The Technique of Orchestration - Wheeler Kennan PDF
The Technique of Orchestration - Wheeler Kennan PDF
The Technique of Orchestration - Wheeler Kennan PDF
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 1
I CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................................................................................... 1
A. Information needed .................................................................................................................................... 1
1 Factual .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
2 Aural information .................................................................................................................................................................... 1
B. Cautions ........................................................................................................................................................... 1
1 Principles of good voice-leading, spacing, and doubling are an absolute necessity .................................. 1
2 Great importance to think in terms of lines rather than isolated notes .......................................................... 1
3 Accurate workmanship, attention to detail, and a practical approach are all parts of a successful
orchestration ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
C. Orchestration vs Instrumentation ........................................................................................................ 2
1 Definition .................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
2 Certain amount of overlap between the two terms and instrumentation must be considered within
orchestration ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
II THE ORCHESTRA AS A WHOLE ........................................................................................................................ 2
A. Considerations .............................................................................................................................................. 2
1 Orchestra means the orchestra as a whole .................................................................................................................. 2
2 Each section may play by itself or combined with one or more of the other sections .............................. 2
3 Percussion section .................................................................................................................................................................. 2
4 Score listing for orchestra is standard ........................................................................................................................... 2
B. History .............................................................................................................................................................. 6
1 Before 17th Century composers for instrumental music did not specify particular instruments for
respective parts ................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
2 By Bachs time it was usual to specify the instruments involved but with no distinction apart from
range or between parts for instruments or voices ............................................................................................................ 6
3 Standardized instrumentation was not fully in evidence till the Classical Period ..................................... 6
4 By early 19th Century the orchestra had evolved into a (more or less) standardized group ................. 6
10 SCORING OF CHORDS FOR EACH SECTION AND FOR THE ORCHESTRA ................ 149
I WOODWIND CHORDS .................................................................................................................................... 149
A. Types ........................................................................................................................................................... 149
1 Four ways in which instruments of different kinds may be combined in a chord ................................ 149
2 Deciding on the best method ........................................................................................................................................ 151
B. Considerations ........................................................................................................................................ 151
1 With the exception of small orchestras (which only include one of each woodwind) chords are
rarely arranged with a different color on each part ..................................................................................................... 151
2 Review of Spacing and Doubling from Chapter 3 ................................................................................................. 152
C. Techniques ................................................................................................................................................ 153
1 About the examples ........................................................................................................................................................... 153
2 The Examples ....................................................................................................................................................................... 154
II BRASS CHORDS ............................................................................................................................................. 157
A. Considerations ........................................................................................................................................ 157
1 Juxtaposition, interlocking, and enclosure are used frequently in scoring brass .................................. 157
2 Section of 4 Horns, 2 Trumpets, 3 Trombone, 1 Tuba ....................................................................................... 157
B. Examples ................................................................................................................................................... 158
1 Some scored for two trumpets and some for three ............................................................................................. 158
2 Chords sketched on two staves at concert pitch .................................................................................................. 158
3 Only shows some of the more usual arrangements ............................................................................................ 158
III STRING CHORDS ......................................................................................................................................... 161
A. Considerations ........................................................................................................................................ 161
1 A bit less involved than Brass or woodwinds ........................................................................................................ 161
2 Unique problems to strings ........................................................................................................................................... 161
IV CHORDS FOR ORCHESTRA ......................................................................................................................... 162
A. Considerations ........................................................................................................................................ 162
1 Weight ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 162
2 Dynamics ................................................................................................................................................................................ 163
3 Dissonance ............................................................................................................................................................................ 163
4 Doubling ................................................................................................................................................................................. 164
Piccolo (1) 1
Flute 1 2 2 or 3
Oboe 1 2 2 or 3
Woodwind English Hrn 1
Section Clarinet 1 2 2 or 3
Bass Clarinet 1
Bassoon 1 2 2 or 3
Contra Bass 1
French Hrn 1 or 2 4 4 to 6
Brass Trumpet (1) 2 or 3 3
Section Trombone (1) 3 3
Tuba 1 1
1st Violins 4 to 8 8 to 12 12 to 16
2nd Violins 3 to 6 6 to 10 10 to 14
String Violas 2 to 4 4 to 8 8 to 12
Section Cellos 2 or 3 3 to 6 6 to 10
Double Basses 1 to 3 3 to 6 6 to 10
* Numbers with
timpanist
I VIOLIN
Violin Range
A. CHARACTERISTICS
1 Chromatic scale upwards is obtainable on each
Notes normally fingered on nearest string position
: On occasion particular note position might be chosen to maintain a
particular color
: Choice of string for a particular note usually left to player
: Only designated where choice is other than normal one
Strings often designated by roman numerals (High E string is I)
: String indications where given is roman numeral with dotted line to
indicate how far the particular string indication is to be used
: Sul is used in Italian and Saite in German
2 Colors
IV G String
: Characteristically full rich and dark
: From D (above middle C) and upward tone becomes curiously intense
III D String
: Less dark and less full
II A String
: Considerably brighter
I E String
: Especially brilliant and penetrating
Quadruple Stop
Problems
: 6ths most successful as double stops
: 5th & 4th present intonation problems as slight deviation from correct
pitch is more apparent (5ths are played with one finger unless open
string is involved)
: Unisons are rare and only introduced for added resonance and
volume
Almost always involve an open string
D, A, E are most generally used open strings
Notated as
: Double stops larger than octave are possible utilizing an open string
: For orchestral writing quick succession of double stops are generally
impractical
Short succession of 6ths or 3rds are ok
Usually better arranged as divisi (string group divided)
: Little point in writing triple & quadruple stops except in fairly loud
passages
: Use of triple & Quadruple stops is usually to add resonance
Those with open strings are most effective
Those with open strings are most comfortable to play
Sustaining notes
: Double stops may be used effectively in sustained chords at a low
dynamic level
: Possible to sustain the top note or two notes of 3 & 4 note chords
: Inner notes may be sustained though not of much practical use
Viola Range
Viola Harmonics
A. CHARACTERISTICS
1 Greater size compared to violin
2 A characteristic tone color
Unique tone color often masked to make sound like a violin
: A certain gameness of tone
: No reason the viola should not assert its unique tone color
3 Utilizes the Alto clef
Used as range of viola is too high and too low for treble or bass clef
and limits amount of ledger lines above and below staff
If part goes too high and stays there for some time a treble clef can
be used
: Do not change clef for just a few notes
: Player would rather deal with a few ledger lines rather than shift
thinking to new clef
For school groups should not go above G5
Cello Range
Cello Harmonics
A. CHARACTERISTICS
1 Operates basically on same principle as smaller violin and viola
Notes are further apart on the finger board
Open strings have same letter names as open strings on viola but
an octave lower
Bass clef is normal for cello but sometimes tenor clef is used with
extended phrase in upper part of compass
Tenor Clef
2 Tone
Mellow and warm
2 bottom strings are (in particular) rich and full bodied
D string is brighter, warm, and ingratiating
A string has a vibrant singing tone with a strong expressivo
B. DOUBLE STOPS
1 Cautions
Avoid 2nds & octaves unless one of notes is an open string
Triple and quadruple stops are possible as long as no higher than
E4
2 Cello section is frequently called upon to play broken-chord patterns
which are simply multiple stops in which notes are sounded
consecutively instead of at same time
Bass Bow
Open Strings
Range by String
A. RANGE
1 Does not sound as written, sounding an octave lower than written
2 Part written an octave higher
3 Due to lower range and done to limit number of ledger lines
B. CHARACTERISTICS
1 Four strings tuned in 4ths
5 string bass is still much used in Europe
: Tuned to C2 (below the low E)
: US commonly uses an extension mechanism to lower he E String
Most US orchestras have at least 2 or 3 with this if not all in the
Bass Section
School orchestras seldom have this equipped bass
Lower notes than E seldom occur and can be played as octave
higher without serious damage to the effect
The Double Bass sounds much better when not kept too low
: More incisiveness
: Sense of definite pitch (in upper & middle registers
: Tenor clef may be used in very high passages
Due to instrument physical size and the ponderousness of its
technique it has limitations in performance compared to other
strings
: Much less agile and while rapid passages are possible best kept
neither too long or too frequent
Strenuous for the player
Can sound fuzzy and unsatisfactory
Often given a simplified form of what the cellos and possibly lower
woodwinds are playing
: Not necessary (or advisable) that basses play constantly
: Effectiveness seems to be an inverse ratio to the amount
: If a passage is unsuitable for instrument simply give the bass a rest
2 Multiple stops
Triple & Quadruple stops are completely out of the question
A few double stops are possible with one or two open strings
(better to split the section)
Most other effects common to string section are possible
: Pizzicato passages are frequent and especially effective
: Provide support without heaviness
: Can provide a relief from the bowed sound
3 Rarely called upon to play alone
Tone apt to be a bit dry
Lacking in focus
Do not have the expressive possibilities of the cellos
: Through frequently take melodic passages an octave below the cellos
: Lower register is dark almost ominous in quality
: Upper two strings are somewhat clearer and brighter in color
A. PARTS
1 Normally each section will play a single line
Possible to divide each group into two or more parts
: Indicated by divisi (div.) next to passage above staff
: If more than two part divisi indicate number of divisions as div. a3,
div. a4, etc.
: Two part passages are frequent, use of more than four is risky for
anything less than a full size string section (or players of limited
ability)
III SCORING
A. CONSIDERATIONS
1 Range of any particular voice will be a determining factor for
instrument assignment
2 Use dynamic markings to bring out a part or double
3 Use divisi in other sections to provide full harmonic score
If divisi for cello use upper range characteristic (vibrant and will
come through prominently)
Balance sections by having a section rest or double with second
group (i.e. Violin I & Viola on melody)
: This double will put greater weight on melody
: Also provides mixed color of Vln I & Viola Considerable
divergence of
4 Stylistic appropriateness is a consideration opinion on what is
5 Dividing the Bass (in octaves) is almost never stylistically
done in orchestral scoring appropriate in
scoring for a given
B. EXAMPLES (FROM BACH CHORAL) Period
Original Choral
SATB
Vln I ! Melody
Vln II ! Alto Part
Vla ! Melody
Cello ! Tenor & Bass Part
(divisi)
D. Bass ! Bass
Vln I ! Melody
Vln II ! Alto Part
Vla ! Tenor Part
Cello ! Melody & Bass Part
(divisi)
D. Bass ! Bass Part
2 Examples
: Open spacing is frequently used for strings and a possibility for other
instruments
: Close spacing as a general rule is more effective in the orchestra
Even music written in close structure it is sometimes necessary to
add a filler part
: An extra voice introduced to fill in gap between voices
: Most often between tenor & bass
: May double other voices part of the time then branch off to fill gaps
when necessary
May also take independent line of its own
Doubling chord tones at times but not actually playing the same
lines as any other voice
Students best to avoid fillers unless absolutely necessary
: Such parts are not very strong or interesting from a linear standpoint
: If used indiscriminately they tend to distract from clarity of other voices
and muddy the texture
Doubled top voice an octave higher of a closely spaced chord
produce a good effect regardless of the octave gap at the top
As a general rule when a primary triad (I, IV, V) is in 1st inversion
bass should not be doubled in upper parts
Bass doubling for 7th chords in any inversion should be avoided
st nd rd
1 2 3 Bowing
3 Martel
The bow does not strike the string from above but begins and
remains on it
: Move quickly
: Stops abruptly at end of each stroke
: Produces a clean-cut separation between notes
Most often done with the upper part of the bow
When done at frog produces a more robust effect
Score indication may be dots, arrowheads, accents, or a
combination
: Sometimes Martel is written in with direction for specific use of frog
or point
: More often the player will choose the martel bowing appropriate to
the music
4 Staccato
In generic sense can be applied to any bowing (on or off string) in
which notes are separated
Slurred staccato refers specifically to an on the string bowing
: Series of notes taken generally on up-bow with a separate push for
each note
: If many notes are involved the stroke is so difficult as to be impractical
for orchestral playing
Group staccato does figure constantly in limited form in orchestra
string parts and is of two types
: First is primarily an up-bow stroke of 3 or 4 notes (or more) which are
made to sound separately under the same bow stroke
2 Jet
The upper half of the bow is made to bounce on the string very
rapidly with a down stroke
Sounds a group of 2 to 6 notes (most often repeated notes)
Consists of dots plus a slur
3 Successive Down-bows
Sometimes used when a very strong and decided break between
notes is required
The separation of the notes happen automatically as the bow must
be lifted between successive down strokes
Seldom employed for more than a few notes as a time
Not too practical when notes move quickly
Effect of successive down-bows is vigorous (almost savage on the
lowest string of each instrument)
Measured
: Calls for a finite number of repeated notes with the number being
shown by notation
One line through a quarter note or half note stem means eight
notes; two lines is sixteenth notes
One line through eighth note stem means sixteenth notes; two
lines is 32nd notes
Triplets are indicated by 3 above each note (sometimes three
dots next to notehead
Safest way is to write out trill for one measure and then use a
model for subsequent tremolo
1 Characteristics
Harmonics are simply isolated overtones of the vibrating string
: Have a flute like quality
: Highly effective as a special effect
Used for isolated notes or for short melodic lines at a moderate
tempo (rapid passages are difficult and should be avoided)
2 Execution
The sections of a vibrating string are isolated by touching the open
string lightly at certain points
Producing the Harmonic
: P5,P4, M3 above open string pitch at point where the note would
ordinarily be played
: In general
Middle of string produces an octave higher than the open string
1/3 from either end produces an octave + 5th higher than the open
string
1/4 from either end produces 2 octaves + M3rd higher than the
open string
Other harmonics are possible but seldom seen in orchestral writing
F. ARTIFICIAL HARMONICS
1 Produces harmonics that are not overtones of the open string
2 Execution
String is pressed down (firmly) by 1st finger at a point 2 octaves
below the pitch of the desired harmonic
4th finger touches (lightly) the same string a P4th higher
Results in a harmonic 2 octaves above the firmly fingered note
As a rule the actual sound is usually not shown
: When included notation shows three written notes for the one
harmonic
: Lightly touched note is diamond shaped
3 Considerations
Artificial harmonics other than those of P4th are possible but seldom
used
While two simultaneous harmonics are possible it is generally too
difficult for orchestral use
: Exception is artificial harmonics a P5th apart
: Here tow adjacent strings can be pressed down with 1st finger +
touching both strings a P4th higher
: Double stop artificial harmonics occasionally occur in solo violin
literature
What has been said about Violin harmonics can be said of Viola
Artificial harmonics on Cello are extremely difficult and out of the
question for Double Bass (except in higher positions)
: Natural harmonics are practical for both
: Stravinsky made extensive use of natural harmonics for Double Bass
Top: Piccolo / Flute; Left to Right: Bass Clarinet, Tenor Saxophone, Clarinet, Oboe, English Horn,
Bassoon, Contra Bassoon
Flute Parts
Flute Register
B. RANGE
Score Sample
Oboe Parts
Oboe Range
Oboe is part of double-reed woodwinds along with English Horn, Bassoon, and Contra-Bassoon
Clarinet Ligature
Clarinet Family
Clarinet Range
Bb Clarinet Break
1 Bottom Register
Bottom octave is called chalumeau register
Has a dark strangely hollow quality
A Clarinet can go 1/2 step lower than Bb Clarinet
2 Middle Register
Bassoon
Trills to Avoid
1 Bottom Octave
Dark and Full
A little Gruff
Bottom most notes difficult to produce pianissimo
2 Middle Octave
A middle ground of not too dark and not too light
Most used register of the instrument
3 High Octave
Becomes progressively thinner
Above A 440 takes on a pinched & complaining quality
A or Bb are practical upper limit
: Extremely difficult to play passages approaching the upper limit
: Tenor clef can be used once notes go too high to be comfortably
notated in Bass Clef
C. TECHNIQUE
1 Sometimes spoken of as clown of the orchestra
Certain passages (especially staccato) can sound comical
But can produce sustained melodies of serious nature
A. CHARACTERISTICS
1 Sounds an octave higher than written to keep ledger lines reasonable
2 There is a Db piccolo used in bands but the C piccolo is the only one
featured in orchestral scores
3 Most agile instrument of the orchestra
Can perform incredibly fast runs, skips, arpeggios, and elaborate
figurations of all kinds
Not often used for slow cantabile passages
Some contemporary scores do contain solos of a quiet and
sustained nature that are effective
C. USE
1 Most valuable ability is to add a brilliant edge to a melodic line
2 Frequently doubles other woodwinds (or even strings) at an octave
higher
3 Sometimes sounds in unison with flute to reinforce the flute top tones
4 Like most brightly colored instruments it cannot be used continuously
Loses its effectiveness
Over use may give an unintentional military band feel
English Horn
Transposition Chart
Bass Clarinet
Concert Pitch
Contra Bassoon
If time values are both the same with only brief crossing if awkward, use two staves
Flute I & II Melodic Passage in unison a2 is to Flute I & II double stem indication usually
two in Italian and the usual scoring reserved for only brief unison passage
st nd rd
1 two slurred, 2 two slurred, 3 four slurred, next tongued separately
Flutter Tonguing
: A special effect executed with a rapid roll with the tongue
: Results in a kind of eerie whir applied to sustained or melodic lines
: Indication is same as unmeasured tremolo in the strings (three lines
through note stem) plus indication flutter tongue
: Will suited to the flute and piccolo, possible (and rarely used) on the
clarinet, extremely difficult on oboe
Attack and Release
: fp or sf or p dynamic
Tone is started with strong attack and then reduced in volume
immediately
After that it is either sustained at a constant dynamic or allowed to
diminish ever more
An effect rather than a dynamic marking
: May be used at any dynamic level
: Used also in Brass, Strings, and Percussion Sections
Usual for Piano notation with note cut-off left to performer and genre interpretation
Range considerations
Clarinet is better choice as too low for most flutes, oboe is within
Alto
range but low B on oboe is coarse in quality
Bass Only bassoon as the bass line goes too low for other instruments
B. EXAMPLES
Version E uses two flutes on Soprano part to give more body in weak
lower register of instrument (brings about a better balance)
Version F WHAT not to do. Oboe would outweigh flute in this register,
Oboe too prominent in character for an inner voice, doubtful quality of
low B
th
Undesirable feature of Ex12 A & B is the oboes play interval of 4 in a
sustained chord not a good plan the incisive oboe color accentuates
th
the bareness of the 4 6ths & 3rds sound much better no way of
avoiding this in this example without changing voice-leading of the
cadence
Medium A clarinets
used to avoid awkward
key signatures Bass
clarinet is placed in
enharmonic key more
appropriate for Bb
instruments
French Horn Mute French Horn Non-transposting Mute French Horn Mouthpiece
st
Fundamental (1 Partial) was normally unplayable
Out of tune notes (with our system of tuning) are in black
th
11 partial between F & F# would be humored either way
nd
D notated a Major 2 lower than sounding in bass clef
th
rather than minor 7 higher
Best to include a note in horn parts that notated pitches sound a 5th
lower (as old system was so prevalent)
: Bass clef is little used except for extremely low tones
: Horn parts should utilize treble clef whenever possible
: Where I & III play one melodic line and II & IV another for a
considerable length of time
Easier to write I & III on upper staff and II & IV on lower
Use 2 on each staff to indicate doubling
3 Scoring
Chamber orchestra usually employs one horn
Small orchestra usually one or two
Full orchestra four is standard (can be less if music doesnt demand
full 4 Horn section
Sometimes 5 Horns will be employed
: Actually the extra horn is an assistant First Horn
: Will double Horn I part for added severity or volume
: Will also play part to allow Horn I player to rest
: Some scores require more than standard 4 Horn section
Stravinskys Rite of Spring
Wagners Ring Cycle
IV SPECIAL EFFECTS
A. MUTING AND STOPPING
1 Change in hand position in bell usually controls tone quality
Hand is part way into bell and cupped
This is the normal position
2 Inserting hand further into the bell will provide muting (consordino)
3 Stopped notes
Produced by inserting the hand (or mute) In both muting and
stopping the volume is
so far into the bell that notes must be reduced and pitch
forced out altered (unless a non-
Resulting notes are curiously nasal and transposing mute is
metallic with a sharp edged employed) to such an
extent that different
Especially effective for single note played fingerings are employed
fp
Notated the same as open notes
Trumpet Range
Trumpet Registers
Since there were not crooks available for all keys sometimes
needed to use a trumpet in other than the key of music
: If composition was in G most often trumpet in C was used
: Sometimes trumpets omitted if key presented too many problems
: Sometimes another trumpet in a different key was used to avoid
combined crooks
Because of the limited notes available trumpet parts tended to be
repetitious and uninteresting
: There were still limitations with the natural trumpet and the parts were
adjusted to accommodate those limitations
: Sometimes the trumpet part in these cases was dropped for a beat or
two in trouble spots
: The dropping of trumpet part was likely to lead to a fragmentary and
unsatisfying part
B. THE EARLY VALVE TRUMPET IN F
: Early valve trumpets came with a small slide which could adjust the
instrument to pitch in A
: Slide is not included in modern Bb trumpets due to intonation
problems
2 The Modern C Trumpet
Seems to have found favor with contemporary composers
A bit more brilliant than Bb trumpet
Generally not as rich as the Bb trumpet
3 Trumpet Characteristics
From C3 to F4 is the most used register
Brass Ranges
Trombone Register
Possible Glissando
Used as early as
A. NOTATION
1600 by
1 Notated in either Bass or Tenor Clef Gabrieli,
employed by
Tenor clef rarely used in school orchestras Mozart, Gluck, &
Utilized to avoid ledger lines others in opera.
BBb Tuba (Rotary Valves) F Tuba (Rotary Valves) Eb Tuba (Piston Valves)
F Tuba Range
Tuba Range
Examples
II CONSIDERATIONS
A. SPACING
1 Trumpets and horns sound better in close spacing rather than open
2 Trombones may be arranged in close spacing in middle and upper
register
Gives impression of great brilliance if placed quite high
Use open spacing when playing lower notes
: Trombones play lower notes most often
: Would produce muddiness in close spacing
B. CONSIDERATIONS
1 Extremely high note entrances are risky
Even when successful are apt to sound unpleasant, strained, and
tense
Higher pitches are practicable when the player has a chance to
lead up to pitch
Juxtaposition
: Used very frequently
: Pairs of instruments are simply put side by side
: In normal order of register
Interlocking
: Slight advantage of mixing colors in such a way that a more
homogeneous blend results
: Are cases where it does not work well where low or high note in a
weak register is placed
Overlapping
: Much in vogue during the classical period but seen less often today
: Weakness is that outer notes (especially bottom) are not as strong as
others
: Involves only a partial duplication of notes
: A second type is a more complete and balanced form of duplication
and is much used
FL FL OB
FL OB FL Ob
OB Clar 2 Clar
Clar
Weak
voice doubled
Juxtaposition
Hrn / Bsns / Obs / Clars / Fls
Interlocking
Hrns Bsns / Obs Clars / Fls on top
Enclosing
[Hrns Bsns] / [Clars Obs] / Fls on top
Mixed
Bsn juxtaposition / Clar Hrn Interlocking / Ob Fl
overlapping with partial duplication
II BRASS CHORDS
A. CONSIDERATIONS
1 Juxtaposition, interlocking, and enclosure are used frequently in
scoring brass
Overlapping is rarely seen
Low trumpet note sometimes is overlapped by top trombone or
horn for better balance
2 Section of 4 Horns, 2 Trumpets, 3 Trombone, 1 Tuba
If dynamic marking is softer than mf these instruments can play 10
notes
In mezzo-forte (or louder) the horns will normally be used 2 to a
note and section can then cover 8 notes at most
When chords of more than 8 notes are scored forte or louder
: 2 horns to a note must be abandoned
: Horns are given 4 different pitches and where possible marked one
dynamic level louder than the rest of the brass
Interlocking Hrns I & III (on 7th), Tpt III / Trbs I & II,
Hrns II & IV with Hrns resolving to 3rd of D Chord
Interlocking with Hrns I & III, Tpts II & III / Tbn I, Hrns
II & IV, Tpt II with Trb II resolving 7th to 3rd of D Chord
Overlapping Hrn I, Tpt 3 / Hrns II, III, IV, Trb I, II, III with
Bass note not doubled in root position
3 Dissonance
Prominent and acute when given to same kind of instrument (Tpt &
Tpt)
Milder when allotted to different instruments (Vln & Tpt)
Sounds
Piano with 3 note chord which must be divided between two violins
and one viola
: Best to give one note to vlas and two notes to vlns
: Vln notes can be either divisi or as double stops
Avoid double stops with inexperienced players or quick
succession of chords
Four note chords can be by divisi parts in vln & vla or as double
stops
ths
With same principle for broken 6 and other intervals
rds
(broken 3 are practical on most orchestral instruments)
Original Piano
Staccato Piano
: May be given to strings playing pizzicato, spiccato, or group staccato
depending on degree of shortness, dynamics, and tempo
: Note that pizzicato is not practical in very fast passages
NB:
Measure 2
Last 3 measures
Ex2b
Ex2d
Fl & Ob at rest
Clar A, Bsn, & Hrns on sustained G# & B
with octave doubling
Vln I & Vln II have melody with octave
doubling
Vla has E, B, G# as pizzicato 1st note of
arpeggio
DB has pizzicato E on 1st note of arpeggio
Note different dynamics for parts
Fl, Ob, Clar A, Hrn I, Hrn III, Vla have melody with octave
doubling
Bsn, Hrn II, Hrn IV have held G# & B with octave
doubling
Vln I, Vln II, Vc, DB split arpeggio figure with octave
doubling
Fl, Ob, Clar A, Bsn, Vln I, Vla have melody with octave
doubling
Hrns, DB hold B & G# with octave doubling
Vln II, Vc hold arpeggio figure
Ob at rest
Fl & Clar A hold E & G#
Bsn hold arpeggio figure
Usual Combinations
NB:
1 Analysis
Note that this piece of music is extreme case. Few pieces of music
would lend themselves to so many color contrasts within a few
measures.
Transposition to C or D might initially be considered but original key
has been retained.
: Music in remote key poses no technical problems in this example
: Transposition from the remote key would completely destroy the
striking parallel relationship between somber C# min of 1st movement
with the bright Db maj of 2nd movement
2 Possibilities
Can accentuate the strong antiphonal feeling between each phrase
by using contrasting colors every two measures (layout a, b, d)
Can use one color on 1st four measures and another color on 2nd
four stressing the antiphonal feeling between the first two phrases
(layout c)
3 Cautions
Possible to over use the device of contrasted sections which results
in a patchy quality
Avoid tendency to think in terms of separated sections as opposed
to the possibilities of combining instruments of different sections
Consider
: Period
: Style and stylistic characteristics
: Texture
: Doublings
: Balance
: Distribution of musical ideas
: Pure color vs. composite color
I TIMPANI (KETTLEDRUMS)
Set of 4 Timpani
Sizes
A. HISTORY
1 Tuning
Until recently timpani were hand-tuned
: Pitch changes were made by tightening or relaxing screws around the
head
Calf skin stretched across top of drum
Head is now most often made of plastic
: Considerable time was required for change (about 8 measures in 4/4
moderate time)
During Classical period two timpani were tuned in advance
Tuned to tonic & dominant notes of home key and not altered in
course of composition or movement
Later composers demanded changes within the composition or
movement and 3 timpani were employed
Present day tuning is accomplished by means of a pedal to change
pitch
: A foot pedal controls the degree of tension on the drum
: Change of pitch can be made rapidly (allow 4 measures in 4/4
moderate time to allow for testing the pitch)
: Tuning gauges are available giving player mechanical means to
change pitch with high accuracy
Either way
D. FUNCTION
1 Most frequent (and obvious) use of timpani is backing the rest of the
orchestra in rhythmic figures
In Classical Period convention was to give timpani and trumpets the
same rhythmic figure
Other times they played separate rhythmic figure of their own
2 Excellent for reinforcing crescendos
Providing excitement
Supporting climaxes by means of rolls
3 Extended solos are seldom given
Snare Sticks
Felt Mallets
Snare Brush
Xylophone Mallets
Xylophone Range
A. CHARACTERISTICS
1 Consists of a set of wooden bars of varying lengths arranged in same
pattern as notes on a piano and with (sometimes) a tuned resonator
beneath each bar
2 Played with hard mallets
Normally two
Sometimes 3 or 4 are used to play chords
3 Notes are short & crisp with no way of sustaining except to utilize a roll
Makes instrument unsuited for lyric and expressivo passages
Can perform rapid scales, arpeggios, repeated notes, glissandos
with surprising ease (passages entirely on white keys are more
difficult than those involving both black & white keys
Scoring Example
B. USE
1 Gives a saucy, mocking quality can
2 Can simply add a brittle edge to a melodic line (or point up certain
notes)
3 Notes are short and crisp with no way of sustaining Passages
except to utilize a roll entirely on white
keys are more
Makes instrument unsuited for lyric and difficult than
expressivo passages those involving
Can perform rapid scales, arpeggios, repeated white and black
keys
notes, glissandos with surprising ease
Marimba Range
A. CHARACTERISTICS
1 Resembles Xylophone in appearance
2 Tone is more mellow and lacks xylophones spicy brittleness
B. USE
1 Rarely used in orchestra
2 Needs a somewhat exposed part to come through
Played with relatively soft sticks
Generally softer than employed by xylophone
Glockenspiel
Keyed Glockenspiel
Vibraphone
Vibraphone Mallets
Vibraphone Range
A. CHARACTERISTICS
1 Relative newcomer to instrument scene
Associated chiefly with dance and commercial music
Has found great favor with many serious composers
Some composers have used instrument in combination with
electronically produced sounds
A. CHARACTERISTICS
1 Tubular Bells are only type of bells now in standard use
2 Hung from a rack with complete set arranged like white & black keys of
piano
Black key bells are hung behind the white and slightly higher
providing room for striking
Since bell parts often consist of only a few notes it is common
practice to hang only those bell required for performance
Some sets include a damping pedal for damping or sustaining
notes
3 Full set varies in size so given range can vary (range provided is
considered standard in U.S.)
Cymbales Antique
Crotali, Italian Antiken Zimbeln, German
(or Crotales), French
A. CHARACTERISTICS
1 Small cymbals modeled after ancient Greek instrument
2 Each pair sounds a definite pitch
Held with one in each hand and struck together lightly at the rim
The small bell-like sound being allowed to ring
3 Used in Romeo & Juliet, Berlioz; Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun,
Debussy; Les Noces & Rite of Spring, Stravinsky; Daphnis and Chloe,
Ravel
B. USE
1 Written in both actual pitch or octave below
2 Score needs to specify use of actual or octave below pitch
3 Many orchestras do not own Antique Cymbals and part is played on
some other instrument (usually glockenspiel)
Flextone Range
A. CHARACTERISTICS
1 Unusual and rarely used instrument
2 A band of bent metal in the shape of a U
One side with two small pieces of metal which strike the metal band
when instrument is shaken
Held by cylindrical handle at bottom
Uses thumb to control angle and thus change the pitch of the
vibrating metal partition
3 Sounds similar to musical saw but more percussive
B. USE
1 Piano Concerto, Khachaturian
2 Variations for Orchestra, Schenberg
Sticks Brushes
Comments on
: Trill sign is preferable for unmeasured roll roll in the timpani
apply with snare
With several measures of roll safest to
connect notes with a tie
Avoids possibility of player thinking fresh attack is wanted
: Rolls are notated same as bowed tremolo in strings
Three lines through stem ordinarily signifies unmeasured roll
2 lines is measured 16th notes, 1 line is measured 8th notes
: Tie is carried over to 1st downbeat
Skilled players are able to cope with roll ending on fraction of beat
If articulated note is required at end of roll wavy line is stopped
short of last note
: One of the snare drums most effective devices
Extended roll creates sense of tension and expectancy
Shorter rolls are used constantly in march rhythms and other
orchestral parts
Field Drum
1 Very long drum equipped with a single snare (in most cases)
2 Examples are in Aaron Copland, Appalachian Spring & El Salon
Mexico
D. THE BASS DRUM
Gran Cassa (or Cassa), It Grosse Caisse, Fr. Grosse Trommel, Gr.
: Use stems up for cymbals and stem down for Bass Drum
1 Notation
Same as that of snare drum (single line or a staff)
Sometimes indicated with diamond or x shaped note heads
(however, standard format is always best solution)
: Often notated on same staff as Bass Drum
: Notated this way as same player sometimes plays both parts
Here one cymbal is attached to top of bass drum and other is
struck against it
Player uses other hand to play bass drum
Tone quality of both instruments suffer in this arrangement
Best to indicate the actual note value of a cymbal crash
: Indicates the length of ring before being damped
: If ring is to be indefinite and easy indication is a tie ending is air
2 Use
Crash or two-plate stroke is most frequent use
: Note not just a loud strike
: Can be performed at any dynamic level
: Debussys Nocturne as cymbals rubbed together very softly
Loud crashes are much more frequent
: Used at moments of excitement
: Used at climax points
F. THE TRIANGEL
1 Characteristics
Instrument normally suspended from one hand and struck with a
steel beater (striker) in the other
More complex rhythms possible when suspended from a rack and
utilizing two beaters
Made in different sizes with tone varying accordingly
Notation is either single line or staff
Tamborine
1 Characteristics
Small wooden hoop with calf skin head across one side
Pairs of metal plates (jingles) attached to openings in the hoop
Can mix different strokes and playing styles
Can add color, accent at certain points, and back up vivid rhythms
2 Use
Struck with fist
: Suitable for isolated notes and simple rhythms
: Produces a percussive sound of head strike with the jingles sounding
: Word fist is sometimes placed in score
Shaken
: Produces a roll with only the jingles sounding
: Adds excitement and color
: Especially good at forte (or louder)
(Preferable)
Either is used
Sticks
: Played with sticks on flat surface with facing up or facing down as an
effect
: Produces sound of struck head in combination with jingles
: Needs score direction played with snare drum sticks (must be
included)
: For softer passages played head down on a cloth and played with
fingers
H. THE GONG OR TAM-TAM
1 Characteristics
Circular piece of hammered or spun metal struck with a soft-
headed beater
Made in various sizes with some composers specifying large or
small in score
1 Characteristics
Partially hollowed out small wooden or ebonite blocks
: Name implies chestnuts derived from the wood used originally
: Most often made of ebonite
Originally played with the hand
Modern orchestral set uses a mechanically mounted set played
with the fingers
1 Characteristics
Small rectangular piece of wood (or plastic) with side slits to
provide resonance
Played with drum sticks or vibraphone mallets
All possible rhythms are possible
Tone is dry and brittle
Single note strike has unexpected quality verging on the comic
2 Use
Utilized in modern scores
Ballets
Other highly colored or strongly rhythmic music
K. CHINESE TEMPLE BLOCKS
Maracas
Two hollow gourds with attached handles filled with dried seeds or
buckshot
Shaken to provide characteristic rhythms for Latin music
I THE HARP
Harp Range
A. CHARACTERISTICS
1 Not built on a chromatic basis
Has only octave sets of seven tuned strings
: When in home key tuned to scale of Cb (Cb,Db,Eb,Fb,Gb,Ab,Bb)
: Chromatic instrument would have 12 strings for each semitone
: Use of Cb as home tuning provides ability to change pitch with pedals
and avoid double #s or bs
String Sequence
1 2 3
Pedal indications Though in Eb Major the pedal setting at start has an A natural as A first
appearance is an A natural
Harp Enharmonics
B pedal set to middle notch and C pedal set to top notch will both produce same pitch a B
natural
Chord 1 D Bb F Bb
Pedal Setting 1 D C Bb Eb F G A
Lft Rt
Pedals D C B E F G A
Lft Rt
Chord 3 C Eb G
Chord 2 D B F G
Pedal Setting 2 D C B Eb F G A
Lft Rt
Pedals D C B E F G A
Lft Rt
Chord 5 C F A
Chord 4 C Bb E G
Pedal Setting 3 D C Bb E F G A
Lft Rts
Pedals D C B E F G A
Lft Rt
Chord 2 C D Eb F G A B C D Eb F G A B
Chord 3 C D Eb F G A B C D Eb F G A B C
Chord 4 C D E F G A Bb C D E F G A Bb
Chord 5 C D E F G A Bb C D E F G A Bb
For Glissando Chords (with extra notes and utilizing enharmonic notes)
F#7 D C C Eb F# F# A
Pedals D C B E F G A
Lft Rt
C9 D Bb Fb Bb
Pedals D C B E F G A
Lft Rt
Pedal Setting D Cb B E Fb G A
Lft Rt
Pedals D C B E F G A
Lft Rt
C9 C D E Fb G A# Bb C D E Fb G A# Bb
G Triad Cb D E Fb G A B Cb D E Fb G A B !
N.B. Pedal
setting is set for
: Proper pedal setting must be indicated in advance
ALL octaves
: Possible to play 6 notes (3 in each hand) ascending
and 8 notes descending
: Actual noes for glissando need be written for only one octave
: Matter of time values is not important (usually use 16th or 64th notes)
as usually so many notes that actual time value would be hard to
notate accurately
4 Because of hand angle the little finger of either hand is not used
Chords involving more than 4 notes can be played with a roll or
arpeggio effect (pronounced)
Stretch of a 10th is considered a safe practical limit
5 Traditional to roll all chords slightly
The vertical wavy line for rolled chords should only be used when a
much more pronounced roll is desired
A vertical bracket is used to indicate chord with no roll
E. EFFECTS
1 Finger nails used to strike strings producing a brittle and metallic sound
2 Back of finger nails on a glissando which produces a falling hail effect
3 Playing close to the sound board
Produces a special tone quality
Use Sons pr de la table or pr de la table to indicate the effect
4 Timpanic sounds striking most sonorous part of sound board with 3rd
finger of right hand while left plays normally
5 Fluidic sounds sliding the metal tuning key on the string
6 Metallic sounds by holding pedal half way between two notches
Celesta Range
A. CHARACTERISTICS
1 Like a small piano in appearance
Has a short piano keyboard and damper pedal
In place of strings it utilizes steel bars with individual resonators
2 Produces a delicate and bell-like tone
3 Has little power and requires an extremely light background
B. USE
1 Most often utilized to add a silvery edge to a melodic line
2 Other times it provides shimmer
3 May take a melody or complete harmonic passage solo on rare
occasions
Piano Range
3rd & 4th entrance of subject is marked louder than 1st & 2nd
entrance to make sure entrance is clear against upper voices
Pure colors are best at beginning
: Mixed tones best reserved for later sections
: Possible to give a heavier color (i.e. brass) to later sections
: Best to reserve heavier colors for the more emphatic announcements
of subject which occur latter in fugue
A stretto where the subject statement comes in at shorter intervals and overlap
Subject appears in 3 different versions: Original form, Augmentation
(note values doubled), Inversion (direction of intervals reversed)
1
Last 5 /2 bars of fugue again, a stretto with each entrance marked with S
Marcato effect seems appropriate for scored version
Full orchestra including Brass is utilized
st
1 Beat
Rhythmic Pattern
VI OTHER DEVICES
A. DIVISION OF A MUSICAL IDEA
1 Musical idea is sometimes divided between two instruments of the
same kind
2 Done to ease technical problems
Fast passage, awkward leaps, or fast tonguing
Insures that melodic line will not be broken for even the quietest
breath
1 General Concepts
All saxophones have the same basic written range
: Notated in Treble Clef
: Transpositions are different
Actual Ranges
Oboe DAmore
1 History
Used in Bachs day and revived by Strauss in his Sinfonia
Domestica
An extreme rarity today
Used in extended part in Ravels Bolero
2 Characteristics
Like an oboe in fingering
Tone is sweeter and less biting
Midway in size between oboe and English horn
Sometimes described as a mezzo-soprano oboe
Heckelphone Range
1 History
Invented by Heckel in 1904
An oboe pitched an octave lower than normal oboe
2 Characteristics
Longer than an English Horn with a large distension at the bell
Tone quality is reedy and full particularly in the lower register
Used by Delius and Strauss (Salome) but use is rare only now
finding some use in commercial recording
Eb Clarinet Range
1 History
Small clarinet favored by military bands but little used with
orchestra
Occasional use in orchestra has been exploited
: Berlioz, Fantastic Symphony (Dream of a Witches Sabbath)
: Strauss, Ein Heldenleben
: Ravel, Daphnis and Chloe Suite No. 2 Clarinet in D was
used by Strauss
2 Characteristics and has the
Tone lacks the mellow warmth of the Bb Clarinet same range as
the Eb Clarinet
and is rather hard and inelastic sounding a Maj
Because upward compass in actual sound, it can nd
2 higher than
take passages too high for clarinet in Bb or A written. It is all
Higher range requires a first range instrument but unknown in
and a first class player as apt to be out of tune the U.S.A
and unpleasantly shrill
Basset-Horn Range
1 History
Not a horn but derives name from the man (Horn) who introduced it
and was translated literally by the Italians
Was a forerunner of the Eb Alto clarinet
2 Examples
Beethoven, Prometheus
Mozart, Requiem
Strauss, Electra
Sarrusophone Range
1 History
Invented by French Bandmaster Sarrus
A double reed instrument similar to the bassoon but constructed of
metal
II BRASS
A. THE CORNET
Cornet Range
Bb C D/Eb Eb A/Bb
Eb / Db Trumpet Range
Eb / C / Bb Trumpet Range
Flgelhorn Range
Range is same as Cornet & Trumpet but top 4th of range is not generally used
Baritone Euphonium
1 Characteristics
Alike in general appearance and in range
Great technical agility
Built with either 3 or 4 valves with current trend of 4 valves
Upright or bell-front construction
2 Tone
Smooth and mellow
: Euphonium has a slightly larger bore
: Results in a broader and slightly darker sound than the baritone
No real consistent difference between the two instruments with
names practically synonymous today
1 Ancient oriental origin appearing in various forms (and names) over the
centuries
Flat back with inward curved sides
Fretted neck
Plucked with thumb and four fingers of the right hand
1 Characteristics
Smaller than Guitar and pear shaped
Eight strings (4 Courses) tuned the same as open strings on Violin
Played with a pick (plectrum)
Fretted finger-board
2 Use
Single short notes possible
Rapid alteration is possible creating a quasi-sustained tremolo
effect
IV KEYBOARDS
A. THE PIPE ORGAN
1 Use
Sometimes used to supply added volume, liturgical atmosphere, or
majestic tone quality
Occasionally used with pedals only (16 & 32 stops) to double
lower orchestral instruments creating an extra-dark and ponderous
effect)
3 Use
Regular member of instrumental group accompanying oratorios and
cantatas of the Baroque
: Realized the basso continuo part (later relinquishing that role)
: Parts for symphonic music do not appear until late 19th Century
Examples
: Saint-Sans, 3rd Symphony
: Scriabin, Poem of Ecstasy
: Mahler, 2nd & 8th Symphonies
: Strauss, Thus Spake Zarathustra
: Reshighi, Pines of Rome & Roman Festivals
: Holst, The Planets
Harmonium Range
1 Characteristics
Described as a reed organ with reeds made of thin metal
Reeds are vibrated by an air stream from bellows operated by feet
of player
Some variety of timbre is possible by means of stops
2 Examples
Tchaikovsky, Manfred Symphony
Mahler, 8th Symphony
Strauss, Ariadne auf Naxos
Hindemith, Kammermusik No. 1
Shostakovich, The Golden Age (a ballet suite)
Harpsichord Range
1 Characteristics
Tone is so light can be covered easily by other instruments
If used it is usually for a small group or lightly scored passages
Differs from piano in that strings are plucked with a plectrum
: No sustaining pedal and sustaining power is less than piano
: Cannot make difference in volume through touch
Doubling at lower or upper octave, coupling both manuals, and
some variation in tone quality are available through pedals
1 History
Invented in 1928 by a Frenchman named Martenot
Used chiefly by French composers
Trautonium is a similar instrument
: Invented by Trautwien and developed in Germany in 1931
: Capable of imitating certain orchestral instruments with surprising
fidelity
2 Scoring
Parts for saxophone (2 alto & 1 Tenor) are included
: Generally marked ad libitum
: To be included at conductors discretion
: Generally duplicate Horn parts but also can replace or bolster
Bassoon & Cello
Parts for piccolo, English Horn, Bass Clarinet, Harp, and Celesta
are occasionally included
B. LIMITATIONS
1 Many schools do not have all instruments available under normal
instrumentation
2 Players are inexperienced and unwise to give parts to be realized
entirely on their own
3 Sections (strings particularly) may be unbalanced due to number of
available players (Viola section especially)
Type-Casting System
(written)
: Notes above F4 are risky and below A2 or G2 are difficult for young
players
: Best to use only Horn I and Horn II as not all school orchestras have
full four horn section available
Players are also too inexperienced to manage separate parts
Can score for four horns but with ability to sound satisfactory with
only two horns
If higher notes than safe range is required for Vln I score in divisi
octaves with lower part available for inexperienced players
Tenor clef is rarely used
Only easier multiple stops should be used preferably using open
strings
Considerations
: Parts should be challenging and interesting to play but not so
challenging as to be impractical
: Choose easier keys of no more than 3 sharps or 4 flats (be mindful of
the transpositions)
Normal cross-
cueing for often
missing instruments
rd th
3 & 4 horn parts
cued for trumpets in
measure 1
2 Rest of one or two measures are simply indicated using whole rests
3 Tacets indicate instrument is not to play for specified length of time
Indicates for large number of measures
Can be whole movement (2nd movement tacit)
Can be part of a movement (Tacit to end of movement; Tacit 200
bars)
C. STRING PARTS
1 Two players share each part
2 Each part must include tempo, dynamics, expressions, phrasing,
slurring, bowing, rehearsal letter, and meter
D. CUES
1 Provides help to the player
2 Often included just before entrance after a lengthy sequence of rests
3 As landmarks in middle of long rests
4 Choose a prominent part for cue so it is easily heard
One or two bars are usually sufficient though longer cues are
common
Written in smaller notes with stems in wrong direction