
C. Gy= for Y= T;
D. G^-* as z->-oo;
F. G = 0(X- <f)" ^
as X->+co, G= 0(1) as X--co, G^ = 0(X- ^")' ^
as X-+co ,
continuous way at x = ^ and (b) for \y - r]\ <t, Z<0, and C < 0, G and G^ be-
come singular only for x= <f Y = ^7, and Z- and that the functions
, i, ,
G = G + l/r (A3a)
and
with
,- 1/2
r = [(X-^)2 + (Y-7i)2 + (Z- O']'
Statement (a) is evident for the function G. Assume for simplicity <f = 0,
K
-rr- e
K^ro(z+o
= Iim
1 Kyn X
V COS (Vy^Z) - U^ sin(V>oZ) V cos (V7oO
M., v^ r^ W
dV
- U^ sin (V/oO (A4a)
J U^ + V
for arbitrary u^ > and z^ i with
670
Ship Waves and Wave Resistance
2^ X-^0
V^ COS V/o(Z+ O + COS V7o(Z-0[ - U"*] cos v/o(z+^.; V.o(Z-
e-"^"" dV
+ 2U2V sin V7o(Z+ O
The second integral term in the last expression is zero for any finite X. The
term is 0(X). The
last integral first integral term may be written
which shows poles of the integrand for v = i(M^, - 1)2 and V = -i(M^ + 1)2 = -iK^.
By shifting the path of integration downward in the complex plane we can make
the integral arbitrarily small after splitting off the residuum at v = -iK^; thus
we finally get
K,ro(Z+0
(V-iK^[V+ i(M,+ l)/2] VroCZ+ol 1
_K,e
277i Res (A7)
V = -iK4 (V+ iKJ[V-i(M,+ l)/2] 477
(A8a)
l/Fj = 1/(277) e'"'^"^' COS u [(Y- t;) COS + (Z+ O sin e] dud(9
^U=0 ^d =
and
u X-
1/r = 1/(277)
I
.f
COS u [(Y- 77) COS 6) + (Z- O sin 0] dudt^ ,
(A8b)
671
Eggers
we have
-co .00
II
1/r- l/rj -
7o/(277) e 2 sin (VyQZ) sin (VygO cos [U7o(Y - tj)] /U dUdV
(AlO)
and
.00 CO
11
(1/r- 1/ri)^ -7^/(2^) ^ ' 2 sin (V7oZ) sin (V7oO
IJ.
X cos [U7o(Y-'^)] dUdV sign(X- ^) . (All)
A general law in the theory of Fourier transforms (see Ref. 11 of the preceding
list) essentially known as Poisson's summation rule states that if the func-
tion F(y) has a representation
then
OP
F (S,y) =
2_, ^^y+ ^^)
CO
F*(S,y) =
2] ^("v) e'^^^AU (A13)
with Au - l/s and u^ = z^Au. With S = tA, we therefore have the representation
CO , -
with u^ = 27rj>/(7o T) and u = \A^^~i^lJ7^. But the terms under summation are
,
equivalent to corresponding terms in the series for G given by Eq. (Al), and it
can be seen that after subtraction of these terms the integrals for the coeffi-
cients g^^^^ in Eq. (Al) converge even in the case x= -^ and z= ^. ,
* * *
672
Ship Waves and Wave Resistance
DISCUSSION
John V. Wehausen
University of California, Berkeley
Berkeley, California
I am not convinced by, and probably do not understand correctly, Dr. Egg-
ers' reason for not using his approach (b) to determine the wave resistance
(second subsection of his analysis section). His discarding it seems especially
puzzling in view of the fruitful use that he has made in other contexts of the as-
sociated formula
^("e'V) r
R y (Xg,y) dy \p dy r dz
= Pg
~'''
LI
T
^ + 2 \
J-T J-H
<Px (''e-y-^)"^ ^y + ^; .
If one granted the assumption of irrotational flow of an inviscid fluid, and Dr.
is^
Eggers makes this assumption, the above formula is exact; i.e., no further ap-
proximations are required to derive it. This being so, an approximation to rp
and i of any particular sort should at the same time also yield an approximation
to R of an appropriate sort. If we suppose then, following Dr. Eggers, that
= e^(pl^\x,y,0)
^
=
2 1
C (2) 1 ( 1
.
,, ( 1 ) ( 1 c ( 1 ) (1)1
>+
+ CD cp ...
^
g " 2g 2 ^x ^xz I
(see e.g., Eq. (14) of Ref. 1 or Eq. (27.6) of Ref. 2), substitution into the formula
for R and some easy manipulations yield
-^
R = e- (Xp,y,0) dy +
1
2" P
f dy -cp^^Ve^y.^-^^^^^l^'' dz
2g I
{^ I
V^'\x^,y,0) cp^'\x^,y,0) dy
'.l"Ve.y.o)-^.<"%i;' dy
+ dy
(l)x v(2) (1)(2) (1)(2)
p -f^x (''e-y-O^x + ^y ^y + ^z ^'z
J-T J-H
673
Eggers
This agrees with Dr. Eggers' results given by Eqs. (25), (26), and (27) ex-
cept that his integral containing s( 2) js replaced by the integral above with the
integrand
^x - -g-^x *xy
It immediately clear that these integrals are equal, although this may be
is not
true. they are not identical, the difference should be 0(e), provided neither
If
of us has made an error. In any case, the formula above seems to be well
founded, perhaps easier to evaluate than the other by using asymptotic expres-
sions as Xp ^a, and to lend itself to Dr. Eggers' later analysis. However, Dr.
Eggers evidently has special insights into this problem as a result of his expe-
rience with the computation, and I would appreciate his clarifying further the
reasons for choosing his method for computing P..
DISCUSSION
B. Yim
Hydronautics, Inc.
Laurel, Maryland
674
Ship Waves and Wave Resistance
DISCUSSION
Lawrence W. Ward
Webb Institute ofNaval Architecture
Glen Cove, New York
the Institut fur Schiffbau der Universitat Hamburg under a National Science
Foundation Fellowship, and I therefore know something of the ingenuity and ef-
fort which my friend and colleague Dr. Eggers expended to produce these re-
sults. Development of the computer program for the linearized case including
the total wave field for shiplike bodies in an ideal fluid provides us with a mini-
mum test for our various wave analysis methods, which are based on the same
assumptions, that must be met more-or-less exactly, before we can expect any
hope of even approximate validity of these methods for an actual model in a real
fluid. I will comment further on this point in respect to the "X-Y" method in a
moment. The carrying on of a consistent next approximation beyond the linear-
ized theory, following the lead of Wehausen, promises to be even more interest-
ing. It is not obvious to me that the effect of viscosity alone must explain the
major portion of the discrepancy between the Michell theory and experiment
this would be equivalent to saying that the linearized theory would agree with
tests run on the actual model in an ideal fluid; we must however await numeri-
cal results from the author to clarify this picture.
675
Eggers
1,00
I thank the author for selecting the very specialized "X-Y" function to use
as a illustration of his computer results, and I take this opportunity to point out
that it is not necessary for this quantity to equal 100% of the theoretical wave
resistance for validity of the method to be established. This is because the
"X-Y" method also includes a "centerline wave term," R^ which is not in-
,
cluded in the author's Fig. 2. Using wave elevation data from the same com-
puter program, kindly supplied to me by the author, I have made an estimate of
this term and have added it to the "X-Y" term for the location 2X/L = 10.0 as
shown in Fig. Dl. The centerline wave term R^ is drawn for convenience from
the top down, and is roughly linear with the distance 2Y/L off the centerline.
Similar lines can be drawn for the other locations. It can be seen that the addi-
tion of this term brings the method into almost exact agreement with the theory
at this section, assuming measurements to be taken at the distance 1.0 2Y/L ^
2.5, the former limit being required by the need to exclude the local effect from
the measurements and the latter because the centerline wave term as calculated
is an approximation based on a plane wave which becomes inexact too far from
the centerline, and also because of tank wall effects. This dimension in the
case of all previous tests using this method was selected within these limits,
but I am of course happy to have a more rational basis for making this selection
in the future.
676
Ship Waves and Wave Resistance
I again thank the author for his significant contribution to a subject of great
interest.
REPLY TO DISCUSSION
K. W. H. Eggers
( 3)
Ej = Ii+ I2
where
,( 1) ,(2) / r ( ,( 2) ( 1) ( 2) ( 1) ( 2)
f )
i/zy
+ 02 >/'2 " "^X "^X
da drj
and
4''{4'V;czV^o-[g-d0(')]^}d,/:
f
( 1) (!) ( 1) ,(1) (1)
i:
0Y + dr]
0x Ao- 0x Ar\
I met the first difficulty, which arises under approach (c) as well, by trans-
forming li to an integral over the undisturbed free surface for -x^-o? (see Eq.
(47)). This was possible by use of a peculiar property of the Green's function
involved, which appears even in the case of finite depth: If we represent the
free wave system of a point source as a Fourier integral in y, then the ampli-
tude function (in our case K^/Mj^T, see Eq. (42)) is inverse to the weighting factor
of spectral energy (in our case T(2- cos ^(9^), see Eq. (29)) of the expression for
wave resistance.
677
Eggers
The second term vanishes under Y integration due to condition C, if we may dis-
regard a contribution from the ship's load waterline. Thus definitely approach
(b) gives one and the same result for any value of x^ behind the ship, as it
should, and our result, Eq. (49), can be obtained by approach (b) as well.
A
critical review of our analysis showed that this equivalence even holds if
we do not disregard the influence of the waterline. We had, however, to acknowl-
edge that extending the integration over 5^!,^^ in Eq. (19) to the waterplane area
meant a change of order e^, which, after a correction to be made in Eq. (19),
again made all line integrals cancel in the final expression for R^^\ Eq. (27).
We
can hardly expect one-to-one correspondence between our components
of potential and resistance; however, if Dr. Yim finds one of his line integral
terms missing in my analysis, perhaps a hint may help: A recent study of
Bessho reveals that if only the boundary condition on the body surface below
Z = is prescribed, different second-order potentials may exist for a floating
body of finite beam. Within his scheme, my potential appears as the limiting
case of that due to a flat-topped body, and so does Sisov's.
678
Ship Waves and Wave Resistance
Fortunately, I can meet Dr. Yim's request for some numerical results;
these are selected for a parabolic ship with a draft/length ratio equal to 1/20
and 7o = 10' Additional resistance due to the free-surface singularity <'(X,Y) is
K^2^' = -0.04(B'T.)R< 2>, additional resistance due to second-order singularities to
represent the ship is R^^^^ = 0, 15(B/L)R( 2) with 10% accuracy, where R^ ^^ is the
resistance from linear theory. Unfortunately, only the free-wave part of the
first-order flow on the hull was accounted for when calculating ^\^\ though the
local component is of equal magnitude. The local component gave contributions
obviously inconsistent and too large. Very probably the Fourier series repre-
sentation in Y is not appropriate at the center plane for the local part of the
potential due to the discontinuity in the Y derivative. We shall try either to
evaluate the integrals on the actual ship surface or to split off the singular part
and integrate it in some closed form.
"^ *"
The effect of ^ ^
i//^on the free wave spectrum
^ "^
is a uniform phase shift
of all wave components toward the bow.
679
ANALYSES ON BOW WAVES AND
STERN WAVES AND SOME SMALL-WAVE
SHIP SINGULARITY SYSTEMS
B. Yim
Hydronautics, Incorporated
Laurel, Maryland
ABSTRACT
The qualities of the bow and stern waves of a ship are discussed. The
local disturbance of ships with zero wave resistance is formulated.
Thus the innage systems of sinnple no-wave singularities are obtained.
The force distribution of the zero wave ship is analyzed. The applica-
tion of these theories to the case of practical ships is discussed.
INTRODUCTION
The mechanism of the reduction in wave resistance due to a bulb appendage
at a ship bow has been explained by the reduction in the wave height of each ele-
mentary wave starting from the bow (1). This explanation has been further veri-
fied through the existence of an ideal bulb which cancels all the elementary bow
waves (2), However, complete understanding of ship wave phenomenon even just
in connection with bulbs is yet far from complete. For the time being, we may
ask ourselves two questions: First, what happens to the local disturbance when
we cancel all the regular bow waves? This is directly concerned with higher
order effects, and, in addition, this question leads us to find the exact and sim-
ple image system which satisfies the linearized free surface boundary condition.
Second, what is the relation between the wave height on the ship hull and the total
wave resistance, especially when the regular bow waves are canceled? The an-
swer to this question may explain the sizable wave resistance for a ship which
appears to have small wave heights on the hull. These questions are of funda-
mental importance not only in connection with the design of a bulb through the
observation of wave heights on the ship's hull but also for a more profound un-
derstanding of the mechanism of ship waves.
Before investigating these questions we will re-examine the physical and
mathematical meanings of bow waves and stern waves, and their relation to the
waves due to a bulb.
It turns out that the local disturbance due to the small-wave ship treated by
bulbs is in low Froude numbers, approximately the same as the local disturbance
681
Yim
T"
O + k O =
CO
V
m = SOURCE STRENGTH
HI = DOUBLET STRENGTH
Through Lagally's theorem, it is found that the force equivalent to the stern
wave resistance of the symmetric ship is exerted on the doublet distribution
which is distributed along the stem line forming the bow bulb and which cancels
the regular bow waves. Thus the regular wave along the surface waterline of
the hull of an optimum bulbous ship may be very small. Yet, with the expense
of the force exerted on the bow bulb the stern wave energy can be propagated
far away.
v'0 = , (1)
(2)
682
Bow and Stern Waves and Small-Wave-Ship Singularities
^ =
^ . (3)
77 00
k(ia;-Zi)
2k sec 6 e
^ = -5^"^ kp sec 6 - sec
dkde ,
(4)
i/j.
or, letting C -
^r+ ^/' where i^ refers to an integral representing the regular
wave pattern and ii refers to a double integral representing the local disturb-
ance,
(7T/2)
(77/ +
2m r I exp(-ta>)t sec
kg sects' sin(tZj)-t cos (tZj) dtd(9 ,
(6)
77V / (77/2) +
'-(77/2) 8 ^(,2 sec'* 5+ t2
where
S = arctan (7)
The wave height due to a point doublet of strength -/Xj located at (0,0, -zJ is
y ^1 r, f r 2k 2 ^'^(^---'i)
:<Jk' e ' ^^g
dkcieT' /o\
^ ^^^
""i-l^^'i J k - kg sec 2^ - i/^i sec
or
(77/ 2) + S
2/Xi
.(-/2) + S
exp(-ma))m
kg sec 2 (9 sin(mZj) - m cos (mz j
dmd^ . (9)
ttV J (77/ 2) + S
k
"0
2 sec^e + m'
683
Yim
be represented as
C =
4k,
-
I
I
I
m(Xi,Zj) exp(-koZi sec^ 6)
'-77/ 2+8
where L and H are the ship length and the ship draft respectively. This regular
wave is important because this is the only wave which contributes to the wave
resistance no matter what method we use to calculate the wave resistance. For
example, Havelock's (4,5) formula is from the regular waves far behind the
ship, while Lagally's method is from the regular waves on the singularity plane
(3). If we change the order of integration in Eq. (10), we obtain
where
r
U(koH,Xi,5) = m(Xj,Zj) expC-kgZj sec^ ^) sec^ 6 dz j ,
(12)
1 = tan" * (y/x) ,
and
2 = tan"* (y/x-L) .
4k
4 = -T^ r dd { U(koH,Xi,6') cos [ko(x-Xj) sec 6] dy.^ (13)
i =
4k -^/^
de
-''
for x > L.
684
Bow and Stern Waves and Snnall-Wave-Ship Singularities
n=
'-"'
4ko
^1 = -r^ A(0,^) sin (kgX sec ^) + B(0, ^) cos (koxsec^) - B(x,^) d^ ,
(16)
'-77/2
where
... - 2n
n=0 kn sec
and
B(L,5) = 1-e j L
Equation (16) is an analytic function of x. Therefore, Eq. (16) or (13) can be
anal3rtically continued to x > L, and we may call these the physical bow waves
on the x axis for the source distribution given by Eq. (15); then the physical
stern waves will be, from Eq. (14),
4ko
.-/2
- rr- A(L,6) sin (kgX-L sec 6)
''-77/2
for x > L.
In Eqs. (16) and (17) the integrals of B(x,6) are canceled out in a total wave
(bow waves plus stern waves) for x > l Therefore .
685
Yim
4k.
^1 = -^ I
A(O,0) sin (UgX sec 6) + B(O,0) cos (k^x sec 9) - dd ,
(16')
-77/ 2
and
4k r"/2 r'-
^77/2 -^X
have been called (1) regular bow waves and regular stern waves respectively at
X > L. report, we use simply bow waves and stern waves in this sense.)
(In this
Another reason for this can be attributed to the concept of elementary waves (4).
Namely, Eqs. (16') and (17') can be considered to be equivalent to i9-wise super-
positions of elementary waves starting from the bow and the stern respectively.
Thus, the wave resistance of an analytic ship is considered to consist of three
components: the bow wave resistance, the stern wave resistance, and the inter-
action of the two. This concept is very helpful to treat a bulbous bow (6) for the
range of low Froude numbers.
m(Xj,z j) = ag
in < Xj < a and < Zj < h, which is only the first term of Eq. (15) and rep-
resents a wedge ship bow approximately, then Eqs. (16) and (16') or (17) and
(17') coincide with each other, Eq. (17) representing the shoulder wave rather
than the stern wave. Namely, B(x,i9) in Eqs. (16) and (17) is identically zero,
and the actual regular waves in < x < a is represented by Eq. (16'). We no-
tice that a^ is a dominating term (1,7) in the wave height (Eqs. (16) and (17)) for
low Froude numbers (<0.3).
It is well known that the bow bulb flattens the regular bow waves. In fact, if
the ship source distribution is represented in an even power series of x as in
cos TTx, it was shown (2) that a doublet distribution exists along the straight in-
finite stemlines of the bow and the stern, which cancels all the regular ship
waves.
In general, the influence of the stern shape on the wave is very complicated
due to the effects of the boundary layer and the wakes in the actual fluid. These
effects seem to tend to decrease the influence of the discontinuity of the slope at
the stern. Therefore, in the low Froude number range, the bulb even at the bow
only is supposed to decrease the wave resistance considerably.
It must be noted, however, that in < x < L the regular wave which contrib-
utes to the wave resistance is in general expressed not by Eq. (16') but by Eq.
(16). Therefore, just canceling Eq. (16') does not necessarily mean canceling
the actual regular waves on the ship hull. In addition, although Eq. (16') involves
686
Bow and Stern Waves and Small-Wave-Ship Singularities
physical quantities related to the bow only, and Eq. (17'), the stern only, to deal
separately with Eq. (16') from Eq. (17') is quite dangerous for the range of
higher Froude numbers. The following example may demonstrate this.
"^(^i-^i) (18)
= a cos (ttXj)
, , ^ '
in < Xj < 1 and < Zj < H, which produces approximately a ship of sine wa-
terlines. Then from Eq. (14) we have the regular wave height at x > l , and y = 0,
where the first term in the brackets corresponds to Eq. (16') and the second
term corresponds to Eq. (17'). However each term becomes singular when kg
approaches to n (or the wavelength is 2 and Froude number F = 0.564), although
the total regular wave height is always finite. If we examine the regular wave
height on < X < 1 and y = 0, from Eq. (13),
which is also finite for any k^ . This expresses physical bow waves defined in
Eq. (16).
It is easily seen here that dealing with only bow waves, Eq. (16'), without
the stern waves, Eq. (17'), in the neighborhood of Froude number l/yJrF is
meaningless.
For convenience, first, we will consider the simplest case of the zero-
bow-wave submerged body (2). A uniform source distribution of the strength
m/v= a^ on a line o<xi<i,y = o, and Zj = f produces the x component of the
687
Yim
!5Sx(x.y-z) = Q(x,y,z)
^k(i^-lz-f I)
+ Fe
^1 adx, j sec^d^l
Q k - kg sec^ 6 - ijjL sec
dkde
where
z I
) _ k( iw- i f-z I
dkde*
'^=-i^rf h'"-"*
A uniform doublet distribution of the strength b^ on a vertical line x= 0, y = 0,
f < Zj< CO produces
i/i,
|_^
sec
dkd^
F+ Re dkde ,
(20)
where
77 a
F = k cos ^
kCicg-l f + z| ) k(ia,o-| f-z| )
dkd^
1
and
Putting
and considering another similar doublet line as given by Eq. (20) but with the
negative strength on the line x=l, y=0, f < Zj <co^ whose x component of ve-
locity is 01^, we combine all three cases. Then we obtain
k(ic.-lz-f
-'Sx^^Ox >ix = Q+Fo + Fi-Re
^r/ I)
dkdt^ (22)
688
Bow and Stern Waves and Snna 11 -Wave -Ship Singularities
This indicates that on the free surface the x component of the perturbation ve-
locity is exactly the same as that due to the double model of the ship in the infi-
nite medium. The flow as a whole is the same as that due to the ship and bulb
plus the positive mirror image of the ship and the negative mirror image of
bulb with respect to the mean free surface (Fig. 1).
In other words, for this special case of the uniform source distribution, if
we combine such a doublet distribution and the opposite sign ofdoublet images
and the same sign of source images, the free surface condition is exactly satis-
fied without any wave images. In the general case of ship shapes, it is not that
simple to express the local disturbance.
For a body symmetric with respect to its midsection, the regular bow wave
is the same as the stern wave and the local disturbance is also symmetric with
respect to the midsection.
.(.,)- t
n=
a, "T (23)
z:b(z,-f)" (24)
on f < Zj <oo, y=0, x=0 and y = , x = l by which the regular ship waves are
completely canceled (2) with
n(2n)!^2n_
(25)
n! k
Due to the symmetry of the body with respect to the midsection the coefficients
of Eq. (23) have relations
GO
y
^ (2n- 2m)!
a,
2"
= -(2m)!
v a2m
y
, m= 0. 1, 2, . . . .
(26)J
\
n=m
Using Eqs. (4), (8), and (25) we obtain formally the total wave height due to
Eqs. (23), (24), and (26):
689
Yim
7T <r
(k - kg sec^^) (2n)!(-l)"
C = Re 2 2 a^^
I | k - kg sec^ 8 - ijj. sec
k"
kf
k2"cos2n6'
. E
.^0 k"-J(kcos^)2i
/ " l^i^o
'
+
,
e
'^
dkd^ ,
(27)
TT J^ .1 k( i OJ -z , )
2n i2k sec a e
a ox 1 dkd^dx
"0 k - kg sec^ 6 - ifj. sec
""^
2n! (ik cos 6) .ikcos6
-no ^
k cos 6)'
- L
,=0
(2n-j)!
.
k(ia; -Zj)
le
dkd0
k - kg sec^ - ifj- sec 6
kr
'"0
,
690
low and Stern Waves and Small-Wave -Ship Singularities
where
0' sec
ikk e y-i ( ik^k sec d)^
(30)
j!
j
= 2n + 1
and where the absolute value of this becomes smaller when n becomes larger,
since the series
singularity except k = 1 + (i/u/kg) cos by which the regular wave and the local
disturbance can be separated. Due to the factor k^^", for small Froude num-
bers (= 1 '\^), iCnl becomes smaller when n becomes larger. In general, for
a usual smooth ship, the influence of the entrance angle or the term of a^ is
dominant when the Froude number is less than 0.3. Therefore the bulb for the
term a^, in this case, will be adequate to cancel almost all the regular waves
(7). Then the wave height will be mainly the local disturbance proportional to
0^ due to the ship double model. Even cutting off the bulb at a certain distance
will not affect the disturbance too much, for the same reason that truncated
bulbs work effectively to reduce the regular wave height.
The surface ship whose source distribution is distributed both in the x and
the z direction on the xz plane, can be treated in a similar manner as above,
since only superposition in the draftwise direction (2) is involved.
lar waves (2). The local disturbance due to this no-wave singularity can easily
be analyzed as in the previous sections.
The wave height due to the doublet in the z direction located at (0,0. - zj is
k(i^-z,)
691
Yim
where a = x cos 6 + y sin ^, and fi^ is the doublet strength. The wave height due
to the quadrupole in x direction at (o,o,-Zj) is
^a = T-77 Ke dkd6' ,
(32)
^""^
J-^-^o k-ko sec2 6? - i/^ sec
^q + ^dz - - ^K^ ( \
2ik^ COS e'^'""''^ dkd^. (33)
-'-77 -^0
This indicates that the local disturbance (= /x ^q), is due only to the doublet at
(o,0,Zj) and the mirror image. The total flow is produced by the singularity
system shown in Fig. 2, which satisfies the free surface boundary condition.
Namely, the x component of the perturbation velocity on the free surface is ex-
actly the same as that due to the doublet and its mirror image only. Since the
sign of the image of the quadrupole is opposite from the real one, these do not
contribute to the horizontal velocity on the free surface. It is interesting to
have such a simple set of singularities and images which satisfies the free-
surface boundary condition.
(J) + k *
X = QUADRUPOLE STRENGTH
H? = DOUBLET STRENGTH
In this manner, we can obtain the simple image system for any order no-
wave point singularities, namely, for all the derivatives as well as integrals of
the first-order no-wave point singularity mentioned above. For example, if we
uniformly distribute the first-order no-wave singularity from x to x = infin-
ity, we obtain the zeroth-order no-wave singularity which is composed of a dou-
blet in the x direction and a lift element at (o,0,Zj) with the image composed of
the doublet and the lift element in the opposite direction at the position of the
mirror image. M. P. Tulin, in a seminar at Hydronautics, Incorporated, has
brought attention to this particular no-wave singularity system. He pointed out
that the existence of this system indicates the theoretical possibility of a finite
three-dimensional ship without wave resistance (although, as he also pointed
out, the buoyancy of the ship would be canceled by its negative dynamic lift). He
has also discussed the application of these singularities to both two-dimensional
and three-dimensional cavity flows beneath free surfaces.
692
Bow and Stern Waves and Snnall-Wave-Ship Singularities
From the composition of the no-wave point singularity and its image, it can
be easily seen that any such three-dimensional point singularity with finite
strength located on the free surface is nullified by its image. Thus, in the case
of the zeroth-order no-wave point singularity, the flow field produced by a dou-
blet in the x direction located on the free surface is exactly the same as that
due to a vortex element at the same point. This flow field is also equivalent to
that due to a pressure point on the free surface.
m(Xj,Zj) = Bg (36)
Ml = bzj (37a)
693
Yim
Ml = bH (37b)
that the local disturbance of 0^ does not contribute to the force (3) for any
source distribution. Therefore, it is evident that Eq. (34) in this case is zero.
However, Eq. (35) in this case is exactly the same as the wave resistance of the
doublet distribution itself, due to following reasons. When we consider a doublet
line (Eqs. (37)) located at x = -b, y = (b - 0), the regular 4>^ on the doublet line
due to the source distribution (Eq. (36)) is zero because the regular wave does
not propagate forward. Thus, 0xx('''^) i^ Eq. (35) is due to the doublet line it-
self only, without any contribution from the source distribution (Eq. (36)). In
fact, this wave resistance of the doublet line (Eqs. (37)) is exactly the same as
the bow (or shoulder) wave resistance. Namely, when we consider the pressure
distribution on the bulbous bow of the wedge ship corresponding to Eqs. (36) plus
(37), the bulb has eliminated the pressure on the ship hull, making the drag due
to the ship hull equal to zero, but is carrying its own drag, which is exactly the
same as the shoulder wave drag.
m(Xi) =
X] ^n''"
^
4k r"^
<^^ = -^ I
Ai(0,z,^) sin (kox sec 6)
where
N n ( 2n)
kgzsec 8 kQ(zH)sec 2.n .-. (_1) m^ (X)
Ai(x,z,^) E k2"-i sec^" 6
(39)
and
n+ 1 ( 2n+ 1 )
Because of symmetry
694
Bow and Stern Waves and Small-Wave-Ship Singularities
Hence,
1
r ( 2n+ 1 ,.n\
m(x) m '(x) dx = . (42)
In the evaluation of the wave resistance by substitution of Eqs. (38) and (42) in
Eq. (34) we obtain
Bi(x,z, 6) m(x) dx =
J
Therefore in this case the term including Bj(x,z,6') is like a local disturbance
and does not contribute to the wave resistance. Now the situation is exactly
similar to the case of the uniform source distribution of Eq. (36) mentioned be-
fore. Namely, if we use a doublet distribution to cancel the bow waves, the re-
sistance due to the source given by Eq. (34) becomes zero, while the resistance
due to the doublet given by Eq. (35) remains, and is equal to the bow wave re-
sistance, which is equal to the stern wave resistance here.
This means that the regular wave heights along the ship hull is not the only
origin of all the wave resistance. The stern wave energy can be propagated with
the expense of the force on the bow bulb.
If we
attach the ideal stern bulb to a symmetric ship in addition to the ideal
bow bulb,it is known that the entire wave resistance will become zero (2). That
is, the ideal stern bulb will have a negative force to cancel the force at the bow
bulb. This mechanism can be seen by the same method used for the bow bulb.
Namely, we consider a doublet distribution to cancel regular stern waves on the
line x= 1, y= 0. Then the regular part of 4>^^ in Eq. (35) becomes
onx=l + 0, y=0
XX '^^^ ^ stern waves only without the
stern bulb effect onx= 1-0, y= 0.
The stern waves of a symmetric ship are exactly the same as the bow waves
and of the opposite sign of the regular waves due to the doublet distribution.
Therefore, from Eq. (35) the force at the doublet distribution at the stern is in
695
Yim
the opposite direction of that at the bow. Thus, we understand how the wave ef-
fect in the vicinity of the submerged bulb at the stern acts to decrease the wave
resistance.
We cannot use the ideal bulb in practice, since it is infinitely long. How-
ever, this idealized situation not only introduces an easy analysis but also intro-
duces us to a deeper insight of the mechanism. Since the lower part of the bulb
deeply submerged under the free surface does not very much influence the reg-
ular waves, in general all the theory here can be applied approximately to prac-
tical bulbous ships (see Ref. 2).
APPLICATION
Michell's ship theory has too much discrepancy with experiments for a
given surface ship; hence it was suggested to build a model from a singularity
distribution by tracing the body streamlines. However, since it is so compli-
cated and time consuming to plot streamlines for the ship singularity under the
free surface with the free surface condition satisfied, Inui used a double model
for which the free surface is considered to be flat. Inui (1) claims that the dou-
ble model is better than Michell's ship for common Froude numbers. Pien (8)
also used double models for his optimum singularity distributions to build his
bulbous ships which showed better performance than the corresponding ships in
the Taylor series.
+ + +
+ + +
CO ++ +
+++
696
Bow and Stern Waves and Small-Wave-Ship Singularities
-0.04 -0.02 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16
-0.04 -0.02
0.02
Yim
As examples, we chose parabolic ship hulls with point doublet bulbs at the
bow and the stern. Considering the image system mentioned above we plotted
the body streamlines shown in Figs. 4 and 5. The interference between the ship
and the bulb in reducing the ship entrance angle seems to be important, although
this must be less severe than the case of the double model of the whole bulbous
ship where not only the regular waves but also the local disturbances on the
free surface are totally neglected.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Thanks are due to Mr. M. P. Tulin for his helpful discussions and for his
reading of the manuscript.
REFERENCES
1. Inui, T., "Wave Making Resistance of Ships," Trans. SNAME 70:283-353
(1962)
2. Yim, B., "On Ships with Zero and Small Wave Resistance," International
Seminar on Theoretical Wave-Resistance, 1963
3. Lunde, J.K., "On the Theory of Wave Resistance and Wave Profile,"
Skipsmodelltankens Meddelelse No. 10, 1952
698
Bow and Stern Waves and Small-Wave-Ship Singularities
DISCUSSION
K. W. H. Eggers
Institut fur Schiffbau der Universitdt Hamburg
Hamburg, Germany
Dr. Yim's approach is definitely unorthodox. But I feel that we should de-
viate from usual ideas still further on his line in order to have more simple
results.
Dr. Yim tries to compensate for the ship's integrated wave system by in-
troduction of singularities at a peculiar position, namely, at vertical lines
through bow and stern only. He assumes a polynomial representation of the hull
form and then has to calculate derivatives at the stem, each higher derivative
giving rise to singularities of a corresponding high degree, producing even infi-
nite local wave height for the local component save for the first derivative.
Certainly any continuous hull form may be approximated arbitrarily close by
polynomials, but would such an approximation be adequate as well for the deriv-
atives in the sense under consideration here ?
G(P,Pi) = 1+ ^- log
z - z + r
J
XX
This potential meets the linearized free surface condition; only the first two
terms determine the first-order wave elevation, which is entirely local.
699
Yim
the integrated singularity system will be a representation of the flow around the
Inuid in the horizontal meridian plane in the limiting case of zero Froude num-
ber.
REPLY TO DISCUSSION
B. Yim
700
Bow and Stern Waves and Small-Wave -Ship Singularities
On the modification Dr. Eggers proposed, I would like to point out that his
suggested source plus the downward infinite line of xx quadrupoles is the uni-
form downward line distribution of the no-wave singularities which are com-
posed of z -direction doublets and xx quadrupoles (mentioned in my present
paper). As it is explained in the present paper, we can form some interesting
no-wave singularity distributions. As for his suggested no-wave singularity
distribution, I also wonder what kind of ship shape we will get even if we con-
sider cutting off the quadrupole lines from the keel. Since we neglected the vis-
cosity in our problem, the shape which not only reduces the wave resistance but
also prevents the separation is most interesting to us.
701
Tuesday, October 4, 1966
Afternoon Session
Chairman: F. H. Todd
Page
703
AN APPROACH TO THE DESIGN OF
LOW-RESISTANCE HULL FORMS
G. E. Gadd
Ship Division, National Physical Laboratory
Feltham, Middlesex, England
Whilst the hull forms of present-day ships are determined by mainly em-
pirical means, it is to be hoped that in the future mathematical theory may be
employed as a design tool. This theory is largely concerned with wave resist-
ance, so it is of interest to try to establish whether or not present theories of
wave resistance, incomplete though they are, are nevertheless adequate for de-
sign purposes. Accordingly, the second part of the paper deals with an experi-
mental investigation into the adequacy of Inui's (1) approach to the relationship
between hull form and wavemaking. In this investigation boundary -layer effects,
which sometimes cloud the issue, are kept small.
To see whether the theoretical approach to design can improve on the con-
ventional empirical one, it seems useful to try to beat the target set in the first
section of the paper and to design a hull which, for a given displacement and
speed, requires less propulsive power than any normal ship. Unless a consid-
erably lower power can be achieved in this artificial situation, where no re-
strictions are placed on hull shape, it seems unlikely that much improvement
can be expected in any real design, where practical limitations will have to be
allowed for. The third section of the paper, therefore, deals with an initial NPL
attempt at this artificial design problem. This attempt, in a very rough and
ready way, pays as much attention to minimizing friction resistance as to wave-
making. The experimental results obtained for the designed hull form, though
they represent only a fairly small improvement on the best conventional prac-
tice, are considered encouraging in view of the crudity of the design methods
705
Gadd
used. However the experimental results also raise questions as to the extent of
viscous effects on wavemaking resistance. These questions will need to be sat-
isfactorily answered (perhaps by a modification of the wavemaking theory on the
lines suggested by Guilloton (2)) if the theoretical approach to design is to be-
come much more accurate.
Optimum ships in the sense defined above would be expected to have a low
wavemaking resistance. This does not mean that the only requirement is to
minimize wavemaking, which for a given displacement and speed could doubt-
less be done by making the ship resemble a rowing eight. This would, of course,
lead to an excessive wetted area and a correspondingly high friction drag. For
deeply submerged bodies, with no wavemaking, experience suggests that a
streamlined airship shape, of length to diameter ratio in the region of 5 to 7, is
best. For such a body of revolution, a suitable equation for the radius r as a
function of the distance x from the nose is
V = 0.439t2L^ (1)
and
S = tL^ (2.168 + 0.946 t^) ,
small enough for ds = dx[l+ (dr/dx)^] ^''^ to be replaced by dx [i+ (1/2) (dr'dx)^] .
Hoerner (3) suggests that for turbulent boundary -layer flow the drag coefficient
c^^, based on wetted area for such a body, is related to the corresponding flat-
plate friction coefficient Cp by
706
Design of Low-Resistance Hull Forms
*
Cdw = Cp (1 + 1.5t^/2 + 7 ^3)
Hence, for motion at speed v through a fluid of density / and viscosity /x, the
drag D is given by
1 , V2/3t
D = -4r pV^ (2.168 + 0.946 t 2) (1 + 1.5 t^^^ + 7 t^) C^.
*^ .
^ o.syst'*/^
must be a minimum. can be seen from Fig. 2 that n has a fairly flat mini-
It
mum in the region of = 0.15, and that n does not differ much from this mini-
t
mum value for t in the range 0.1 to 0.25. This covers the range of beam-to-
length ratios encountered in ships.
min '^
r ^ n ' '
(2)
*Hoerner uses the Schoenherr line for Cp. The ITTC formula (Eq. (5) below)
approxinnates quite closely to this for Reynolds numbers greater than 10 .
707
Gadd
where
_ 4.7 pvg'^'
(3)
0.075 /_v
(5)
(logio Rn-2)-
In Table 1 the speeds v and actual powers P^ of a few airships are shown to-
gether with the estimated values of P^^^, calculated by assuming the displaced
volume to be the gas capacity times 1.06 (an average ratio). It can be seen that
for the later airships Pa/Pmin ^^^ lower than for the early ones, though it al-
ways remained appreciably greater than 1. This is hardly surprising, since the
engine nacelles were attached to the hull by struts and bracing wires, whose
drag was probably appreciable, and the fabric -covered hulls were probably not
completely smooth.
P^in
mi n
= 1061 V^ A2/3 Cp.(R
r n) "^ '^
Surface Ships
If a body of revolution of the shape shown in Fig. 1 were moved, half im-
mersed, through water, with its axis of symmetry in the plane of the undisturbed
708
Design of Low-Resistance Hull Forms
CO
a
ic
CO
a
Q
T3
O
Xi
m
I
Gadd
water, it would of course make waves. Let us imagine, however, that its shape
could be modified so that its wavemaking were reduced virtually to zero, without
altering its immersed volume or appreciably increasing its frictional drag. The
resistance of such an imaginary ship would then be half that given by Eq. (2)
with V set equal to twice the immersed volume, since the water surface would
remain practically flat and would be equivalent to a plane of symmetry for a
deeply immersed body. Correspondingly, the power needed to drive this ship
with 70 percent propulsive efficiency would, from Eq. (4), be given by
where
R^ = 2.66 X 10^ VAi/3 ^
(7)
V is the speed in knots, and A the salt-water displacement in tons of the im-
mersed part of the hull. This implies that, in the usual notation, the minimum
value of C is l8.9/(logjQ r^ - 2)^, remarkably close to Hughes' estimate (4),
derived by quite different procedures, for the minimum viscous contribution
to C .
It can be seen that the ratios Pa/Pn,in vary widely, even for ships of roughly
the same speed-to-length ratios. For large values of V \1^, typical of fast war-
ships, Pg/Pniin is large, in the region of 3 to 5. It is interesting that the power
ratios of postwar warships are somewhat lower than those for prewar ones; this
presumably reflects improvements in hull design and the use of welded rather
than riveted construction. Among the vessels with V/vTT in the region of 1, cargo
liners with displacements in the region of 10,000 to 20,000 tons are much supe-
rior to passenger ferries; the latter have to be made beamier because of draught
limitations and for stability reasons. Large tankers and bulk carriers show a
wide range of performance, the best of them having a power ratio of as low as
1.5, whilst some have ratios of well over 2.
710
Design of Low-Resistance Hull Forms
Table 3
Published Data for Ships
Gadd
Table 3 (Continued)
Design of Low-Resistance Hull Forms
We now attempt to find a formula for the power required to propel a ship of
salt-water displacement A tons at a speed of V knots, when this ship is designed
by the best current procedures to have minimum resistance, with no other re-
strictions imposed. A reasonable form of expression, based on Eq, (6), is
N=-0-228V
.J
from Eq. (1), where we put t equal to 0.15, as for the optimum body of revolu-
tion, and V equal to twice the displaced volume in cu ft of the ship, or 70A, Eq.
(8) was fitted to the best data of Table 3 and of a further collection of trials
data, not reproduced here. These best data were:
An alternative, equally plausible, relation roughly fitting the same optimum data
is
This does not differ much from Eq. (10) in the low Reynolds number range, but
shows up most of the large tankers in an even poorer light* than does Eq. (10),
which we therefore assume to be more appropriate. In a sense, this may be de-
parting from the intention that Ptest should represent the minimum power at-
tainable, since large tankers, which provide most of the low Froude-number
data, are always designed with very bluff lines, and there is little doubt that a
finer-lined ship of the same displacement and speed would require less power.
To this extent, therefore, Eq. (10) may represent some compromise with prac-
tical requirements. This compromise could perhaps have been avoided by using
model results in deriving Eq. (10). However, we have consistently used full-
scale data to avoid uncertainties in ship-model correlations and to include ef-
fects of any hull-surface imperfections which may be normally present on the
full scale. There is a scarcity of full-scale data for large fine -lined ships at
low Froude numbers, but, since most tanker powers are considerably in excess
*That is, when looked at purely fronn the point of view of resistance.
of course,
As pointed out earlier, practical considerations (in this case the desirability
of minimizing length, so reducing construction costs) nnay often require large
departures from the minimum-resistance "optimum."
713
Gadd
of Pbest ^^ given by Eq. (10), the latter may not be too much of an overestimate
at the low Froude-number end. At the other extreme, it cannot be expected to
apply for speed-to-length ratios much larger than for the frigate results used in
its derivation; hence we restrict N, given by Eq. (9), to values less than 2.
40,000
30,000
10,000
9 ooo
8 ooo
7,000
eooo
s.ooo
i,ooo
900
80O
700
eoo
soo
400
Design of Low-Resistance Hull Forms
noted above concerning the tanker end of the data) intended to represent mini-
mum powers achieved by current optimum designs when subject to the minimum
of extraneous practical requirements.
It has been shown that the propulsive shaft horsepowers P^est ^ those >
present-day ships which for a given displacement A and speed V have the least
resistance, approximately fit the formula
Pbest ^ "^^ ^^''^ [0.845 Cp(R^) + 0.5x 10"^ + 0.3x 10"^ N'*] , (10)
where
Cp(R) = 0.075 (logjo R,-2)-^ (5)
and
N = 0.228 VA- 1/6 .
(9)
It is unlikely that, however much design can be improved, the power could ever
be brought down much below
3. Nevertheless, Fig. 2 suggests that even for very beamy, and hence short
and cheap, ships, the viscous component of resistance need not necessarily
greatly exceed its optimum value. If, therefore, we were sufficiently adept at
reducing wave resistance for large beam-to-length ratios, we ought to be able
to design a ship which was not only cheap to build, but which also compared
favourably with Eq. (10).
715
Gadd
One possible technique for handling the wavemaking side of design is that
adopted by Inui (1) and Pien (5). A distribution of wavemaking sources, giving
suitably low resistance, is chosen and the corresponding hull surface calculated
by, in effect, assuming the water surface to remain flat. Thus the source dis-
tribution is treated as one of ordinary potential sources reflected in the undis-
turbed water plane. This procedure cannot be rigourously justified, even for
very low Froude numbers, but it has been plausibly argued by Pien that for
forms of low wavemaking resistance, in which we are mainly interested, the
theory should be adequate, since the water surface then does remain fairly flat.
Inui has made experimental comparisons between models (which have been
termed "Inuids") derived from source distributions in this way and other models
derived from the same source distribution by the Michell thin- ship approxima-
tion. The latter is equivalent to relating the waterline slope to the source den-
sity on the central plane. In general the Inuids showed better agreement with
experiment, but discrepancies remained and were attributed by Inui largely to
viscous effects.
716
Design of Low-Resistance Hull Fornns
SOURCE DISTRIBUTION ON CENTRAL PLANE S-0-6V I-0092 cos 2n X -0742 coaTTZ cq iTJ X
\ I L D L
tA L H
ES- r.i
I 2 3 4 5 6 ,
7 7 321
717
Gadd
1-2
O 8
0-6
pV2L2
04
DESIGN POINT
9Vv2-2 "
0-2 -
The models as made had L = 6 ft, and the junction with the afterbody was at
10 ft from the bow. Figures 7 and 8 show the experimental results obtained for
the net force on the head of the uniform density model and the pressure force on
its rear bulkhead as functions of speed. The pressure involved in Fig. 8 was
measured at the centre of the bulkhead. It is possible that some variation of
pressure occurred on the bulkhead close to the hull surface, and this would in-
troduce errors in Fig. 8. However, it is expected that these would be small
since the gap, 1/4 in., was small compared with the local boundary layer thick-
ness of about 2 in. It can be seen from Figs. 7 and 8 that each of the force
components oscillates more wildly than their sum, in Fig. 9, representing wave
drag plus friction drag. Also shown in Fig. 9 are the theoretical friction drag
Dp, based on wetted area and the ITTC line, Eq. (5), and the sum of Dp and the
theoretical wave drag D^^,, derived from Fig. 6. It will be seen that the lower
speed hump is bigger experimentally than theoretically, the reverse of what usu-
ally happens on a complete ship model. However, the addition of the oscillatory
components. Figs. 7 and 8, may lead to inaccuracies, especially at the lower
speeds where the forces are smaller, so perhaps too much attention should not
be paid to this discrepancy. More significant probably is the fact that the ex-
perimental humps and hollows are displaced to the right of the theoretical ones,
in exactly the same way as for complete models. Thus this displacement seems
unlikely to be the result mainly of viscous effects, but rather to arise from the
inadequacies of the approximations of the potential-flow problem.
However, as was mentioned above, the agreement between theory and ex-
periment was not necessarily expected to be as good for the resistful uniform-
source form as for the quasi-bulbous form. The results corresponding to Fig.
9 are shown for the latter form in Fig. 10.
718
Design of Low-Resistance Hull Forms
Dn lb
4 S
V ft /sec
3 -
Db lb
719
Gadd
EXPERIMENTAL, D^ + Dg
THEORETICAL, Dp
THEORETICAL, Dp + 0^
lb
V .ft /sec
EXPERIMENTAL, D^ Dg
THEORETICAL, Dp
THEORETICAL ,
D lb
4 -
V -ft/sec
720
Design of Low-Resistance Hull Forms
It can be seen that the agreement with experiment is certainly no better for
the quasi -bulbous form, except for speeds below 3.5 ft/sec where the water sur-
face does indeed remain nearly flat as assumed in the theory. The expected re-
duction of resistance as compared with the uniform-source form is not for the
most part realized. The experimental resistance curve is much less undular in
Fig. 10 than in Fig. 9, and in this qualitative respect the experimental results
resemble the theoretical ones. However, if the experimental results can be be-
lieved (and as mentioned above they are subject to some uncertainties) it would
appear that wavemaking theory applied in the Inui manner may be a very unsafe
guide to hull design.
The starting point of this design was the observation that in Fig. 5 the after-
body of the quasi-bulbous form is roughly semieliptical in section. An airship
has circular cross sections, as this gives the minimum wetted area. For the
same reason a low -re si stance ship ought to have semicircular cross sections.
(We ignore here matters such as lack of stability and high costs of construction
which sections of such a shape might give rise to, since we are for the moment
only concerned with the artificial design task of achieving a purely hydrodynamic
optimum.) The head form of Fig. 5, stretched laterally so that it ended as a
semicircle rather than an ellipse, might therefore, it was thought, make a fore-
body of sufficiently low wave resistance to be joined onto an afterbody derived
from an airship form. (These ideas were conceived prior to the actual testing
of the quasi -bulbous model, and would have seemed less attractive in the light
of the unfavourable experimental results for it.) The airship form chosen was
as in Fig. 1, and the afterbody was basically the part of this downstream of the
maximum section. However, to avoid the draught becoming zero at the stern,
the after sections were smoothly changed from semicircles to semiellipses of
721
Gadd
SECTIONAL AREA
CURVE
the same area to produce a stern draught of half the maximum. The forebody
length of 8 ft corresponded to 1.28 times the source length L in Fig. 5, and the
beam was 2.5 ft. The initially designed total length was 20 ft, but the stern was
found to be so finely cusped that it was truncated by 6 inches to give a model
19.5 ft long.
The wisdom of this decision is illustrated in Fig. 12, which shows that the
resistance was, for the most part, much less when run with the bulbous end aft.
At low speeds it is true the airship-way round shows some advantages, but these
are very small. Perhaps even here wavemaking is still significant, or perhaps
the viscous drag penalties due to running a sufficiently fine airship form back-
wards rather than forwards are smaller than I had supposed. (Such penalties
might well be greater for beamier forms.) However, once wavemaking becomes
appreciable the bulb-aft condition shows a clear advantage, with a resitance
curve well below that for the other condition, though parallel to it for speeds
above 5 ft/sec.
The residuary resistance is thus much less for the model with the fuller
end apparent contradiction to theory, which states that a given source
aft, in
distribution should have the same wave drag run in either direction. The direc-
tional effect found in the experiments reinforces Wigley's findings (7) on asym-
metrical forms. In the present experiments the wave-pattern resistance was
determined from wave -pattern measurements which were fed into computer
722
Design of Low-Resistance Hull Fornns
X BULB FORWARD
G BULB AFT
0-3
D model(stern bulb) self propulsion
V2
^<U
D(lba ) 0-2
V2 LINE
X PROPORTIONAL
TO(LOG|oRn-2)-
Si_ _Co_\ ,
bulb forward
V2 VVVu..,,c
Ol
V Fb/sc
O
'
15
'
0-20
.
25 ^
y.
^9
7
programmes (8) based on the Eggers method (9). In Fig. 12 points are shown
corresponding to the total resistance minus the wave-pattern resistance. For
the bulb-forward condition these points lie close to a line which may be regarded
as representing the frictional resistance. Thus in this condition the residuary
and wave-pattern resistances agree. For the bulb-aft condition, however, the
points of total minus wave -pattern resistance lie well above the frictional line.
Thus it appears that the wave -pattern resistance is much smaller than even the
reduced residuary resistance for this condition. Flow photographs taken in the
Ship Division circulating water channel explain this discrepancy. They show, as
in Figs. 13a and 13b, that at 5.66 ft/sec there is more evidence of separation
from the bulb at the stern that at 3 ft/sec. This is doubtless due to the stern
wave being higher at 5.66 ft/sec, causing an adverse pressure gradient over the
bulb. Thus part of the residuary resistance at the higher speeds with the bulb
aft can be attributed to an increase in form drag above that acting on the vessel
at lower speeds.
In Figs. 13aand 13b a fairing can be seen over a propeller shaft which was
end after it was found that the bulb-aft condition was best.
fitted in the bulb
When the model was run at 5.66 ft/sec, and propelled, as appropriate for a full
scale ship 693 ft long, at 20 knots, the quasi -propulsive coefficient was found to
be 0.74. When run at the model self-propulsion point the model resistance was,
as can be seen from Fig. 12, appreciably higher than when towed. However the
wave-pattern resistance was also higher then, (D/V^)^a^g being 0.038, much
greater than the unpropelled value of 0.009, and nearly as great as the value
0.045 for the towed model run bulb forward at the same speed of 5.66 ft /sec.
The running of the propeller suppressed the separation evident in Fig. 13b as
can be seen from Fig. 13c.
All this raises some interesting questions. Does the lower wave-pattern
resistance with the bulb aft result mainly from the boundary layer thickness at
the stern being greater then than when the fine end is run aft? Is this true also
723
Gadd
;b
(c )
724
Design of Low-Resistance Hull Forms
of the residuary resistance ? Ifso, it means that boundary layer thickening can
have a net beneficial effect, a very surprising result.
S = AV
/
1 -
2x\
+AVe, 0<x<L, 0<z<D,
725
Gadd
R
= ^ r [l- exp(- KqD sec^e*)] cos^ G((9)
'W -
dfi" ,
where
2 cos 9
= 1 + cos (KgL sec 9) ^r-r sin (KgL sec 9)
and
2 cos
sin (KqL sec 0) [1 - cos (KqL sec e*)]
Thus if X= 0, as in Fig. 14a, the e terms in G(^) vanish, and the wave resist-
ance is simply a linear combination of the inviscid resistance with - = and that
due to a uniform source distribution, as in Fig. 6. There is no interaction be-
tween the two components. To obtain the right kind of displacement thickness at
the stern we need e in the region of 0.003/A, and since this enters only as the
square it is likely to make only a negligible contribution to the wave resistance.
On the other hand if X is close to L, say 0.9L, e must be much bigger, say
0.03/A, if an appreciable growth of displacement thickness within the separated
region is to take place. Then, since e now enters in its first power, we see that
there is likely to be a much greater effect on wave resistance. Moreover this
latter effect is approximately independent of the small distance t (= L- X) from
the stern at which separation takes place, provided 1 1 is kept constant. Since
et defines the displacement thickness at the stern, or perhaps rather that part
of it which is due to the rapid growth of displacement thickness near the stern,
it could be determined experimentally fairly easily. Thus a simple method of
correcting theoretical wavemaking calculations for viscous effects may be to
locate concentrated sources of the proper strength at the stern. Alternatively
726
Design of Low-Resistance Hull Fornns
doublets might be used, since although the displacement thickness of the far
wake will be nonzero, it will be considerably less there than it is at the stern.
0-4
-'/?
Pn = (KoO
Whatever the complete explanation may be for the discrepancy between the two
resistance curves in Fig. 12, the outcome of the present exercise has been that,
by happy accident rather than skillful design, a hull form of lower resistance
than Eq. (10) has been achieved. Thus, scaled to a 693-ft-long ship, of 34,300
tons displacement, at 20 knots, the results for the model in the bulb-aft condi-
tion at 5.66 ft/sec lead to an estimated horsepower of 13,800. Here a conserva-
tive quasi-propulsive coefficient of 70 percent has been taken rather than the
measured value of 74 percent. Run bulb forwards, the horsepower would be
16,430. Equation (10) gives P^^^^^ = 15,520 for 34,300 tons displacement and 20
knots. Thus it appears that with the vessel run the opposite way round to what
was originally envisaged the target has been beaten by a small margin. The
change of direction does not necessarily mean that the ideas behind the original
design were entirely unsound, although the low-speed results do suggest that, at
any rate for a ship of this slenderness, the viscous-drag advantages of having
the maximum thickness forward are very small, so that to utilize them one
would have to be far more clever than I have been in reducing wave resistance.
727
Gadd
The other way in which viscous effects have been taken account of, the reduction
of wetted area by making the sections as nearly semicircular as possible, has
been shown to be justified for the present limited purposes of striving towards a
purely hydrodynamic optimum. In view of the crude way in which wave resist-
ance has been dealt with in the present design, the results encourage the belief
that more sophisticated techniques could lead to substantial improvements over
current practice.
FINAL REMARKS
Part 3 of the paper has left unresolved the doubts raised by Part 2 as to the
adequacy of the Inui approach to the relationship between hull form and wave-
making. It is possible, but far from certain, that the large differences in resid-
uary resistance of the asymmetrical model in the different directions of motion
are due to viscous effects. If they are not, then theories, such as the Inui one,
for which the relationship between hull shape and source distribution is inde-
pendent of the direction of motion must be wrong. If they are, then potential
flow theory, even if accurate in itself, must be an unreliable guide to experimen-
tal residuary resistance, especially for forms with full afterbodies. In either
event, improvements in our present theories are called for. These might take
the form of an improvement in the theory for potential flow, and possibly Guil-
loton's theory (2) already represents such an improvement. Alternatively it
may be more important to take account of viscous effects.
Despite these uncertainties, there are grounds for hope that considerable
reductions of resistance of ship forms are possible. It seems worthwhile to
make further attempts to beat the target set in Part 1, without any practical ap-
plication in mind, as a means of forging the theoretical tools which will ulti-
mately, it is hoped, be useful for practical design, but which, as we have seen,
are at present only rather blunt instruments. Moreover, if really radical im-
provements on current designs could be demonstrated, this might lead to some
practical restrictions, normally insisted upon, being relaxed. Even if, in most
practical cases, the form of least possible resistance may not be the shape that
should be chosen for a ship, knowledge concerning this purely hydrodynamic
optimum must be of assistance in making a correct technical assessment of
ship design.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The work described above was carried out in the Ship Division of the Na-
tional Physical Laboratory, and is published by permission of the Director of
the Laboratory.
REFERENCES
1. "Wave-Making Resistance of Ships," Soc.
Inui, T., of Naval Architects and
Marine Engineers Trans. 70:283 (1962)
728
Design of Low-Resistance Hull Fornns
4. Hughes, G., "Ship Model Viscous Resistance Coefficients," NPL Ship Divi-
sion, Ship TM 80, 1965
8. Gadd, G.E., and Hogben, N., "The Determination of Wave Resistance from
Measurements of the Wave Pattern," NPL Ship Division, Ship Rep. 70, 1965
13. Wu, T. Yao-tsu, "Interaction Between Ship Waves and Boundary Layer,"
International Seminar on Theoretical Wave Resistance, Ann Arbor, 3:1263,
1963
729
AN ATTEMPTED APPLICATION OF
WAVE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES TO
ACHIEVE BOW-WAVE REDUCTION
S. D. Sharma
Hamburgische Schiffbau- Versuchsanstalt
Hamburg, Germany
ABSTRACT
Two longitudinal -cut methods of analyzing the wave systenn of a ship
model, originally proposed by the author in 1963, have been numerically
and experimentally verified. It has been found that the free wave spec-
trum of a given model can be derived with fair accuracy fronn measure-
ments of wave height or slope along a single track parallel to the direc-
tion of nnotion, provided suitable truncation corrections are applied to
account for the asymptotic behaviour of the wave profile behind the
model. A concrete exannple shows that such empirical information on
the wave making characteristics of a nnain-huU form can be used as a
basis for the theoretical design of an additive bow bulb which would
achieve optimum wave cancellation and thus indirectly reduce ship re-
sistance and improve performance.
PART I
INTRODUCTION.
This paper presents the first results of a research project initiated about
a year ago with a view to devising a systematic method for the design and ap-
propriate dimensioning of bulbous bows. It is generally recognized that the
beneficial action of the bow bulb in reducing ship resistance and thereby im-
proving performance results primarily from an attenuation of the bov/ wave
system which is usually accompanied by a reduction of wave making resistance.
Even in such cases, with fuller ships for example, where there is good reason
to believe that the bulb tends to reduce the viscous rather than wave resistance
by smoothening the flow around the forebody, the wave reduction can be used as
a good practical criterion for bulb efficiency, since it is an empirical fact that
optimum designs of least total resistance generally display the least surface
disturbance in the vicinity of the bow. Therefore, it seems to be a sound work-
ing principle to try to match the bow wave system of the main hull against that
of an additive bulb.
731
Sharma
For the present investigation it was decided to make a consistent use of the
elementary wave concept by first analyzing the measured wave system of the
main hull to obtain the spectrum and then adjusting the bulb to it. The basic
step, therefore, was to find a convenient and practical method of obtaining the
empirical spectrum from wave measurements capable of being taken, if possi-
ble, during a routine resistance test. Extensive testing previously conducted by
the author (4-6) on a mathematical model, designated as the Inuid S-201, had
established the validity of a transverse-cut method of deriving the free wave
spectrum from Fourier transforms of two or more wave profiles measured
along straight lines normal to the direction of motion of the model. However,
this method appeared to be somewhat inconvenient for the present purpose,
since transverse cuts can be measured only by moving wave probes across the
towing carriage during the model run, unless the even more difficult stereo-
photogrammetric technique is used. Moreover, there is no unique way of break-
ing up the waves measured behind the model into contributions from the bow and
the stern which may be desirable from the point of view of bulb design.
Hence it was decided to try out the two longitudinal-cut methods of wave
analysis originally suggested by the author in 1963, see Ref. 4a. These require
only the knowledge of wave height or transverse wave slope along a single
straight track parallel to the direction of motion of the model. This information
can be obtained rather easily by locating a stationary wave probe at some suit-
able point in the towing tank and taking time -dependent records while the model
passes by, without any interference with the routine testing. Incidentally, this
732
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
z = ^(x.y), (1)
Rw=RwkoVpv2, (2)
where p denotes the density of water. (The term "wave resistance" will be used
in thispaper to designate the dynamic reaction of any given free wave system
as predicted by linearized potential theory.) When dimensional quantities are
used in the following pages for special reasons they will be identified by under-
lining.
733
Sharma
The nondimensional free surface deformation due to the moving ship is now
given by
z = ^x,y). (3)
Following Havelock (7) this function may be represented for large distances
by a general superposition of elementary plane waves
(x^ + y2)
C(x,y) = J[f(6')
/- sin (sx+ uy) + g(0) cos (sx+ uy)] d0 , (4)
and then question the validity of linearized wave theory because this ratio for a
simple cosine ship (Inuid C-201) approaches infinity as d tends to 7t/2.
always remain finite, except when the linearized theory is genuinely over-
strained (for example by locating a singularity on the free surface).
Even otherwise, the functions F(u) andG(u) come quite close to what may
be considered as physical amplitudes except for a constant factor of proportion-
ality. For instance, the average rate of flow of total energy across a transverse
vertical plane for large negative x is given by
734
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
77 [F^Cu) + G^Cu)] du
In previous work (4-6) the author has used, following Eggers (8), the con-
venient "deep tank representation," which is obtained immediately from Eq. (6)
by replacing the integral with an infinite series. Assuming a transverse sym-
metric disturbance in a deep tank with straight vertical walls y = b/2 one ob-
tains the following general expression for a linearized free wave system far
abaft:
00
u^ - 277V /b ,
e^ - 1/2 for v= and 1 elsewhere,
or alternatively
CD
see, for instance, Ref. 6a. The coefficients A^ and f ^ in Eq. (9) are, in fact,
actual amplitudes and phases of elementary tank waves, each of which can be
considered as a separate physical entity. For any given disturbance producing
the free wave in a tank of width b the coefficients a^ and /3^ are simply related
to the continuous functions F(u) and G(u) which constitute the free wave spec-
trum by the proportionality
a^ = (477/b) G(u) ,
/S^ = (477/b) F(u) . (10)
Assuming any sufficiently large hypothetical tank width b, Eqs. (9) and (10)
can also be considered as a numerical approximation to the exact integral in Eq.
(6) for laterally unrestricted fluid. The corresponding approximation for wave
resistance is then
CO
735
Sharma
which again "exact" for a tank of width b. The quantity A (in an actual tank)
is
or Ab tank width b is only a numerical artifice) considered as a continuous
(if
function of the wavenumber u or s seems to be a quite reasonable definition of
the "amplitude spectrum" and will, therefore, be used for its graphical repre-
sentation in this paper, as has already been the practice in previous publications
of the author.
-a,
4n/s2 - 1 ^ (13a)
^ '
ba(u) = 47tG(u) = [C sin (uy) - S cos (uy)] ^
2s - 1
while the wave resistance can also be computed directly, without reference to
the amplitude or phase spectrum, by the formula
^\:[ f ~ ^
(C^ + S^)du. (14)
It was further pointed out in Ref. 4 that similar relations can be derived for
the analogous Fourier transforms of wave slopes ^^ or i^ measured along lon-
gitudinal cuts. Especially, a decided numerical advantage was claimed in favor
of the transforms Cy and Sy of the transverse wave slope ^y over those of wave
height i because of a more reasonable weighting function in the following rela-
tions corresponding to Eqs. (13) and (14):
736
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
ba(u) = 47rG(u) = ^
s(2s2- I)
[C sin (uy) +
y ^ '
S cos (uy)]
y
,
(^^a)
and
It isobvious from an inspection of the foregoing equations that in the most im-
portant and interesting region of the spectrum at u = o, that is at s = 1, a numeri-
cal zero must be multiplied with a numerical infinity on the right-hand side of
Eqs. (13) and (14) in order to obtain a nonzero value of the transverse wave am-
plitude Aq, while no such difficulty occurs with the Eqs. (15) or (16).
TRUNCATION CORRECTIONS
The numerical difficulty just mentioned finds another expression in the fact
that under certain circumstances the Fourier transforms c, S and Cy, Sy etc., ,
do not converge at all. In fact the theoretical free wave spectrum of any ship
form is such that in general the function ^(x,y) is not absolutely integrable at
the afterend -x-co, andc^ + S^ becomes infinite at the point s = l
spectrum contributes but little to wave resistance. In one typical case, for in-
stance, it was estimated that truncating the spectrum at s = 3 would cause an
error of less than 0.5 percent in wave resistance.
737
Sharma
by, say, a least-squares fit to the known function ^ in some finite region
Xj < X < Xj, where -Xj, -x^ >> !
The contribution of the integration - 00 < x < x^, where x^ is some large
negative value of x can then be derived by closed evaluation of the following
,
integrals:
r e C,
c C, sin
COS X + Co Sin X /-v
AC + iAS*
^
= ys2- 1 ,
exp(isx)dx. (19)
J- 00 7^
After some rewriting and simplification one obtains the following results:
AS' = /^[-diSp(z*)
+ d^CpCz^) - d3Sp(z-) + d^CpCz-)] (20b)
2
e.g., see Ref. 12, and the argument z takes the values
738
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
The further evaluation of the weighted Fourier transforms c* and s* thus cor- ,
rected for any truncation errors at the after end -x - proceeds as before but ,
ba(u) = 47tG(u) = -
[C* cos (uy) - S* sin (uy)] ,
(24a)
2s 1
b/3(u) = 47rF(u) = ^ -
[C* sin (uy) + S* cos (uy)] ,
(24b)
2s 1
and
P. = i Jl(C')^* (S*)^l
(25)
^T^^fbr^.
For the sake of record it may be recalled that Newman (9) also derived a
certain truncation correction for wave resistance in a different way but starting
with an assumed asymptotic behavior of wave height similar to Eq. (18).
r- x/y
^x,y) =2 s^ exp(-fs2) sin (sx + uy) dt ,
(26a)
J _ 00
n- x/y
^y(x,y) = 2 us^ exp(-fs2) cos (sx+uy) dt ,
(26b)
J _ 00
which are adapted from Havelock (13) after neglecting certain local terms in-
volving double integrals (which had to be dropped in view of limited computer
facilities at the disposal of the author).
739
Sharma
The above integrals were numerically evaluated at 241 points, in the range
X = - 207T (n/ 10
)4tt for typical parameter values f = l y =
, by the Romberg ,
tt
Table 1
List of Computed i^ (xlO"*) Values for a Submerged Sphere
(Parameters: r := i, f = i^ y = tt; Variable, x = 477 stepped -VlO
until -2O77)
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
Table 2
List of Computed i Values for a Submerged Sphere
(xlO"*)
(Parameters: r=i, f=i^y = 77; Variable, x=4: stepped
-Tj/lO until -207t)
Sharma
742
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
743
Sharma
The test cut was a height record for a nondimensional model length L = 20 (cor-
responds to F^ = 0.2236) at transverse location y = 8,01 in a tank of width b =
90, taken in 250 equal steps from x = -100 to +25. The theoretical heights were
computed by Dr. Klaus Eggers of the Institut fur Schiffbau der Universitat Ham-
burg by the usual linearized theory including all local effects and with a speci-
fied absolute error limit of 0.0005. The data as used by the author are repro-
duced in Table 3.
Table 3
List of Computed ^ (xlO^*) Values for Inuid S-201
(Parameters: y^ = 10, b = 90, y = 8.01; Variable,
X = 25 stepped -0.5 until -100)
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
o s*^-2,5 12.5
slope analysis than in height analysis (see Figs. 1 and 2). The latter, conducted
without truncation correction for any finite length of run however large, will al-
ways yield zero amplitudes at the point u = and will generally lead to large
errors of amplitude and phase in a significant portion of the spectrum (see Figs.
1 and 3), which may, however, sometimes cancel out in the integration and yield
a surprisingly reasonable value of wave resistance (see Fig. 1). The truncation
correction for height analysis as applied by the author seems to be most effec-
tive in the case of an isolated point disturbance and yields strikingly accurate
results (Fig. 1), while the improvement achieved in the case of a pair of point
745
Sharma
EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION
A further demonstration of the feasibility of the longitudinal-cut method of
wave analysis was obtained from a special test run on the mathematical model
Inuid S-201. This same model had been previously subjected to a series of ex-
tensive tests, including wave analysis, based on the transverse-cut method;
hence sufficient reliable data for crucial comparisons were available. Refer-
ences 4, 5, and 6 may be consulted for a description of the model and the details
of past experiments and analysis.
For the present purpose a new resistance-wire-type wave probe which si-
multaneously records wave height and partial slope in any one desired orienta-
tion was designed and constructed by Mr. Hans Luft of the HSVA (Hamburgische
Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt, Hamburg, Germany) with the expert advice of Pro-
fessor L. W. Ward of the Webb Institute of Naval Architecture, Long Island, N.Y.
The test runs on Inuid S-201 were conducted in the HSVA on May 9, 1966, in
collaboration with Dr. Klaus Eggers of the Institut fur Schiffbau der Universitat
Hamburg and with the financial support of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.
The wave probe was located at a fixed point in the tank at a transverse distance
of 1655 mm from the model center plane, and time records of wave height ^ and
transverse slope l^ were taken as the model passed by at six different speeds
between 1.4 and 2.0 m/sec. The comparative geometry of the longitudinal cuts
thus obtained and the transverse cuts measured in August 1962 with the same
model in the same tank but using a sonic wave probe is shown in Fig. 4. It may
be noted that actual tank dimensions allowed recording of very much longer
runs, but these were deliberately restricted to keep them well outside of the
wave system reflected from the tank walls, which is an extraneous effect not
accounted for in the present methods of longitudinal-cut analysis.
746
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
the peak values. Table 4 also shows relevant information on comparable trans-
verse cuts of the older test series and the final result (wave resistance) obtained
in each case.
Table 4
Comparison Parameters and Results
of of Transverse and Longitudinal-Cut
Analysis Conducted on a 4-m Model of the Mathematical Form Inuid S-201
Parameter
Sharma
Table 5
List of Measured i (xio'^) Values for Inuid S-201
(Parameters: y^ = 10.01, b = 90.09, y = 8.28;
Variable, x = 10.54 stepped -0.3502 until -86.46)
35
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
Table 6
List of Measured I (xio^) Values for Inuid S-201
(Parameters: >o = 7.690, b = 69.21, y = 6.36; Var-
iable, X = 8.82 stepped -0.3070 until -69.47)
7
Sharma
Table 7
List of Measured i Values for Inuid S-201
(x 10"*)
(Parameters: y^ = 6.067, b = 54.60, y =5.02; Var-
iable:X = 9.10 stepped -0.2733 until -64.70)
8
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
Table 8
List of Measured i, (xlO"*)Values for Inuid S-201
(Parameters: y^ = 4.903, b = 44.13, y = 4.06; Var-
iable, X = 7.55 stepped -0.2462 until -73.68)
16
Sharma
1.0-
0.9-
Q6-
Exact theoretical curve
by direct computation
0.7-
With seni-eapiricaL
correctiono after Inui
and author, see Bef. 4
?roB analysis of a
single longitudinal
C cut (present work)
752
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
W
Lrril
0.9
QB
Exact theoretical curve
by direct computation
Q7
With semi-empirical
corrections after Inui
and author, see Ref. 4
06
Q Prom analysis of five
transverse C cuts,
see Ref. 4
From analysis of a
single longitudinal
C cut (present work)
u 25 150 [m-'2
753
Sharma
With seBl-emplrlcaL
corrections after Inul
and author, aee Ref. 4
Q Prom analysio of
five transverse
C cuts, see Bef.
From analysis of a
single longitudinal
C cut (present work)
KlJJ'LJuiD^'
-?5 7.S 1Q0 12,5 ^5.0 [rry-1]
754
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
1.0
Lrr,l
0.9
oa
Exact theoretical curve
by direct computation
0.7
With semi-empirical
corrections after Inui
and author, see Ref. 4
Q
^
Prom analysis of
five transverse
C outs, see Bef. 4
Prom analysis of a
single longitudinal
C cut (present work)
1S.0 [m-'j
the same experience has been made previously with the transverse-cut method
where as many as had to be taken (instead of a theoretical minimum
five cuts
requirement of only two cuts) to reduce the mean error to less than 5 percent
(see Ref. 5a).
CONCLUSIONS
It seems that a convenient and practical method of wave analysis has now
been established. This involves the measurement of a time record of wave
755
Sharma
height at a suitable fixed point in the towing tank while the model passes by at a
steady speed, during a routine resistance test for example. A simple Fourier
transform analysis of this record based on linearized potential theory then
yields the free wave spectrum and the wave resistance of the model. The
method has been numerically checked on different theoretical wave systems of
predetermined spectra and experimentally verified on the mathematical model
Inuid S-201. All essential numerical and experimental data leading to this con-
clusion have been reproduced in the paper, and others working in the field are
invited to check the author's or their own methods on it.
The basic empirical information needed for this work consisted of longitu-
dinal wave profiles, measured during routine resistance tests at the HSVA, of
two alternative designs (one with and the other without a bulbous bow) of a cargo
ship model. Both the main hull and the bow bulb were of purely empirical de-
sign. The relevant parameters of the models tested are reproduced in Table 9.
It may be noted that two operating conditions were specified; hence four sets of
resistance and wave measurements were taken. The data analyzed and reported
in the following were obtained at model speeds corresponding to the designed
service speeds of the full-size ship in the fully loaded and ballast conditions.
The transverse location and longitudinal extent of the profiles recorded and
evaluated was very similar to that shown in Fig. 4.
756
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
Table 9
Particulars of a Cargo Ship Model Tested with and
without a Bulb at Two Different Loading Conditions
Parameter
Sharma
758
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
0.8 r
exhibits regular oscillations arising from interference between bow and stern
waves typical of any singularity distribution (see Fig. 3) in the linearized theory,
while the differential bulb spectrum is a fairly monotonic curve characteristic
of a concentrated point disturbance (see Fig. 1), The irregular high frequency
fluctuations visible in the bulb amplitude function could be attributed to experi-
mental error, while the somewhat more regular low frequency oscillations could
result from nonlinear interaction between the main hull and bulb spectra.
759
Sharma
050
a good result. In the present context it is more important to observe the follow-
ing features in Fig. 11. The wave resistance coefficient C^ as computed from
the spectra displayed in Figs. 9 and 10 is also plotted in Fig. 11 as a deduction
from the measured total resistance coefficient c^. Now, if the standard corre-
lation line recommended by the ITTC 1957 is used as an estimate of frictional
resistance Cf it is obvious that the residuary resistance C^ - Cj is not ac-
,
counted for by wave -making alone. Thus there is indirect evidence of consid-
erable pressure drag of viscous origin. Considering differences, it is worth
noting that the resistance reduction due to the bulb at the load draft can be fully
explained by the observed attenuation of the wave system, whereas at the ballast
draft only about two thirds of the total resistance reduction can be attributed to
the attenuation of the visible surface deformation. This indicates that in the
latter condition either the bulb is simultaneously acting to reduce viscous re-
sistance or that the present method tends to underestimate the "actual" wave
resistance. That this second possibility cannot be ruled out is suggested by the
760
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
appearance of the bow waves on the models with and without a bulb as compared
in Fig. 12. Although the photographs are only a poor reproduction of the flow
conditions actually observed during the tests, and there are certain extraneous
features such as irrelevant foam patches on the free surface (foreground of Fig.
12(a)), it should be evident that the bow wave of the bulbless model has a broken
crest and produces violently turbulent motion, while the bulbous model exhibits
a fairly smooth flow. It is quite conceivable that in face of such highly nonlinear
(and in fact nonpotential) flow phenomena the present linearized method of wave
analysis would yield inaccurate results and generally tend to underestimate the
"actual" wave-making resistance.
^^^^^''^
Sharma
It will be seen that for each condition there is a definite range of bulb size
and location (bounded by the contour line marked 1.0) inside which the bulb pro-
duces beneficial action. There also exists in each case a definite optimal
choice. The best that can be achieved with this model by merely changing bulb
size and longitudinal location (i.e., without altering the basic bulb form) is a re-
duction of wave resistance down to about 48 percent in the ballast condition or
69 percent in the load condition. Evidently the two optima cannot be realized
simultaneously and it is the designer's problem to choose a compromise some-
where along a straight line connecting the two optimal points in Fig. 13. The
picture also confirms the empirical fact already known to designers that a bulb
optimized for the load draft is generally oversized and detrimental at the ballast
762
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
draft. It may be noted in passing that the empirical bulb design actually tested
being represented by the coordinates (0,1) in the diagram is a near hit to the
theoretical optimum for the ballast condition, and this was to the author's knowl-
edge also the aim of the designer in the present case. However, there is still
some room for minor overall improvement, and this diagram serves to illus-
trate the type of practical recommendations that can be made to the designer
with the aid of the wave analysis techniques in this paper.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work has been performed in the Hamburgische Schiffbau-Versuchs-
anstalt(HSVA) at the instigation of the Director, Professor Dr.-Ing. Hermann
Lerbs, and with the financial support of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.
The wave profile measurements on the mathematical model Inuid S-201 re-
ported in Part I of the paper were conducted in collaboration with Professor
Lawrence W. Ward of the Webb Institute of Naval Architecture and Dr. Klaus
Eggers of the Institut fur Schiffbau der Universitat Hamburg as part of a related
research program aimed at comparing different methods of wave analysis. A
complete report on this work is currently in preparation.
The wave records of the cargo ship model with and without a bulb, presented
in Part II, were obtained during routine testing for a German shipyard,
Orenstein-Koppel und Lubecker Maschinenbau Aktiengesellschaft, to whom the
author is greatly indebted for kind permission to conduct these measurements
and to publish most of the information.
The author is also grateful to Mr. Harald Keil of the Institut fur Schiffbau
for his assistance in automatic data acquisition and to Mr. Walter Alef of the
HSVA for his help in data reduction and computer programming.
NOMENCLATURE
(Unless otherwise specified, all lengths have been rendered nondimensional
by multiplication with the fundamental wavenumber k^ and all wavenumbers
have been rendered nondimensional by division with k^.)
b Tank width
763
Sharma
764
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
V Tank wavenumber
P Density of water
REFERENCES
1. Yim, B., "Some Recent Developments in the Theory of Bulbous Ships,"
Hydronautics Inc. Technical Report 117-6, Aug. 1964
a. p. 345
3. Takahei, T., "A Study on the Waveless Bow (Parts 1 and 2)," J. SNA Japan
108:289-297 (1960); 109:203-217 (1961)
a. Part 2, p. 213
765
Sharma
Theoretical Wave Resistance," Ann Arbor, Michigan, Aug. 1963, pp. 201-
257,270
a. p. 222
b. p. 224
c. Figures 11 to 14
a. pp. 442-451
a. pp. 473-474
b. pp. 477-479
10. Pien, P.C, and Moore, W.L., "Theoretical and Experimental Study of
Wave -Making Resistance of Ships," Proc. International Seminar on Theo-
retical Wave Resistance, Ann Arbor, Michigan, Aug. 1963, pp. 133-182,188
11. Shor, S.W.W., "A Fourier Transform Method for Calculating Wave-Making
Resistance from Wave Height on a Line Parallel to a Ship's Track," Proc.
International Seminar on Theoretical Wave Resistance, Ann Arbor, Michi-
gan, Aug. 1963, pp. 601-615
13. Havelock, T.H., "The Wave Pattern of a Doublet in a Stream," Proc. Roy.
Soc. (London) Ser. A 121:515-523 (1928)
766
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
DISCUSSION
Lawrence W. Ward
Webb Naval Architecture
Institute of
Glen Cove, New York
esting and valuable discussions and experimental investigations; this now, with
Dr. Eggers, completes a triumvirate at the Institut fur Schiffbau and at the
Hamburgische Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt which, as the author mentioned, at-
tempted to bring both theoretical and experimental methods to bear during this
period on the question of which methods of wave analysis are both valid and
practical for determination of the wave resistance and other related questions,
such as that of the bulbous bow which the author has focused on in the paper.
Some of the results of this joint effort, in particular the results of a longitudinal
cut analysis of the wave elevation due to the model Inuid S-201, are given in
Table 4 in Part I. I would like to take this occasion to present other results we
obtained on the same model by the "X-Y" method, in order to draw a compari-
son, the first that has been possible using the same model under the same con-
ditions, between these two methods as well as with the author's previously ob-
tained results using the Eggers transverse-cut relationships. These results
are summarized in Fig. Dl, in which the wave resistance coefficient c^ is pre-
sented as a function of the Froude number F^ for the three test series. It is
seen that essential agreement is obtained between the three methods, except in
two regions, one in a hollow and the other at the highest Froude numbers
to.30
v/gL
767
Sharma
considered, where the transverse cut analysis result is higher. Thus the com-
parison is encouraging and lends further support to the author's comment, in
the last paragraph of the section "Experimental Verification," that this meas-
ured quantity, which N. Hogben has aptly termed "wave pattern resistance,"
seems to be definable in a practical sense. Further details on these results,
including if possible results on a longitudinal cut method using the wave slope,
should be forthcoming in a joint paper as mentioned by the author in his aclaiowl-
edgments.
Let me make a comment on the specific question of the paper, that is, the
experimental design of a bulb for a given ship. This is that the obvious suita-
bility of the spectrum result in the present method of wave analysis for investi-
gating size and location of the bulb does not preclude the consideration of other
methods under the same assumptions, to solve the same problem in the tank.
These are (a) linearity of the bulb wave system to the bulb strength and (b) fixed
relative location of the bulb wave system with the bulb itself. In particular, one
could construct the bulb X and Y signals (not the product) from the test data or
from theory and apply this record through a computer analysis to the basic ship
X and Y records to find optimum locations and strengths, without substantially
more effort than required in analyzing and integrating the spectrum for the
same purpose.
I am glad to see, that the author has included a plug for full-scale tests of
wave resistance using one of these methods; a task which would require great
effort but which would also, in my opinion, afford correspondingly great promise
to learn something useful as well. Let me conclude by again thanking the author
for preparing such an interesting paper; indeed one of a growing number of
papers in this field with results and techniques which are of practical use to the
ship designer.
DISCUSSION
K. W. H. Eggers
Institut fur Schiffbau der Universitdt Hamburg
Hamburg University
768
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
For both methods, we see that a distance y = 0.45 will still bring consider-
able influence of local waves on the initial part of the curves; therefore even for
a long cut only a limited degree of accuracy can be expected. A distance of 0.9
appears to be optimal to obtain a high percentage of resistance from a short cut,
i.e., if the truncation point has to be close to the ship to avoid influence of a tank
wall reflection.
769
Sharma
The strong correlation between the curves for larger y is very surprising
in view of the different origin of the two methods.
REPLY TO DISCUSSION
S. D. Sharma
Further, it is true that the "X-Y" method can also be used to predict the
wave -making resistance of certain linear combinations of the bulb and the main
hull under the same assumptions as used by the author. However, the spectral
approach is more powerful. For example, given a certain wave profile (longi-
tudinal or transverse) of a particular hull form, it is an easy matter to predict
by linear superposition the corresponding profile (i.e., longitudinal or trans-
verse respectively but not vice versa) of a pair of such hulls moving in tandem
or side by side (catamaran) respectively. However, if one takes the trouble of
deriving the spectrum by either method, one can predict any profile (longitudi-
nal, transverse, or inclined) of any parallel configuration of any number of
similar hulls! Of course, in principle, one could also derive the spectrum from
the X and Y signals, but it would be a poor way of doing so.
770
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
Sharma
2.0
Wave Analysis Techniques to Achieve Bow-Wave Reduction
Table Dl
Revised and Enlarged Version of Table 1. List of Computed
^y (xlO'*) Values for a Submerged Sphere (Parameters: r = l,
f =1, y = 7t; Variable, x = 47t stepped -rr/lO until -267^)
THE MINIMUM PROBLEM OF THE
WAVE RESISTANCE OF THE SURFACE
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
Masatoshi Bessho
Defense Academy
Yokosuka, Japan
INTRODUCTION
The minimum problem of the wave resistance has no solution in thin ship
theory, and this means that singularity distributions exist which have no wave
resistance. On the other hand, the wave-free distribution belonging to the usual
functional class has no displacement, but wave -free distributions with a finite
displacement exist in the theory of the slender ship, although the wave-resistance
integral has no finite value in such case (1,2). This apparent contradiction is
caused by the confusion of the functional class of the distribution, but the intro-
duction of the function of the wider class or the higher order singularity makes
the theory more fruitful (3),
This paper explains such a situation of the problem with respect to the sur-
face pressure distribution (1,4,5). The theory is very similar to the thin and
slender ship theory.
By the way, this theory is the case in which the ship surface and the pres-
sure are given in the framework of linearized theory, so that it may be interest-
ing to compare it with the so-called second-order theory.
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
Consider a uniform stream with unit velocity, and Cartesian coordinates,
taking the origin at the water surface, the x axis as positive toward the upstream
side, and the z axis as positive upward. If a pressure p(x,y) acts over the
surface s at the water surface, some wave motion occurs. Let <P(x,y,z) be the
velocity potential of this motion; then it must satisfy the conditions (6)
-p(x,y)
'^
% -
ax
0(x,y,O) - gZ(x,y) , (1)
775
Bessho
and
where p is the water density, g is the gravity constant, and Z(x,y) is the water
surface elevation.
''^(''y-z) =
4;^ JJ
P(x',y') S(x,y,z; x',y',0) dx'dy' ,
(5)
s
where (7)
k cos
x
6 - g + i/Li cos 6
dkd5
and where
^- g^
ox oz
S= 2g'-^^,
dz
r^= (x-x')^. (y-y')^. z^ (7)
'^' (8)
3x Bz ^e Bx ^ i Bx2
or
The solution of this integral equation has been examined by Maruo for small
values (7,8).
For large g values, it is well known that the second term of the right-hand
side of Eq. (9) is small and
776
Minimum Wave Resistance of Surface Pressure Distribution
3" /^^
p(x.y)
^x'
2
W 3'
<3y'
m(x,y) (11)
then it will be determined uniquely except for some arbitrary boundary condi-
tions, say,
ni(l,y) = m(il,y)
dx
= 0, m(x,b) = 0, (12)
Putting Eqs. (11) and (12) into Eq. (5), and integrating partially, yields (10)
0(x,y,
Bessho
is shown in Fig. 1.
"
5 . b 0-2
X^./.ob
In another way, the potential f(x,y,z) of Eq. (14) is always wave-free for an
arbitrary function m(x,y) without the conditions of Eqs (12) and (15), because it
satisfies the surface condition of Eq. (4), but higher order singularities than the
doublet must be introduced.
1. The longitudinal line distribution along the two segments ly| = b, |x| < 1
778
Minimum Wave Resistance of Surface Pressure Distribution
When g is very small, the first term of Eq. (11) is dominant, but as g be-
comes larger and b smaller, the third term becomes dominant, where Eq. (10)
is to be remembered.
The twin hull ship type for large g (Fig. 2) is especially interesting, for it
may be considered as a model of a broad flat stern of a displacement ship (12).
^ / 2
or, interchanging the order of integration, the wave resistance can be written
R =
-^ ||p(x,y) G'(x,y) dxdy ,
(22)
s
where
in which (13)
(24)
779
Bessho
^UmCAL SCALE
I IS MBTmARY
3 0-5. b'2
-05
0-5
!*-Ofb
780
Minimum Wave Resistance of Surface Pressure Distribution
MINIMUM PROBLEM
When the total pressure is given, namely,
G'(x,y) = 0, (27)
ax" ^ ^ W' ^ ^2
Since the existence of its derivative is assumed, the integral equation ob-
tained by the differentiation of both sides of Eq. (26) may also have a unique so-
lution, and this solution must be identically zero, because the right-hand side is
zero.
Hence, the present minimum problem has no definite solution and no mini-
mum value exists for the wave resistance (1,14). This fact may mean that its
least value will be zero, because it may be possible to reduce the total wave
amplitude as small as necessary, adding the longitudinal and transversal distri-
bution to each other appropriately. However, the minimum solution exists in
elementary cases such as thin ship theory.
1. Twin hull ship type distribution. When the speed is very high and the
breadth narrow, this case nearly equals the next. As seen from the preceding
section, it is also interesting at low speed, but usually it seems more useful to
consider it in combination with case 3 (12), which means case 4.
2. Slender ship. In this well-known case there exists a unique solution ex-
cept for arbitrary wave -free distributions which have no wave resistance but a
finite displacement (1,9).
781
Bessho
There is another case which has a unique solution, that is, a symmetric dis-
tribution about the origin over a circular disc, but it is nearly equal to case 3
for large velocity (1).
(28)
H(y) =
^Jp(x,y) dx ,
this is written as
H(y) dy = 2
(29)
1 1
where
2 ^' dM (31)
G(y)=-(^l-^^JG(y)
r. ^fi
and also
or
where B is the breadth in the usual unit system and K^ is a modified Bessel
function.
Equation (31) can be deduced from the following relations. Since the func-
tion P. has an expansion (13)
J
782
Minimum Wave Resistance of Surface Pressure Distribution
and since
P.5(x,y,0) = _^P_j(x,y,0)
ox
then
P.5(0,y.O) . -Ko(y/2)-
16
TTK2(y/2)
16
= -j U " 2 _
dy-
K(y/2) (35)
To solve the integral equation (33), assume the next expansion in Mathieu
functions (15)
CD
(36b)
(37)
^f ^0 (I '''' ^ " ''' ^'') ^^2n(^''-q) d^' = ^2n ^e^^C^.-q)
where
( 2n)
Fek,(0.-q) (38)
'
ce2(0,q) ce2(0,-q)
( 2n)
r'" (-1)" Aq Ce2(u.q)
(39a)
cos (2k cos 9 sinh u) cej^C^.-q) d^ =
ce2(0,q)
Jo
-co
(-1)" Aq'"' Fek2(z,-q)
(39b)
I cos (2k cosh z sinh u) Ce2n(u, q) du =
ce2(0,q)
Fek2(0,-q)
Re [Fek2.(-i^,-q)] = ce2(^.-q) .
(40)
.^^^^^.^^
783
Bessho
''* CD
G* (C0S5) = ^^^^
2^
=
X^n ^2n ^e2n(^--q)
but, putting this into Eq. (31) results in a differential equation, so that
G(y) =0 and r* = .
(45)
where
where
00
0a(^)/sin (^9)
Ha(y) = 0a(^) =
21 ^2n ^e^^C^.-q) ,
784
Minimum Wave Resistance of Surface Pressure Distribution
Y^
n =
,
( 2n) 00
(51)
77A\'
and
2(-l)" C, V^ (2n)
(52)
ttD/V-
Then
G(y) = agV(27fA) ,
r* = 2agV(T7A) (53)
a = 0b(O)/t<^b(O)-'^a(O)] . (54)
this solution becomes zero there, in which case it will be called H^.
CO
4>se) ~-
COS 2ne 4>^{d) = cos 2n6 (55)
2^ -2n ,
2]/^2n
Figures 4, 5, and 6 and Tables 1 and 2 show the results (4). When the ve-
very large, that is, when g
locity is is very small, the functions become approx-
imately
>(^)^- 1 - ^
Id
log (8/yg) cos 26
(56a)
,(^) ^17 1 + ^
3g'
log (8/rg) cos 26 (56b)
^c(^)
- sin2 6 ,
(56c)
and
He(y) =-rvi-y^ (56d)
where y means Euler's constant. The wave resistance is, respectively (1,4)
785
Bessho
Minimum Wave Resistance of Surface Pressure Distribution
u
H
0)
o
o
o
Bessho
and
8g/7T for H^(y) . (57c)
H(y) = l/7l-y'
(58)
Since the induced velocity of this distribution is zero, there might be no in-
duced drag for such a wing, if such a flow could be realized (16). For the plan-
ing surface, however, there may be a possibility to realize such a flow by adding
floats at both ends (17).
On the other hand, the similarity of H^ (Fig. 5) to the wave -free distribu-
tion (Fig. 1), especially at low speed, is also to be remarked.
Generally speaking, the situation with respect to the wave -free solution may
be similar to that of slender ship theory, in which case there also exist wave-
free distributions having a finite displacement, and they correspond to another
class of the distribution which has smaller resistance than the slender ship (2).
CONCLUSION
A typical elementary wave source is the twin hull ship type, that is, the
longitudinal line distribution of the pressure on two parallel lines. Another is
the planing surface type, that is, the transversal line distribution of the pressure.
788
Minimum Wave Resistance of Surface Pressure Distribution
Finally, the larger the velocity, the smaller the wave resistance of the
transversal line distribution; namely, this type is essentially preferable for very
high speed, but it may be also possible to apply this theory to, say, the design of
the destroyer stern.
REFERENCES
1. Bessho, M., "On the Problem of the Minimum Wave-Making Resistance of
Ships," M.D.A., Vol. 2, No. 4 (1963)
3. Yim, B., "On Ships with Zero and Small Wave Resistance," International
Seminar on Theoretical Wave Resistance, Vol. 3, Univ. of Michigan, 1963
6. Wehausen, J.V., and Laitone, E.V., "Surface Waves," Handbuch der Physik,
Vol. 9, Springer, 1960
7. Maruo, H., "On the Theory of Wave Resistance of A Body Gliding on the
Surface of Water," J. Zosen Kyokai, Vol. 81, 1949
9. Maruo, H., "The Lift of Low Aspect Ratio Planing Surface," Proc. 11th
Japan National Congress for Appl. Mech., 1961
10. Bessho, M., "New Approach to the Problem of Ship Waves," Memoirs of
Defense Academy, Vol. 2, No. 2 (1962)
11. Ogasahara, A., Tabuchi, H., and Yamazaki, M., "Experimental Study of
Wave-Free Distributions," Thesis, Dept. of Mech. Eng., Defense Academy,
1965
12. Bessho, M., and Mizuno, T., "A Study of Full Ship Forms (2)," Spring
Meeting of Kansai Zosen Kyokai, 1966
13. Bessho, M., "On the Fundamental Function in the Theory of the Wave-
Making Resistance of Ships," M.D.A., Vol. 4, No. 2 (1964)
14. Kotik, J., and Newman, D.J., "A Sequence of Submerged Dipole Distribu-
tions Whose Wave Resistance Tends to Zero," J. Math, and Mech., Vol. 13,
No. 5 (1964)
789
Bessho
18. Maruo, H., "Calculation of the Wave Resistance of Ships, the Draught of
Which is as Small as the Beam," J. Zosen Kyokai, Vol. 112 (1962)
DISCUSSION
G. P. Weinblum
Institut fur Schiffbau der Universitdt Hamburg
Hamburg, Germany
^mpga = c
3x
Somewhat later (1935) von Karman has shown that the induced resistance of
a finite-span wing can be derived from Hogner's integral for vanishing gL/c ^ or
vanishing g in Bessho's formulation, thus anticipating Maruo's result in his
splendid papers on planing surfaces. His analysis of pressure systems and cor-
responding form of planing hulls should be developed. A useful scheme had been
developed by H. Wagner, who connected planing surface and wing phenomena.
790
Minimum Wave Resistance of Surface Pressure Distribution
Dr. Bessho has clarified the conditions of minimum resistance for pressure
systems in a similar far-reaching manner, as he and Krein have succeeded in
doing it for the Michell ship now a classical problem which caused so much
discussion. Obviously, further work should be done on nonrectangular domains
of pressure distributions and on combinations of such domains. Further, his
remarks on ship forms and singularity (source-line) distributions open the field
for a much needed treatment of the resistance of moderately fast and high-speed
forms, including fast displacement ships with transom sterns.
REPLY TO DISCUSSION
Masatoshi Bessho
thank Prof. Weinblum for his kind remarks and will clarify his questions.
I
where g* is the gravity constant in the usual unit system, so that it equals Prof.
Weinblum's In the latter part, the breadth of the planing surface is taken as
y.
twice unity, so that
^ "
V2\2
such that
^(x.y,-0) = ^P(x,y) .
791
Bessho
where M(x,y,z) = -M(x,y,z), then has no radiating wave. Hence, putting the
above into the first equation, we have
21 O
Bx"
2
^ m(x,y) ,
792
INDEX
Baer, Ledolph, 499, 530 Miles, John W., 529, 573
Benjamin, Brooke T., 129, 497, 544 Milgram, Jerome H., 409
Bernd, Leslie H., 77, 112 Motora, Seizo, 383, 411
Bessho, Mosatoshi, 775, 791 Munk, Walter H., 475
Bindel, S., 272 Mysak, L. A., 477
Bjorheden, Orvas, 272
Borden, Avis, 183 Newman, J. N., 203, 236, 473
Brard, Roger, 201, 232 Norr bin. Nils H., 235
Eggers, K. W. H., 649, 677, 699, 768 Phillips, O. M., 535, 548
Ellis, A. T., 137, 160 Pierson, Willard J., Jr., 499, 530
Porter, William R., 404
Fabula, A. S., 39, 73
Feir, J. E., 497 Rice, S. Roy, 313
Frank, W., 407
Salvesen, Nils, 595, 636
Gadd, G. E., 71, 705 Seyer, F. A., 19
Gertler, M., 231 Schubauer, G. B., 1
Giesing, J. P., 629 Sharma, S. D., 731, 770
Gibson, D. C, 158, 161 Silverleaf, A., 75
Skolnick, A., 312
Hammitt, Frederick, T., 154 Strom-Tejsen, J., 271, 317
Haselton, F. R., 305, 314 Strumpf, A., 277
Hasselmann, Klaus F., 530, 585
Hickling, R., 156, 161 Tick, Leo J., 499, 530
Hove, A. S., 415 Todd, F. H., 703
Hsieh, Tsuying, 163, 181 Tuck, E. O., 631
Hummel, Richard L., 37, 72, 111 Tulin, Marshall P., 3
793
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