CHAPTER 2 SUBSTRUCTURE

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Building foundation - types and functions
2.3 Deep Foundation
spun pile, micro pile, bakau pile,
bore pile and pile cap
2.4 Shallow Foundation
pad footing, raft foundation,
strip foundation
2.5 Column, stump, ground beam
 SITE INVESTIGATION
Site investigation is the most
important element in the
process of geotechnical
design for a building. If no
site investigation or
inadequate site
investigation, geotechnical
design will be incomplete. It
is identified as the main
factors that cause failure
and related problems in
construction.
SITE CLEARANCE

Site clearance involves the

removal of walls, hedges,
ditches, and trees, other
vegetation and services
from the site. It can also
involve the clearance of fly-
tipped materials
 SETTING OUT

Survey and record the existing ground level at

each pile location. Set out the pile location in
accordance with the Engineers working drawings
using a theodolite with the accuracy required in
the specifications. All setting out should refer to
the reference points and the related Contract
Drawings. In order to monitor the position of the
steel casing, control pins will be established with
two orthogonal positions offset from the centre of
the pile.
 TESTING FOR PILES
In order to assure the quality of concrete and steel
that will be used during pile construction a
sequence of quality control test shall be
performed. There will be taken cube specimens
from concrete and will be reserved under the
appropriate curing ambiance. The 7 days
compressive strength of the concrete for 2
specimen and 28 days for 1 specimen shall be
checked periodically by unconfined compression
tests. Also tensile strenght tests shall be applied to
the reinforcement bars.
 LOAD TEST
Planted pile capacity often set
using Hiley formula. Because it
shaped the ability empirical then
obtained must be confirmed with
a test pile. Type of test is often
done for concrete pile load test is
upheld 'maintained load test'.
 FUNCTION TEST PILE (LOAD TEST)

To determine the maximum liability of the ability to

realize.
To ensure that the pile is acceptable from the point
of planting structure.
To determine the relationship between the
deposition of 'settlement' pile with a load 'load'
incurred.
 DRIVE PILE

A pile driver is a mechanical device used to drive piles

into soil to provide foundation support for buildings or
other structures. The term is also used in reference to
members of the construction crew that work with pile-
driving rigs.
 TYPE DRIVE PILE
A hydraulic hammer is a modern type of piling
hammer used in place of diesel and air hammers
for driving steel pipe, precast concrete, and timber
piles. Hydraulic hammers are more
environmentally acceptable than the older, less
efficient hammers as they generate less noise and
pollutants. However, in many cases the dominant
noise is caused by the impact of the hammer on
the pile, or the impacts between components of
the hammer, so that the resulting noise level can
be very similar to diesel hammers.
 PDA TEST
The Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA)
is a powerful tool to assess pile
driving and High Strain Dynamic
Pile (HSDP) load testing which
may supplement or replace static
testing. The PDA is seeing
increasing usage in the testing of
the various types of cast-in-place
piles. In some parts of the world,
this type of testing is the most
common use for the PDA. This
solution is particularly attractive
for very large, high capacity piles
where the large capacity makes a
static test extremely costly.
 What is Substructure?

The lowest portion of the building structure.

Usually located below the ground level.

A foundation is a part of the structure which is

in direct contact with the ground to which the
loads are transmitted.
 Main functions of the foundations
To distribute the load of the structure over
a larger area.
To transmit the load uniformly under the
structure.
To provide a firm, level and strong base
over which the superstructure may be
constructed.
 Main functions of the foundations
To avoid any settlement or other
movement that can cause damage to any
part of the building (a stable foundation
should bear the loads without sinking or
settling more than an inch at the most).
To increase the stability of the structure by
preventing its tilting or overturning against
winds, earthquakes and uneven
distribution of live load (Lateral Stability).
 Load Distribution
Load

Ground Level

45o
 Type of foundation is selected based
on
Loading of the building, big load need big
foundation such as raft foundation or piling
Types of soil such as peat soil prefer piling
or deep foundation
Economical / financial for number of
building or story (pad footing or pilling)
 Type of foundation is selected based
on
The loads that must be transferred from
the structure to the soil strata supporting it.
This also should evaluate the ability of the
soil to support the ultimate loads.
The capability of the structure that will
safely transfer the loads from the
superstructure to the foundation bed.
 Type of foundation is selected based
on
The possibility and extent of settlement of
the soil due to the presence of mines and
quarries in the vicinity.
The ability for engineers to fix the depth of
the foundation.
The ability to determine if the underground
water has sulfates or other salts that can
degrade the foundation materials.
Factors That Need To Be Considered
in the Foundation Design
For more safety precaution use factor of
safety FOS 3
Increase number of bore hole or suffient
number of borehole so that the result of
the report is more accurate.
Choose the critical point load for borehole
Every end of the building
Supervise the S.I properly make sure no
mistake
Factors That Need To Be Considered
in the Foundation Design
For the safety of the foundation design use
the lowest of bearing capacity value
The engineer must have good enough
data for the S.I such as previous soil
report, cutting or filling area.
Engineer also must make sure the original
ground level and purposed level or
formation level while designing the
foundation.
Factors That Need To Be Considered
in the Foundation Design
The correct parameter is important to
prevent from foundation failure that may
occur causing building collapse. It will
cause a big loss of material and even
peoples life.
Highland Tower Collapse
 Foundations
Definition:
A foundation is a part of the structure which is in direct contact with
the ground to which the loads are transmitted.

Every structure, whether big or small, needs a foundation.

The foundation carries the load of the building and provides it

stability.
 The foundation transmits the loads imposed on the structure to the
soil below it and therefore the type of soil used is very important.

Depending upon whether the soil is stable or loose and unstable

and the type and size of the structure, the foundation is designed as
either shallow or deep.

A stable foundation should bear the loads without sinking or settling

more than an inch at the most. Even this settlement should be
uniform under the entire building.
 Construction Terminology

The foundation is known as the substructure (under the soil

structure) and the building itself is known as the superstructure
(above ground structure).

We can say that the main function of the foundation is to support

the load of the superstructure and transmit the load evenly to the
soil
 Main Functions
To distribute the load of the structure over a larger area.

To transmit the load uniformly under the structure.

To provide a firm, level and strong base over which the

superstructure may be constructed.

To avoid any settlement or other movement that can cause damage

to any part of the building.
 To increase the stability of the structure by preventing its tilting
or overturning against winds, earthquakes and uneven
distribution of live load. (Lateral Stability)
 Load

Ground Level

450

Figure 1.1 Foundation

Forces pushing down
must equal the forces
pushing up -
EQUILIBRIUM
 Heave

If the forces pushing up is greater

than the forces pushing down the
building will be pushed upwards
HEAVE

If forces pushing down is greater

than the forces pushing up the
building will sink SUBSIDENCE
Subside
Problems if the rules are not The load spreads at about
followed 400 through the foundation
 Loads Acting on the Foundation
The foundation has to bear more than just the load of the
superstructure.

A load can be defined as anything, which exerts pressure or

thrust on a structure.

The following are the different types of loads that act on the
building foundation:

Live Load (Qk) - A live load or imposed load is a movable,

temporary or transferable load. This can include moving vehicles,
people walking or children jumping.
 Types of loads

Dead Load (Gk)- This load is permanent and immovable. It is

the non- transferable load of the structure itself.

Wind Load (Wk) - This load is applicable when the structure is

tall.

Snow Load - This load is considered when the structure is

situated in snowy, hilly areas.
Rock or soil Typical bearing value
(kN/m2)
Massive igneous 10,000
bedrock 2,000 to 4,000
Sandstone 600 to 2,000
Shales and mudstone 600
Gravel, sand and gravel,
compact 100 to 300
Medium dense sand Less than 100
Loose fine sand 300 to 600
Hard clay 100 to 300
Medium clay Less than 75
Soft Clay
Typical allowable bearing values
 Types of Soils
The following are the different types of
soils on which foundations are
constructed:
Soft soils - This soil is compressible and
yields when loaded. Examples are clayey
soil and loam. Small buildings or ordinary
structures can be built on these types of
soils.
 Spreading soils - These are non-cohesive
soils. Examples of this type of soil are sand
and gravel.
Hard or rocky soils - These are
incompressible and strong soils. They can
withstand heavy loads without yielding.
Multistoried buildings and water reservoirs
are designed on such soils.
 Shallow Foundation Strip Footing
Pad Footing
Raft Foundation

Types of
Foundation
Spun Pile
Micro Pile
Deep Foundation
Bakau Pile
Bore Pile
 The type of foundation used is selected
based on the type of the structure that
has to be built, the type of soil and the
type of material used.
They are classified into shallow and
deep foundations.
 Shallow Foundations for low-rise construction

When the foundation is placed just below

the superstructure, it is known as shallow
foundation.
The purpose of these is to transmit the
loads of the superstructure over a wider
area.
These foundations are suitable for small
buildings.
A deep foundation is a type of foundation.
-distinguished from shallow foundations by the
depth they are embedded into the ground.
-the common reasons are because of large design
loads, a poor soil at shallow depth, or site
constraints (like property lines).
-deep foundations including piles, drilled shafts,
caissons, and piers. The naming conventions may
vary between engineering disciplines and firms.
-Deep foundations can be made out of timber,
steel, reinforced concrete and pre-tensioned
concrete.
-Deep foundations can be installed by either
driving them into the ground or drilling a shaft and
filling it with concrete, mass or reinforced

-Seksyen3stop28/2/12
1. SPREAD/ STRIP FOUNDATION
 Spread/Strip Footings
Also known as footer or simply a footing.
An enlargement at the bottom of a column or
bearing wall that spreads the applied structural
loads over a sufficiently large soil area.
Typically, each column and each bearing wall
has its own spread footing.
 Spread/Strip Footings
This type of foundation is also known as
wall foundation or continues spread
footing foundation.
It uses is to support load bearing wall.
 Characteristic of Spread Footings
Low Cost
Ease of construction
For small-medium size structures with
moderate-good soil.
For large structures with exceptionally
good soil or shallow bedrock.
 Spread footing may be built in different
shapes and sizes to accommodate
individual needs.
Continuous Spread Footing
Types of spread footings based on
size and shape

No Types of Spread Footings Applicable

1 Square for a single centrally-located column

2 Rectangular when large moment load are present

3 Circular for light standards, flagpoles etc

4 Continuous for bearing walls

(wall/strip footings)

5 Combined when columns are close together

6 Ring for walls of above-ground circular storage tanks

7 Strap (cantilever footing) when very close to a property line/other structure

Stepped Foundation (Spread Footings)

This type of foundation is one of the pad

foundation types.
When the structure is to be constructed on
the hill slopes, this type of foundation is used.
The foundation trenches are excavated in
steps and each step is filled with some
concrete.
Each block of concrete is overlapped by the
next block, and so on.
Square footings usually support a single
centrally-located column.
 Step no
greater than
450 mm
Overlap to be equal to or
greater than the depth of the
concrete foundation
Square Footings
 Combined Footing Foundation
In this type, the two walls or columns of a
superstructure are provided with a single
combined footing.
This is designed so that the center of gravity of
the supporting area is in proportion to the center
of gravity of the tow column loads.
These can be rectangular or trapezoidal in
shape.
These are usefull
when columns are
located too close
together for each to
have its own footing.
 Rectangular Spread Footings
It have plan dimension of B x L, where L is
the longest dimension.
These are useful when obstructions
prevent construction of a square footing
with a sufficiently large base area and
when large moment loads are present.
 Circular Spread Footings
This foundation are round in plan view.
These are more frequently used as
foundation for light standard, flagpoles,
and power transmission line.
If these foundation extend to a large
depth, they may be have more like a deep
foundation.
 Continuous Spread Footings
This type of foundation is also known as
wall foundation or strip foundation.
It uses is to support bearing wall.
 Ring Spread Footings
This footing are continuous footing that
been wrapped into a circle.
This type of footing is commonly used to
support the walls of above-ground circular
storage tanks.
 This type of
footing is
commonly
used to
support the
walls of
above-
ground
circular
storage
tanks
CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY ON PAD
FOOTING OR STRIP FOOTING
PEGGING
EXCAVATION WORKS
PROVIDING A MATERIALS
REBAR
FORMWORK
CEMENT
SAND
AGGREGATE
FORMWORK
EXCAVATE A WORKING SPACES FOR
BETTER CONSTRUCTION
 Example
Design a pad foundation for a 300 300 mm column,
carrying a load of 500 kN. The safe bearing capacity of
the subsoil is 200 kN/m2.
Solution:
Area of the pad foundation = /2.5
A square pad is usually provided for a square
column.
Side of the square pad = = 1.6 m or 1600 mm
 The thickness of the pad can be determined by
drawing the shear planes at 45 as shown in
Figure App7.3. In order that the shear planes
pass through the lower corners of the pad,
thickness D must be equal to projection P.

Projection P = (1600 300) 2 = 650 mm.

Thickness of pad foundation, D = P = 650 mm.
2 .5

Shear plane

Figure App7.3 Design of a concrete pad

 REINFORCEMENT INSTALLATION
CONCRETING
MIXING
POURING
CURING
TESTING
2. RAFT FOUNDATION
 Raft Foundation
Also known as Mat Foundation or Floating
Foundation.
Used where heavily constructed loads are
to be distributed over a large surface area.
It is used where the soil is marshy, clayey
or soft, with weak bearing capacity.
 This consists of reinforced concrete
slabs covering the entire area of
construction, like a floor.
Always made of reinforced concrete.
 Consideration of using Raft
Foundation
The structural loads are so high.
The soil condition is so poor.
The bottom of structure is located below
groundwater table.
Raft foundation are more easier to
waterproof.
Conditions for Mat Foundations
-Structural loads require large area to spread
the load
-Soil is erratic and prone to differential
settlements
-Structural loads are erratic
-Unevenly distributed lateral loads
-Uplift loads are larger than spread footings can
accommodate; weight of the mat is a factor
here
-Mat foundations are easier to waterproof
3. PILE FOUNDATION
 Pile Foundation
Memindahkan beban ke lapisan tanah yang lebih dalam menerusi tiang di dalam
tanah.

Asas Cerucuk diperlukan apabila:-

1. Sesuai bila lapisan galas yang cukup kukuh terletak lebih daripada 3 meter dari
aras bumi
2. Beban bangunan tidak seragam.
3. Kerja Penyahiran/korekan terlalu mahal atau sukar untuk dilaksanakan.
4. Wujud tindakan daya ufuk. Cerucuk boleh menahan/merintang daya ufuk
secara lenturan. Keadaan ini berlaku dalam rekabentuk struktur penahan dan
asas bagi bangunan yang menghadapai daya angin atau daya gempa bumi.
5. Wujud tanah yang senang mengembang/mengecut (tanah yang sensetif
kepada perubahan peratus kelembapan tanah) atau tanah mudah-runtuh
(collapsible soils).
6. Struktur yang mengalami daya angkat-naik ex : pelantar
7. Tembok landas (abutment) dan tambangan (pier).
8. Kos memperbaiki tanah (ground treatment) lebih tinggi dari penggunaan
cerucuk.

29/02/2016 zana ar 75
 Deep Foundation

Spun pile
Micro pile
Bakau pile
Bore pile
 Pile Foundation
Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry and transfer
the load of the structure to the bearing ground located at some
depth below ground surface.
The main components of the foundation are the pile cap and the
piles.
Piles are long and slender members which transfer the load to
deeper soil or rock of high bearing capacity avoiding shallow soil of
low bearing capacity
The main types of materials used for piles are wood, steel and
concrete. Piles made from these materials are driven, drilled or
jacked into the ground and connected to pile caps.
Depending upon type of soil, pile material and load transmitting
characteristic piles are classified accordingly.
 Function of piles
As with other types of foundations, the purpose of
a pile foundations is:
to transmit a foundation load to a solid ground
to resist vertical, lateral and uplift load
A structure can be founded on piles if the soil
immediately beneath its base does not have
adequate bearing capacity. If the results of site
investigation show that the shallow soil is
unstable and weak or if the magnitude of the
estimated settlement is not acceptable a pile
foundation may become considered. Further, a
cost estimate may indicate that a pile foundation
may be cheaper than any other compared
ground improvement costs.
 Function of piles
As with other types of foundations, the purpose of
a pile foundations is:
In the cases of heavy constructions, it is likely
that the bearing capacity of the shallow soil will
not be satisfactory, and the construction should
be built on pile foundations. Piles can also be
used in normal ground conditions to resist
horizontal loads. Piles are a convenient method
of foundation for works over water, such as
jetties or bridge piers.
 Classification of pile with respect to load
transmission and functional behaviour

End bearing piles (point bearing piles)

Friction piles (cohesion piles )
Combination of friction and cohesion piles
 End bearing piles
These piles transfer their load on to a firm
stratum located at a considerable depth below
the base of the structure and they derive most of
their carrying capacity from the penetration
resistance of the soil at the toe of the pile.

The pile behaves as an ordinary column and

should be designed as such. Even in weak soil a
pile will not fail by buckling and this effect need
only be considered if part of the pile is
unsupported, i.e. if it is in either air or water.
Load is transmitted to the soil through friction or
cohesion.
 End bearing piles
But sometimes, the soil surrounding the pile may
adhere to the surface of the pile and causes
"Negative Skin Friction" on the pile. This,
sometimes have considerable effect on the
capacity of the pile. Negative skin friction is
caused by the drainage of the ground water and
consolidation of the soil. The founding depth of
the pile is influenced by the results of the site
investigate on and soil test.
End bearing piles
 Friction piles
These piles also transfer their
load to the ground through skin
friction.
The process of driving such piles
does not compact the soil
appreciably.
These types of pile foundations
are commonly known as floating
pile foundations.
 Spun Pile
Size : 250mm to 1000mm
Lengths : 6m, 9m and 12m (Typical)
Structural Capacity : 45Ton to 520Ton
Material : Grade 60MPa & 80MPa
Concrete
Joints: Welded
Installation Method :
Drop Hammer
Jack-In
Spun Piles vs RC Square Piles
Spun Piles have
Better Bending Resistance
Higher Axial Capacity
Better Manufacturing Quality
Able to Sustain Higher Driving Stresses
Higher Tensile Capacity
Easier to Check Integrity of Pile
Similar cost as RC Square Piles
Bored Piles
Size : 450mm to 2m
Lengths : Varies
Structural Capacity : 80Ton to 2,300Tons
Concrete Grade : 20MPa to 30MPa
(Tremie)
Joints : None
Installation Method : Drill then Cast-In-Situ
 Bored piles
Bored piles (Replacement piles) are generally
considered to be non-displacement piles a void is formed
by boring or excavation before piles is produced.
Piles can be produced by casting concrete in the void.
Some soils such as stiff clays are particularly amenable
to the formation of piles in this way, since the bore hole
walls do not requires temporary support except cloth to
the ground surface.
In unstable ground, such as gravel the ground requires
temporary support from casing or bentonite slurry.
Alternatively the casing may be permanent, but driven
into a hole which is bored as casing is advanced. A
different technique, which is still essentially non-
displacement, is to intrude, a grout or a concrete from an
auger which is rotated into the granular soil, and hence
produced a grouted column of soil.
Borepile Cosiderations
Borepile Base Difficult to Clean
Bulging / Necking
Collapse of Sidewall
Dispute on Level of Weathered Rock
Micropiles
Size : 100mm to 350mm Diameter
Lengths : Varies
Structural Capacity : 20Ton to 250Ton
Material : Grade 25MPa to 35MPa Grout
N80 API Pipe as Reinforcement
Joints: None
Installation Method :
Drill then Cast-In-Situ
Percussion Then Cast-In-Situ
Protecting timber piles from decay:
a) by pre-cast concrete upper section above water level.
b) by extending pile cap below water level
 Factors to be considered in selecting pile type

The required diameter

The required length

The applied loads
(limit: 18m)

Factors to be considered in
selecting a pile type
(timber, steel, concrete or composite)

The anticipated The durability of pile The local availability

driving conditions material in specific of each pile type
environment
 Advantages & Disadvantages
bakau pile

No Advantages Disadvantages

1 Low construction cost Medium axial loads (100 - 400 kN)

2 Used as waterfront structures Susceptible to decay

Susceptible to damage when

3 For light driving conditions driving

(in loose sands and soft to medium clays)

 Damage during driving can be
controlled by:
Using lightweight hammers
Using steel bands near butt
Using a steel shoe on the toe
Pre-drilling
 Advantages & Disadvantages
Spun pile
No Advantages Disadvantages

1 Best suited for use as friction piles that Expensive to splice and cut

don't meet refusal during driving

(refusal: pile can't be driven any further, so

it becomes necessary to cut off the portion)

2 Best suited for toe-bearing piles where the Difficult to cut

required length is uniform and predictable

3 Less expensive than steel piles Succeptible to damage during handling

or driving

4 Have a large load capacity Not suited for hard driving conditions
Advantages & Disadvantages
Bore Pile
No Advantages Disadvantages

1 Less costs of mobilizing and demobilizing a drill rig Dependent on contractor's skills

2 Less noise and vibration Lower unit end bearing capacity

3 Soils excavated can be observed and classified Expensive for full-scale load test

during drilling

4 Size of shafts can easily be changed during const.

5 Can penetrate soils with cobbles, boulders and

many types of bedrock

6 Possible to support each column with one large

shaft (no pile cap)

 Drilled Equipments
Drilling Rigs
Truck-mounted drilling rig
For usual shaft, d=500 1200mm and H=6.24m
Specialized rigs
A-Shaped Frame Rigs
 Drilling Tools
The helix-shaped flight auger (most common
used)
Effective in most sols and soft rocks
Augers with hardened teeth and pilot stingers
Effective in hardpan or moderately hard
rock
Spiral-shaped rooting tools
Help loosen cobbles and boulders
 Bucket augers
To collect cuttings in a cylindrical bucket
Used in running sands
Belling buckets
To enlarge the bottom of the shaft (bells or
under reams)
Core barrels
To cut a circular slot,creating a removable
core
Used in hard rock
Multi-roller percussion bits
To cut through hard rock
Cleanout buckets
To remove final cuttings from hole
 Drilled Techniques
Drilling in Firm Soils
Using dry method (open-hole method)
Most common used: simple, economy and
good reability
 Steps:
Holes usually advance using conventional
flight auger
Holes remain open without any special
support
Check the open hole for cleanliness and
alignment
Insert steel reinforcing cage
Pour the concrete
 Drilling in Caving (Cave-in) or Squeezing
Soils
Caving:
The side of a hole which is collapse before
or during concrete placement.
Usually in clean sands below the
groundwater table.
 Squeezing:
The sides of hole bulging inward during or after
drilling
Usually in soft clays and silts or highly organic
soils.
Most common techniques:
Using casing
Drilling fluid (slurry method) using bentonite clay or
attapulgite clay.
Pile Cap In the British Standard Code of Practice BS 8004, a
pile cap is defined as a concrete block cast on the head of a
pile, or a group of piles, to transmit the load from the structure
to the pile or group of piles.
Generally, pile cap transfers the load form the structures to a
pile / pile group, then the load further transfers to from soil
External pressures on a pile are likely to be greatest near the
ground surface. Ground stability increases with depth and
pressure. The top of the pile therefore, is more vulnerable to
movement and stress than the base of the pile. Pile caps are
thus incorporated in order to tie the pile heads together so that
individual pile movement and settlement is greatly reduced.
Thus stability of the pile group is greatly increased.
Foundations relying on driven piles often have
groups of piles connected by a pile cap (a large
concrete block into which the heads of the piles
are embedded) to distribute loads which are
larger than one pile can bear.
Pile caps and isolated piles are typically
connected with grade beams to tie the
foundation elements together; lighter structural
elements bear on the grade beams while heavier
elements bear directly on the pile cap.
 Pile cap
Function:
To distribute the structural loads to the piles.
To tie the piles together so they can act as a
unit.
To laterally stabilise individual piles thus
increasing overall stability of the group
To provide the necessary combined
resistance to stresses set up by the
superstructure and/or ground movement
SUMMARY
Importance of Preliminary Study
Understanding the Site Geology
Carry out Proper Subsurface Investigation
that Suits the Terrain & Subsoil
Selection of Suitable Pile
Pile Design Concepts
SUMMARY
Importance of Piling Supervision
Typical Piling Problems Encountered
Present Some Case Histories
 COLUMN STUMP
Column Stump is a column
that considered as lower
structure because it is
located in the ground below
the waterproof layer at
ground floor slab.
The position is vertical
above the foundation. The
function of the column
stump is to transfer load of
building to the foundation.
 COLUMN STUMP
Column stump will receive load from ground
beam, column and then will transfer the load to
the foundation.The columns can be made from
steel tube, pre cast concrete or treated timber
these need to be designed by an engineer for
correct sizing
 GROUND BEAM

This type of ground beam is

the most used in building
construction.
It is the beam which both
its ends are tied up at the
column and lying between
the two column.
 GROUND BEAM
The beam fixes and holds fitly the columns in
order to stabilize it. In addition, it also acts to
bear all the loads come from the wall which
constructed parallel with the beam.
A ground beam normally should consist of
following items;
Reinforcements
Concrete
Linkers
 GROUND BEAM
The reinforcements can be placed at center of
that beam.
The sizes of main reinforcement play important
role in determine the strength of a beam.
Ground beam usually does not have secondary
beam, only has primary beam. The ground
beam construction will be started after a column
stump has finish. After the column stump has
ingrained in foundation and has corpulent on
level as wanted.
 Quiz-1
Discuss with sketch the problem in the
construction site during:
a) Cutting and filling work (5 marks)
b) Site investigation (testing point) (5 marks)
c) Construction in hill area (highland tower)
(5 marks)