CONTAINER

PACKING
 Content
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

2. Stresses during transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

2.1. Mechanical stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
2.2. Climatic stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.3. Biological stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.4. Chemical stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

3. Preparations for container transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

3.1. Weight limits and weight distribution in standard containers . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
3.2. Stowage planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
3.3. Function of packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
3.4. General rules for packing a container . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
3.5. Securing devices in containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
3.6. General rules for securing cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
3.7. Checking containers before loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
3.8. Checking containers after loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
3.9. Returning containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

4. Protection against climatic influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

4.1. Protection against moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
4.2. Cargo carried in temperature-controlled containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
4.3. Cargo under controlled atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

5. Material for securing cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

5.1. General comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
5.2. Material for laying under cargo (bedding) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
5.3. Lashing material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
5.4. Filling material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

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6. Stowing and securing various types of cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
6.1. Cartons, crates and wooden cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
6.2. Palletised cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
6.3. Drums and plastic cans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
6.4. Sacks and bales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
6.5. Rolls and coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
6.6. Steel plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
6.7. Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
6.8. Sheets of glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
6.9. Wet hides and skins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
6.10. Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
6.11. Bulk freight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
6.12. Long cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
6.13. Live animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

7. Oversized and heavy cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

7.1. General comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
7.2. Pre-lashed cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
7.3. Conventional cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

8. Further information and contact addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

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 1. Introduction

Transport plays a key role in our age of globalisation, and any company that sets out to
develop new markets or establish production locations is dependent on reliable pro-
curement and distribution channels. Hapag-Lloyd is present on all five continents. Our
offices are linked by a globally standardised IT system that is the leader in the
industry.
We have been a partner of the foreign trade and forwarding sector for more than
160 years. Today, we belong to the leading carriers in container shipping. Our com-
prehensive network provides about 80 liner services calling at all major worldwide
ports. We are constantly expanding our fleet to meet our customers growing require-
ments, and currently have appr. 115 modern containerships with capacities of between
1,000 and 9,000 standard containers, thus providing optimal tonnage for main routes
as well as niche services.
We are continually expanding our ship- and containerfleet to cope with further growth
and keep up with market developments, keeping the average age of our containers
down to only six years.
Apart from standard containers, we offer a wide range of units, including refrigerated
containers for temperature-sensitive goods, open-top or hard-top containers for cran-
able cargo or items with excess height, and high cube boxes for light, bulky goods, as
well as loading flatracks for cargo that, because of its dimensions or weight, does not
fit into a closed container.
Hapag-Lloyd provides internal quality management, which is certified in accordance
with ISO 9002 and which also guarantees the services of its subcontractors.
Hapag-Lloyd is keen to help ensure that customers products arrive at their respective
destinations quickly and, above all, reliably. Consignments are subjected to climatic
influences and, in some cases, considerable mechanical stresses while being transpor-
ted by road, rail or water all over the world.
This brochure has been produced to help you stow and secure your cargo adequately
and thus avoid damage. It is based on the expertise of our loading specialists and ship
crews, as well as analyses of cargo damage in the past.
Safely stowing cargo in containers involves expenditure, but the outlay is worthwhile, as
if consignments are damaged costs are generally considerably higher.
This brochure cannot, of course, cover all aspects of securing cargo in containers. Our
experts in our sales offices, one of which is very close to you, will gladly help you with
further information. Please contact us. Addresses are given at: www.hapag-lloyd.com

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 2. Stresses during transport

2.1. Mechanical stresses

Cargo securing must withstand all stresses resulting from sea and land transport, as
well as container handling. Closed containers cannot be inspected during transport.
Cargo securing cannot be improved or altered after the container has been closed. The
packing company thus has to know what types of stress occur during transport.
Basically, we differentiate between two types of mechanical stress.
Static forces are caused by stacking and standing cargo on the floor of the container.
The main factor is stacking pressure, causing bending and buckling, particularly in the
bottom layers. The stacking pressure depends on the dimensions, weight, shape and
height of the cargo involved.
Dynamic forces occur during loading, land or sea transport and handling operations.
There are differences between acceleration, impact and vibration forces. Acceleration
and jolts occur during loading, braking, shunting, handling, lifting and setting down, and
in curves. Even at sea, acceleration is caused by rolling, pitching and vertical move-
ments. Vibrations are caused by, for instance, the ships engine, gears and propeller,
the truck suspension and road and rail surfaces in a wide range of frequencies and
amplitudes.
The acceleration forces to be expected for a consignment are not normally known in
advance and can be estimated only on the basis of experience. These levels are given
below. The letter g indicates gravitational acceleration (g = 9.81 m/s2). The accelera-
tion may be higher than indicated during short impacts or vibrations.

up to 1,5 g

up t
o 0, g
6g 1,0
up to

up t
o 0,6 g
g
up to 1,0

g
5
1,
to
up
Potential acceleration during road transport

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2.2. Climatic stresses
Goods are very frequently subject to climatic stresses while being transported. These
occur even during storage, and while containers are being packed. Climatic stresses
are caused by changing climatic conditions during transport by road, inland waterway
vessel or rail, and particularly when cargo on board an ocean-going vessel passes

up to 0,4 g

up t
o 0,4 g
g 4,0
up to

up t
4,0 g o 0,
up to 4g

Potential acceleration during rail transport

1,0 g
up to

1,0 g ,5 g
up to up to
0
up
to 0
,8 g 0,4 g
up to
g
up to 0,4 up
to 0,8
g

1,0 g
up to
0,5 g
up to
2,0 g
up to
Potential acceleration during sea transport

through various climatic zones. Extreme climatic stresses can occur in winter at tempe-
ratures below freezing point, when passing through tropical climatic zones or when
moving from the tropics to temperate climatic zones.
All closed containers protect the cargo inside against external climatic influences, such
as rain, snow, sea water, saltwater spray, fog and UV radiation. Even though the boxes
are protected against external influences, condensation may occur inside. The relative

7
humidity in the container is influenced by the moisture that is brought into it on loading,
and any subsequent change in temperature. Sources of moisture are the enclosed air
in the container, the cargo itself, its packaging or the stowage material. Some cargoes
emit a considerable amount of water over a longer period, while most packaging,
stowage material and some cargoes absorb moisture. Moist air condenses if the
ambient temperature falls below the dew point, the condensate forming first on the
cargo packaging, container wall or roof. The condensate then drips from the roof on to
the cargo, causing damage the cargo such as rust, marks, staining, mould, discolou-
ration, sticking together of wet cartons, peeling off of labels or collapsing of stacks.
The temperature inside a container depends on the outside temperature and the
stowage position of the box on board the ship. The container can be warmed by direct
solar radiation on deck or heated fuel tanks next to the hatch. The air temperature
within the container below the roof can deviate from the ambient air by 20 30 C.
Temperatures of up to 60 C are thus possible. The internal temperature can also in-
crease as a result of the spontaneous heating of the cargo.

2.3. Biological stresses

High temperatures, moisture or poor ventilation in the container can lead to cargo or
packaging being attacked by insects, fungi, mould, bacteria or micro-organisms.
Mostly, the cargo is biologically contaminated even before it is stowed in the container.
Insect infestation from outside in a closed container is almost impossible. The cargo

Condensation water on roof, dry bag already completely soaked

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should, therefore, be packed with the greatest possible care. Some countries regulate
the fumigation of packaging and dunnage by law. The customer then requires a certifi-
cate confirming that the timber used is free of insects.

2.4. Chemical stresses

Chemical stresses depend on the type of cargo, temperature, moisture and movement
of the ship. Some chemical products tend to heat spontaneously. Hazardous goods
must be transported in accordance with the hazardous goods regulations. One basis is
the IMDG Code, published by the International Maritime Organisation. Hapag-Lloyd has
its own dangerous goods department, which will gladly answer any queries.

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 3. Preparations for container transport

3.1. Weight limits and weight distribution in standard containers

The weight limits of Hapag-Lloyd containers correspond to the international ISO
standard 668.
The permissible gross weight of most 20' and 40' standard containers is 30,480 kg.
Some newer containers have higher gross weights. Depending on the design series,
the maximum payload is derived from the gross weight minus empty weight, which
varies. Exact details are given in the Hapag-Lloyd brochure Container Specification
available on www.hapag-lloyd.com
In addition to the maximum load limit of a container depending on the design, the
weight limits for road and rail transport in the individual countries must be observed.
Details on such restrictions are obtainable from every Hapag-Lloyd office.
The bottom crossbars of a container are the load support elements for taking the
weight of the cargo. If the permitted load limit is fully reached, all bottom crossbars
must be evenly loaded. The cargo weight must thus be distributed over the entire length
of the container. The floor is not designed for heavy selective loads. If the cargo is short-
er, or stands on a shorter length on the floor, the permitted load is lower. A maximum
floor load is 4.5 t per running metre for a 20' container and 3 t per running metre for a
40' container. To check the floor load, the cargo length (m) is divided by the cargo
weight (t). Example: cargo weight 10 t, supporting length 4 m, load per metre:
10/4 = 2.5t/m.
Wooden beams can be used lengthwise for distributing individual heavy weights. These
must have specific minimum dimensions and a minimum distance from the centre of
the container.

A B

Design of a standard container and wooden

beams required for bedding heavy cargo

10
A relatively heavy item of cargo or a consignment with small supporting points must be
positioned on the container floor in such a way that the maximum floor load is not
exceeded. The supporting length might have to be extended if necessary.

Type of container 20' 40'

A Min. width of wooden beam 10 cm 15 cm
B Min. transverse distance container 40 cm 40 cm
centre / wooden beam

This is achieved by putting wooden beams (bedding) lengthwise on the floor and then
placing the cargo on them or putting a further layer of wooden beams crosswise if
required by the cargo. If the supporting length is extended, the free ends on each side,
on which there is no cargo, must not exceed a maximum length of 1 m.

Lengthened support for better weight distribution

If the cargo exceeds the weight limits, it must be loaded on flatracks, which are con-
tainers with a reinforced floor. Our specialists can give more precise details on the use
of flatracks.
All Hapag-Lloyd containers comply with the ISO standard 1496/1, which includes regu-
lations, for instance, on using a forklift on the container floor. A forklift can be used in
the container if the following limits are not exceeded.

Item Limit
Load front axis (forklift + cargo) max. 5,460 kg
Contact area per tyre min. 142 cm2
Width of tyre min. 18 cm
Wheel spacing (on one axis) min. 76 cm

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The weight of the cargo should be evenly distributed in the container. The centre of
gravity should be within the following limits:

Type of container 20' 40'

Lengthwise max. 60 cm max. 90 cm
from centre of container
Transverse direction in centre of container
Height below or at half height of container

All Hapag-Lloyd containers meet the following test requirements of ISO 1496/1 for load
strength of side walls, end wall and roof:

Design element Test weight

Side wall 0.6 times permitted loading
End wall and door 0.4 times permitted loading
Roof 300 kg at surface of 60 x 30 cm

3.2. Stowage planning

There are three main reasons why it is important to formulate a stowage plan before
packing:

To achieve optimal capacity utilisation of containers

To simplify and speed up loading/unloading
To calculate the necessary lashing materials promptly in advance

Precise details of the packaging, weights and dimensions of the cargo, as well as the
containers internal dimensions and weight restrictions, are required before a stowage
plan can be formulated.

Details of Hapag-Lloyd containers are given in the brochure Container Specification

or at www.hapag-lloyd.com

Before drawing up a stowage plan, a suitable container has to be selected, taking into
consideration the following factors:

Load limit and permitted weight distribution of container

Weight restrictions for inland transport in country of sender
and recipient
Recipients possibilities for unloading cargo
from container

12
A stowage plan can be drawn up in various ways. Stowage software can be used for
providing a scale drawing with various views or carrying out an actual pre-stowage on
a free area with recorded container dimensions. It must be noted that the door and roof
are generally smaller than the containers internal dimensions.

3.3. Function of packaging

Packaging has to:

Protect cargo
Enable cargo to be stacked
Enable cargo to be lifted, moved and secured
Possibly provide information on cargo characteristics
and handling

The container itself is a means of transport. Cargo must, therefore, generally be

packed for transport in containers. The type and quantity of packaging required
depends on the type of transport and container used. If items of cargo of various sizes
and weights are stowed together, more stable packaging is required.
If cartons or crates are stacked in several layers on top of one another, the lowest layer
must be able to withstand the weight of the items stacked above.
The requisite stack strength depends on the packaging material, transport time and
moisture conditions. Standard containers can be given linings for bulk freight cargo,
rods for clothing or moisture-absorbing materials.
If the cargo is loaded in open containers or on flatracks, the packaging must withstand
influences from the climate, weather and transhipment during the entire transport pro-
cess.

3.4. General rules for packing a container

Cargo of the following types must not be packed together:

Dusty goods with dust-sensitive cargo

Odour-emitting with odour-sensitive cargo
Moisture-emitting goods or packaging with
moisture-sensitive cargo or packaging
Items with protruding parts (e.g. sharp corners, edges)
with goods in comparatively soft and sensitive packaging
(e.g. sacks or bales)
Moist goods with dry goods
Heavy packages should not be stacked
on top of light packages

13
If packing such goods together in a container cannot be avoided, the moist cargo
should be stowed under the dry cargo and the two types of goods separated from one
another with thin dunnage or packing material. Dunnage or sawdust must be placed
under the moist cargo. For hazardous goods shipments, the relevant rules of the IMO
(IMDG Code) and Hapag-Lloyd are to be followed.
Different types of packaging must be effectively separated from one another (e.g. card-
board cartons and wooden cases). Cargo with damaged packaging must not be
transported unless the packaging is carefully repaired before loading. Packing paper or
plastic sheeting must be used for lining containers carrying sensitive goods.
Containers used for transporting odour-sensitive goods must be free of smell; other-
wise they must be cleaned before loading. Containers used for shipping odour-emitting
goods, or cargo that could soil the containers in the event of leakage, must be lined
with plastic sheets and absorbent material (e.g. peat moss, sawdust or silica gel) added
in order to avoid unnecessary cleaning costs.
Hapag-Lloyd does not transport ore in containers.

3.5. Securing devices in containers

There are many ways of securing cargo in a standard container. Lashing devices are
fixed along the longitudinal beams on the floor, on the roof and near the corner posts.
Every lashing device has a safe working load of 1 t.
The corrugation in the side walls can be used for securing cargo lengthwise with trans-
verse wooden beams.
It has to be noted that the container end and side walls can take only large surface
loads and are not suitable for selective stresses.

The following table gives an overview of securing devices for containers and their use.

Design element Cargo securing

Lashing eyes on corner posts, For fastening ropes, plastic straps, metal brackets,
roof and floor longitudinal quick-acting locks, etc. (for load restrictions, see
beams or rings in floor Container Specification).
Corrugation in side walls For securing cargo lengthwise.
Timber lying crosswise can be wedged
in the corrugation.
Corner posts Chocking heavy items of cargo
to prevent horizontal slipping.

14
Lashing points in a standard container on the roof edge, at the corner post and small vents for air-
pressure equalisation

3.6. General rules for securing cargo

When packing a container or securing cargo, the Guidelines for Packing and Securing
Cargoes in Containers for Transport by Land or by Sea (Container Packing Guidelines)
issued by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and International Labour
Organization (ILO), must be observed.
Unlike cargo securing as is usual for land transport, cargo carried by sea must also be
secured within a container against all ship movements, such as rolling, pitching and
yawing. The best way of securing cargo is to distribute it without any gaps over the en-
tire floor. If gaps cannot be avoided, the space between the packaging and container
walls must be filled using air bags, dunnage or other stowage material.
Individual cargo parts that do not fill up the floor must be secured by being chocked
and lashed. Lashing eyes are provided on the longitudinal beams on the floor, roof and
corner posts.

15
Cargo is secured against movement lengthwise
with a wooden beam inserted in the corrugation of
the side walls. The outer ends of the square timber
must correspond to the shape of the side wall.

The cargo is secured against movement lengthwise

with a wooden beam, which is wedged in the groove
on the corner post. The space up to the cargo is filled
up with other wooden beams.

The crates are chocked against the side walls

with large bearing areas, on the left with dunnage,
on the right with air bags.

16
3.7. Checking containers before loading
Every container shipped on international routes must have a valid CSC plate, as pro-
vided in accordance with the International Convention on Safe Containers, dated
02.12.1972.
All Hapag-Lloyd containers display this plate.

CSC plate of a 20' standard container

Containers are controlled at every interchange. In addition to these inspections, we

recommend customers always carry out a careful check of the following items after
receiving a container:

External checklist:
There are no holes or cracks in walls, floor or roof.
Doors are easy to operate.
Locking devices and handles function properly.
Customs seal device must be in orderly condition.
No self-adhesive labels from previous cargo (e.g. IMDG placards);
dangerous goods stickers are permitted only if there are dangerous
goods in the container.
Additional points to note for special containers:
Flatracks: End walls are folded up and firmly locked.
Open-top containers: Upper door strap and roof bow must be
completely and properly attached.
Open-top containers: Roof cover is not damaged and is of the
correct size, and its rope ends are not damaged.

17
 Hard-top containers: Roof is undamaged and roof fastening fits
and functions correctly.
On containers with electrical connections, the condition of the
electrical equipment (e.g. cables and plugs) should be inspected
before the unit is supplied with voltage.
Check from inside:
Container is proof against condensation water. Possible test method:
Enter the container, close both doors and check whether any light comes
through cracks, holes or door seals.
Container is completely dry inside. Any condensation or hoar frost must
be removed in order to avoid corrosion and moisture damage to cargo.
Container is free of dirt and cargo residue, clean and odourless.
There are no nails or other protruding objects that could damage
the cargo.
If cargo is loaded in the customers own container, it must be ensured
that the CSC plate is valid. The rule at Hapag-Lloyd is that the inspection
has been carried out within the past 18 months. Otherwise the container
must be loaded conventionally.

If there are any irregularities, a Hapag-Lloyd office should be immediately informed so

that an undamaged container can be provided.

3.8. Checking containers after loading

The following points must be checked after packing:

The container is packed to meet the requirements of the cargo, to

withstand the probable stress during transport and meet the requirements
of the container itself. The weight of the cargo must not exceed the
maximum load limit of the container.
A copy of the packing list for customs inspections, etc. must be
displayed at an easily visible place in the container.
If timber is used as packaging material, it may, under some circumstances,
be necessary to comply with the quarantine regulations of the country of
destination. A fumigation certificate or certification that the wood has been
treated may have to be displayed conspicuously on the container.
The regulations and information are usually obtainable from the agricultural
authority of the country concerned.
Doors as well as detachable roofs of containers must be closed carefully.
The seal number must be noted. Strong steel cable and container locks
can protect the cargo from theft. Hapag-Lloyd prescribes high-security
seals in accordance with ISO 17712.

18
 On open-top containers, the roof sheets must fit correctly and the ropes
must be correctly inserted (customs seal).
Covering sheets used to protect cargo in special containers must be
securely fastened.
Old self-adhesive labels must be removed.
On refrigerated containers, the correct temperature and ventilation volume
must be set, the temperature recorder (if provided) must be running and
the temperature must be displayed.
For hazardous goods shipments, the relevant packing and separating
regulations must be complied with and the correct IMO placard must be
attached outside on the container. The Hapag-Lloyd hazardous goods
department will gladly provide the necessary support.
The entire documentation must be punctually and properly completed.

If a container is overloaded or cargo incorrectly secured, the transport is interrupted and

the insurance will not compensate for any possible damage.

3.9. Returning containers

After a shipment, the container is usually returned to the predetermined depot. The
container must be:

Clean and free of refuse (incl. remains of cargo and lashing material)
Free of odours from other sources
Free of nails or damage to floor
Without damage to walls and doors
Without cargo-relevant placards and lettering
Without damage to sheets if open-top container
Complete and incl. all accessories

19
 4. Protection against climatic influences

4.1. Protection against moisture

Moisture is a main reason for cargo damage. Section 2.2. describes the climatic
stresses cargo is subject to during transport. Tips on how cargo can be protected are
given below.
Before the container is loaded, the type of protection required by the cargo must be
determined. The general weather conditions of the climatic zones and the direction
in which the zones are passed through should be considered. If the voyage is from a
warmer to a colder zone, the risk of condensation is much higher than in the other
direction.
Modern containerships have more slots for containers on deck than under deck.
The hatches can be ventilated with electric ventilators. The temperature and moisture
under deck are thus similar to the conditions on deck. Most standard containers have
very small openings for pressure equalisation.
These are not suitable for ventilation. Hapag-Lloyd has a small number of 20' con-
tainers with ventilation slits along the roof and floor edge for passive air equalisation.
However, if a specific volume of fresh air is necessary, a refrigerated container must be
used. The relative humidity within a container depends on the moisture of the cargo,
stowage material, air during loading and outside temperature during the voyage.

The following measures can be taken to protect cargo against damage from moisture:

Moisture-sensitive cargo must not be packed together with

moisture-emitting cargo. If this is unavoidable, the items of cargo
must be well separated from one another and protected.
Cargo and stowage material must be packed as dry as possible in
the containers. Therefore, they have to be stored in dry rooms.
Packaging and stowage material stored outside or in damp rooms
absorb the dampness of their surroundings.
Cargo must be secured only with material that cannot damage
the cargo as a result of climatic influences; e.g. using
stainless steel instead of normal steel prevents rust spots on
the cargo.

When moisture-sensitive cargo is being transported, moisture-absorbing material (e.g.

paper) must be placed on the cargo or under the container roof. Various products are
offered by a large number of suppliers (e.g. Cargo Dry system, Dew Catcher, Moisture

20
Grip, Non-Sweat paper, Sweatking). Plastic sheets are not suitable for this. Moisture-
absorbing materials such as silica gel can prevent condensation.
However, this is effective only if used in absolutely airtight spaces, for example, close to
the cargo in cardboard cartons or within products that are wrapped in shrink foil.
Approx. 500 g of absorbing material is required for 1 m3 of enclosed air. Silica gel bags
are thus not suitable for use in the entire container.

Even if absorbing material is used, damage can result from condensation water. Under
extreme conditions, these materials may sweat out the previously absorbed moisture.

4.2. Cargo carried in temperature-controlled containers

Hapag-Lloyd provides refrigerated containers for carrying cargo that has to be kept at
a constant temperature and/or requires a specific fresh air supply. These boxes are
equipped with an electrically operated plant, which cools, heats and generates a pre-
set air exchange as required.
The requisite electricity is supplied by the ship or port terminal. During transport by road
or rail, the necessary power is provided from the container wagon or a generator fixed
on the container. All refrigerated containers are operated with environment-friendly
refrigerants.

Hapag-Lloyd provides one of the worlds largest reefer fleets

21
Chemicals, pharmaceuticals or hazardous goods are loaded in non-food-grade
refrigerated containers to ensure no food is transported in a container previously used
to carry chemicals.

Containers are available with the following functions/characteristics:

Controlled air composition

CO2- controlled air exchange
Transfresh
Control of humidity (dehumidification only)
Cold treatment (USDA)
Silicon-free cargo loading areas
Refrigeration for temperatures to 35 C

Integrated data storage devices record the temperature and other events hourly.
The standard reefer container offers adjustable temperatures of between 30 C and
+ 30 C.
Refrigerated containers are designed only to maintain the required temperature for a
shipment. To maintain the quality of the merchandise, temperature-sensitive goods
must have reached the transport temperature before loading.
Specific types of goods, such as fruit or vegetables, generate heat during transport,
consuming oxygen and producing CO2. In such cases, the air in the container has to
be exchanged. The air interchange can be set from 0 to a maximum of 250 m3 per hour.
When booking refrigerated cargo, the exact setting temperature must always be given
in degrees Celsius and the required air change in m3 per hour.
In the profile sections of the floor, the cold air is blown under the cargo towards the
door, and the heated air returned under the roof. The way goods are stowed and
packed in a refrigerated container can thus have an influence on the air circulation. The
following points must be observed when stowing to ensure optimal temperature
distribution in the entire cargo:

Chill Mode: Cargoes at and above freezing-point

Goods should be stowed loosely enough so that air can
move above and between the packages. This is achieved
with stowage material for separating or cartons with holes
for ventilation. On the other hand, if stowage is too loose
the air flow may not reach the merchandise on the door
side adequately.
Frozen Mode: Cargo below freezing-point
The entire floor must be evenly loaded (chock stowage).
If this is not possible, cardboard or similar material must
be laid on the free areas to guarantee optimal air flow.

22
 This involves larger gaps that are created between the pallets
or as a result of packages that have not been precisely stowed
on one another.

In any case, at least 12 cm must be kept free between roof and cargo. Markings on the
side walls indicate the maximum permissible height. Packing material must be suffi-
ciently robust to carry the stack weight and protect the contents, and must be

Max. cargo height is indicated by a red line

suitable for the characteristics of the particular product; for example, cartons with vents
should be used for goods that generate heat and/or need an air change.
Cargo should be stowed in such a way that it can withstand all risks of sea and land
transport. There are only lashing points in the floor, so cargo must also be secured by
chocking or positive fit.

4.3. Cargo under controlled atmosphere

The composition of the ambient air can be changed to achieve a considerable slowing
down of the ripening process during transport.
The following parameters can be regulated:

Nitrogen
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Humidity

The precise data depend on the relevant products. Relevant tables based on scientific
findings have been published in, for instance, the Guide to Food Transport Controlled
Atmosphere (Mercantila).

23
The latest Hapag-Lloyd refrigerated containers offer the function of CO2 - controlled
air exchange (AFAM+ or E-Autofresh). In these containers, a specific carbon dioxide
content (0.04% to 21%) is prescribed and thus the oxygen content of the air is auto-
matically reduced. After the target level has been achieved by the natural ripening pro-
cess, fresh air is introduced in a controlled manner.
With another method (e.g. Transfresh), the container is flooded with an atmosphere
suitable for the product after loading. When the limit values for oxygen and carbon
dioxide, set before the transport, have been reached, fresh air is introduced. Chemical
absorption materials can also reduce the ethylene content.

24
 5. Material for securing cargo

5.1. General comments

Various materials can be used to secure cargo. Each has advantages or disadvantages
depending on how it is employed.

5.2. Material for laying under cargo (bedding)

Before cargo is stowed in a container, it must be decided whether or not it can be
placed directly on the container floor.
The cargo can be loaded without special bedding if the cargo itself stands safely, the
container floor is not damaged by the cargo and the weight restriction per running
metre is not exceeded. Examples for cargo without bedding are cartons, light cases or
pallets.

5.2.1. Pallets
Pallets are normally used for faster loading/unloading of cartons and various small
items. They can be secured with shrinking foil or straps tensioned over the pallets. In
this case, the pallet is part of the cargo.
The disadvantage of EU pallets for road transport is that they cannot be stowed with a
positive fit in a standard container. Gaps between packages must be filled with secur-
ing material or pallets.
The maximum permissible height of the container can frequently not be used if the pal-
lets cannot be stacked or the height of the crates on the pallets does not correspond
with the internal height of the container.

5.2.2. Square timber and strong planks

A bedding of square timber or strong planks is needed for all consignments with small
support areas and/or high weight, for distributing the weight on a greater support
length. The bedding used varies depending on the design, which differs for standard
containers and flatracks. The substructure is positioned lengthwise in standard con-
tainers but crosswise on a flatrack.
Depending on the cargo, timber ranging from strong planks (approx. 5 cm thick) to
square timber (20 x 20 cm) is used as substructure. It is sometimes necessary to
increase the support length. However, there is no point in having free ends longer than

25
1 m, as the timber bends upwards at its ends, and thus does not transfer the weight to
the outermost points.

5.2.3. Steel girders

Steel girders are normally used for heavy and massive cargo. Anti-slip materials must
be used wherever steel rests on steel. This considerably increases the friction factor,
which is very low for contact between steel items.

5.3. Lashing material

Lashing materials are used to secure cargo. They prevent horizontal movements and
cargo tipping and bouncing.
There are different terms and definitions for the strength of lashing material. The break-
ing load is the load lengthwise at which a rope tears.
It is not permitted to load a securing element with this weight. A securing factor has
thus been introduced. This securing factor depends on the type of lashing material and
its use.
The breaking load divided by the securing factor yields the Maximum Securing Load
(MSL). The MSL is normally given in the data specification or directly on the lashing
material. In addition to the MSL, the load must be reduced if the lashing material is
passed over sharp corners.
Different lashing materials have different elastic strength. Different types of lashing
materials must thus not be used to secure the same item of cargo.
If various lashing materials are used, when there are movements, the cargo will be held
first with the lashing material with the lowest elasticity. This lashing material will first
break and the other lashings will then also no longer be able to take the entire load.
Lashing materials can be mixed if the different materials are used in different lashing
directions.

5.3.1. Fibre ropes

Fibre ropes are made from natural products such as hemp, manila or sisal, or from syn-
thetic material. Depending on the material, they are able to withstand a very wide range
of environmental influences.
Natural fibre ropes are sensitive to acids, alkaline solutions and solvents. They expand
when they absorb moisture and shrink when drying.
Synthetic fibres are more resistant to environmental influences but have a lower break-
ing load and are, therefore, used only to secure lighter cargo, such as tarpaulins, cars,
drums or light cases.

26
One special type of fibre rope named Hercules has a thin steel wire as a core. It has
the same breaking load as normal fibre ropes, but a lower elasticity. It is less flexible and
stiffer if twisted.

5.3.2. Nylon belts

The most common lashing materials are nylon belts. They are available in a wide range
of widths with different maximum stresses (MSL).
They are easy to use to prevent damage to cargo. Edge protection must be used on
sharp corners.
It is absolutely prohibited to knot nylon belts, as they can take much lower loads at
these points. The hooks on the belts must fit into the lashing eyes of the container and
cargo.

5.3.3. Steel strapping (Signode)

A steel strap is a flat strap of steel. It has virtually no elastic stretch and thus cannot be
used for soft items of cargo such as crates. If the wood gives somewhat, the steel strap
immediately loses its fastening strength.
The same occurs when heavy cargo rests on weak wooden bedding. It is very import-
ant that cargo secured with steel straps does not lose volume during transport.
On the other hand, steel straps are very useful for fastening steel coils or bundling steel
profiles. It is possible to achieve tight securing very quickly with steel straps.
However, this requires special tools. Signode must not be used on sharp or uneven
corners.

5.3.4. Steel wire, turnbuckles, shackles and wire clips

Steel wires are very commonly used for lashing heavy unpacked cargo. Many different
sizes and forms are available. Steel wires can take strong forces relative to their diam-
eter and have low elasticity.
On the other hand, they lose much of their strength when passed over sharp corners
or used in tight bends.
If steel wire is used for lashing, additional equipment is required. Shackles are used as
a link between the tension screw, chain and lashing eyes.
Often a hook with a short chain is used between the lashing eyes on the container and
the tension screw on the lower part of the lashing.
The chain links can be placed better around edges without losing strength. Wire clips
are used to connect the ends of the steel wires, the entire lashing arrangement being
tightened with a tension screw.

27
Correct lashing arrangement, not yet tightened. The steel wire is twisted to increase the friction

Wire clips are used to connect the loose wire ends. Only the correct size of wire clips
and their torque must be used, otherwise the wire can slip through the wire clips. As
the wire clips are usually the weakest part of a lashing arrangement, the way in which
they are employed is very important. Recommended and not recommended arrange-
ments are illustrated below. A minimum of four wire clips must be used.

Wire clips

Not recommended configuration of wire clips

and wire ends. They can be used, but only with
lower calculated strength

Best and recommended configuration Insufficient number of wire clips; this

configuration is not permitted

28
 5.3.5. Chains
Chains have a high breaking load. The lashing eyes on the cargo or on the container
are usually weaker. Chains are generally used for securing heavy cargo. They do not
lose any breaking strength on small edges as long as the individual chain links are not
themselves bent on edges. Chains have virtually no elastic stretch. They are tightened
with the aid of tension screws or tension levers with hooks. Chains can be adapted to
the required length by using special grab hooks with securing levers.

5.4. Filling material

A very simple and useful method for securing cargo against sliding forwards or side-
ways is to fill the space in the container with stowage material. It is important that
the container wall or the cargo opposite is strong enough to withstand the forces trans-
ferred.

5.4.1. Airbags
When, for example, pallets are stowed in a standard container, gaps will remain. A wide
range of airbags in various sizes and shapes are provided for this purpose. The airbags
are placed empty in the gaps and then filled with compressed air so that all space is
filled. Airbags are not designed to take forces from moving cargo and must not be
placed over sharp edges.

5.4.2. Timber
Timber can be used for securing generally heavy cargo against sliding. However, the
walls of a standard container can absorb only low forces. If the cargo is chocked
against the walls, a large contact surface must be provided. The best method is to
jam the cargo against the corner posts of the container. A configuration with square
timber must be designed so that it does not loosen during transport, or fall off due to
vibration.

29
 6. Stowing and securing various types of cargo

6.1. Cartons, crates and wooden cases

The following points must be observed when loading cartons in containers. If the cargo
does not fill the entire volume of a container, the crates must be stowed at a similar
height so that the entire floor of the container is covered and weight is evenly distrib-
uted. No gaps should be left.
If gaps are unavoidable, the cargo must be chocked row for row by filling the space with
airbags, pallets or stowage material.
The height of a stack in a container depends on the stability of the cartons. A robust
stowage can be achieved if the cartons are stacked interlocking like bricks. The pres-
sure of the upper layer on the lower can be better distributed with intermediate layers
of strong cardboard or dunnage.
Wet cartons are less stable. The comments in 2.2. Climatic stresses should thus also
be observed. Large and heavy items of cargo should be positioned in the centre of the
container and chocked against the corner posts and roof or floor beams.
If items are chocked against the side walls, the supporting surface must be as large as
possible.
Stowage with positive fit means that there are no gaps between cargo and container,
with no additional material for securing being needed.

Cartons stowed with positive fit Sofas stowed with positive fit

30
Only door securing is recommended. This prevents cargo falling out when the con-
tainer door is opened by the recipient.

6.2. Palletised cargo

The achievable capacity utilisation of a container depends on the dimensions of the pal-
lets. The optimal pallet size depends on the internal dimensions of the container.
The packages stacked on the pallets must cover the entire pallet and be well secured,
for example with straps or shrink foil.
When stowing the container, care should be taken to ensure that the centre of gravity
is in the middle of the container, both lengthwise and across. The pallets must be ade-
quately secured.

Stowage of non-standard pallets. Spaces are filled with airbags.

The pallets in the second layer are each secured with three pieces of dunnage
against slipping towards the door

31
The size and structure of the packing for the motorcycles correspond with container dimensions

6.3. Drums and plastic cans

It is essential to ensure that no drums are leaking before loading. Drums leaking liquid
must not be loaded. Basically, drums must be stowed with the opening upwards. They
are best transported standing upright next to one another.
Plywood boards must be inserted between the individual layers to increase the stabil-
ity of the drum stacks.
The optimal configuration of drums on the container floor can be determined from the
relationship between the diameter of the drums and the inner dimensions of the con-
tainer. Various packing patterns are possible.

Pattern Full Pattern A Pattern B

32
The following formulae can be used for calculating the possible number of rows length-
wise:

Pattern Full and A: n = L Pattern B: n = L + LD

D 0.866 D

n: Number of rows D: Diameter of drums L: Inner length of container

All drums must be loaded fitting tightly in the container, without any gaps being left
between the cargo and container. If gaps are unavoidable, these must be filled with
dunnage, pallets or securing material.
The main securing work must be carried out in the door area. Usually a square timber
is placed between the corner posts to prevent drums sliding against the door.
The drums can also be secured with steel straps in blocks superimposed over one
another, with one drum being secured in a block of four drums and also connected with
another unit of four drums.
Drums can be put at different heights for securing purposes. This is achieved
with a mixed stowage, with drums of various heights, or by inserting pallets at different
places.
Wooden barrels are not designed to withstand pressure around the centre. If wooden
barrels are loaded horizontally, wooden strips for support must be laid under the ends
so that the middle does not touch the container floor. Wedges can be used to prevent
barrels rolling away.
Plastic cans must be checked for leakage and distortion before loading. A distorted can
may endanger the stability of the entire stowage.
A dividing layer of strong stable plates or dunnage must be laid between every layer to
ensure the stability of the stacks.
Jolts from below or vibrations could otherwise deform individual cans and then cause
the stacks to collapse.

6.4. Sacks and bales

Incorrect handling and inadequate stowage of sacks may cause damage to packaging,
cargo and the side walls of the container, and injure personnel opening the container
doors.
Sacks must be stacked to prevent them sliding in bad weather at sea. They are
stacked alternately in various directions and without gaps, so as to form a stable unit.
This does not apply for plastic sacks because of the lower friction between plastic
surfaces.
These are best secured by using shrinking foil around the entire stack on the pallet. It
may be more cost-efficient to load a container with pallets rather than individual sacks,
which are relatively time-consuming to load and unload.

33
Many of the goods packed in bales are comparatively insensitive to mechanical
stresses, although the outer cover can be easily damaged on loading/unloading.
To facilitate unloading with a forklift, wooden planks can be placed on the container
floor and between every layer of bales. Chocking against the door posts is generally
adequate to secure the door.

Carpets protected by jute sacks on loading

6.5. Rolls and coils

If a standard container is used to carry rolls and coils, before loading, care must be
taken to ensure that the maximum permitted weight per running metre is not exceeded.
More details on this are given in 3.1. Weight limits and weight distribution in standard
containers. If the coils are too heavy, they must be loaded on flatracks.
Rolls and coils can be positioned with eye to sky, or horizontally with axes lengthwise
or crosswise.

34
6.5.1. Eye to sky
Lighter rolls can be stowed like drums. They must be placed close to one another and
the space in between must be filled. They must be secured with nets or planks at the
door. Steel coils must also be stowed close to one another. They should be secured by
being bound together with steel strapping or chocked with wood.
Heavy steel coils shipped on loading frames or pallets should be securely fastened on
their pallets and fastened with lashings.

6.5.2. Eye horizontal, axis lengthwise

If several coils are loaded, these must be distributed over the entire floor.
The centre of gravity must be both lengthwise and crosswise in the middle of the
container.
Pressure on the side walls should be avoided. Suitable bedding, lashing and
chocking, sideways and in the direction of the door, are necessary.

Steel coil loaded with axis across, chocked to the side and lengthwise and lashed with nylon belts

6.5.3. Eye horizontal, axis across

With this configuration, the floor is stressed to the full on account of the very short con-
tact length. It is thus very important to place wooden beams or cradles as bedding
lengthwise under every coil. Heavy steel coils must be placed on robust cradles made

35
Steel coil secured on a Coil-Trainer cradle

of wood or steel. Steel straps or wires should be used for securing the steel coils on
the cradle or among one another.
For securing, the steel coils must be chocked on the side and lengthwise, and lashed
through the eye.

Specialised companies such as Coil-Trainer offer reliable steel cradles for transporting
steel coils in containers. These distribute the cargo weight over an adequate length and
on the outer bearers of the container. Lighter rolls of paper can be stowed on top of
one another. The lower layers must be secured with wedges.

Rubber mats must be inserted as anti-slip material between the individual layers. The
gaps on the side walls must be filled up with stowage materials to prevent sliding. At
the door, all layers must be chocked with a frame of wooden beams.

6.6. Steel plates

Steel plates, transported on a flatrack, are a very tricky type of cargo. They must be
secured very carefully. Plates that loosen are extremely dangerous for other items of
cargo, the ship and the crew. The following points must be observed when stowing
steel plates:

The container floor must not be loaded with excessive weight.

Steel has a very high weight in relationship to its volume. Steel
often looks lighter than it really is.

36
 Anti-slip materials such as rubber mats must be placed
between the plates.
Thin plates with a height of up to 15 mm and with identical
width must be pre-bundled with steel straps so that they can be
handled as one piece.
If narrow plates lie on wider ones, the space on the sides must
be filled up with timber to offset the differences. Alternatively, steel
plates with different widths must be secured separately with
circular lashing (see 7.2.2.).
On the edges of steel plates, edge protection must be placed
under the lashing material.
Plates must be secured lengthwise by being chocked towards
the end walls. Instead of chocking, diagonal lashing can also be
used to prevent the steel plates sliding lengthwise. If the steel plates
have various lengths, the differences must be filled with wood to
produce a block with identical length.

6.7. Vehicles

Minibus loaded in a standard container, not yet lashed

37
All types of vehicle, from cars to road-building machines, can be transported on con-
tainerships. Vehicles may be classified as hazardous goods in some countries, while
other states have special transport regulations. The vehicles must comply with the local
regulations of the country of destination.
It is recommended to disconnect the batteries and drain the fuel to a minimum before
loading a vehicle in a container.
Cars and delivery vans normally fit easily into a standard container. A small ramp is used
for loading and enough space has to be left for the driver to get out of the vehicle. The
vehicles must be loaded absolutely dry.
The windows must remain somewhat open to make air circulation possible. There are
special tension belts for lashing the cars on the axes. Larger and heavier trucks must
be loaded on flatracks. In this case, at least half the wheels must lay on the floor of the
flatrack or a special wooden bedding under the chassis is necessary. Further details are
given in 7.2. Pre-lashed cargo.

6.8. Sheets of glass

Because of its dimensions and weight, glass is best loaded standing in a container.
Hapag-Lloyd offers open-top containers with covering sheets, or hard-top containers
with a removable roof.
Sheets of glass have to be carefully packed in cartons or wooden crates, or on A-
frames. The sheets should be placed lengthwise in the container. If several A-frames are
transported in one container, these must be kept apart with a buffer zone. As glass is
very sensitive to moisture, an additional covering is necessary.

6.9. Wet hides and skins

These items are also called salted cowhide, raw hides or salted skins. During
transport, the skins give off brine, a very strong-smelling liquid. This permanently con-
taminates the container floor and also often runs out of the container and damages
other containers and cargo, and the marine coating.
A damaged container floor must be completely replaced or the container has to be
written off as a total loss. The transport of wrongly stowed, wet salted skins is thus a
cause of constant annoyance because of the costs for cleaning and rectifying the
damage.
Wet salted skins can be effectively transported only if the following precautions are
taken:

The container must be completely lined with a tube-like lining out

of one piece. This lining must be of at least 8 mm thick polyethylene,
or a sheet with inserted threads that have a minimum diameter
of 0.230 mm (9 mils). This lining must cover the entire floor

38
 and three-quarters of the side walls, and be secured on the
lashing eyes on the roof brace.
Cardboard or moisture-absorbing material should be placed
on the floor in the lining before cargo is put on it.
Plywood sheets should be used to protect the lining if cargo
is loaded with a forklift.

6.10. Liquids
Liquids are usually transported in tank containers. These must be filled with at least
80% of the volume to avoid serious surge movements during transport. The maximum
filling height is 95% of volume to allow liquids to expand with temperature variations.
Special load limits, which are marked on various tank containers, must always be
observed.
Apart from normal tank containers, special tank containers for temperature-controlled
cargo with heating and refrigerating units are also available.
Liquids can be transported in normal standard containers in small, stable receptacles
such as drums, cans or intermediate bulk containers (ibc).
Hapag-Lloyd does not recommend transporting liquids in flexi-bags. Under special cir-
cumstances, however, it ships food products such as wine and fruit juices in flexi-bags.
In these cases, Hapag-Lloyd accepts only flexi-bags that meet its quality standards.
Further information is obtainable from any Hapag-Lloyd office.

6.11. Bulk freight

Bulk freight can be transported with a lining in a 20' standard container or an open-top
container. The lining protects the cargo against dirt and the smell of the container, and
reduces the time required for cleaning the container after emptying.
Only products such as powder, granulate, maize or bulk freight without sharp edges
can be transported with these lining bags. The bulk freight is usually loaded via a con-
veyor belt through the door, or through openings of a special roof.
The cargo must be secured with a bulkhead at the door to prevent any of it falling out
when a door is opened. This is a strict and binding requirement in many countries. Most
makers combine their lining directly with a door securing system. Other types of bulk
cargo, such as scrap or stones, can be loaded only after inspection and approval by
Hapag-Lloyd.

6.12. Long cargo

This section deals with long cargo that does not fit into a standard container. When
shipping long cargo, please consult 7.2. Pre-lashed cargo. Open-top, hard-top and
flatrack containers are useful for carrying long cargo. Loading long items, such as pipes

39
or logs, through the door can very easily damage the container floor, the corrugation of
the side walls or the cargo. If several layers are stowed on top of one another, material
must be laid between every layer to prevent slipping.
Long items have to be very carefully secured lengthwise by chocking or lashing on the
front sides. Chocking is achieved with a vertical front wall of wood, which is chocked
against the corner posts or held with lashing straps.
The cargo must be secured against sliding with circular lashing or chocking to the side
walls.

6.13. Live animals

Hapag-Lloyd does not recommend transporting live animals on containerships.
However, if the customer insists and it has been possible to clarify all relevant issues,
livestock can be shipped.
The receptacles for the animals can be loaded on flatracks or in open-top containers
on deck. Keepers must accompany the animals in transit.
Containers with feed can be stowed near the animals on deck. Shippers of live animals
must familiarise themselves in advance with the quarantine regulations in the country of
destination and the transit ports.

40
 7. Oversized and heavy cargo

7.1. General comments

Cargo that has excess height, excess width and/or is heavy can be loaded pre-lashed
on a flatrack or conventionally.
Pre-lashing means the cargo is loaded first in an open-top container or on a flatrack,
and lashed there before both are lifted together on to the ship.
If the weight and/or cargo dimensions exceed the limits for a pre-lashed shipment, the
cargo must be loaded conventionally. This involves first putting flatracks as foundation
in the ship.
Wooden beams or steel girders are then laid-out for load distribution and the cargo
loaded with the container crane or a floating crane on top, after which the cargo is
secured.

7.2. Pre-lashed cargo

Hapag-Lloyd provides open-top containers (with roof protected only with a tarpaulin),
hard-top containers (roof is detachable) and flatrack containers (reinforced floor, no side
walls and no roof) in 20' and 40' lengths for transporting cargo with excess size.
It should be noted that the floor design of open-top and hard-top containers is the
same as for standard containers.
The load limits are thus the same as described in chapter 3.1.
Flatracks have two much stronger longitudinal beams outside as floor construction,
which can carry much higher selective stresses.
If heavy cargo is being carried that is very narrow and rests not on the main girder but
only in the middle on the weaker wooden floor, bedding must be laid athwart under the
cargo so that the weight is transferred onto the main girder.
Flatracks can be loaded with the maximum payload only if the cargo stands over the
full floor length on the flatrack. Less weight can thus be loaded for shorter con-
signments. The exact details are obtainable from our loading specialists.
The decision on whether or not an item of cargo has excess dimensions or what equip-
ment is most suitable for transport depends on the dimensions such as length, width,
height and weight.
The type, form and floor structure of the cargo also plays a role. If a limit value for stand-
ard containers is exceeded, special containers must be used. Open-top containers are
suitable for light, high cargo or for long consignments that cannot be lifted through the
door. If the cargo is wider than the roof opening or heavier than the weight limits,
flatracks must be used.

41
Cargo with excess length can be carried on platforms, which are flatracks with collaps-
ible end walls. The following points must be observed when loading platforms:

Corner castings must be kept free for lifting.

It is not permitted to raise a platform with one end wall up and the
other down. Both end walls must always be either up or down.
Special care must be taken to secure the cargo against movement
lengthwise.
Platforms can be loaded only on deck.

7.2.1. Securing cargo in open-top containers

Securing cargo in these containers always involves a mixture of lashing and chocking.
Chocking protects the cargo against slipping.
Wooden beams laid-out between cargo and container posts serve to secure length-
wise.
Chocking crosswise should be done as far below as possible against the side walls.
Sides and end walls are not designed for selective stresses.
If this is needed for securing cargo, the forces must be distributed over an area as large
as possible.
Lashings prevent cargo tipping and increase the friction on the floor.
All open-top containers have small lashing eyes on the corner posts, as well as on the
floor and on the roof rails, each with a Maximum Securing Load (MSL) of 1- 2 t.

Flatrack Flatrack Flatrack

Lashing just over the cargo Cross lashing is effective Circular lashing: Lashing
is NOT sufficient. The cargo if there are lashing eyes on around the cargo is suitable
can slip sideways the cargo for cargo without lashing
eyes

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7.2.2. Securing cargo on a flatrack container
As for open-top containers, securing cargo on a flatrack must involve a combination
of lashing and chocking. The cargo also has to be protected against environmental
influences.
Hapag-Lloyd flatracks have lashing eyes on both sides and the end walls. All lashing
points have a Maximum Securing Load (MSL) of 5 t. The lashing secures the cargo
against tipping and holds it down to increase friction.
It is not sufficient just to lash over the cargo. The preferred lashing method is cross
lashing. However, lashing eyes on the cargo are required for this.
Otherwise, it is necessary to lash around the cargo. The strap or wire is passed from
one side over the cargo, and then under the cargo back to the starting point.
The same procedure must always be repeated beginning on the other side. The vari-
ous lashing methods are illustrated below. It is possible to chock very effectively length-
wise against the corner posts. Wooden wedges, nailed on the wooden floor of the flat-
racks, must not be used, as these are mostly not adequate and damage the floor.

Wooden wedge Square timber Bedding Corner post

of flatrack

Wooden wedges just nailed down to secure Horizontal square timber must be placed
cargo against movement lengthwise are NOT between the cargo and the corner posts to
sufficient chock the cargo

Most flatracks have notches for stanchions along the side. Ordinary steel beams,
inserted vertically into these holes, can be used as chocking against slipping sideways,
for example, for lengthy items such as pipes.
It is difficult to secure cargo that is wider than the flatrack against sliding sideways. Light
crates can be secured with serrated steel plates.
These look like serrated washers and are placed between the crate and the wooden
floor. They are fixed in position with nails or by the weight of the cargo. These serrated
steel plates increase friction.
It is vital to display a marking on the crate to inform persons inspecting the cargo of the
securing material used. In addition to being secured by serrated steel plates, the cargo
must also, of course, be lashed.

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 Crate

Lashing Flatrack Steel profile with angles

Cargo with excess width, secured with a steel profile with angles against slipping sideways

Steel profiles with angles adjusted to the width of the flatrack are also very effective for
chocking against slipping sideways.
When such a steel profile is used, lashing simply over the cargo is permitted.
If this steel profile is not used, only cross lashing is permitted to secure cargo with
excess width.
It is vital to use edge protection to prevent straps chafing and tearing on sharp edges.
This also protects soft wooden cases against being broken or cut into by the lashing
materials, and prevents the resulting loosening of securing equipment.
Cargo is normally loaded on flatracks below deck for protection against water.
Containerships have guide rails in their holds to keep containers in position.
These guide rails reduce the maximum loading length for shipments with excessive
width (more than 244 cm) even if the cargo would fit on the flatrack.
The maximum permitted length for cargo with excess width is 1,160 cm on 40' flatracks
and 550 cm on 20' flatracks. In other words, the cargo must be stowed at least 30 cm
from the outer ends of the flatracks.

7.3. Conventional cargo

Cargo that exceeds the limits for pre-lashed consignments has to be loaded conven-
tionally. These limits depend on a wide variety of factors and can be checked individual-
ly by Hapag-Lloyd.
Every conventional consignment requires special treatment, so a special procedure is
used for every booking at Hapag-Lloyd.
Many people are involved in preparing and carrying out conventional shipments.
Experts check whether or not the cargo can be loaded and if so how, formulating stow-
age proposals and lashing plans.

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The Hapag-Lloyd agencies in the ports where cargo is loaded and unloaded calculate
the probable costs and clarify all details of cargo handling with the local companies.
Hapag-Lloyd can offer reliable transport for most large and heavy items of cargo.

Some examples of types of cargo carried by Hapag-Lloyd are given below.

The press is placed on two flatracks. Sturdy square timber is put under the press on the
flatracks to distribute the weight and prevent damage to the cargo or to the flatrack.
Nylon belts have been used for lashing

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Loading a large ship propeller weighing 80 t. The propeller has a very small contact area,
so robust steel bedding is used. Additional wooden supports are positioned under every
propeller blade and steel wire or straps used for lashing

This transformer, weighing approx. 160 t, was placed on steel girders and lashed
with chains

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 8. Further information and contact addresses

Please visit our website: www.hapag-lloyd.com

This is a very informative website providing addresses of sales offices, schedules and
details of the ships and containers used by Hapag-Lloyd. Cargo can be booked online
via our website.
Our brochure Container Specification describes all container types used by Hapag-
Lloyd, giving exact dimensions and specifications.
Further information on stowing containers is given at www.containerhandbuch.de.
This is a very detailed website of the Association of the German Insurance Industry,
providing a great deal of information in both German and English on packing, lashing,
stowing, products and legal regulations.
The International Maritime Organisation website www.imo.org also offers a lot of infor-
mation and details of many regulations. Many publications are obtainable via this web-
site.

Disclaimer:
While we assume that the information and content provided by us is true and correct,
it may, nevertheless, contain errors or inaccuracies.
Hapag-Lloyd does not assume any liability for the accuracy of the information and con-
tents provided in the brochure, or for the consequences resulting from using the infor-
mation and content provided in the brochure. Hapag-Lloyd does not guarantee or
represent that said information and content is exhaustive. Claims as to the exhaustive
nature of said information and content are excluded. The information and content is
only provided for advertising purposes and is non-binding. No explicit or implied
warranties or guarantees are made.

Hapag-Lloyd AG Special Cargo

Ballindamm 25 20095 Hamburg Germany
E-mail: [email protected] Phone: +49 (0)40-3001-4453 Fax: +49 (0)40-3001-4456

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 Group Communication 02/2010