M3 PDF
M3 PDF
M3 PDF
peak power for the acceleration capability expected by consumers, about 10 times the
power required to cruise at 100Km/h. However, the engines are operated at most
times at a small fraction of peak power and at these operating points they are quite
inefficient.
Having such a large engine also increases the amount of fuel needed to keep
the engine operating when the vehicle is stopped or during braking or coasting, and
increases losses due to the added weight of the engine, which increases rolling
resistance and inertial losses. Even gradeability requirements (example: 55 mph up a
6.5% grade) require only about 60 or 70% of the power needed to accelerate from 0 to
100Km/h in under 12 seconds.
The Figure 1 shows the translation of fuel energy into work at the wheels for a typical
midsize vehicle in urban and highway driving. From Figure 1 it can be observed that:
At best, only 20% of the fuel energy reaches the wheels and is available to
overcome the tractive forces, and this is on the highway when idling losses are
at a minimum, braking loss is infrequent, and shifting is far less frequent.
Braking and idling losses are extremely high in urban driving and even higher
in more congested driving, e.g., within urban cores during rush hour. Braking
loss represents 46% of all tractive losses in urban driving. Idling losses
represent about one sixth of the fuel energy on this cycle.
Losses to aerodynamic drag, a fifth or less of tractive losses in urban driving,
are more than half of the tractive losses during highway driving.
The load power of a vehicle varies randomly in actual operation due to frequent
acceleration, deceleration and climbing up and down the grades. The power
requirement for a typical driving scenario is shown in Figure 3. The load power can
be decomposed into two parts:
i. steady power, i.e. the power with a constant value
ii. dynamic power, i.e. the power whose average value is zero
0 0
0
In HEV one powertrain favours steady state operation, such as an ICE or fuel cell.
The other powertrain in the HEV is used to supply the dynamic power. The total
energy output from the dynamic powertrain will be zero in the whole driving cycle.
Generally, electric motors are used to meet the dynamic power demand. This hybrid
drivetrain concept can be implemented by different configurations as follows:
Series configuration
Parallel configuration
Series-parallel configuration
Complex configuration
In Figure 4 the functional block diagrams of the various HEV configurations is
shown. From Figure 4 it can be observed that the key feature of:
series hybrid is to couple the ICE with the generator to produce electricity for
pure electric propulsion.
parallel hybrid is to couple both the ICE and electric motor with the
transmission via the same drive shaft to propel the vehicle
Fuel IC Fuel IC Mech.
tank engine tank engine coupler
Transmission
Transmission
Generator Generator
Power Power
Battery converter Electric converter Electric
Battery
(elec. motor (elec. motor
coupler) coupler)
Figure 4a: Series hybrid [1] Figure 4b: Series-Parallel hybrid [1]
Fuel IC Mech.
tank engine coupler
Fuel IC
Transmission
Transmission
tank engine
Mech. Power Motor/
coupler converter Generator
Power Electric
Battery converter motor
Battery
Power Electric
(elec.
converter motor
coupler)
Figure 4c: Parallel hybrid [1] Figure 4d: Complex hybrid [1]
Fuel tank
Torque
Tractive
Motor Speed
effort
Vehicle Speed
Engine DC
Operating
Power
DC
region
Battery
Engine Speed pack
Electrical
coupler
Battery Traction
charger
Battery charge
References:
[1] M. Ehsani, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles:
Fundamentals, Theory and Design, CRC Press, 2005
Suggested Reading:
[1] I. Husain, Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles, CRC Press, 2003
F E
F E
G T
G T
B P M
B P M
Figure 1b: Mode 2, light load
Figure 1a: Mode 1, normal driving or acceleration
F E
F E
G G T
T
B P M
B P M
Figure 1d: Mode 4, vehicle at stop
Figure 1c: Mode 3, braking or deceleration [1]
F E
F E
T
T
B P M
B P M
Figure 2b: Mode 2, normal driving
Figure 2a: Mode 1, start up
F E
F E
T
T
B P M
B P M
Figure 2d: Mode 4, light load
Figure 2c: Mode 3, braking or deceleration [1]
Mode 5: To charge the battery during driving (Figure 3e), the ICE delivers
the required traction power and also charges the battery. In this mode the EM
acts as a generator.
Mode 6: When the vehicle is at standstill (Figure 3f), the ICE can deliver
power to charge the battery via the EM
F E F E
G T G T
B P M
B P M
Figure 3a: Mode 1, start up [1] Figure 3b: Mode 2, acceleration [1]
F E F E
G T G T
B P M
B P M
Figure 3c: Mode 3, normal drive [1] Figure 3d: Mode 4, braking or deceleration [1]
F E F E
G T G T
B P M B P M
Figure 3e: Mode 5, battery charging during driving [1] Figure 3f: Mode 6, battery charging during standstill
[1]
F E F E
G T G T
B P M B P M
Figure 4a: Mode 1, start up [1] Figure 4b: Mode 2, acceleration [1]
F E F E
G T G T
B P M B P M
Figure4c: Mode 3, normal drive [1] Figure 4d: Mode 4, braking or deceleration [1]
F E F E
G T G T
B P M B P M
Figure 4e: Mode 5, battery charging during driving [1] Figure 4f: Mode 6, battery charging during standstill [1]
F E FT F E FT
FP FM FP FM
B RP RM RT B RP RM RT
Figure 5a: Mode 1, startup Figure 5b: Mode 2, full throttle acceleration
F E FT F E FT
FP FM FP FM
B RP RM RT B RP RM RT
Figure 5c: Mode 3, vehicle propel and battery charging Figure 5d: Mode 4, light load
F E FT F E FT
FP FM FP FM
B RP RM RT B RP RM RT
Figure 5e: Mode 5, braking or decelration Figure 5f: Mode 1, axil balancing
B:Battery FM: Front motor FP: Front power converter FT: Front axel
transmission E: ICE F: Fuel tank
RM: Rear motor RP: Rear power converter RT: Rear axle transmission [1]
Electrical link
Hydraulic link
Mechanical link
In Figures 6a-f all the six modes of operation of front electric and rear hybrid is
shown.
F E FT F E FT
RP RM RP RM
B FP FM RT B FP FM RT
Figure 6a: Mode 1, startup Figure 6b: Mode 2, full throttle acceleration
F E FT F E FT
RP RM RP RM
B FP FM RT B FP FM RT
Figure 6c: Mode 3, vehicle propel and battery charging Figure 6d: Mode 4, light load
F E FT F E FT
RP RM RP RM
B FP FM RT B FP FM RT
Figure 6e: Mode 5, braking or decelration Figure 6f: Mode 1, axil balancing
B:Battery RM: Rear motor FP: Front power converter FT: Front axle
transmission E: ICE F: Fuel tank
RM: Rear motor RP: Rear power converter RT: Rear axle transmission [1]
Electrical link
Hydraulic link
Mechanical link
References:
[1] I. Husain, Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles, CRC Press, 2003
Suggested Reading:
[1] M. Ehsani, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles:
Fundamentals, Theory and Design, CRC Press, 2005
Introduction
The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:
Introduction to Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Train
Torque Coupling
Speed Coupling
Post-Transmission Parallel Hybrid Drive Train with Torque Coupling
Pre-Transmission Parallel Hybrid Drive Train with Torque Coupling
Parallel Hybrid Drive Train with Speed Coupling
Complex Hybrid Drivetrain
Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
In case of parallel hybrid drivetrains, the ICE and an electric motor (EM) supply the
required traction power. The power from ICE and EM are added together by a
mechanical coupler, Figure 1. Generally, the mechanical coupling is of two types:
Torque coupling: In this case the coupler adds the torques of the ICE and EM
together and delivers the total torque to the driven wheels. The ICE and EM
torque can be independently controlled. The speeds of the ICE, EM and the
vehicle are linked together with a fixed relationship and cannot be
independently controlled because of the power conservation constraint.
Speed coupling: In this case the speeds of the ICE and EM can be added
together and all torques are linked together and cannot be independently
controlled.
Fuel tank
Final drive
and differential
Mechanical
Engine Mechanical
Coupler
Transmission
Motor Battery
controller pack
Battery Traction
charger
Battery charge
Torque Coupling
In Figure 2, a conceptual diagram of mechanical torque coupling is shown. The
torque coupling, shown in Figure 2, is a two-degree-of-freedom mechanical device.
Port 1 is a unidirectional input and Port 2 and 3 are bi-directional input or output, but
both are not input at the same time. Here input means the energy flows into the device
and output means the energy flows out of the device. In case of HEV
port 1 is connected to the shaft of an ICE directly or through a mechanical
transmission.
port 2 is connected to the shaft of an electric motor directly or through a
mechanical transmission
port 3 is connected to the driven wheels through a mechanical linkage
T11 Mechanical
T33
Port 1 torque Port 3
coupler
Port 2
T22
For a losses torque coupler in steady state, the power input is always equal to the
power output from it. For the torque coupler shown in Figure 1, the power balance is
T33 T11 T22
where
T1 = Propelling torque produced by ICE; 1 = Speed of ICE (1)
T2 =Propelling torque produced by EM; 2 = Speed of EM
T3 = Load torque delivered to wheels; 3 = Speed of wheel
The torque coupler can be expressed as
T3 k1T1 k2T2
where (2)
k1 , k2 are the structural parameters of the torque coupler
A gearbox used in the vehicles is a typical example of torque couple. Some torque
coupler are shown in Figure 3
.
Shaft r1 Pulley or Chain Assembly
1 T1 r3
2,T2 r1
1 T1
T3
1 T1 T3 3 3
r
2
r4
r2 2 T2 2 T2 3 T
3
Rotor
Stator r2 r3 r2
k1= k2= k1= k2= 1
r1 r4 r1
Figure 3a:Configuration of a torque coupler [2] Figure 3b:Configuration of a pulley/chain assembly torque coupler [2]
Speed Coupling
The power produced by two power plants may be coupled together by adding their
speed. This is done with the help of speed coupling devices (Figure 4). The Speed
Coupler is a three port two-degree-of-freedom device. Port 1 is a unidirectional input
and Port 2 and 3 are bi-directional input or output, but both are not input at the same
time. Here input means the energy flows into the device and output means the energy
flows out of the device. In case of HEV
port 1 is connected to the shaft of an ICE directly or through a mechanical
transmission.
port 2 is connected to the shaft of an electric motor directly or through a
mechanical transmission
port 3 is connected to the driven wheels through a mechanical linkage
Mechanical
Speed
T1 , 1 coupler
T3 , 3
Port 1 Port 3
T2 , 2
Port 2
For a losses speed coupler in steady state, the power input is always equal to the
power output from it. For the speed coupler shown in Figure 4, the speed relation is
3 k11 k22
where (4)
k1 , k2 are the structural parameters of the speed coupler
The power relation in case of speed coupler is same as given in equation 1. From
equation 1 and equation 4 it can be seen that
T1 T2
T3 = (5)
k1 k2
A typical speed coupler is the planetary gear (Figure 5). The planetary gear unit is a
three port device consisting of
Sun gear, marked 1 in Figure 5
Ring gear, marked 2 in Figure 5
Carrier or Yoke, marked 3 in Figure 5
T2 , 2 2
3 2
rc rr
rs
1 T1 , 1
3 T3
1
Figure 5a:Planetary gear front view [2] Figure 5b:Planetary gear cut section [2]
For a planetary gear train configuration as shown in Figure 5, the gear ratio (nb) is
given by
s c z z z r
nb r c r r
r c zc z s zs rs
where
s = angular speed of the sun gear
c = angular speed of the carrier gear
r = angular speed of the ring gear
(6)
zs = number of teeth on the sun gear
zr = number of teeth on the ring gear
zc = number of teeth on the carrier gear
rs = radius of the sun gear
rr = radius of the ring gear
rc = radius of the carrier gear
In the analysis of the planetary gears, rotation and torque in the anticlockwise
direction is assumed to be positive and in the clockwise direction is assumed to be
negative. Using the power balance, the torque acting on each gear is obtained as
Tss Tcc Trr 0 (8)
n
Ts s Tc s b r Tr r 0
1 nb 1 nb
1 n (9)
s Ts Tc r Tr b Tc 0
1 nb 1 nb
1 nb
Tc 1 nb Ts and Tc Tr
nb
From Figure 5 it can be seen that rr rs , hence nb 1 . If it is assumed that the input
torque is given to the sun gear and the output shaft is connected to the ring gear, then
from equation 10 and equation 11 it can be deduced that
The output torque ( Tr ) is increased by a factor nb and the direction of the
In Table 1 all the six possible scenarios of planetary gears are summarized.
Table 1: Planetary gear operation scenarios
Clutch
Internal
Transmission Combustion Transmission
Motor
2 Engine (ICE) 1.
Motor
controller
Batteries
Figure 7a: Transmission 1 and Transmission 2 are Figure 7b: Transmission 1 is multigear and Transmission 2
multigeared [3] is single geared [3]
Figure 7c: Transmission 1 is single geared and Figure 7d: Transmission 1 and Transmission 2 are single
Transmission 2 is multigear [3] geared [3]
Upon analyzing the tractive effort vs. speed profile of Configuration 1 it can be
concluded that:
Two multigear transmissions produce many tractive effort profiles. Hence, the
performance and overall efficiency of the drive train may be superior to other
designs because two multigear transmissions provide more opportunities for
both the ICE and the EM-drive (electric motor and the associated power
electronics) to operate in their optimum region.
This configuration provides more opportunities for both the ICE and EM
characteristics.
The control system for selecting the proper gear in each transmission is
complicated.
The analysis of Configuration 2 reveals that
The multigear Transmission 1 is used to overcome the disadvantage of the
ICE speed vs. torque characteristics.
The multigear Transmission 1 also improves the operating efficiency of the
engine and reduces the speed range of the vehicle in which EM must be used
to propel the vehicle. Hence, the use of EM is restricted and this prevents the
batteries from quickly discharging.
The single gear Transmission 2 takes the advantage of the high torque of an
EM at low speed.
The Configuration 3 is unfavorable because it does not use the advantages of the two
power plants. The Configuration 4 results in a simple design and control. With
proper ratings of the ICE, EM, batteries and transmission parameters, this drivetrain
can serve the vehicle with satisfactory performance and efficiency.
Motor
controller Ft
Engine
Transmission
V
Tice Tm
ice m
Figure 8: Pre transmission parallel hybrid drive [3]
Engine
Trans.
Motor
Motor
Batteries
controller
There are 5 different modes of operation possible for the configuration as shown in
Figure 10 and they are:
Hybrid traction: When lock 1 and lock 2 are released, i.e. the sun gear and
the ring gear can rotate both the ICE and EM supply positive speed and torque
to the driven wheels. Since, the output shaft is connected to the carrier gear,
the output torque and speed is give by
Ts s Trr
Tc nb 1 (12)
r nb s
1 n
c s b r (13)
1 nb 1 nb
Engine alone traction: When the lock 2 locks the ring gear, only the ICE
delivers the required traction force to the wheels. The output torque and the
speed is given by
Tc 1 nb Ts (14)
1
c s (15)
1 nb
Motor alone traction: When lock 1 locks the sun gear, only the EM delivers
the traction force to the wheels. The output torque and the speed is given by
1 nb
Tc Tr (16)
nb
nb
c r (17)
1 nb
Regenerative braking: In this case lock 2 is engaged, the ICE is switched off,
the clutch is disengaged and the EM is controlled in regenerating mode and
the battery absorbs the kinetic energy of the vehicle.
Battery charging from the ICE: In this mode the locks 1 and 2 are released.
The EM is controlled to rotate in the opposite direction, i.e. the EM operates
with positive torque and negative speed and absorbs power from the engine
and delivers it to the battery.
Since the ICE is connected to the carrier gear and the EM1 is connected to the sun
gear, the equation 18 can be expressed as
1 1 nb
r ICE EM 1
nb nb
where (19)
ICE = angular speed of the ICE
EM 1 = angular speed of the EM1
Zb
Zs
Engine
Trans.
Motor
Za Zc
Motor
Batteries
controller
Clutch2
Figure 10: Complex hybrid drive with speed and torque coupling [1]
References
[1] M. Ehsani, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles:
Fundamentals, Theory and Design, CRC Press, 2005
[2] L. Guzzella and A. Sciarretta, Vehicle Propulsion Systems: Introduction to
Modeling and Optimization, Springer, 2007
[3] G. Lechner and H. Naunheimer, Automotive Transmissions: Fundamentals,
Selection, Design and
Application, Springer, 1999
Introduction
The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:
Electric Vehicle (EV) Configuration
EV alternatives based on drivetrains
EV alternatives based on power source configuration
Single and Multi-motor drives
In wheel drives
Electric Vehicle (EV) Configurations
Compared to HEV, the configuration of EV is flexible. The reasons for this flexibility
are:
The energy flow in EV is mainly via flexible electrical wires rather than
bolted flanges or rigid shafts. Hence, distributed subsystems in the EV are
really achievable.
The EVs allow different propulsion arrangements such as independent four
wheels and in wheel drives.
In Figure 1 the general configuration of the EV is shown. The EV has three major
subsystems:
Electric propulsion
Energy source
Auxiliary system
The electric propulsion subsystem comprises of:
The electronic controller
Power converter
Electric Motor (EM)
Mechanical transmission
Driving wheels
In Figure 1 the black line represents the mechanical link, the green line represents the
electrical link and the blue line represents the control information communication.
Based on the control inputs from the brake and accelerator pedals, the electronic
controller provides proper control signals to switch on or off the power converter
which in turn regulates the power flow between the electric motor and the energy
source. The backward power flow is due to regenerative braking of the EV and this
regenerative energy can be stored provided the energy source is receptive.
The energy management unit cooperates with the electronic controller to control
regenerative braking and its energy recovery. It also works with the energy-refueling
unit to control refueling and to monitor usability of the energy source.
The auxiliary power supply provides the necessary power with different voltage levels
for all EV auxiliaries, especially the temperature control and power steering units.
Brake
Electronic Power Electric Mechanical
controller converter motor transmission
Accelerator
Wheel
Energy Temperature
refueling control
unit unit
Energy source
subsystem
Auxiliary subsystem
Energy
source
Brake 3-phase
Electronic 3-phase Mechanical
controller PWM transmission
AC motor
inverter
Accelerator
Wheel
Energy Temperature
refueling control
unit unit
Energy source
subsystem
Auxiliary subsystem
C
M GB D M FG D
Figure 3a: EV configuration with clutch, gearbox and Figure 3b: EV configuration without clutch and gearbox
differential [1] [1]
FG
M
M
FG
D M
FG
Figure 3c:EV configuration with clutch, gearbox and Figure 3d:EV configuration with two EM [1]
differential [1]
FG
M
M
FG
Figure 3e:EV configuration with in wheel motor and Figure 3f:EV configuration with in wheel motor and no
mechanical gear [1] mechanical gear [1]
B
B P P
B
Figure 4a: EV configuration with battery source [1] Figure 4b: EV configuration with two battery sources [1]
FC R FC
P P
B B
Figure 4c: EV configuration with battery and fuel cell Figure 4d: EV configuration with multiple energy sources
sources [1] [1]
B B
P P
C P FW P
Figure 4e: EV configuration with battery and capacitors Figure 4f: EV configuration with battery and flywheel
sources [1] sources [1]
Wheel Wheel
out > in
out in
EM 1 EM 2
with fixed with fixed
gearing gearing
In Wheel Drives
By placing an electric motor inside the wheel, the in wheel motor has the advantage
that the mechanical transmission path between the electric motor and the wheel can be
minimized. Two possible configurations for in wheel drives are:
When a high-speed inner-rotor motor is used (Figure 6a) then a fixed speed-
reduction gear becomes necessary to attain a realistic wheel speed. In general,
speed reduction is achieved using a planetary gear set. This planetary gear is
mounted between the motor shaft and the wheel rim. Usually this motor is
designed to operate up to 1000 rpm so as to give high power density.
In case outer rotor motor is used (Figure 6b), then the transmission can be
totally removed and the outer rotor acts as the wheel rim and the motor speed
is equivalent to the wheel speed and no gears are required.
The tradeoffs of the high-speed inner rotor motor are:
It has the advantage of smaller size, lighter weight and lower cost
Needs additional planetary gearset
The tradeoffs of outer-rotor motor are
Low speed and hence does not need additional gears
The drawbacks are larger size, weight and cost because of the low speed
design.
Inner-rotor Outer-rotor
Tire Tire
Rim
Rim
PM
Brake
Wheel Brake Motor Winding
PM Encoder Bearing
Wheel
Bearing
Motor Winding Motor Winding
Brake
Brake
Wheel PM
Rim Rim
Tire
Tire
Figure 6a: Inner rotor In Wheel drive [1] Figure 6b: Outer rotor In Wheel drive [1]