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Borehole Geophysics:
Exploring the Third Dimension

Killeen, P.G.[1]

1. Mineral Resources Division, Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

ABSTRACT
The application of borehole geophysical techniques to mineral exploration has become more widespread in the last decade.
There have been a number of significant technological developments in hardware (probes, sensors, cables and winches),
and software (modelling, interpretation and data display). The use of borehole EM techniques in base metal exploration
has become routine. Several new three-component borehole EM systems have emerged and new advances have taken place
in the area of orientation of the three-component probes and in borehole directional surveying. New generation three-
component magnetometer probes with orientation are available. Improved interpretation has led to increased requirements
for physical property logs, especially magnetic susceptibility and resistivity/conductivity measurements. Logging for other
physical rock properties is also receiving more attention in mining and mineral exploration. This has been supported in part
by the Geological Survey of Canadas work aimed at documenting borehole geophysical signatures of major deposits and
establishing test sites for downhole measurements.
A multiparameter approach to borehole geophysics provides the best data required for interpretation and for imposing con-
straints on models. Great strides have been made with respect to inverse modelling of surface data, and extensions of these
inverse methods to the borehole environment are currently being developed.
Acoustic velocity logging is now being used to provide data for new high resolution seismic surveys in mineral exploration,
and when combined with density logging, for geotechnical information. New technology aimed at in situ assaying has been
developed and tested in Canada and Australia, and elemental measurement technology developed for petroleum explora-
tion is now being evaluated.
In addition to acoustic and electrical tomography, the RIM (radiowave imaging method) has been introduced for tomo-
graphic imaging of ore bodies. Directional capabilities have now been developed for borehole radar. Borehole probes are
available to measure induced polarization, inductive conductivity at several frequencies, and capacitive as well as galvanic
resistivity. There are high sensitivity flowmeters and temperature probes, and new tools for viewing the interior walls of
boreholes optically, electrically or acoustically. A whole new range of multiparameter borehole probes is also available from
several manufacturers.

INTRODUCTION include the probe, cable, winch, wellhead pulley assembly at the top of
the hole, a depth counter, and the surface recording instrumentation
which displays the data, and usually supplies the power to the probe (see
Borehole geophysical measurements are made by sensors (receiv-
Figure 1). Several types of measurement configurations are possible, as
ers/detectors) which are housed inside a probe or tool which is lowered
summarized schematically in Figure 2.
down holes in which the measurements are to be made. Usually a series
of continuous measurements (logging) are made with the data (signal) 1. The probes may measure a physical property simply with passive
transmitted to the surface recording instruments via a logging cable. sensors in the probe as in the case of magnetic susceptibility or nat-
The cable also serves to send power to the downhole sensor instrumen- ural radioactivity measurements.
tation, although some probes are powered by batteries in the probe, and 2. Some measurements require an active source or transmitter in the
in some cases the data are stored in memory in the probe for later probe in addition to the sensor, as in acoustic velocity measure-
retrieval. The primary components of a geophysical logging system ments with a transducer (energy source) in the probe, or in density

In Proceedings of Exploration 97: Fourth Decennial International Conference on Mineral Exploration edited by A.G. Gubins, 1997, p. 3142
32 Keynote Session

Figure 1: Components of a typical borehole geophysical logging system.

Figure 2: The six types of measurement configurations possible for bore-

hole geophysical measurements (excluding hole-to-hole).

measurements with a radioactive source in the probe. Type (1) and

(2) configurations generally measure the physical properties in the
near-hole environment, ranging from a few centimetres to a few
metres radius around the borehole.
3. In a third type of measurement, the signal from a source on the sur-
face is detected by a sensor in the probe, as in the various borehole
electromagnetic methods that utilize a surface transmitting loop,
or in VSP (vertical seismic profiling) work in which a surface
energy source is used. These methods measure large volumes of
rock between the source and sensor and may detect changes in
physical properties at several hundred metres from the hole (off-
hole anomalies). A variation on this type is the measurement of the
earths magnetic field, which can also detect magnetic effects of
bodies hundreds of metres away.
4. The sensors may measure the properties of the fluid in the hole as
in temperature measurements which may be related to thermal
conductivity of the rock, or fluid-flow measurements which may
relate to fractures in the rock.
5. Just as a geologist studies drill core, the borehole walls may be stud-
ied, using optical, electrical or acoustic televiewers.
6. Also useful are mechanical measurements such as those made by a
caliper probe measuring the diameter of the hole, which may relate
to variations in hardness of the rock, or to fracturing. Surveying
the path of the hole provides another very useful measurement,
since, as with any geophysical measurement, knowing the location
is just as important as the measurement itself.
7. Several borehole geophysical measurements (e.g., electrical, seis-
mic, radar) may be made in a hole-to-hole configuration, with a
source in one hole and a sensor in another hole. These techniques
have been used successfully to construct a tomographic image of
physical properties of the rocks between the holes.
This overview of borehole geophysics will touch on most of these
types of measurements, giving some indication of the state of the art and
Killeen, P.G. BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS: EXPLORING THE THIRD DIMENSION 33

future directions. At best, this can be only a thumbnail sketch, since vir-
tually any geophysical measurement made with a surface or airborne
system today can also be made in a borehole, and in addition many
methods suitable for use only in boreholes are also available.

Passive sensor in the probe

Magnetic susceptibility measurements have become widely used by

geologists on outcrop and drill core. Borehole magnetic susceptibility
logging provides a rapid and more complete series of measurements
than core measurements which may have missing sections. In Figure 3
magnetic susceptibility measurements made on a 40 m length of drill
core are compared to a magnetic susceptibility log in the same hole. The
two logs are virtually identical, but the borehole log took 7 minutes to
acquire the data (about 6 m / min), while the core measurements took
7 hours (Killeen and Mwenifumbo, 1987). The advantages of borehole
measurements in a deep hole are obvious.
Gamma-ray spectrometry measurements, both surface and air-
borne, have become a recognized tool for exploration for gold by virtue
of golds association with potassium alteration (Shives et al., this vol-
ume). Other metals (e.g., tin/tungsten) are also associated with charac-
teristic changes in the radioelements potassium (K), uranium (U) and
thorium (Th). These are the targets of gamma-ray spectral measure-
ments for the indirect detection of the metals. Likewise, borehole
gamma-ray spectral logging can aid in the search for these targets.

Figure 4: A gamma-ray spectral log through a mineralized zone in the

BOREHOLE CORE Hemlo gold mining area showing potassium enrichment.
(SI) (SI)
0.4

0.4
0

0
5

A gamma-ray spectral log recorded in the Hemlo Gold mining area of

Ontario is shown in Figure 4 (Mwenifumbo et al., 1996a). The increase
10

in potassium in the mineralized zone is easily seen. With proper calibra-

tion, the logs could be displayed as % K, ppm eU and ppm eTh.
15
20

Active source/transmitter in the probe; sensor in the probe

Resistivity logging is perhaps one of the oldest borehole geophysical

25

measurements. Here, current is passed through the ground between a

pair of current electrodes, one or both of which may be located in the
30

probe, and which make electrical contact with the rock via the fluid in the
hole. A pair of potential electrodes are used to make the measurements.
35

These also may both be in the probe, or one on the surface. In any case,
the objective is to log the variations in the resistivity of the rock as the
40

probe moves along the hole. The example shown in Figure 5 also shows
in addition to a resistivity log, a spectral IP (induced polarization) log
45

recorded in a zinc deposit (Mwenifumbo, 1989). The spectral IP log

shows six traces, each of which represents a different time window in the
TIME TIME decay of the IP waveform. Although the technology exists for these mea-
Gneiss
7 7 surements, very little work has been done to interpret the spectral IP data,
Pegmatite and this may be an area of activity in the next few years. The same figure
MINUTES HOURS
shows the result of a spectral gamma-gamma (SGG) ratio log through the
zinc-rich zone (see Killeen, 1997). The additional detail on the distribu-
Figure 3: Comparison of magnetic susceptibility measurements made tion of zinc, as compared to the core assays is evident. The high IP
by logging the hole and by logging the core. response in the mineralized zone may be due to pyrite with the sphalerite,
34 Keynote Session

but this has not been confirmed. The resistivity log shows low values in The acoustic velocity probe in Figure 7a shows the relative positions
the mineralized zone, which would be unusual for sphalerite alone. of the source and receivers. Velocities are computed from the travel
An inductive conductivity log through a copper ore zone, along with times and distance between the receivers. In this version, the entire
the core assays and geological log are shown in Figure 6. The borehole waveform is digitized and recorded at each ping of the transmitter,
probe has a transmitter-receiver coil pair which measures the presence making it possible to pick both P (compressional) and S (shear) wave
of near-hole conductors. The method can be calibrated to produce arrival times from the record. The velocity data may be used to refine
quantitative ore grades in mine development. Several inductive conduc- interpretation of surface seismic surveys in mineral exploration, or in
tivity probes are now available, in single coil and double coil versions. combination with density logs to compute geotechnical parameters
Each probe covers a slightly different range of conductivities. used in mining operations (see Pflug et al., this volume). Figure 7b
shows velocity logs recorded in the McConnell nickel deposit, Sudbury
area, and at the Kidd Creek polymetallic massive sulphide, Timmins
area, both in Ontario.

Source on the surface; sensor in the probe

The borehole electromagnetic methods have become widely utilized

since the development of the original Crone pulse electromagnetic
(PEM) system around 1975. The concept of the borehole EM system is
illustrated in Figure 8. A surface transmitting loop is located near the

Figure 5: Resistivity, spectral IP and spectral gamma-gamma (SGG)

logs through a zinc-rich zone.

Log10(Conductivity) Cu (%)
High
Low

25
0
60
70
80
Depth (m)
90
100
110
120
130

Figure 7: (a) Acoustic velocity probe with transmitter and two receivers
(b) Acoustic P-wave velocity logs recorded in massive sulphides at Kidd
Figure 6: Inductive conductivity log through a copper-rich massive sul- Creek (Cu/Pb/Zn + pyrite) and at the McConnell nickel deposit
phide zone hosted by cherty breccia. (pentlandite/pyrrhotite).
Killeen, P.G. BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS: EXPLORING THE THIRD DIMENSION 35

Figure 8: The concept of a borehole electromagnetic system showing a transmitter loop on the surface and a borehole receiver probe which detects anom-
alous secondary fields from offhole conductors (modified from Crone Geophysics).

collar of the hole in which the receiver probe is moving, and the volume Figure 12 in which the theoretical vectors recorded in two holes passing
of rock between the loop and the path of the hole is investigated for to the north and south of a magnetic body are shown. The vectors are the
anomalous conductors. The loop is then moved to a new location rela- projections in a north-south vertical section. New 3-D modelling soft-
tive to the hole and the hole is logged again with the receiver. Typically, ware has been developed for interpreting data from the magnetometer
loop locations may be north, south, east and west of the hole, and possi- probe, some examples of which may be found in this volume (Mueller
bly one centred on the collar of the hole. There are now numerous time- et al., this volume). As for the gravitational field, Scintrex Ltd. and
domain EM systems, including the Geonics system, the UTEM system of Schlumberger Technology Corp. have developed a proprietary gravity
Lamontagne Geophysics and the SIROTEM system from Australia, as borehole measurement system, to come into production in 1997. Prima-
well as frequency domain EM systems such as the BORIS system intro- rily developed for use in the oil industry, it is hoped that a version suitable
duced in 1996 by IRIS Instruments in France. All of these systems have for mineral exploration boreholes will follow in the not too distant future.
evolved to where they can now measure three components of the elec-
tromagnetic field, at the receiver in the hole. Initially each component
required a separate run in the hole, but recently simultaneous recording Measure the properties of the fluid in the hole
of all three components has become available for most systems.
In the VSP method (Vertical Seismic Profiling), a surface seismic Many measurements of the properties of the fluid in the hole such as
energy source is used in conjunction with a string of geophones (hydro- fluid conductivity, pH, Eh, and temperature are possible. A temperature
phones) in the borehole, as shown in Figure 9 (Hunter et al., 1997). The probe usually has one or more thermisters on the nose or tip of the
string is stationary during the shot, and moved along the hole by a dis- probe, which measures the undisturbed fluid ahead of the probe in a
tance about equal to the length of the string, for each successive shot. downward run in the hole, as shown in Figure 13a. Water flows have the
Another possible surface source is the earths magnetic field or grav- largest effect on the measurements as shown in Figure 13b, and these
itational field. Probes such as the IFG Corp. magnetometer probe shown may provide useful data, or mask desired information such as the ther-
in Figure 10 are now available which measure three oriented components mal conductivity variations shown in Figure 14. Here, the high thermal
of the magnetic field. Here, solid state tiltmeters are used as part of the conductivity produces a very low temperature gradient through the
orientation measurement, but some probes use accelerometers or gyros. massive sulphides. This anomalous gradient may also be detectable in
Although three-component magnetometer probes were available 20 holes that are near misses to massive sulphides (Mwenifumbo, 1993).
years ago, at that time their orientation was a problem. Figure 11 is a set
of logs from a three-component magnetometer probe, showing the x, y,
xy cross product, z and total magnetic field values as the probe passes Study the borehole walls
through a massive sulphide. The high magnetic susceptibility of the sul-
phides distorts the field as the probe passes through them, but those val- Numerous borehole televiewers with black and white or colour
ues can be smoothed out. The use of magnetic vectors is illustrated in recording are now available. Pressure on the camera window, along with
36 Keynote Session

Figure 10: A three-component magnetometer probe with orthogonal

tiltmeters for orientation (modified after figure by IFG Corp.).

Figure 11: Logs of the three components of the magnetic field, x,y,and z,
Figure 9: The concept of vertical seismic profiling (VSP) (after Hunter and the computed xy cross product and total field. The effects on the logs of
et al., 1997). the high magnetic susceptibility in the massive sulphides is clearly evident.
Killeen, P.G. BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS: EXPLORING THE THIRD DIMENSION 37

Figure 12: The concept of using magnetic vector components to determine the location of a body. The magnetic vectors in two holes in a north-south
section on the left result from the presence of the spherical body between the holes as shown on the right.

Temperature Gradient Temperature

O
(mK/m) ( C)
4.5

5.1
12
0
60
70

LEGEND
Tuff
80

Argillite
Depth (m)

Sulphides
90

Gabbro
100
110
120

Figure 13: (a) A borehole temperature probe with thermister-tip on the Figure 14: Temperature and temperature gradient logs through a mas-
nose. (b) Temperature and temperature gradient logs through two zones sive sulphide, showing the near-zero gradient in the high thermal conduc-
with water flows in fractures/joints intersected by the hole. tivity sulphides.
38 Keynote Session

the clarity of the borehole fluid are usually the limiting factors. An Hole-to-hole configuration
acoustic televiewer uses sonic waves to scan the wall of the hole from a
rotating source in the probe. Thus an image of the wall of the hole, which Measurements between holes may be made with both the source and
is almost a topographic map instead of a photograph, is built up by suc- sensor travelling simultaneously down their respective boreholes as
cessive scans. Another image of the borehole wall is possible using an shown in Figure 16, or a tomographic image may be built up from the
electrical method with 32 electrodes equally spaced around the probe data obtained from many combinations of source-sensor locations as
(the ELIAS probe, by OYO Corp.). As the probe moves in the hole, the shown in the borehole radar image of Figure 17. A more detailed image
contact resistance at each electrode is measured and used to build an is possible if measurements are more closely spaced, and if surface-to-
electrical resistance image of the borehole wall. hole measurements are added to the picture. Tomographic images may
be produced from seismic data, radar data, RIM (radiowave imaging
method) data as shown in several papers in this volume (McGaughey
Mechanical measurements and Vallee, this volume; Calvert and Livelybrooks, this volume; and
Fullagar and Fallon, this volume). Electrical tomography is also possi-
A caliper measurement is often useful for applying correction factors ble, almost as an extension of the Mise--la-masse (MALM) method
to data which are sensitive to hole diameter. Single-arm calipers are sim- (Mwenifumbo, 1987).
ple but may not be as accurate as a three-arm caliper in some hole
conditions.
Borehole orientation surveys are important, and numerous devices Data processing and interpretation
have been developed to survey the path of a hole. The devices may be
based on magnetic measurements (i.e., a compass), or on measuring dis- The rapid development of the personal computer (PC), has made it
tortion of a pipe as it moves along a crooked borehole (usually by means possible to do many computations in the field which 10 years ago were
of light beams and targets inside the pipe), or based on a gyroscope only possible on an office main-frame computer. More elaborate data
mechanism. An overview of available methods was given by Killeen et al. sets are now also available (e.g., three-component measurements). Soft-
(1995), and by Killeen and Elliott (this volume). Figure 15 shows the ware packages are rapidly evolving. An example of a recent 3-D model
result of surveying a 750-m deep hole with five different probes. The path interpretation of borehole UTEM data is shown in Figure 18. This 3-D
of the hole in plan view, and in an east-west section shows significant dif- image would be much more impressive rotating on a computer monitor
ferences in results. The truth is not known. The path which deviates most screen. This kind of vector modelling is also being developed for mag-
from all the others, may in fact be the most correct. netic measurements as well as EM.

Figure 15: Plan view and east-west section view of the path of a borehole surveyed with five different probes.
Killeen, P.G. BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS: EXPLORING THE THIRD DIMENSION 39

78928 78929 78930 80555 80578

200

200

200

200

200
0

0
LEGEND

0
Casing

20
Conglomerate

40
Metasediment

60
Quartz Diorite
Dyke
Inclusive Massive

80
Sulphide
Massive Sulphide

100
Amphibolite

120
Meta Gabbro

Figure 16

140
Depth (m)
Sudbury Breccia

Meta Basalt

160
Schist

180
Inclusive Quartz
Diorite Dyke

200
Metamorphosed
Sudbury Breccia

220
Alteration Zone

Greywacke
240
Vein
260

Quartzite
280

Structure

Figure 19

Figure 17 Figure 16: Hole-to-hole borehole radar measurements with transmitter

and receiver moving down their respective boreholes simultaneously to
detect anomalous conditions between holes (courtesy Sensors and
Software Ltd.).

Figure 17: Radar tomography produces an image based on multiple

transmitter-receiver paths as shown. Adding surface-to-borehole mea-
surements would enhance the image even further (courtesy Sensors and
Software Ltd.).

Figure 18: A 3-D model for interpretation of three-component vector

electromagnetic measurements with a borehole UTEM system. The four
square conductors model the body causing the measured vectors in the five
surrounding boreholes (courtesy Lamontagne Geophysics Ltd.).

Figure 19: Total count gamma-ray logs in five holes at the McConnell
nickel deposit. Lithological correlation is made easier by correlating high
Figure 18 gamma activity zones (e.g., schists), and low activity zones (e.g., amphib-
olites).
40 Keynote Session

Physical property logs are very useful for lithological correlation

between holes, as shown in the five holes in Figure 19. Here the gamma-
ray log provides a characteristic signature of many of the rock types,
making correlation easier. Correlation between the mineralized zone in
the five holes is shown shaded. Other tentative correlations between
shists (high gamma counts), and also amphibolites (low gamma counts)
are indicated in the figure.
Another method of characterizing different rock units is the use of
cross-plots of different parameters. Clustering of points as shown in Fig-
ure 20 indicates a rock with characteristic physical properties. In the
example shown, different phases of a kimberlite are shown to cluster in
different areas of the plot (Mwenifumbo et al., 1996b).

Figure 21: Concept of a model borehole constructed of concrete with an

artificial ore zone containing K, U or Th in known concentrations for cal-
ibration of gamma-ray probes.

Figure 20: Cross-plots of two parameters logged in a kimberlite, show- Figure 22: Configuration of the six drilled test holes at the GSC Borehole
ing distinct clusters representing mineralogically different phases of the Geophysics Test Area at Bells Corners. The top 70 m is sedimentary rock,
kimberlite. overlying igneous and metamorphic rocks
Killeen, P.G. BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS: EXPLORING THE THIRD DIMENSION 41

Calibration of the McConnell nickel deposit is shown in Figure 23 (Mwenifumbo

et al., 1993; Killeen et al., 1994). Here, twelve geophysical logs are shown
To obtain quantitative borehole geophysical measurements neces- along with the geological log. This figure also illustrates the possibilities
sary for lithological correlation, or to define characteristic signatures, for using geophysical logs to predict geological logs, which are described
the probes must be properly calibrated. In some cases, physical models by Killeen et al. (this volume). Other deposit signatures are expected to
are adequate, such as the gamma-ray calibration model borehole shown be published in the next few years, some in the form of GSC Open Files.
in Figure 21 (Schock et al., 1991), but for large sample volumes, drilled These should provide better data for designing new airborne, surface
holes are required, such as the set of six 300-m deep test holes at the Geo- and borehole geophysical systems.
logical Survey of Canada (GSC) Borehole Geophysics Test Area at Bells
Corners near Ottawa, shown in Figure 22.
CONCLUSIONS

Ore deposit signatures: documenting the target This next decade should finally see universal recognition by the mining
industry of the importance of borehole geophysics, just as it has been
It is probably not adequately appreciated that in order to locate a tar- recognized for years, in the oil industry. However, looking back in the
get, one must first know the characteristics of the target. Many geophys- Exploration 87 proceedings volume, I noticed that Dr. H. O. Seigel in his
ical methods are developed on very scant knowledge of the physical review paper stated Borehole geophysics will come into more general
properties of the ore bodies and host rocks. In 1992 the GSC began a use (p. 93), and on p. 102 Borehole logging has the potential to form
project to provide some new in situ physical property data on major ore a very important pillar of mineral exploration practice. Now, in 1997, I
deposit types and their host rocks. The borehole geophysical signature can only say that I second that emotion!

Figure 23: The borehole geophysical signature of the McConnell nickel deposit showing the variation in twelve different parameters through the miner-
alized zone and host rocks.
42 Keynote Session

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Killeen, P.G., C.J. Mwenifumbo, B.E. Elliott, and C.J. Chung, this volume,
Improving exploration efficiency by predicting geological drill core logs with
geophysical logs.
The author would like to thank those companies that provided material
for the figures, including Crone Geophysics, Lamontagne Geophysics, McGaughey, W.J., and M.A. Vallee, this volume, Ore delineation in three
dimensions.
and Sensors and Software. Special thanks are due to Susan Davis for
Mueller E., W.A. Morris, P.G. Killeen, and S.J. Balch, this volume, Combined 3-D
preparation of many of the figures, and to Barbara Elliott, Karen Pflug interpretation of airborne, surface, and borehole vector magnetics at the
and Robin McLeod who reprocessed data to provide special figures. McConnell nickel deposit.
Contributions to this review include material prepared in the last ten Mwenifumbo, C.J., 1987, Cross-borehole Mise--la-masse mapping of fracture
years by Jonathan Mwenifumbo, Laurel Schock, Gordon Bernius, zones at the Bells Corners Borehole Geophysics Test Area, Ottawa, Canada;
Bill Hyatt, Steve Birk, Jacques Parker and Yves Blanchard. in Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Borehole Geophysics
for Minerals, Geotechnical and Groundwater Applications, Oct. 6-8, 1987,
Golden, Colorado, Paper M, p. 151-165.
Mwenifumbo, C.J., 1989, Optimization of logging parameters in continuous time
REFERENCES domain induced polarization measurements, in Proceedings of the 3rd Inter-
national Symposium on Borehole Geophysics for Minerals, Geotechnical
Calvert, A.J., and D. Livelybrooks, this volume, Borehole radar reflection imaging and Groundwater Applications, Las Vegas, Nevada, Paper N, p. 201-232.
at the McConnell nickel deposit, Sudbury.
Mwenifumbo, C.J., 1993, Temperature logging in mineral exploration; Journal of
Fullagar, P.K., and G.N. Fallon, this volume, Geophysics in metalliferous mines Applied Geophysics, 30, p.297-313.
for ore body delineation and rock mass characterization.
Mwenifumbo, C.J., P.G. Killeen, B.E. Elliott, and K.A. Pflug, 1993, The borehole
Hunter, J.A., S.E. Pullan, R.A. Burns, R.L. Good, J.B. Harris, A. Pugin,
geophysical signature of the McConnell Nickel Deposit, Sudbury area; in
A. Skvortsov, and N.N. Goriainov, 1997, Downhole seismic logging for high
Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium of the Minerals & Geotech-
resolution reflection surveying in unconsolidated overburden; Geophysics,
nical Logging Society, Tulsa, 24-28 October 1993, Paper I, p. 1-8.
(in press).
Killeen, P.G., this volume, Nuclear techniques for ore grade estimation. Mwenifumbo, C.J., P.G. Killeen, and B.E. Elliott, 1996a, Borehole geophysical
logs from the Hemlo Gold Deposit, Ontario; Geological Survey of Canada
Killeen, P.G., and C.J. Mwenifumbo, 1987, Interpretation of new generation geo- Open File 3168.
physical logs in Canadian mineral exploration; in: Proceedings of 2nd Inter-
national Symposium on Borehole Geophysics for Minerals, Geotechnical and Mwenifumbo, C.J., P.G. Killeen, and B.E. Elliott, 1996b, Borehole geophysical sig-
Groundwater Applications, Oct. 6-8, 1987, Golden, Colorado, p. 167-178. natures of kimberlites in Canada, in Proceedings of the 6th Int. MGLS Sym-
posium on Borehole Geophysics for Minerals, Geotechnical and Groundwater
Killeen, P.G., C.J. Mwenifumbo, and B.E. Elliott, 1994, Mineral deposit signatures
Applications, Santa Fe, New Mexico Oct. 22-25, 1995, Paper E, p. 1-30.
by borehole geophysics: Data from the borehole geophysical test site at the
McConnell nickel deposit (Garson Offset), Ontario; Geological Survey of Pflug, K.A., C.J. Mwenifumbo, and P.G. Killeen, this volume, Full waveform
Canada, Open File 2811. acoustic logging applications in mineral exploration and mining.
Killeen P.G., G.R. Bernius, and C.J. Mwenifumbo, 1995, Surveying the path of Schock, L.D., P.G. Killeen, B.E. Elliott, and G.R Bernius, 1991. A review of Cana-
boreholes: a review of orientation methods and experience, in Proceedings of dian calibration facilities for borehole geophysical measurements, in Pro-
the 6th International MGLS Symposium on Borehole Geophysics for Miner- ceedings 4th International Symposium on Borehole Geophysics for Mineral
als, Geotechnical and Groundwater Applications, Oct. 22-25, 1995, Santa Fe, and Geotechnical Logging, August 18-22, Toronto, Ontario, p. 191-202.
New Mexico, Paper V, p. 1-25. Shives, R.B.K., B.W. Charbonneau, and K.L. Ford, this volume, The detection of
Killeen, P.G., and B.E. Elliott, this volume, Surveying the path of boreholes: potassic alteration by gamma-ray spectrometry: recognition of alteration
a review of developments since 1987. related to mineralization.