Basic

Pipe Stress Analysis

Tutorial
Visit our website www.sstusa.com

SST Systems, Inc.

SST Basic Pipe Stress Analysis Tutorial, Version 1.00, 2011 - 2014, SST Systems, Inc. All
Rights Reserved.

Disclaimer
Please read the following
carefully:
CAEPIPE and this tutorial have been developed and checked for
correctness and accuracy by SST Systems, Inc. However, no warranty,
expressed or implied, is made by the authors or by SST Systems, Inc.,
as to the accuracy and correctness of the tutorial or the functioning of
CAEPIPE and the accuracy, correctness and utilization of its
calculations. Users must carry out all necessary tests to verify
CAEPIPE calculations, and the applicability of their results. All
information presented by CAEPIPE is for review, interpretation,
approval and application by a Registered Professional Engineer.
CAEPIPE is a trademark of SST Systems, Inc. All other product
names mentioned in this document are trademarks or registered
trademarks of their respective companies/holders.

SST Systems, Inc.

1798 Technology Drive, Ste. 236
San Jose, CA 95110, USA
Tel: (408) 452 8111
Fax: (408) 452 8388

[email protected]
www.sstusa.com
SST Systems, Inc. | www.sstusa.com | Page 1
Basic Pipe Stress Analysis Tutorial
Good, relevant and non-overwhelming technical information on pipe
stress analysis is hard to come by. To partly remedy this problem, we
provide a simple tutorial on the basics of piping stress analysis. This
tutorial is directed towards newcomers to Pipe Stress Analysis just as
much as to engineers new to CAEPIPE.
To get the full benefit from this tutorial, you will need a working
copy of CAEPIPE, pipe stress analysis software.
Download a Free Copy of CAEPIPE here
CAEPIPE - Features and Benefits
Useful learning
resources:
CAEPIPE Tutorial 1
CAEPIPE Tutorial 2
CAEPIPE User's
Manual Pipe Stress
Tips Archive The
Piping Journal Blog
You are welcome to use any other program if you choose to.
Tutorial: Table of Contents
Technical Article: Pipe Stress Analysis: Basic
Concepts Technical Article: Preliminary Pipe
Stress Analysis Procedure Example 1 - Using
Expansion Loops
Example 2 - Splitting Thermal Growth
Example 3 - Axial Restraints to Direct Thermal Growth
Example 4 - Locating Supports For Deadweight Analysis
Example 5 Making Layout Changes to Reduce Thermal Stresses

SST Systems, Inc. | www.sstusa.com | Page 2

Pipe Stress Analysis: Basic Concepts
Introduction

It is common practice worldwide for piping designers to route

piping by considering mainly space, process and flow constraints
(such as pressure drop) and other requirements arising from
constructability, operability and reparability. Unfortunately, pipe
stress analysis requirements are often not suficiently considered
while routing and supporting piping systems, especially in providing
adequate flexibility to absorb expansion/contraction of pipes due to
thermal loads. So, when as designed piping systems are handed-off
to pipe stress engineers for detailed analysis, they soon realize that
the systems are stif and suggest routing changes to make the
systems more flexible. The piping designers, in turn, make changes
to routing and send the revised layout to the pipe stress engineers to
check for compliance again.
Such back and forth design iterations between layout and stress
departments continue until a suitable layout and support scheme is
arrived at, resulting in significant increase in project execution time,
which, in turn, increases project costs.
This delay in project execution is further worsened in recent years by
increased operating pressures and temperatures in order to increase
plant output; increased operating pressures require thicker pipe
walls, which, in turn, increase piping stifnesses further! Such
increased operating temperatures applied on stifer systems
increase pipe thermal stresses and support loads. So, it is all the
more important to make the piping layout flexible at the time of
routing. (checkSTRESS, another SSTs product [diferent from
CAEPIPE] for AutoCAD, CATIA, Autoplant, PDMS, Cadmatic and
others, directly addresses and solves this problem).
Types of Loads

Piping systems experience diferent types of loadings, categorized

into three basic loading types Sustained, Thermal and Occasional
loads.
Sustained
Loads
These mainly consist of internal pressure and dead-weight. Dead-
weight is from the weight of pipes, fittings, components such as
valves, operating fluid or test fluid, insulation, cladding, lining,
etc.
Internal design or operating pressure causes uniform circumferential
stresses in the pipe wall, based on which a pipe wall thickness is
determined during the process/P&ID stage of plant design.
Additionally, internal pressure gives rise to axial stresses in the pipe
wall. Since these axial pressure stresses vary only with pressure,
pipe diameter and wall thickness (all three of which are preset at the
P&ID stage), these stresses cannot be altered by changing the piping
layout or the support scheme.
A pipes deadweight causes the pipe to bend (generally downward)
between supports and nozzles, producing axial stresses in the pipe
wall (also called bending stresses) which vary linearly across the
pipe cross-section, being tensile at either the top or bottom surface
and compressive at the other surface. If the piping system is not
supported in the vertical direction (i.e., in the gravity direction)
excepting equipment nozzles, bending of the pipe
due to deadweight may develop excessive stresses in the pipe and
impose large loads on equipment nozzles, thereby increasing its
susceptibility to failure by collapse.
Various international piping standards/codes impose stress limits,
also called allowable stresses for sustained loads, on these axial
stresses generated by deadweight and pressure in order to avoid
failure by collapse.
For the calculated actual stresses to be below such allowable
stresses for sustained loads, it may be necessary to support the
piping system vertically. Typical vertical supports to carry
deadweight are:
Variable spring
hangers
Constant support
hangers
Rod
hangers
Resting steel
supports
Rod hangers and resting steel supports fully restrain downward pipe
movement but permit pipe to lift up.
Two examples are presented in this tutorial to illustrate how piping
can be supported by spring hangers and resting steel supports to
comply with the code requirements for sustained loads.
Thermal Loads (Expansion
Loads)
These refer to the cyclic thermal expansion or contraction of piping
as it goes from one thermal state to another (for example, from shut-
down to normal operation and then back to shut-down). If the
piping system is not restrained in the thermal growth/contraction
directions (for example, in the axial direction of pipe), then, for such
cyclic thermal load, the pipe expands/contracts freely; in this case,
no internal forces, moments and resulting stresses and strains are
generated in the piping system. If, on the other hand, the pipe is
restrained in the directions it wants to thermally deform (such as
at equipment nozzles and pipe supports), such constraint on free
thermal deformation generates cyclic thermal stresses and strains
throughout the system as the system goes from one thermal state
to another. When such calculated thermal stress ranges exceed
the allowable thermal stress range specified by various
international piping standards/codes, then the system is susceptible
to failure by fatigue. So, in order to avoid fatigue failure due to
cyclic thermal loads, the piping system should be made flexible (and
not stif).
This is normally accomplished
as follows:
a) Introduce bends/elbows in the layout, as bends/ elbows ovalize

when bent by end

moments, which increases piping flexibility.
b) Introduce as much ofset as possible between equipment
nozzles (which are normally modeled as anchors in pipe stress
analyses).
For example, if two equipment nozzles (which are to be connected by
piping) are in line, then the straight pipe connecting these nozzles
will be very stif. If, on the other hand, the two equipment are
located with an ofset, then their nozzles will have to be
connected by an Lshaped pipeline which includes a

bend/elbow; such Lshaped

pipeline is much
mentioned above.more flexible than the straight pipeline
c) Introduce expansion loops (with each loop consisting of four
bends/elbows) to absorb thermal growth/contraction.
d) Lastly, introduce expansion joints such as bellows, slip
joints, etc., if warranted.
In addition to generating thermal stress ranges in the piping system,
cyclic thermal loads impose loads on static and rotating equipment
nozzles. By following one or more of the steps from (a) to (d) given
above and steps (e) and (f) given below, such nozzle loads can be
reduced.
e) Introduce axial restraints (which restrain pipe in its axial
direction) at appropriate locations such that thermal
growth/contraction is directed away from nozzles.
f) Introduce intermediate anchors (which restrain pipe
movement in the three translational and three rotational
directions) at appropriate locations such that thermal deformation
is absorbed by regions (such as expansion loops) away from
equipment nozzles.
A few example layouts are presented later to illustrate how
loops/ofsets, axial restraints and intermediate anchors are used to
reduce thermal stresses in piping (and nozzle loads).
Occasional
Loads
This third type of loads is imposed on piping systems by occasional
events such as earthquake, wind or a fluid hammer. To protect
piping from wind and/or earthquake (which normally occur in a
horizontal plane), it is normal practice to attach lateral supports to
piping systems (instead of axial restraints). On the other hand, to
protect piping for water/steam hammer loads, both lateral supports
and axial restraints may be required.
To carry sustained loads, normally vertical supports are required.
For thermal loads, having no supports gives zero stresses. So, fewer
the number of supports, lower the thermal stresses. Axial restraints
and intermediate anchors are recommended only to direct thermal
growth away from equipment nozzles.
Pipe Stress Analysis: Preliminary Procedure
Model the piping system in CAEPIPE (either directly inside CAEPIPE,
or by using one of SSTs data translators to import the piping model)
and follow the steps shown in the CAEPIPE Tutorial to learn the
basics of operating CAEPIPE to create and analyze a model and
review its results. Once all the data is in, Analyze. Now, review
Results.
General Procedure

From the thermal stress contour plot and the deflected shape
for thermal load case, suitably route the pipe to make it more
flexible and position axial restraints and/or intermediate anchors, if
required, to direct thermal expansion/contraction away from
critical locations such as equipment nozzles. Similarly, decide the
types and locations of vertical supports based on the stress contour
plot and deflected shape for sustained (= weight + pressure) load
case as well as the deflected shape for operating load case (=
sustained load + thermal load).
Here is a step-by-step procedure

Step
1
Review the thermal stress contour plot first. The plot is color-
coded such that blue region denotes areas with the least
stress ratios (where stress ratio equals to actual computed stress
divided by material allowable stress), green region with higher
stress ratios, yellow region with even higher stress ratios, and
red region with the highest stress ratios. Intermediate areas
between these distinct colors will be of bluish-green, greenish-
yellow and orange colors.
The goal will be to arrive at a layout that avoids orange and red
zones in thermal stress plot so that there is suficient thermal margin
left for performing a detailed piping analysis when the layout is
finalized at the 3D-design stage. You may wish to avoid even the
yellow zone in the stress contour plot so as to provide additional
thermal margin for future use. Since thermal stresses generated
are directly dependent on how stif or flexible the layout is, in
order to reduce thermal stresses, it may be necessary to make the
layout flexible (by including bends, offsets, loops etc.). So, the first
step is to make sure thermal stress ratios remain within blue to
yellow range and not get into orange and red zones. For more
flexible layout, even yellow zone can be avoided.
Step
2
In case thermal stress ratios exceed yellow zone (and are in
orange and red zones in one or more areas of the piping system),
it is important to study the thermal case deformed shape provided by
CAEPIPE in order to understand how the piping responds to pure
thermal load. By studying such deformed shape, it is possible to
arrive at a layout with appropriate bends, offsets and loops and/or
with appropriately located axial restraints/intermediate anchors
such that thermal stress ratios do not exceed yellow zone. This
process may require you to perform several layout and/or restraint
scheme iterations.
Step
3
After finalizing piping layout under Steps 1 and 2 for thermal
loading, the next task is to support the system vertically to carry its
deadweight under operating condition. In this connection, first
review sustained stress ratio contour plot generated by deadweight
and pressure for the system without any vertical supports excepting
those provided by equipment nozzles, shown in color codes from
blue to green to yellow to red (as in Step 2 above).
Your goal is to arrive at a vertical support
scheme consisting of
(a) resting steel supports (b) rod hangers (c) variable spring
hangers and (d) constant support hangers
at appropriate locations (where such pipe supports can be attached
to adjacent concrete/steel structures, platforms etc.) so that stress
contour plot for sustained stress ratios avoids orange and red
zones and remains within blue to yellow range.
Step
4
In case sustained stresses exceed yellow zone in one or more areas
of the piping system, study the deformed shape for sustained load
case in order to understand how the piping responds to its own
deadweight: next, identify pipe locations in the 3D model where the
pipe can be vertically supported by the support types listed above.
Based on this information, it is possible to vertically support the
piping such that sustained stresses do not exceed yellow zone.
This step may require you to execute several iterations within
CAEPIPE with several vertical support schemes.
In case, resting steel supports are selected to provide vertical
support for piping under sustained load, it is to be made sure that
piping continues to rest on such steel supports even during
operating condition (= weight + pressure + thermal) and does not
lift off from these supports. If pipe lifts up at any of these resting
supports during operating condition, then that support does not
carry any pipe weight and hence will not serve its purpose. Similarly,
at rod hanger locations, the tendency of piping should be to deform
downward for operating load case, so that the rod hangers carry the
pipe weight under tension. On the other hand, if pipe lifts up at any
of the rod hangers, then that rod hanger goes into compression
thereby not carrying the weight of the piping during operating
condition.
CAEPIPE displays the deflected shape of piping under operating load
case too. By viewing this deflection from different directions, you can
make sure that piping is resting on steel supports and/or piping is not
deforming upward at rod hangers.
Step
5
You should perform Steps 1 to 4 for all piping systems of the project.
Systems, for which the layout and support schemes are finalized,
are ready for detailed analyses and stress report preparation.
Verification
Step
Provide all additional input data into the models such as insulation
thickness and density, corrosion allowance and mill tolerance of
pipe sections, thermal anchor movements,
seismic anchor movements, support conditions such as friction and
gap, other loads such as wind, seismic and water/fluid hammer,
multiple thermal and pressure cases, etc. and perform detailed
analyses. It is most likely that the layout and support schemes
(finalized during steps 14) meet all other pipe stress requirements
(such as meeting nozzle allowable loads) and hardly require any
further iteration(s).
Example 1 - Using Expansion Loops
DATA: An 8 NB Schedule 80 pipe (see Fig. 1A) connects two
equipment at nodes 10 and
30 with an ofset of 4 (i.e., equal to distance between nodes 20 and
30). The pipe, made of
A53 Grade A carbon steel, is
heated to 300 F.
This problem illustrates the use of expansion loops to
reduce thermal stresses.
Figure 1A
Layout

After modeling this layout in CAEPIPE, upon analysis, you will find
that the pipe between nodes 10 and 20 grows thermally to the right
towards node 20, while pipe between nodes
30 and 20 grows up towards node 20, as
illustrated in Fig. 1B.
Figure 1B - Thermal Deflection

This thermal deformation generates large thermal stresses (orange

and red zones) in the bend at node 20 and at anchor node 30, as
shown in Fig. 1C.
Figure 1C - Non code-compliant (notice the reds)
The reds illustrate that the expansion stress is over the allowables,
and fails code compliance. This layout will have to be rerouted. Let
us try the rerouting as shown in Fig.1D.
Figure 1D -
Rerouting

Fig. 1D shows a revised layout with a loop, introducing two

additional bends at nodes 14 and 18, thereby making the layout more
flexible. So, thermal growth of X-directional pipes between nodes 10
and 14 and then between 18 and 20 as well as the growth of Z-
directional pipe between nodes 30 and 20 are absorbed by the three
bends at nodes 14, 18 and 20. The corresponding stress contour plots
for thermal and sustained load cases are shown in Fig.1E and Fig.
1F, confirming code compliance.
Figure 1E - Code-compliant thermal case

Figure 1F - Code-compliant sustained case

Example 2 - Splitting Thermal Growth
DATA: This system shown in Fig. 2A is made of
three pipe sizes:
4 NB/Sch. 40: Between nodes 10 and the
first reducer
6 NB/Sch. 40: Between the first reducer and the second reducer
and ending at node
90
8 NB/Sch. 40: Between nodes 90 and
anchor node 130

T=470F
Figure 2A
Layout
Since the loop between nodes 10 and 40 is much more flexible (4
pipe) than the loop between nodes 100 and 130 (8 pipe), the
straight pipe between nodes 40 and 100 will thermally grow mostly
towards the 4 loop, as shown in Fig. 2B, straining the pipe between
nodes 10 and 40.
Figure 2B - Thermal
Deformation Plot

This, in turn, produces large thermal stresses (i.e., orange and red
zones) in the 4 loop and at anchor node 10, as observed in Fig. 2C.
In other words, the thermal growth of pipe between nodes 40 and
100 is mostly absorbed by the 4 loop and very little by the 8 loop,
defeating the very purpose of the 8 loop.
Figure 2C - Thermal Stress
Contour Plot

In order to alleviate thermal stresses in the 4 loop, introduce an

intermediate anchor at node 95 immediately after the second
reducer, so that the thermal growth of straight pipe from node 95 to
node 100 is absorbed by the 8 loop, while the thermal expansion of
straight pipe between
nodes 40 and 95 is absorbed by the 4 loop, thereby making both
loops achieve their intended purpose. The corresponding thermal
displacement and thermal stress contour plots are given in Fig. 2D
and Fig. 2E respectively.
Figure 2D - Thermal Deformation Plot for Layout with
Intermediate Anchor

Figure 2E - Thermal Stress Contour Plot for Layout with

Intermediate Anchor

Fig. 2F confirms that the present configuration with only two

equipment nozzles at nodes
10 and 130 and an intermediate anchor at node 95 safely meets the
code stress requirement for sustained load.
Figure 2F - Sustained Stress Contour Plot for Layout with
Intermediate Anchor

SST Systems, Inc. | www.sstusa.com | Page 15

Example 3 - Axial Restraints to Direct Thermal Growth
This problem shows how axial restraints (i.e., pipe supports that
prevent movement along a pipes axis) can be efectively used to
direct thermal growth towards expansion loops and split thermal
growth in a line such that the two piping portions grow in opposite
directions.
Figure 3A - Layout with Intermediate
Anchor at Node 95

Fig. 3A shows the same problem as in Example 2 but with a 6 NB

branch line added at the welding tee at node 70 (i.e., from node 70
to node 240).
The deformed geometry due to the thermal load (Fig. 3B), shows that
the tee at node 70 does not move up in +Y-direction. The
intermediate anchor at node 95 restrains the vertical riser
(between nodes 220 and 70) from thermally growing upward towards
node 70. As a result, this riser grows downward producing large
bending moments and stresses at and around equipment nozzle at
node 240.

SST Systems, Inc. | www.sstusa.com | Page

16
Figure 3B - Thermal Deformation Plot

Since the intermediate anchor efectively restrains upward growth of

this vertical riser node
70, we see large localized thermal stress at the welding tee. See
thermal stress contour plot
shown in Fig. 3C.
Figure 3C - Thermal Stress
Contour Plot

Figure 3D - Layout with Axial Restraints at

Node 95 and 210
Fig. 3D shows the same piping system with one axial restraint at 95
(replacing the intermediate anchor at node 95) and another at node
210 the one at node 95 splits and directs thermal growth towards
the 4 and 8 loops and permits the horizontal line to
move up in +Y-direction at node 70; the second one at node 210
splits the thermal growth of the vertical riser (between nodes 220
and 70). The resulting deformed geometry plot in Fig. 3E shows a
more flexible system, which produces smaller forces and moments,
and hence stresses at the equipment nozzle node 240 and welding
tee node 70.
Figure 3E - Thermal Deformation Plot for Layout
with Axial Restraints

Figures 3F and 3G show the thermal and sustained stress contour

plots (in this case sustained stress is due to only deadweight as
pressure is zero), confirming a code-compliant system for both load
cases.
Figure 3F - Thermal Stress Contour Plot for Layout with Axial
Restraints

Figure 3G - Sustained Stress Contour Plot for layout With Axial

Restraints
EXAMPLE 4 - Locating Supports For Deadweight Analysis
This example illustrates how to select and locate vertical
supports to carry piping deadweight in the operating condition.
Fig. 4A shows a practical problem with 10 NB Standard schedule
pipe from equipment nozzle at node 5 up to the reducer at node 30,
8 NB Standard schedule pipe from this reducer to the pump nozzle
at node 40, and a 6 NB Standard schedule branch line from the
welding tee at node 25 to the equipment nozzle at node 125.
Figure 4A - Layout with Node
Numbers
The thermal stress contour plot given in Fig. 4B confirms that the
piping system is highly flexible and hence meets the code
requirement for thermal load.
Figure 4B - Thermal Stress Contour Plot

Fig. 4C shows the deflected shape for sustained load (i.e.,

mainly deadweight). It is observed that the weight of
i. the horizontal line from node 5 to node 15 and
ii. a major portion of the vertical riser from node 15 to node 20
is carried by the equipment nozzle at node 5. On the other
hand, the pump nozzle at node 40 carries the weight of the
horizontal line from node 20 to node 40,
iii. the valve portion of the branch line from node 25 to node 125
and
iv. a small portion of the vertical riser from node 15 to node 20.
Figure 4C - Sustained Load
Deflected Shape

The deformation response for deadweight, in turn, generates large

forces and moments and hence large sustained stresses at nozzle
nodes 5 and 40 as shown in Fig. 4D for sustained stress contour plot.
Figure 4D - Sustained Stress Contour Plot

Fig. 4E shows the same layout with variable spring hangers at the
bends at nodes 20 and
115, which carry piping deadweight and provide negligible restraint
to thermal movement
from cold to hot condition and vice versa.
Figure 4E - Layout with Hangers
The thermal and sustained stress contour plots given in Fig. 4F and
Fig. 4G confirm that the piping system with hangers is code-
complaint for both sustained and thermal load cases.
Figure 4F - Thermal Stress Contour Plot for
Layout with Hangers
Figure 4G - Sustained Stress Contour Plot for
Layout with Hangers
EXAMPLE 5 - Making Layout Changes to Reduce Thermal Stresses
This practical example illustrates how to place resting steel supports
to carry the system weight with operating fluid and modify the layout
in order to re-direct thermal growth to comply with code stress
requirements.
Fig. 5A shows the initial layout where condensate from a tank (node
10) is extracted by the pump suction lines. When one pump is
operating, the other one is on standby.
Figure 5A - Layout with Node
Numbers
From Fig. 5B, we see that the pipeline from nodes 10 to 100 grows
thermally in the Z
direction (towards the pumps), whereas the two pump suction lines,
one from nodes 120 to
180 and the other from nodes 110 to 250, grows in the opposite
direction towards the tank
(+Z direction). So, the straight pipe between nodes 100 and 120
(with a welding tee at node
110) experiences two opposing deflection patterns - the pipe portion
between nodes 110 and 120 is being deflected in the +Z direction
like a rigid stick while the portion from nodes 10 to 100 deflects in
the -Z direction.
Figure 5B - Thermal Deformation Plot

This causes the pipe between nodes 100 and 110 to bend at the tee
producing high strains and hence thermal stresses locally at the tee
node 110, as shown in Fig. 5C.
Figure 5C - Thermal Stress Contour Plot
 In

order to reduce these thermal stresses at node 110, we cut the

straight pipe between nodes 100 and 120 into two parts one part is
the pipe from nodes 100 to 110 and the second part is from nodes
111 to 410 to 300. We then shift the second part downstream
towards the two pumps, resulting in the modified layout shown in
Fig. 5D.
Figure 5D - Revised Layout with
Node Numbers
This shift of pipe downstream does not adversely increase the
pressure drop between the tank at node 10 and the pumps at nodes
180 and 250. From the thermal deformation plot for this revised
layout shown in Fig. 5E, we can see that the two pump suction lines
from the suction nozzles to the welding tee at node 111 have almost
equal thermal growth in the
+Z
direction.
Figure 5E - Thermal Deformation Plot for Revised Layout

The branch pipe between nodes 111 and 300 acts as a rigid stick
resulting in lower thermal stresses in that branch pipe as seen in Fig.
5F.
Figure 5F - Thermal Stress Contour Plot for Revised Layout
 In

addition, we see that the two pump suction lines make the bend
node 100 grow thermally in the +Z direction, whereas the pipe from
the tank node 10 to the bend node 90 grows in the Z direction.
These opposing deflections rotate the interconnecting pipe between
nodes 90 and 100 like a (horizontal) see-saw in the horizontal
XZ plane, resulting in lower thermal stresses in this region, as
observed in Fig. 5F.
Although the thermal stress criterion has been met, the weight
stresses exceed the sustained stress allowables, as illustrated by
many red and orange areas in the sustained stress contour plot given
in Fig 5G.
Figure 5G - Sustained Stress Contour Plot for
Revised Layout
This is because there are no vertical supports (excluding the three
nozzles and a variable spring hanger at node 52) to carry the weight
of the system. Vertical resting supports are therefore introduced as
shown in Fig. 5H.
Figure 5H - Revised Layout with
Resting Supports

The recalculated sustained stress (i.e., weight + pressure) contour

plot (with most areas in blue) shown in Fig. 5I are now well below
the allowable stress values, and hence code- compliant.
Figure 5I - Sustained Stress Contour Plot for Rested layout
with Resting Supports
This concludes our tutorial on the basics of pipe stress
analysis. We hope you feel confident now in playing with
CAEPIPE by creating simple models and conducting several what-if
studies on them, as alluded to in the examples above.
If you have questions, please feel free to send them to us
([email protected]). If you have not downloaded the free pipe
stress analysis software, visit www.caepipe.com or
www.sstusa.com.
If you found this document useful, please forward it to a colleague
and Like our Pipe
Stress Analysis page on
Facebook.