Structural Health Monitoring and Life-Cycle Costing of Structures. Application To Cable-Stayed Bridges

Structural Health Monitoring and life-cycle costing of structures. Application to cable-stayed bridges.
Summary
This document describes Structural Health Monitoring as an innovative solution for the
bridge structures maintenance, with special attention to the cable-stayed bridges.
Monitoring should be understood as a process of structural supervision and
observation of the bridge. This treatment is necessary to prosecute full control over the
structure. It is ensured by constant or periodical inflow of the information about structural
condition of the appointed building system.
Especially, it covers the problem of quantitative deployment of the stay-force
measuring devices and proceeds benefits from its employment.
Main idea is to mature methods of measurements and their influence on the cost of
the whole enterprise, basing on the real example.
Two, state-of the-art, solutions have been proposed:
Direct measurement of the forces by means of elasto-magnetic sensors,

Indirect measurement of the forces by means of accelerometers.
Technical backgrounds of the solutions are elaborated, as well as its pros and cons.
Deliberation is proceeded on the base of : New planned Cable-Stayed Bridge along the
ring road of Wroclaw, over Odra River, Poland. Real prices of the devices and related
services are implemented in order to authenticate considerations.
Main idea is to convict authorities and people involved in designing process, that
complete Structural Health Monitoring is the initial investment that brings financial profits
during service live of the bridge.
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Content
Summary .............................................................................................................. 1
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 3
1.1. Description of the cable-stayed idea ............................................................... 4
1.2. Configuration of stay systems ............................................................................ 5
1.3. Profitability of C-S idea employment ............................................................... 6
1.4 Examples of C-S idea employment .................................................................... 7
2. Objectives .............................................................................................................. 11
3. Structural Health Monitoring (SMH) Overview .............................................. 12
3.1. Major assumptions ............................................................................................. 12
3.2. Periodical bridge monitoring system ............................................................... 13
3.3. Permanent bridge monitoring system ............................................................... 13
3.4. Step by step of the long term structural monitoring .......................................... 14
3.5. Loads on cables of cable-stayed bridges ........................................................... 15
3.5.1. Wind ...................................................................................................... 15
3.5.1.1. Galloping, whole structure ............................................................... 16
3.5.1.2. Rain-Wind induced vibrations, stay system ...................................... 16
3.5.1.3. Buffeting ......................................................................................... 19
3.5.1.4. Flatter (bending with torsioning), deck .......................................... 19
3.5.1.5. Vortex Shedding ............................................................................ 19
3.6. Temperature ...................................................................................................... 21
3.7. Traffic loads ...................................................................................................... 21
3.8. Force measurements, using accelerometers ................................................... 21
3.9. Force measurements, using elasto-magnetic sensors (EM) ............................. 25
4. STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING (SHM)
AND LIFE CYCLE COST (LCC) ............................................................................ 32
5. SHM APPLICATION, CABLE- STAYED BRIDGE IN WROCLAW ......................... 33
5.1. Description of the bridge structure .................................................................... 33
5.1.1. Main structure cable-stayed bridge ....................................................... 33
5.1.2. Approaching estacades ............................................................................ 34
5.1.3. Bridge location ......................................................................................... 35
5.2. Accelerometers, Proposal No.1 ........................................................................ 36
5.3. Accelerometers Proposal No.2 ........................................................................ 38
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5.4. Accelerometers, comparison ............................................................................ 39

5.5. EM sensors, Proposal No.1 ............................................................................ 41
5.6. EM sensors, Proposal No.2 ............................................................................ 42
5.7. EM sensors, comparison ................................................................................ 43
5.8. Consideration of the possible traffic disturbances .......................................... 45
5.9. Monitoring during bridge erection .................................................................... 50
5.10. SHM profitability equation, elasto-magnetic sensors ..................................51
5.11. SHM profitability equation, accelerometers .............................................. 55
6. CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................... 58
7. LITERATURE .......................................................................................................... 60
8. SOURCES OF FIGURES ......................................................................................... 61
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1. INTROCUCTION
1.1 description of the cable-stayed idea
Figure 1.
Idea of well known in our present stay systems is very old and remember antique
times. Centuries before people started erecting cable-stayed bridges, method of
sustaining beams by means of cables had been well known by ancient Egyptians, to
construct sail systems of their boats. After many years this idea has found its application
in bridge engineering. First European sources that describe cable-stayed bridges are
dated on the year A.D. 1617. In this papers author, Faustus Verantius, portrayed cable
stayed bridge, equipped with chain-stays.
In the nineteenth century, several suspension bridges were successfully erected.
Additional inclined cables were used in order to ensure appropriate stiffness of the whole
structure and provide stability against wind loads. Fast development of so called:
modern cable-stayed bridges began in the second half of the twentieth century and
bases on the new technologies of pre-stressed cables.
Parallel fast growth in the calculation facilities introduced by the use of computers
resulted
in appropriate and cost-effective possibilities of cable-stayed bridges designing.
Except economical and technical reasons, cable-stayed bridges provide unique
view and are composed as distinguishable element of the surrounding environment.
Since these times, development of advanced materials and more efficient methods of
erection, contrived width employment of cable-stayed idea in order to span long
distances. Basic elements of cable-stayed bridges are:
supports,
towers,
main girder,
stay system.
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1.1 Configuration of stay systems
We can distinguish four, the most common methods of stay systems arrangement:
Mono:
Figure 2.
Harp:
Figure 3.
Fan:
Figure 4.
Star:
Figure 5.
Presented constitutions are only basic propositions. On the world have been designed
and erected another, not off the shelf solutions.
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1.2 Profitability of the C-S idea implementation
In case of the expensive public investments, economical aspects play the most
important role.
However, in recent times aesthetics is also taken into account to fulfill expectations of the
investors. Cable-stayed bridges are characterized by interesting architectural profile, that
is why continuously there is a rise in their employment.
Figure 6.
Graph above, presents dependence of the cost on the span length. As we can
observe, when the span length L exceed 180m, cable-stayed bridges become
economically profitable. Mainly it is because of the slender girder and limitation of the
supports. Elimination of the support number (in case of the bridge over the river), results
in avoidance of interference in the natural environment of the river.
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1.4 Examples of C-S idea employment
Brooklyn Bridge, milestone in the bridge engineering suspension bridge,

USA
Figure 7. (Old view, year 1890)

Description of the structure:
The Brooklyn bridge was designed by German-born Roebling and completed in the
year 1883, New York USA. Connec Having total length of 1059,9 m and a main span of
486,5 m represents milestone in the bridge construction.
Figure 8. (Present view)
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First cable-stayed bridge of the modern era: Stromsund bridge, Sweden
Figure 9

The Stromsund bridge in Sweden, opened to traffic in 1956, is generally considered as
the first cable-stayed bridge of the modern era. It is a three span structure with the main
span length: 182,6 m and total length: 332 m. Complexed deck (steel and concrete) is
suspended by means of diagonal cables from 2 pylons.
Normandie Bridge, France
Figure 10
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The bridge was designed by Michel Virlogeux. Construction process began in 1988
and lasted 7 years. The bridge was opened on January 20, 1995. At that time the bridge
was both the longest cable-stayed bridge in the world, and had the record for the longest
distance between piers for any cable-stayed bridge. It was more than 250 m longer
between piers than the previous record. This record was lost in 1999 to the Tatara Bridge
in Japan. The cable-stayed design was chosen because it was both cheaper and more
resistant to high winds than a suspension bridge.
Figure 11
Figure 12
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World record in C-S span length, Sutong Bridge, China
Figure 13 (after linking up)
The Sutong Bridge is a cable stayed bridge that spans the Yangtze River in
People's Republic of China between Nantong and Changshu in the upstream from
Shanghai, that is currently under construction. It is currently due to open in the early 2008.
With a span of 1,088 metres ,it will become cable stayed bridge with the longest main
span in the world. Two towers of bridge are 306 metres high and thus second tallest in the
world. Overall the bridge length will be 8,206 metres. Construction began in June 2003
and bridge was linked up in June 2007.
Figure 14 (erection stage)
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2. OBJECTIVES
Stay system is the most significant and sophisticated part of the C-S bridge
structure.
Its main idea, pre-stressing, implementation of the additional force to the cables requires
control and supervision. This paper covers study of the location, type and number of the
force measuring devices in stay system, taking into account Life Cycle Cost (LCC).
Deliberations are conducted on the example of planned C-S bridge in Wroclaw over Odra
river.
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3. STRUCTUAL HEALTH MONITORING (SHM) - Overview
3.1 Major assumptions
Figure 15. (Typical monitoring arrangement on the cable stayed bridge SHM)
Aim
Main aim of the monitoring idea is to understand mechanism of the structure and
early-warning before the damage-risk. Thanks for this treatment it is easier to avoid
serious technical drawbacks and eventual financial looses brought by reparation and
closure of the bridge.
Effect
Monitoring system is an investment that brings comfort of maintenance for the
bridge-authorities and it is a good method of receiving information about actual condition
of the structure. It can be defined as an innovative approach to the engineering that
ensures proper functioning and longer service live of the structures, thanks for immediate
reactions on the detected abnormities.
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Major tasks are:
Health monitoring and damage detection,

Monitoring of weather factors (e.g. temperature, wind-velocity; direction; angle of
attack, sun radiation, humidity, precipitation),
Monitoring of traffic load,
Monitoring of seismic activities,
Monitoring of dynamic behavior (acceleration, dumping, frequency of vibration),
Monitoring of mechanical parameters (force, strain, stress),
Monitoring of displacements and deviations.
Structural Health Monitoring should be divided on two sub-groups:
3.2. Periodical bridge monitoring system
In this method we can predict the lifetime bridge performance on the base of particular
measurements.
For this process it is recommended to use advanced mathematical tools, like:
Markov process, Bayesian theory, Monte Carlo method or quite new approach, genetic
probabilistic methods.
3.3. Permanent bridge monitoring system
This type will be accurately elaborated in this essay with special attention to the force
measurements in stays
Fundamental principle of this method is constant process of structural observation and
obtaining of structural data in real time.
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3.4. Step by step of the long term structural health monitoring
1. Data sampling by means of deployed on the structure sensors and measuring

devices,
Figure 16. Elastomagnetic force sensor. Figure 17. Accelerometer
2. Data gathering by means of installed on the bridge, center of data acquisition.
Figure 18, 19. Data acquisition center.
3. Data compilation- by means of special software.
Figure 20, 21. Data compilation-equipment
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4. Output- data after treatment, displayed as charts, histograms, tables etc.

(Optionally on the web-site).
Figure 22, 23. Data output- presented on the web-site
3.5. Loads on cables of cable-stayed bridges
3.5.1. Wind
Stay as a single element of a bridge structure, shows the highest susceptibility
towards wind induced phenomena. Wind is the most significant load component and can
exceed 50% of the total transverse load on the bridge structure. Individual cable is
susceptible to the wind effects, due to the low bending stiffness, implemented high
prestressing force, cable length and orientation to the wind. Stay, under wind load can be
considered as a body subjected to a flow.
Let is consider fixed-rigid cylinder, of infinite length, immersed in a smooth wind-flow.
Figure 24
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angle of cartesian system rotation, in order of alignment of the system

with the wind direction,
U mean wind velocity,
B cable diameter.
Aerodynamic forces:
Fd (t ) drag force,
Fl (t ) lift force,
M (t ) moment component, acting on the elastic centre of the body.

Wind induced phenomena on the bridge structure, overview
3.5.1.1. Galloping, whole structure
It occurs on a slender elements with rectangular sections and sometimes on stays

covered by ice. Induces the vibrations transversal to the wind direction. Characterized by
oscillations
transversal to the wind direction. Galloping effect is similar to vortex-shedding, however
this phenomenon is quite different. Galloping produces high amplitudes of vibration, even
10 times as body dimension, in for all wind speeds above critical value. This
phenomenon, first time, was reported on the lines of ice-coated power line cables.
3.5.1.2. Rain-Wind induced vibrations, stay system
Observed on the skewed stays as well as on the vertical hangers of the suspension
and arch bridges. During the rain, water settle on the cable surface and is flowing down,
creating 1 or 2 regular streams. Wind induced movement of the cable provoke alternating
changes of the stream position. As the result, effective change of the, cable cross-section-
dynamical parameters occurs. Intensity of vibrations depends on the natural damping of
the body.
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Important fact is that this phenomenon occurs in the low range of the wind velocities and
can provoke damage, mainly as the result of excessive amplitudes of vibration and and
related local fatigue occurrences. In some case vibrations, provoked by Rain-Wind
induced phenomenon can be transmitted to the deck and disturb in the normal
exploitation of the bridge. In recent years this phenomenon has been studied and
described on the example of the Erasm Bridge in Rotterdam, Netherlands.
Possible arrangements of the streams on the cable surface and related
implications:
Vibration along the wind direction:
Figure 25
As visible on the drawing (25), in case of the symmetrical streams
position,vibrations direction is in concurrence with a wind. Alternating changes of the
streams position, provoke intensification of the vibration amplitude along the wind
direction. Wind blows in the plane of cables tilt.
- 17 -
Vibration in transversal direction to the wind.
Figure 26
In the event of 2 asymmetrical streams position, cable vibrates in the transversal
direction to the wind. Streams are positioned on the windward cable part. Related
vibrations are activated by asymmetrical movement of the streams. Wind blows in the
plane of cables tilt.
Figure 27
Wind blows transversally to the plane of cables tilt. Single stream occur on the lee
part of the stay. Effect of lifting connected with the wind direction, results in the in diagonal
movement.
- 18 -
3.5.1.3. Buffeting
Main effect of this phenomena, are the vibrations corresponding to the wind
direction.
Main activator are turbulences that are characterized as differential wind speed.
Occurrence of the bending and torsioning vibrations is possible. Response of the
structure on buffeting, is dependent on intensity of turbulences, shape of the element and
natural frequencies.
3.5.1.4. Flatter (bending with torsioning), deck
It is one of the most dangerous phenomena. It occurs when the natural frequencies
of bending and torsioning vibrations are close to each other or interfere.
To avoid these situation compulsory condition should be fulfilled:
ft
1,5
fb
f t - frequency of torsioning vibrations,
f b - frequency of bending vibrations.
3.5.1.5. Vortex shedding, whole structure
These components are associated with the vortex shedding that occurs on the
surface of the cylinder and should be understood as an alternating flow of the vortices,
that activate the movement of the body.
Figure 28 (Vortex Shedding)
- 19 -
Values of the aerolastic forces are determined from the balance between inertial
and viscous forces around the cylinder that is quantified by the Reynolds number Re:
U B
Re =
v
Re Reynolds number,
U Wind velocity,
B Body dimension,
v kinematic viscosity [0.150 cm2/s, 20oC)
Depending on its value, shape of the flow is changing, activating movements of the body.
This phenomenon occurs already in the low wind velocities. Shedding frequency is
characterized by the Strouhal number St;
U St
fv =
B
f v shedding frequency of the vortices,
U Wind velocity,
St Strouhal number,
B Body diameter (cross-section).
Figure 29 (Van Karmann Vortex trail, 30 Re 5000)
- 20 -
3.6. Traffic loads
Obviously, important component that induce internal forces in stay system. Especially
important in case of footbridges, where frequency of the steps has a prominent influence
on the structural behavior.
3.7. Temperature
Sun radiation and atmospheric temperature generate differential areas of temperature

in the structure elements. It induce additional axial forces, depending on the gradient of
temperature.
In this case very important is choice ducts color. In the areas of the high sun radiation,
recommended is using of the ducts in bright colours.
3.8. Force measurements, using accelerometers
Figure 30 (Accelerometer installed on the external surface of stay)
Accelerometer is a device that main purpose is to measure acceleration and

vibration of the body. The idea is, that accelerometer deployed on the structure, measure
its own motion. Further we treat accelerometer and body as one system, then dynamical
characteristics of appointed structure can be obtained.
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Rough dynamical analysis of stays

In this method we base on the so called vibrating chord theory.
Assumptions:
Negligible flexural stiffness of the cable,

There is no relative displacement between fixing points of the stay,
The transverse in plane deflections of symmetrical modes do not generate any
additional tensioning in cable.
Basic value that describes dynamical behavior of stay is frequency of vertical

vibrations.
Rough estimation of stay dynamical behavior can be researched in two levels.
(first eigenfrequency)
1. Without taking into account stay-sag:

Frequency can be assigned from the below formula:
1 S
f c1 =
2 Lc mc
f c1 frequency of stay vertical vibrations [Hz],
Lc Length of stay [m],
S Axial force in stay [N],

mc Weight of stay on the length unit [kg/m].
Going further, it is easy to assign desired force in stay:
S = ( f c1 2 Lc ) 2 mc
f c1 value can assigned, using accelerometer
- 22 -
Taking into account stay-sag:
Frequency can be assigned from the below formula:
1 S E c Ac f z2
f c1 = +
2 Lc mc 2mc L2c
E c Modulus of elasticity of the strands-material [GPa],
Ac Area of stay bearing-section [m2],
f z Sag arrow [m].

After reform we obtain the desired force:
E c Ac f z2
S = mc ( f c1 2 Lc )
2

2mc L2c
It is recommended to use second method in case of longer stays, when sag has
a prominent influence on the behavior of cable.
Problem of the external positioning of accelerometers
As mentioned above, stay consists of the set of strands (bars) covered by pipe.
Method of deploying accelerometers on the external surface is reasonable because of
unfailure of corrosion protection. Furthermore it is easy to replace it on another cable in
case when we do not dispose enough quantity of accelerometers, equal with the number
of stays.
Figure 31 (Positioning of the accelerometers on stays (Vasco da Gamma bridge,

Portugal))
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Examples:
Binzhou Yellow River Highway Bridge, Peoples Republic of China
Figure 32
Description: 38 accelerometers used for the force and vibration measurements.
Siekierkowski Bridge, Poland
Figure 33
Description: Accelerometers used for the force and vibration measurements.
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3.9. Force measurements, using elasto-megnetic sensors (EM)
Main purpose of this method is constant, non-contact measurement of the stress in

prestressed steel elements.
Magnetic analysis
Steel belongs to the family of ferromagnetic materials. It means, that it is

susceptible on the interferences of magnetic field. Ferromagnetic materials have specific
internal structure, that let them, in special circumstances, to induce ambient magnetic
field. Function that describe behavior of ferromagnetic materials, in the magnetic field, is a
hysteresis loop. It describes relationship: magnetic induction B [T] - magnetic field
intensity H [Am-1].
Figure 34 (Elasto-magnetic sensor)
Figure 35. Hysteresis loop
- 25 -
(1)- Characteristic of primal magnetization,

(2)- Characteristic of demagnetization,
(3)- Full hysteresis loop,
BS - Magnetic saturation,
H S - Intensity saturation,
BR - Remanent flux density or Remanence,

H C - Coertion intensity.
Shape of hysteresis depends on the kind of material. We can distinguish two types
of ferromagnetic materials: hard (maintain their magnetization after withdrawal of external
magnetic field) and soft (forfeit their magnetization after withdrawal of external magnetic
field)
Measurement idea
Figure 36 Elasto-magnetic sensor deployed on the anchor
- 26 -
Mechanical stress-tension, compression, pull, torsion, bend etc, causes the

hysteresis loop, of ferromagnetic material, to change its shape.
Figure 37 (Change of the hysteresis loop shape after force application)
On the base of this information, it is possible to assign permeability of material.
B = H
- Permeability of material [H/m]
Permeability is a function of temperature and magnetization, refers to the

mechanical stress.
Magnetoelastic method is based on the theory, that magnetic field in steel is
dependent on the stress level. It means that permeability of steel changes with the
fluctuation of stress.
Figure 38 (EM sensor installed on the PT tendon)
- 27 -
Measurement process
Figure 39 (Measured element, over-girdered by coil)

Mechanical stress [Pa],
T Temperature [K],
S F Sectional area [m2],
F Axial force [N].
As mentioned above, measuring process is based on the magnetization of researched

material.
Step by step:
Coil (1), as a part of sensor, is responsible for magnetization of material through
activation of magnetic field,
Magnetized material gives a response in form of its own magnetic field,
This effect is scanned by coil (2),
Appropriate transducer and software convert magnetic field to mechanical stress or
force,
Data treatment, to the desired form numbers, tables, plots.
- 28 -
Sensors deployment
Sensors are installed over the strands during process of stay-system erection. It is
reasonable to know the force variation in particular stay, during stressing process of
another.
Figure 40 (Construction stage-installed sensors.)
Quantity of devices, necessary for measurements of the force level on the one
stay, depends on the method of stay system stressing.
This measurement method is highly recommended for isotension method of stay
stressing. Because of the same force-value, applied to every strand, deployment of
sensors on every line is not a precondition.
Figure 41 (Magnetoelastic sensors installed on particular strands)
- 29 -
We base on the compulsory condition that the force-value difference, between

particular strands can not exceed +/- 2,5% of the designed force.
Thanks for this assumption, it is permitted to estimate the force in whole stay
structure.
In recent years this method is the state-of-the-art technology
Examples:
Tabor Bridge, Czech Republic
Figure 42
Description: EM sensors used for the force measurements.
C-S Bridge in Plock, Poland
Figure 43
- 30 -
Description: EM sensors used for the force measurements.
Figure 44 ( Control cabinet in the pylon of the Bridge in Plock)
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4. STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING (SHM) AND LIFE CYCLE COST (LCC)
Main purpose of this essay is trial to convince bridge managers and owners about
necessity of the structural supervision of the structures. Neglect may effect in serious
criminal consequences for the authorities, because of the people perish.
With respect to monetary consequences, bridges are structures that ensure
connection for the transport-roads and permit over passing of the existing obstacles.
Every bridge should be understood as a particular element of the system, called
network. Damage of the one component contrive breakdown of the whole system and
brings financial looses for the bridge owners and occupants.
It should be assumed that main duty of every structure: Geometrical invariability
always withstand many phenomena and situations, such as: chemical attack from de-
icing salts, environmental stressors (wind, earthquakes, temperature, water), traffic (for
the existing structures, higher than previously designed) may degrade the long-term
performance of the structures, its damage or collapse.
Fast reaction on detected irregularities is the best way to avoid serious
consequences.
Permanent control by means of inspection is the best solution for the problem avoidance.
However, impossible is to locate inspectors on the bridge for the on-time measurements
and supervision. That is why proposed and recommended is Structural Health Monitoring,
specially designed system of devices and software that brings possibility of the structural
control without constant human engagement.
Special alarm procedures let to keep hand on pulse in case of problem, remote
control. In the next chapter, presented will be joint venture of SHM and LCC. Deliberated
problem is, employment of the force measuring devices.
On the base of Authors assumptions, equation of SHM profitability will be
acquired.
Life Cycle Cost with respect to lifetime performance is considered to be the most widely
used factor for the optimum design of new structures [Frangopol and Messervey,2006].
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5. SHM APPLICATION, CABLE- STAYED BRIDGE IN WROCLAW
Figure 45 (Visualization of the bridge)
5.1 Description of the bridge structure
Presented structure is a cable stayed bridge along the ring road of Wroclaw in Poland.
It consists from the main cable stayed bridge and two approach estacades.
Whole cost of investment estimated on approx. 450 mln. PLN (approx. 125 mln. EUR).
Estimated cost of the cable-stayed structure: 220 mln. PLN (approx. 60 mln. EUR).
5.1.1 Main structure cable-stayed bridge
4 spans, (256+256meters),
2 symmetrical spans in cable stayed part,
160 stays in total,
one pylon, height: h=122.00 meters,
4 planes of stays,
2 parallel concrete girders.
- 33 -
Figure 46 (Main structure-cable stayed bridge)
Figure 47 (bridge cross-section)
5.1.2 Approach estacades
Left side estacade
11 spans, (40+2x52+56+6x60+50 m.)
Figure 48
- 34 -
Right side estacade
9 spans, (50+7x60+50 m.)
Figure 49
5.1.3 Bridge location
Figure 50
- 35 -
Estimated daily traffic: 14000 cars.
New C-S bridge over Odra river will be second Wroclaws bridge in this technology,
parallel
to already existing Milenijny bridge. Both structures state as a great symbols of the city.
Figure 51 (Milenijny bridge in Wroclaw)
Let is consider 2 proposals of the stay-force measuring devices arrangement

First, 2 positions, method that use accelerometers as a measuring devices has been
proposed.
5.2 Proposal No.1, Measurements of the forces on particular stays
Figure 52
- 36 -
Sensor Logo Quantity

Wind speed and direction W 2
Precipitation P 1
Humidity H 2
Air temperature AT 2
Solar radiation S 1
Structural temperature ST 14
Accelerometers for deck and pylon A 16
Video cameras V 4
Deformation sensors DF 14
Inclinometers T 8
Displacement D 4
Pylon GPS GPS 1
Accelerometers for the force and vibration
of the cables A 24
Item Quantity
Power supply 1
UMTS unit for data transmission to the CoHA 1
Data acquisition center 1
Additional equipment -
Total price: 600000 EUR
600000 EUR
Whole system: Share in whole investment (C-S bridge): 100% = 1%
60000000 EUR
24 force measuring devices.
Assumption: Price/unit: 1500 EUR
36000
Force measuring devices: 100% = 0,06%
60000000 EUR
- 37 -
5.3 Proposal No.2, Measurements of the forces on every second stay-row.
Figure 53
Sensor Quantity
Wind speed and direction 3
Precipitation 1
Humidity 1
Air temperature 1
Solar radiation 1
Structural temperature 22
Accelerometers for deck and pylon 12
Video cameras 8
Deformation sensors 14
Inclinometers 10
Displacement 4
Pylon GPS 1
Accelerometers for the force and
vibration measurements
of the cables 80
- 38 -
Item Quantity
Power supply 1
UMTS unit for data transmission to the CoHA 1
Data acquisition center 1
Additional equipment -
Total netto price: 700000 EUR
700000 EUR
Share in whole investment (C-S bridge): 100% = 1,16%
60000000 EUR
Assumption: Price/unit: 1500 EUR
120000
60000000 EUR
Both prices include:
Elements of the system,

Transport (incoterm),
Installation,
Calibration,
Training for the bridge management team,
Service hotline.
5.4 Accelerometers, comparison\
Proposal No.1
In this solution, 24 accelerometers were proposed to measure the forces in whole

stay system.
It means that necessary is displacement of the devices on another stays in order to
measure its behavior. It requires additional financial resources. Additionally, this number
of devices, exactly shows that it is not possible to call this type of monitoring control as:
permanent.
- 39 -
Let is assume: 2 Qualified Engineers for the sensors displacement works.
Flight: 1000 EUR,

Hotel: 200 EUR/day,
Engineer fee: 300 EUR/day for one Engineer,
Working days: 5
Total cost: 6000 EUR for one visit.
Let is assume that it is reasonable to measure force in every stay in half year
intervals.
It means that every year we spend additionally 12000 EUR for these operations.
Let is take into account important fact, that every position changes are associated
with damages of the devices and roughly we can estimate that we will have to add 1 new
device per year, that will increase the price to approx. 14000 EUR.
Approximated additional cost/year: 14000 EUR
Proposal No.2
In this solution, 80 accelerometers were proposed to measure the forces in whole

stay system. We base on the assumption: that adjacent (not monitored) stays have direct
influence on the measured, and on the base of its behavior we can estimate condition of
the whole system.
Displacement of devices is also recommended, but in longer intervals, let is assume 2
years.
The idea of the monitoring system is to avoid serious damages by immediate
reactions on detected abnormities. Going further, also in this arrangement we have not
got full control over the structure, because we will receive information about damage of
the not monitored stays, by sudden changes of the monitored stays behavior.
- 40 -
Let is assume: 2 Qualified Engineers for the sensors displacement works.
Flight: 1000 EUR,

Hotel: 200 EUR/day,
Working days: 14
Total cost: 8000EUR for one visit.
Additionally let is assume that we will loose on device, during displacement operation.
Total cost: 10000 EUR

Let is consider 2 proposals of the stay-force measuring devices arrangement
For these 2 positions, method that use elasto-magnetic sensors has been proposed.
In these point we will be considering only force measuring devices.
5.5 EM sensors, Proposal No.1
(Full remote control over the bridge structure, quantity of sensors is equal with
Number of stays).
Figure 54
In this scheme, total quantity of devices is equal with the number of stays-160 units.
- 41 -
Assumption:
Price/unit:
Sensor with 3m long connection cable: 36 EUR/unit,
waterproof box: 110 EUR/unit,
temperature sensor: 25 EUR/unit,
Total/stay: 171 EUR
Additional costs:
Software: 5000 EUR,

Site engineer: 400EUR/day,
Above price includes: Engineer working hours, hotel, transport.
Note: installation and calibration time: 7 weeks

Installation,
Calibration,
Service hotline.
49000
60000000 EUR
5.6 EM sensors, Proposal No.2
(Measurements of the forces on every second stay-row)
Figure 55
In this scheme, total quantity of devices is equal 80 units
- 42 -
Assumption:
Price/unit:
Sensor with 3m long connection cable: 36 EUR/unit,
waterproof box: 110 EUR/unit,
temperature sensor: 25 EUR/unit,
Total/stay: 171 EUR
Additional costs:
Software: 5000 EUR,

Site engineer: 400EUR/day,
Above price includes: Engineer working hours, hotel, flight.
Note: installation time: 5 weeks

Installation,
Calibration,
Service hotline.
Total price: 33000 EUR

33000
60000000 EUR
5.7 EM sensors, comparison
Proposal No.1
In this solution, 160 E-M sensors were proposed to measure the forces in whole
stay system.
We base on the assumption, that adjacent (not monitored) stays have direct
influence on the measured stays, and on the base of its behavior we can estimate
condition of the whole system.
Displacement of devices is also recommended, but only in case of failure, let is
assume 5 years as a review time.
- 43 -
Let is assume: 2 Qualified Engineers for the sensors service works.
Flight: 1000 EUR,

Hotel: 200 EUR/day,
Working days: 14
Total cost: 8000EUR for one visit.
Additionally let is assume: loose of 10 devices per service event,

Special equipment for the operation on the anchor
Total cost/year, including equipment and maintenance: 2500 EUR/year
Proposal No.2
In this solution, 80 E-M sensors were proposed to measure the forces in whole stay
system.
We base on the assumption: that adjacent (not monitored) stays have direct influence on
the measured stays, and on the base of its behavior we can estimate condition of the
whole system.
Displacement of devices is also recommended, but in longer intervals, let is assume 2
years.
Let is assume: 2 Qualified Engineers for the sensors service and displacement works.
Flight: 1000 EUR,

Hotel: 200 EUR/day,
Working days: 10
Total cost: 6000 EUR for one visit.
- 44 -
Additionally let is assume: loose of 5 devices per service event,

Special equipment for the operation on the anchor
5.8 Consideration of the possible traffic disturbances.
Let is assume that failure of more than one stay is the reason for the traffic closure on the
bridge.
Possible emergencies
Drop of the force,
Damage of the anchor provoked by fatigue,
Cracks on the anchor blocks,
Fatigue of the stay bending zone,
By the control of the stay-force, using SHM, we can predict these mechanical
breakdowns.
Immediate reaction on the detected uncertainties ensure avoidance of these problems.
Let is consider the situation, that the failure of the more than 1 stay, will enforce us to the
bridge closure.
- 45 -
Figure 56 (Proposed bypass)
Looses calculations:
Closure Duration:
Time of delivery for materials: 3 weeks,
Reparation: Dependent on the elaborated option,
Total: 25 days.
a) Gasoline looses:
Assumptions:
Daily traffic: approx. 14000 cars/24hours
Bypass length: 14 km.
Average fuel expenditure: 8 liters /100 km
Gasoline price: approx. 1.25 EUR/liter
14000 8 14 1.25
Cost of the bridge closure/24 h: C closure 24 = = 19600 EUR
100
- 46 -
No of
Position Name days Price/position
[-] [-] [-] [EUR]
3 Gasoline looses 25 490.000,00
b) Labor looses (traffic jams)
Assumptions:
Proposed bypass is goes threw highly congested streets, let is assume daily traffic
with the number of cars: 7000/24hours.
Without any disturbances, travel by the marked route takes: 30 minutes. Let
assume that bridge closure will affect in traffic jams that would increase travel time
to 1 hour.
Let is assume average rate/hour in Poland (on the base of approx. average
monthly salary: 800 EUR gross) on 5 EUR gross, approx. 3.5 EUR.
On the base of above assumptions, let is calculate looses for the labor force, brought
by the bridge closure.
C labor / 24 = (7000) 3.5 / 2 + 14000 3.5 = 61250 EUR
No of
[-] [-] [-] [EUR]
3 Labor looses 18 1 102 500,00
Note: 18 working days
c) Cost of reparation:
Option No.1
Let is assume that 2 anchors failured and displacement is necessary:
Cost of material:
Position Product Quantity Price/unit Price/position
[-] [-] [-] [EUR] [EUR]
Stay
1 anchor 2 15 000,00 30 000,00
- 47 -
Cost of manpower:
Let is assume: 2 Qualified Engineers for the anchor displacement works.
Flight: 1000 EUR,

Hotel: 100 EUR/day,
Engineer fee: 500 EUR/ Engineer/day,
Working days: 4
Position Name No. Price/position

[-] [-] [-] [EUR]
2 Engineer 2 5 800,00
Additional equipment:
[-] [-] [-] [EUR]
Additional
3 equipment - 7 000,00
Miscellaneous looses (Traffic control): 1000 EUR/24

Total looses of the bridge closure:
Total cost/21 days bridge closure, service included

Position Service Quantity Price/position
[-] [-] [-] [EUR]
1,2,3 Stay anchor displacement [-] 1 660 300,00
Let is assume that during service live of the bridge, approx. 120 years, we can
expect similar situation to repeat about 6 times. That gives total amount: 9.961.811.80
EUR/service life.
TOTAL:
9.961.811,80 EUR/service life
83.015,00 EUR/year
Option No.2
Let is assume that 2 stays in the anchor zone failured and displacement of 2 sets
(one set: 2 anchors+strands+HDPE pipe) is necessary:
- 48 -
Gasoline looses:
Position Name No of days Price/position

[-] [-] [-] [EUR]
3 Gasoline looses 28 548.800,00 Labor looses:
No of
[-] [-] [-] [EUR]
3 Labor looses 18 1 225 000,00
Note: 18 working days
Cost of material:
Position Product Quantity Price/unit/kg/m Price/position

[-] [-] [unit] [EUR] [EUR]
Stay
1 anchor 4 15 000,00 60 000,00
2 Strands 40000 1,4 56 000,00
3 HDPE pipe 540 35 18 900,00
Total [EUR]: 134 900,00
Cost of manpower:
Let is assume: 4 Qualified Engineers for the reparation works.
Flight: 2000 EUR,

Hotel: 100 EUR/day,
Engineer fee: 500 EUR/ Engineer/day,
Working days: 7

[-] [-] [-] [EUR]
2 Engineer 4 18 800,00
Additional equipment:
[-] [-] [-] [EUR]
Additional
3 equipment - 7 000,00
- 49 -
Miscellaneous looses (Traffic control): 1000 EUR/24 h
Total looses of the bridge closure:
Total cost/21 days bridge closure, service included

Position Sernice Quantity Price/position
[-] [-] [-] [EUR]
1,2,3 Stay anchor displacement [-] 1 962 500,00
Let is assume that during service live of the bridge, approx. 120 years, we can
expect similar situation to repeat 4 times. That gives total amount: 7.850.000
EUR/service life.
TOTAL:
7.850.000,00 EUR/service life
65.417,00 EUR/year
5.9 Monitoring during bridge erection
Let is estimate cost of the design on 1% of the whole investment.

For this bridge, it is about:
Cp = 1% 60.000.000 EUR = 600.000 EUR
In this case it is hard to estimate possible drawbacks, because construction has not
already started. That is why possible profits related to this position will not be considered.
Designer takes responsibility for the supervision during erection stage. Main
Contractor, on the base of tender, nominates Sub-contractors for different types of works.
In case of cable-stayed bridge it is necessary to employ specialized company that
can supply, install and calibrate stay system.
Force measurements during construction stage, main advantages:

Permanent control of the stays for stay by stay method application,
This treatment ensures control of the stresses in particular stages of erection.
It helps to maintain project assumptions and to avoid situation of the stay over-lifting.
- 50 -
On-time control of the project calculations

This treatment is especially comfortable for the supplier of the stay system. It ensures
permanent control of works and gives arguments against Designer in situation of
inconsistencies.
5.10 SHM profitability equation, elasto-magnetic sensors
Option No.1
Proposition of the SHM profitability equation:
On the base of the proposition: E-M sensors, monitoring devices deployed on every
particular stay
a. Without monitoring:
C et = C t + C pm + C l
C et - Expected total cost,
C t - Cost of design and construction,
C pm - Cost of routine maintenance,
C l - Cost of failure and repair,
C et = 60.000.000 EUR + 12.000.000 EUR + 9.961.811,8 = 81.961.811EUR
b. Monitoring included
As a possible mistake of the measurements, let is consider not fulfillment of the EN

condition that force in particular strands should not exceed in total 5% of the assumed in
project.
- 51 -
Figure 57
Let is consider the longest stay.

Designed force: 7028.53kN
Number of strands: 55
Force/strand: 127.8 kN
Figure 58
- 52 -
Stay Area: 8250mm 2

7028530 N N
Normal stress: t = 2
= 851.9
8250mm mm 2
As stated in the specifications for the elasto-magnetic sensors, resolution of the
N
measurements is assumed as 1 (Jarosevic, 2008) , that form 0.12% of the total
mm 2
stress, which is much less than mentioned +/-2.5%.
Security Factor for stay system, as stated in EN: = 0.45

Because of that, in normal conditions, it is impossible to overload stay with a break
effect.
It is possible only, in abnormal circumstances, especially during erection stage.
Perchance failure may occur in the anchor zone, as mentioned before.
Despite implementation of the monitoring, we assume that there is a possibility of
failure.
Let is assume, that:
Wedge failure provokes that EN condition would not be fulfilled in 2 anchors, two
times during service live and their replacement would be necessary.
C etm = C t + C pm + C m + 0.33 C l1
C m - Cost of monitoring system, maintenance included,
C etm = 60.000.000 EUR + 12.000.000 EUR + 301.000 EUR + (0.33 9.961.811,8) = 75.588.398 EUR
c. Benefits
B = C et C etm
B - Benefits,
B = 81.961.811EUR 75.588.398 EUR = 6.373.413EUR
Roughly estimated benefit as a result of SHM application: 6.373.413EUR
- 53 -
Option No.2

particular stay
d. Without monitoring:
C et = C t + C pm + C l 2
C l 2 - Cost of failure and repair,
C et = 60.000.000 EUR + 12.000.000 EUR + 7.850.000 = 79.850.000 EUR
e. Monitoring included
C etm = C t + C pm + C m + 0.33 C l1
C etm = 60.000.000 EUR + 12.000.000 EUR + 301.000 EUR + (0.33 7.850.000) = 74.891.500 EUR
f. Benefits
B = C et C etm
B - Benefits,
B = 79.850.000 EUR 74.891.500 EUR = 4.958.500 EUR
- 54 -
5.11 SHM profitability equation, accelerometers
Option No.1
On the base of the proposition: accelerometers deployed on every second stay
C et = C t + C pm + C l
C et = 60.000.000 EUR + 12.000.000 EUR + 9.961.811,8 = 81.961.811EUR
Despite implementation of the monitoring, we assume that there is a possibility of failure.

Let is assume, that:
Wedge failure provoked that EN condition would not be fulfilled in 2 anchors, two
times during service live and their replacement would be necessary.
C etm = C t + C pm + C m + 0.33 C l1
C etm = 60.000.000 EUR + 12.000.000 EUR + 720.000 EUR + (0.33 9.961.811,8) = 76.007.398EUR
- 55 -
c. Benefits
B = C et C etm
B - Benefits,
B = 81.961.811EUR 76.007.398 EUR = 5.954.413EUR
Option No.2
particular stay
C et = C t + C pm + C l 2
C l 2 - Cost of failure and repair,
C et = 60.000.000 EUR + 12.000.000 EUR + 7.850.000 = 79.850.000 EUR
C etm = C t + C pm + C m + 0.33 C l1
C etm = 60.000.000 EUR + 12.000.000 EUR + 720.000 EUR + (0.33 7.850.000) = 75.310.500 EUR
- 56 -
c. Benefits
B = C et C etm
B - Benefits,
B = 79.850.000 EUR 75.310.500 EUR = 4.539.500 EUR
- 57 -
6. CONCLUSIONS
Theory of 2 rooms, 1 monitored:
Very rich man, well known as a mean person, decided to locate his whole estate in
specially
built house. He did not want to listen specialists in the field of security and he decided to
deploy cameras only in the intermediate room, he said: Why do I have to pay for
something that do not gives me any additional comfort, I have got thick walls and iron
doors to my treasure-house, it is good enough
Figure 59
He lived in this fabulous confidence till one sunny day, when he entered his
beloved chamber and realized that something is new and something is missed. New was
big hole in the wall and missed was his gold that he was gathering for so many years.
Cameras in the next room did not help.
Figure 60
- 58 -
Because of this sad incident, he had to leave his beautiful house and he lost his
friends.
Now he works as a specialist for hazard avoidance and he always advises maximum
possible safety measures. He promised to himself: I will never do anything again,
without full control over.
Basing on the calculations and assumptions, initial implementation of Structural Health
Monitoring brings profits, numbers shows exactly, that expectations are fulfilled.
In the opinion of author, it is more reasonable to use elasto-magnetic sensors for the
force measurements, pros:
Lower price,
Accuracy, under 1 MPA (Jarosevic, 2008)
Not exposed to the external aggressive environment,
Avoidance of anti-vandalistic actions.
This is money that is visible and can be used in order to improve another parts of the
structure.
In case of accelerometers:
In the opinion of author, employment of these devices is a great solution for
periodical monitoring.
Commonly slogan: Accelerometers are profitable because can be used for the
force and vibration measurements as well. It is not truth from the economical point of
view, because accelerometers for the force measurement have to measure its motion
only in 1 dimension, whereas measurements of vibration should be conducted in 3
dimensions, using so called 3D accelerometers, that are more expensive.
Cons:
Expensive,
Accuracy, 1% (VCE, 2008),
As an external devices, exposed to vandalistic and negative environmental factors,
Enormous quantities of cables for devices connection in one system,
(possibility of avoidance in case of wireless network)
Summarizing: In the opinion of author, the best solution is deployment of elasto-
magnetic sensors on every stay and purchase of the one accelerometer for periodical
measurements of vibration amplitudes and damping.
- 59 -
7. LITERATURE
Bien J, Elfgren L, Jan Olofsson: Sustainable Bridges, Conference book,

Arkady, Wroclaw, 2007
Casas J.R: A combined method for measuring cable forces: The Cable-
Stayed Alamilo bridge, Spain IABSE Journal, Vol.4, N.4, 1994
Biliszczuk J: Mosty Podwieszone, Arkady, Wroclaw, 2006
Caetano E: Cable Vibration in Cable-Stayed bridges, IABSE, Zurich, 2007
Jarosevic A: Magnetoelastic method of stress measurements in steel
www.dynamag.com, Access: 2008
IMAC program, final report (VCE company) www.vce.com, Access: 2008
Biliszczuk J: Podwieszony most przez Wise w Pocku, DWE, Wroclaw, 2007
- 60 -
8. SOURCES OF FIGURES
Joint work under redaction of Jan Biliszczuk: Podwieszony most przez Wis w
Figure1 Pocku,
Figure2 Author
Figure3 Author
Figure4 Author
Figure5 Author
Figure6 Author
Figure7 Wikipedia
Figure8 Wikipedia
Figure9 Wikipedia
Figure10 Wikipedia
Figure11 Wikipedia
Figure12 Wikipedia
Figure13 Wikipedia
Figure14 Wikipedia
Figure15 mageba sa
Figure16 Dywidag
Figure17 VCE (Vienna Consulting Engineers)
Figure18 Pocku,
Figure19 mageba sa
Figure20 Futurtec
Figure22 Futurtec
Figure23 Futurtec
Figure24 Author
Figure25 Author
Figure26 Author
Figure27 Author
Figure28 Author
Figure29 Wikipedia
- 61 -

Figure31 Wikipedia
Figure34 Dynamag
Figure35 Author
Figure36 Pocku,
Figure37 Dynamag
Figure38 Dynamag
Figure39 Dynamag
Figure40 Mekano4
Figure41 Mekano4
Figure42 Dynamag
Figure43 Wikipedia
Figure44 Pocku,
Figure45 GDDKiA Poland
Figure46 Tender drawing
Figure50 GDDKiA Poland
Figure51 Wikipedia
Figure56 Google Map
Figure57 Author
Figure58 Author
Figure59 Author
Figure60 Author
- 62 -

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Structural Health Monitoring and life-cycle costing of structures. Application to cable-stayed bridges.

Two, state-of the-art, solutions have been proposed:

Direct measurement of the forces by means of elasto-magnetic sensors,

5.4. Accelerometers, comparison ............................................................................ 39

1.1 Configuration of stay systems

1.2 Profitability of the C-S idea implementation

1.4 Examples of C-S idea employment

Brooklyn Bridge, milestone in the bridge engineering suspension bridge,

Figure 7. (Old view, year 1890)

Figure 8. (Present view)

First cable-stayed bridge of the modern era: Stromsund bridge, Sweden

Description of the structure:

Normandie Bridge, France

Description of the structure:

World record in C-S span length, Sutong Bridge, China

Figure 13 (after linking up)

Figure 14 (erection stage)

3. STRUCTUAL HEALTH MONITORING (SHM) - Overview

3.1 Major assumptions

Major tasks are:

Health monitoring and damage detection,

Structural Health Monitoring should be divided on two sub-groups:

3.2. Periodical bridge monitoring system

3.3. Permanent bridge monitoring system

3.4. Step by step of the long term structural health monitoring

1. Data sampling by means of deployed on the structure sensors and measuring

Figure 16. Elastomagnetic force sensor. Figure 17. Accelerometer

2. Data gathering by means of installed on the bridge, center of data acquisition.

Figure 18, 19. Data acquisition center.

3. Data compilation- by means of special software.

Figure 20, 21. Data compilation-equipment

4. Output- data after treatment, displayed as charts, histograms, tables etc.

Figure 22, 23. Data output- presented on the web-site

3.5. Loads on cables of cable-stayed bridges

Let is consider fixed-rigid cylinder, of infinite length, immersed in a smooth wind-flow.

angle of cartesian system rotation, in order of alignment of the system

M (t ) moment component, acting on the elastic centre of the body.

3.5.1.1. Galloping, whole structure

It occurs on a slender elements with rectangular sections and sometimes on stays

3.5.1.2. Rain-Wind induced vibrations, stay system

Vibration along the wind direction:

Vibration in transversal direction to the wind.

3.5.1.4. Flatter (bending with torsioning), deck

f t - frequency of torsioning vibrations,

f b - frequency of bending vibrations.

3.5.1.5. Vortex shedding, whole structure

Figure 28 (Vortex Shedding)

Figure 29 (Van Karmann Vortex trail, 30 Re 5000)

3.6. Traffic loads

Sun radiation and atmospheric temperature generate differential areas of temperature

3.8. Force measurements, using accelerometers

Figure 30 (Accelerometer installed on the external surface of stay)

Accelerometer is a device that main purpose is to measure acceleration and

Rough dynamical analysis of stays

Negligible flexural stiffness of the cable,

Basic value that describes dynamical behavior of stay is frequency of vertical

1. Without taking into account stay-sag:

f c1 frequency of stay vertical vibrations [Hz],