CE 323-Highway Engineering I Editted 2011
CE 323-Highway Engineering I Editted 2011
CE 323-Highway Engineering I Editted 2011
LECTURE NOTES
By
KIBERU FAISAL
February 2012
Table of Contents i
Course Structure
Third Year; Semester II
Core Course: Yes
Lecture Hours [L]: 45 Contact Hours [CH]: 60
Practical Hours [P]: 30 Credit Units [CU]: 4
Course Assessment
Course Work: 40% [Assignments 15%, Tests 25%]
Final Examination: 60%
Normal Progress
Grade Point [GP] 2.0 [50%]
Course Outline
Introduction: History and Development of Urban Roads;
roads; Single and Double Carriageways;
Planning and Layout of Roads; Junctions;
Route Surveys; Intersections;
Selection of Routes; Roundabouts;
Site Investigation; Road Furniture;
Soil Survey; A Case Study of Uganda;
Types of Roads: Low Cost Roads, Granite Maintenance of Roads.
Sets, Flexible & Rigid roads;
Soils Technology for Roads; Field Exercise:
Soil Stabilisation; Planning of one Layout of Length of a New
Construction Techniques; Road Using Available Contoured Maps
Drainage;
Street Lighting;
Highways; i
Rural roads;
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Table of Contents ii
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................. ii
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................... vi
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................... vii
Symbols and Abbreviations ..............................................................................................................viii
1.0 History and Development of Roads ......................................................................................... 1
1.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Definitions of some common terms ......................................................................................... 1
1.2 Early Age Road Development ................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Middle Age Road Development .............................................................................................. 2
1.4 19th Century Roads ................................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Roads in the World Today ....................................................................................................... 4
1.5.1 References ................................................................................................................................ 6
2.0 Planning and Layout of Roads ................................................................................................. 7
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 7
2.2 Goals and Objectives ............................................................................................................... 7
2.3 The Project Cycle ..................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.1 Components of the Project Cycle............................................................................................. 8
2.3.2 Problem Identification.............................................................................................................. 8
2.3.3 Pre-feasibility ........................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.4 Feasibility ................................................................................................................................. 9
2.3.5 Design ...................................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.6 Commitment and negotiation ................................................................................................... 9
2.3.7 Implementation ...................................................................................................................... 10
2.3.8 Operation ................................................................................................................................ 10
2.3.9 Monitoring and Evaluation .................................................................................................... 10
2.4 Overview of Road Appraisal in Developing Countries ......................................................... 10
2.4.1 Define Objectives ................................................................................................................... 11
2.4.2 Determining alternative ways of meeting Objectives ............................................................ 11
2.4.3 Preliminary considerations ..................................................................................................... 12
2.4.4 Assess Traffic Demand .......................................................................................................... 12
2.4.5 Design and Cost different Options ......................................................................................... 12
2.4.6 Determine Benefits of each Alternative ................................................................................. 13
2.4.7 Economic Analysis and comparison of alternatives .............................................................. 13
2.4.8 Recommendations .................................................................................................................. 13
2.5 A Typical Road Project Appraisal Process in Uganda .......................................................... 13
2.6 Economic Evaluation of Highway Projects ........................................................................... 16
2.6.1 Role of Economic Evaluation ................................................................................................ 16
2.6.2 Some Basic Principles............................................................................................................ 16 ii
2.6.3 Time Value for Money ........................................................................................................... 17
2.6.4 Costs and Benefits.................................................................................................................. 17
2.6.5 Evaluation Techniques ........................................................................................................... 20
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Table of Contents iii
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Table of Contents iv
iv
Table of Contents v
v
List of Tables vi
List of Tables
Table 1.1: International Comparison of Road Statistics ...................................................................... 4
Table 1.2: Car Ownership Rates (Cars per 1000 persons) ................................................................... 6
Table 2.1: Computation of NPV, B/C Ratio and IRR........................................................................ 23
Table 4.1: Terrain Classification ........................................................................................................ 35
Table 4.2: Conversion Factor of Vehicle into Passenger Car ............................................................ 36
Table 4.3: Dimensions of Design Vehicles ........................................................................................ 37
Table 4.4: Level of Access Control ................................................................................................... 39
Table 4.5: Stopping Sight Distance on Level Ground for Wet Pavement Condition ........................ 41
Table 4.6: Coefficient of Lateral Friction as Recommended by AASHTO....................................... 48
Table 4.7: Maximum Grades as recommended by MoWH&C ......................................................... 58
Table 4.8: Minimum Radii for Crest Curves as Recommended by MoWH&C ................................ 63
Table 4.9: Minimum Radii for Sag Curves as recommended by MoWH&C .................................... 63
Table 4.10: Types of At-grade Intersections as recommended by MoWH&C .................................. 76
Table 4.11: The Limits of the Parameters used in Roundabout Capacity Equation .......................... 89
Table 5.1: Subgrade Classes ............................................................................................................ 100
Table 5.2: Traffic Groups................................................................................................................. 101
Table 5.3: Average Vehicle Equivalence Factors, Ci ...................................................................... 101
Table 5.4: Traffic Classes ................................................................................................................ 101
Table 5.5: Determination of DSN for different Subgrade and Traffic Classes................................ 101
Table 5.6: Layer Coefficients........................................................................................................... 102
Table 5.7: Compacted Thickness Ranges ........................................................................................ 102
vi
vi
List of Figures vii
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Cross Section of Early Roads .......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 2.1: Typical Road Project Appraisal in Uganda ..................................................................... 14
Figure 4.1: Stopping and Passing Sight Distances on a crest curve .................................................. 43
Figure 4.2: Sight Distance Requirements on a horizontal curve with S L ...................................... 44
Figure 4.3: Sight Distance Requirements on a horizontal curve with S > L ...................................... 45
Figure 4.4: Forces acting on a vehicle on a horizontal curve ............................................................ 46
Figure 4.5: Stages involved in attainment of super-elevation ............................................................ 50
Figure 4.6: Attaining Super-elevation by revolving about the centre line ......................................... 51
Figure 4.7: Main Elements of a Circular Curve Provided with Transitions ...................................... 52
Figure 4.8: Widening on Curves ........................................................................................................ 54
Figure 4.9: Climbing Lane outside the ordinary lane ........................................................................ 59
Figure 4.10: Highway Cross falls ...................................................................................................... 59
Figure 4.11: Typical Vertical Curves................................................................................................. 60
Figure 4.12: A Simple Symmetrical Parabolic curve ........................................................................ 60
Figure 4.13: Sight distance over crest curves when a) S L and b) when S > L .............................. 62
Figure 4.14: Single Carriageway Cross-section Elements ................................................................. 70
Figure 4.15: Dual Carriageway Cross-section Elements ................................................................... 71
Figure 4.16: Basic Intersection Forms ............................................................................................... 75
Figure 4.17: Typical Access Layout showing Visibility Requirements ............................................ 76
Figure 4.18: Typical T-Intersections .................................................................................................. 77
Figure 4.19: Typical Designs for Control Intersections..................................................................... 78
Figure 4.20: Selection of Intersection Category based on Safety ...................................................... 80
Figure 4.21: Selection of Intersection Category based on Capacity .................................................. 81
Figure 4.22: Selection of Priority Intersection type based on Safety................................................. 82
Figure 4.23: Selection of Control Intersection Type.......................................................................... 83
Figure 4.24: Selection of Control Intersection Type.......................................................................... 84
Figure 5.1: Definition of Pavement layers ......................................................................................... 95
Figure 5.2: Summary of the Pavement Design Process ..................................................................... 98
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Symbols and Abbreviations viii
viii
viii
History and Development of Roads 1
1.0 Introduction
Everybody travels, whether it is to work, play, shop, do business, or simply visit people. All
foodstuffs and raw materials must be carried from their place of origin to their place
consumption [OFlaherty, 2002].
Historically, people have travelled and goods have been moved by:
a) Road i.e. using cars, wagons, cycles and motor vehicles;
b) Water i.e. using ships and boats;
c) Rail i.e. initially using animals and then the steam oil or electric powered
locomotives to pull passenger carriages and goods wagons;
d) Air i.e. using airships and aeroplanes (20th Century)
A highway is an arterial road facility designed for high speed and high volume traffic in
non-urban areas. For example, the national road network of a country is called the National
Highway Network.
A road is a lower order facility, designed for relatively lower speed and lower volume
traffic in the non-urban areas. For example, they can be district roads or village roads.
As civilization developed and peoples desire for communication increased, the early trails
became pathways and the pathways evolved into recognized travelways. Many of these
early travel ways-termed ridge ways- were located high on hillsides where the underbrush
was less dense and walking was easier; they were also above soft ground in wet valleys and
avoided unsafe wooded areas. 1
As civilization advanced, the growth of agriculture took place and human settlements began
to be formed. The invention of the wheel in 5000BC and the domestication of animals saw
the advent of chariots and carts. These carts enabled heavy loads to be carried more easily
1
Middle Age Road Development 2
and gave rise to wider travelways with firmer surfacings capable of carrying concentrated
loads, but with less steep connecting routes down to/up from valleys and fordable streams.
Thus trackways evolved along the contours of lower slopes e.g. they were sufficiently above
the bottoms of valleys to ensure good drainage but low enough to obviate unnecessary
climbing.
The trackways eventually become well established trade routes along which settlements
developed and these gave rise to hamlets and villages - Some of which, eventually, became
towns and cities.
Early manufactured roads were stone-paved streets of Ur in the Middle East (4000BC), the
corduroy log paths near Glastonbury, England (3300BC), and brick pavings in India
(3000BC): The oldest existing wooden pathway in Europe, the 2km long Sweet Track, was
built across (and parts subsequently preserved in) marshy ground near Glastonbury. The
oldest existing stone road in Europe was built in Crete in 2000BC.
At its peak the Roman road system, which was based on 29 major roads radiating from
Rome to the outermost fringed of the empire, totalled 52,964 Roman miles (approx.
78,000km) in length.
Started in 312BC, the roads were built with conscripted or forced labour; their purpose was
to hold together the 113 provinces of the empire by aiding imperial administration,
extension of the territorial limits of the empire and quelling rebellions after a region was
conquered.
The roads were commonly constructed at least 4.25m wide to enable two chariots to pass
with ease and legions (large group of soldiers) to march abreast. It was common practice to
reduce gradients by cutting tunnels, and one such tunnel on the Via Appia was 0.75km long.
Most of the Roman roads well built on embankments 1m to 2m high so as to give the troops
a commanding view of the country side and make them less vulnerable to surprise attacks;
this had the engineering by-product of helping to keep the carriage way dry.
The roads mainly comprised of straight sections as they provided the most direct routes to
the administrative areas; however deviations from the straight line were tolerated in hilly
regions or if suitable established track ways were available.
The withdrawal of the legions from Britain in AD 407; foreshadowed the breakdown of the
only road system in Europe until the advent of the 17th century.
While the Roman roads in Britain continued to be the main highways of internal
communications for a very long time; they inevitably began to decay and disintegrate under
the actions of weather, traffic and human resourcefulness. Eventually, their condition
became so appalling that when sections became impassable, they were simply abandoned
2
and new tracks created about them.
The onset of the 18th century also saw foreign trade become more important to Great
Britains steadily developing manufacturing industries and soon long trains of carts and
2
Middle Age Road Development 3
wagons were common sights as they laboriously dragged coal from mines to iron works,
glassworks and potteries and manufactured goods to harbours and ports, along very
inadequate ways.
Confronted by the above pressures and the terrible state of the roads, parliament passed in
1706, the first of many statutes that eventually created over 1,100 Turnpike Trusts. These
trusts which administered some 36,800km of road were each empowered to construct and
maintain a specified road length and levy tolls upon certain types of traffic.
The development of the toll road system, especially in the century following 1750, was
important for many reasons, not least of which were:
a) It promoted the development of road making techniques in Britain and allowed the
emergence of skilled road makers e.g. Thomas Telford, John Loudon Mc Adam and
Pierre Tresaguet.
b) It established that road users should pay some road costs.
c) It determined the framework of the 20th century pre-motorway trunk road network
The steam-powered railway service in 1825 marked the beginning of the end for the
Turnpike Trusts as the transfer of long distance passengers from road to rail was almost
instantaneous and towns were accessed by railway.
Pierre Tresaguet, the inspector general of roads in France was the first to recognize the
importance of drainage of roads and its methodical maintenance. He appreciated the role of
moisture in soils and pavements and how moisture affects the performance of road beds.
Camber began to be introduced in roads during his time. Thus, he can be rightly called the
father of modern highway engineering.
The name of John Metcalf is associated in Britain with the art of building good and stable
roads in the latter part of the 18th century. He used boulders to achieve strong foundations
for roads and spread gravel as a surface layer. He pioneered the construction of good roads
on soft ground, using a sub base of bundles of heather (Low spreading bush with small pink-
purple flowers).
A run of names of eminent highway engineers is incomplete without John McAdams (1756-
1836). He was a Scottish road builder who has influenced road construction so profoundly
that the term Macadam is frequently used in pavement specifications even to this day. His
two important principles of good road construction were;
a) It is the native soil that supports the traffic load ultimately and when the soil is
maintained in a dry state, it can carry heavy loads without settlement.
b) Stones which are broken to small angular pieces and compacted can interlock each
other and form a hard surface.
3
Thus Mc Adams specifications were at variance with Telfords in that smaller pieces of
stones with angular faces were favoured than larger hand packed boulders. He is reported to
have given a practical hint to engineers in selecting the size of stones; the size is good if the
3
19th Century Roads 4
stone can be put into the mouth. How valid his advice is even to this day! Other than the
innovative specifications he introduced, Mc Adam is also remembered for his foresight in
urging the creation of a central highway authority to advise and monitor all matters relating
to roads in Britain. His recommendation is valid even now in Uganda [Kadiyali, 2006].
The automobile had its slow development in the 19th century, but the First World War,
1914-18, gave momentum to its growth. Thus the road was given a new lease of life
[OFlaherty, 2002].
NB: 4
All values are for 1998
Indias road length now is 3.3million km and the road is 1km/sq km.
4
Roads in the World Today 5
In modern times, Europe saw the beginnings of the Expressway system of World War II.
Italy, under Mussolini, started the Autostrade. The famous German Autobahns were
planned in the late 1920s and Hitler accelerated their completion. The Autobahns became a
key part of the war-time infrastructure for the movement of tanks and other military vehicles
UK started its Motorway construction rather late, in the 1950s. These form the arterial road
grid of the country linking London to major cities like Manchester, Liverpool, Hull, Bristol,
Edinburgh and Newcastle.
Perhaps the largest arterial system, the US interstate, was started after World War II as a
national defence system. The construction of the 41, 000 miles system was approved in
1956. It was funded by the Federal Government to an extent of 90 per cent, the balance
being states matching share. It linked all the major cities of the nation. It is toll-free.
USA also pioneered the modern super highway - a limited access, high-speed facility. The
Bronx River Parkway constructed in 1925 was the forerunner to many such to come later.
Autobahns of Germany
Germany began constructing its express ways, which were known as Autobahns in the late
1920s. Before the start of the Second World War, Germany had about 4,000 km of express
ways. The country has now 11,238km of express ways most of which are non-toll.
Vehicle Ownership
Since road transport gives mobility to persons, the vehicle ownership rate has been
increasing at a fast rate round the world. Table 1.2 gives a comparison of the car-ownership
rate (cars per 1000 persons) in some selected countries. The rate is very high in USA. (One
car per two persons), and is currently low in India (one car per 250 persons). This rapid
growth calls for modernization of the road system.
5
References 6
1.5.1 References
1. Kadiyali, L.R., 2006. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering (including
Expressways and Airport Engineering), 4th Edition. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
2. OFlaherty C.A., 2002. Highways: The Location, Design, Construction and
Maintenance of Pavements. 4th Edition, Oxford, Butterworth Heinemann.
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Planning and Layout of Roads 7
2.1 Introduction
Transport is an important infrastructure for development. It occupies a pivotal position in the
growth of developing countries. Planning for economic development is now an accepted
tool widely followed in most of the countries. So far there is very little evidence of a
scientific approach in planning at the national level in the transport sector. However, the
outlays and targets are normally adopted after a careful study of the existing facilities, their
deficiencies and immediate needs. Very often it has been experienced that investment
decisions are taken after a bottleneck situation develops. The transport plan should be
integrated in the countries overall economic plan since transport in its own sake has no
meaning. It assumes importance only in as far as its serves the ultimate goal of development
i.e. transport plans must translate overall development objectives and potentials into
transport requirements [Kadiyali, 2006].
7
The Project Cycle 8
The first three steps (1-3) make up the planning phases of the project cycle, though
evaluation (step 8) may also be considered integral to the planning process by providing
feedback on the wisdom and processes of past decisions. Figure 2.1 provides an outline of
the stages of the project cycle. The planning phases of the cycle involve a gradual process of
screening and refining alternative options (for resolving an earlier identified problem). In
this process there are clear decision points (at the end of each stage) when potential projects
are either rejected or taken forward for further and more detailed analysis. Dubious projects
should be rejected at an early planning stage (and before feasibility) as they gain a
momentum of their own, and hence become increasingly difficult to stop at the later stages
in the cycle when minor changes of detail are often all that are possible. Within each of the
planning phases (project identification, pre-feasibility and feasibility), the same basic
process of analysis is adopted. Differences occur largely in the level of detail applied.
Sometimes phases are merged, with pre-feasibility becoming an extension of the project
identification, or a first step in the feasibility stage [TRL, 2005].
8
Pre-feasibility 9
2.3.3 Pre-feasibility
At the start of the pre-feasibility stage there is a clearly defined transport problem (identified
in general planning), but no strong evidence that this problem could be solved by road
improvement, or any other transport solution (e.g. improvements to transport services) in an
environmentally or economically acceptable manner. By the end of the pre-feasibility stage,
there will be clear evidence whether or not a road improvement project is worthwhile. If it
is, the pre-feasibility will normally identify what type of project would be suitable, checks
that the project is not premature and provides the information needed to commission a
feasibility study. Typically, this phase might identify corridors that require a new road.
An affirmative pre-feasibility study will also trigger the inclusion of a line-item in the
long-term road preparation budget (of the ministry or its highway agency). It gives advance
warning that monies will need to be budgeted for the future implementation of this particular
project. The pre-feasibility study may indicate that the proposed road improvement project
would not be effective in solving the problem, or should be reconsidered later, perhaps when
there is more traffic). In that case the process should be terminated or shelved without
incurring the high cost of a feasibility study.
2.3.4 Feasibility
The feasibility study finds the most suitable road improvement project for solving or helping
to solve an identified transport problem. At the start of the study there is a clearly defined
problem with an expectation that the problem can be solved by some form of road
improvement, in a manner that is environmentally, socially and economically acceptable.
This expectation is backed up by the evidence needed to justify the considerable cost of
carrying out a feasibility study (identified in a pre-feasibility study). The level of detail of
this study will depend on the complexity of the project and how much is already known
about the proposal.
By the end of the study there should be a clear recommendation for a specific road
improvement project. The study will provide evidence that this particular project should be
carried out and that this project provides the most suitable solution to the problem, taking
into account its operational benefits and its environmental and economic implications. It will
also provide a detailed description and a preliminary engineering design (PED) and
associated drawings of the proposed project to enable costs to be determined at a level of
detail to enable funding decisions to be made. The feasibility study will also provide an
input to the road preparation budget process, giving greater detail (than earlier phases) of
costs that will be incurred and project timings.
2.3.5 Design
The final engineering design (FED) is often very costly (up to 15 per cent of project costs)
and usually follows provisional commitment to the project. Numerous decisions which will
affect economic performance are taken throughout design; and economic appraisal often
results in redesign. In this stage, working drawings and bills of quantities are normally
prepared.
9
2.3.6 Negotiation and Commitment
Commitment of funds often takes place in a series of stages. This is followed by invitations
to tender and negotiations with contractors, potential financiers and suppliers. At this stage,
there are still considerable uncertainties.
9
Implementation 10
2.3.7 Implementation
Several aspects of the earlier stages in the project cycle will affect the success of the
implementation. The better and more realistic the plan, the more likely it is that the plan can
actually be carried out and the full benefits be realised. A flexible implementation plan
should also be sought. It is almost inevitable that some circumstances will change during the
implementation. Technical changes may be required as more detailed soils information
becomes available or as the relative prices of construction materials change. Project
managers may need to change and re-plan parts of the project to take account of such
variations. The more innovative and original the project is the greater is the likelihood that
changes will have to be made during implementation.
2.3.8 Operation
This refers to the actual use of the road by traffic; it is during this phase that benefits are
realised and maintenance is undertaken.
The steps are not necessarily sequential and involve iteration. The above steps will now be
discussed: 10
10
Define Objectives 11
Depending on the objectives of the investment, the project is appraised against different sets
of criteria. Development Banks like World Bank and the Asian Development Bank are
increasingly getting involved in strategic planning of road networks in developing countries.
This calls for alignment of a countrys Transport Plan with a Development Banks country
strategy.
11
Preliminary considerations 12
a) Analysis period and design life Most road projects are analysed on a 15 year time
horizon. The analysis period may be partly dictated by the nature of the
investigation. For example, long periods are useful when comparing mutually
exclusive projects, whereas short periods may be appropriate for small projects (such
as regravelling of rural access roads), where the life of the investment is expected to
be limited to a few years.
b) Uncertainty and risk Projects in developing countries are always set against a
background of economic, social and political uncertainty to some degree. The steps
taken to reduce uncertainty include risk analysis using probabilistic techniques for
well defined projects and scenario analysis in explanatory projects.
e) Socio-economic considerations The major issues that are assessed in terms of the
impact of the project on the target community are social changes, construction
consequences, road accidents, severance, minorities like gender issues and
availability of local expertise and resources.
12
2.4.5 Design and Cost different Options
Cost estimates should encompass analytical techniques and rigorous procedures of risk
management to produce realistic estimates. The major activities undertaken in this step
include: Route location, pavement design, geometric design and design of drainage
12
Determine Benefits of each Alternative 13
structures. In this stage an optimal balance between cost of provision and user cost is
important.
2.4.8 Recommendations
The feasibility study report marks the end of the appraisal process and recommends whether
the project should go ahead and the standards to which it should be built. The depth and
detail to which the report covers certain aspects depends on who the report is being made
for. An analysis carried out for a development bank covers financial aspects very
thoroughly. Projects prepared for aid agencies normally dwell heavily on the socio-
economic factors.
13
13
A Typical Road Project Appraisal Process in Uganda 14
3. Determine Alternatives
4. Project Strategy
8. Finalisation of Recommendation
Step 1: Objectives
The study objectives were derived from two major sources namely: 14
a) The 10 year road sector development programme (RSDP);
b) The strategy related to the Trans-African Highway.
14
A Typical Road Project Appraisal Process in Uganda 15
15
Step 10: Detailed design, Tender and Construction
If the financier approved the study, funds would be released for detailed design, tender and
construction of the road.
15
Economic Evaluation of Highway Projects 16
Interestingly, the study period for the Kampala-Fort portal road took 26years (1972-1998).
Yet the process would ordinarily take three years.
Economic evaluation is a rational approach at quantifying the future benefits and costs of
proposed highway improvements with a view to determine the extent to which the projects
will contribute to the goal of raising the living standard of the people and their general
welfare. It provides for a systematic and unbiased procedure for selection of schemes for
implementation under the Ten Year Road Sector Development Plans. It ensures that the
most worthwhile projects are given the highest priority.
Economic evaluation of highway projects can also be carried out to weigh other alternative
transport projects, such as railway projects, pipe-lines or inland water transport projects, in
order to select the most beneficial scheme.
The following are some of the specific objectives in carrying out an economic evaluation:
1. To decide whether the scheme under consideration is worth investment at all;
2. To rank schemes competing for scarce resources in order of priority;
3. To compare various alternative schemes and select the one most economical;
4. To assist in phasing the programme (stage construction) depending upon the
availability of resources.
a) Economic evaluation makes it possible to choose the best of the various alternatives.
The question before the analyst is to suggest the most attractive of them. Often the
choice is between do-nothing, and other improvement schemes.
b) In economic evaluation, all past actions are irrelevant. What is of prime importance
is the future flow of costs and benefits.
c) In highway projects, the appraisal is carried out from the view-point of the nation as 16
a whole, and is not restricted to any sub-set like the highway agency, truckers,
private motorists and bus operators.
d) Economic analysis should not be misunderstood with financial analysis.
16
Time Value for Money 17
e) Economic evaluation should take place within a set of established criteria such as
minimum attractive rate of return, interest rate etc.
f) Opportunity cost of capital and resources should be considered wherever they are
important.
g) The period of analysis need not be too long in view of the uncertainties associated
with the future traffic and benefits. In any case, the discounted cash flows of a
distant future period are insignificant. For highway projects, it is enough if the
analysis covers a period 15-25 years after opening to traffic.
a) The amount A to which US$ 1 will increase in n years with a compound interest rate
of r will be given by;
1 . 2.1
b) The present value P of US$ 1, n years therefore when discounted at a rate r will be
given by;
1
1 . 2.2
1
Costs and benefits can be traced to the provider of the facility (highway department), the
highway users and non-users. In economic analysis, since all consequences are to be
considered, the costs and benefits to all parties are to be reckoned.
Some consequences can be quantified into monetary terms whereas some cannot. The aim of
the analyst should be to quantify as many elements as can be monetarily quantified. Those 17
which cannot be ultimately quantified into monetary terms are kept separately apart and a
judgement value can be accorded to them before a final decision is taken.
17
Costs and Benefits 18
The economic evaluation of highway projects is generally done by computing the total
transport cost which consists of the following components:
a) Cost of construction of the facility
b) Cost of maintenance of the facility
c) Road user cost
d) Cost to the society
The Government, which is often the agency providing the facility, incurs expenditure on
constructing a road. This includes land acquisition, earthwork, road pavement and
structures. The government also invests money on maintenance and up keep annually. The
road user cost, which is borne by the actual user of the highway facility (passenger, crew of
vehicles, operator, consignor of goods, pedestrian, cyclist etc.) is composed of:
c) Accident Costs
i) Cost of fatality
ii) Cost of injuries
iii) Cost of damages to property
d) Cost to Society
i) Impact on the environment (noise pollution, air pollution, vibration).
ii) Loss of aesthetics
iii) Changes in land values 18
iv) Land severance
v) Discomfort and inconvenience.
18
Costs and Benefits 19
Benefits from highway projects in effect represent the difference in costs with the new
facility and the old facility. Benefits can be grouped under the following:
a) Benefits to the existing traffic, by way of reduced road user costs.
b) Benefits to the generated traffic
c) Benefits to traffic diverted from other routes and modes
d) Benefits to traffic operating on other routes and modes where reduction in traffic has
been caused by the opening of the facility.
a) Vehicle Factors
i) Age
ii) Make
iii) Horse-power, engine capacity
iv) Load carried
v) Condition of Vehicle
vi) Level of maintenance input
vii) Type of fuel used
viii) Type of tyres (rayon, nylon, radial ply, cross ply etc.)
b) Roadway Factors
i) Roughness of the surface
ii) Type of the surface
iii) Horizontal curvature
iv) Vertical profile
v) Pavement width
vi) Type and condition of shoulder
vii) Urban and rural location
viii) Number of junctions per km
c) Traffic Factors
i) Speed of travel
ii) Traffic volume and composition.
d) Environmental Factors
i) Altitude
ii) Rainfall
iii) Temperature
Research has shown that the vehicle operating cost components are closely governed by (i)
roadway factors such as roughness, pavement width, rise and fall and horizontal curvature,
(ii) vehicle factors such as age and load carried and (iii) traffic factors such as speed and
volume of traffic. It follows therefore, that good roads result in lower vehicle operating
costs.
Highway improvements result in speedier travel. Savings in travel time are enjoyed by
occupants of vehicles, goods in transit and the vehicles in transit
19
Road accident rates are governed to a certain extent by the condition of the road. Highway
improvements can thus bring about a reduction in road accidents. The cost of road accidents,
which have been eliminated by highway improvements, represents a benefit.
19
Evaluation Techniques 20
When carrying out economic analysis, costs and benefits are considered exclusive of taxes.
Taxes do not represent an economic cost and represent only a transfer within the
community. Insurance premiums are also excluded from economic analysis since the
savings in accidents already account for this element.
In a developing country, there are certain resources which are scarcer than the others. The
prevailing market prices, therefore, do not reflect the true economic value of the resources.
In order to correct such distortions and imperfections, shadow pricing is done. A case in
example is the cost of imported fuel in Uganda. Since foreign exchange reserves are very
precious, such imported items are shadow priced at a higher value than the market price
when carrying out the economic evaluation. Similarly, unskilled labour is surplus in Uganda
and the prevailing wage rate (which is statutorily fixed) may not truly reflect this situation.
A shadow-pricing of such labour at a slightly lower level would be appropriate.
. 2.3
1
Where;
NPV0 = Net Present Value in the year 0;
Bi = Value of benefits which occur in the year i;
Ci = Value of costs which occur in the year i;
r = Discount rate per annum;
n = Number of years considered for analysis.
20
Evaluation Techniques 21
1
. 2.4
1
In the AASHTO practice of road user analysis the B/C ratio expresses the ratio of the net
annual benefits to the net annual costs. The benefits are determined for a simple reference
year, which for convenience can be the first year of operation after construction or the
median year of the analysis period [Kadiyali, 2006].
0 . 2.5
1
If the internal rate of return calculated from the above formula is greater than the rate of
interest obtained by investing the capital in the open market, the scheme is considered
acceptable.
1 100
,% . 2.5
Bj
FYRR = 100 j 1
.... (2.6)
C (1 + r )
j =0
i
j 1
Where j is the first year of benefits, with j = 0 in the base year, and other notation is as
before.
If the FYRR is greater than the planning discount rate, then the project is timely and should
go ahead. If it is less than the discount rate, but the NPV is positive, the start of the project 21
should be deferred and further rates of return should be calculated to define the optimum
starting date.
21
Comparison of the Various Methods of Economic Evaluation 22
It is should be noted that the results of the cost-benefit analysis are no better than the
assumptions and input data on which it is based. The data and parameters used in the
analysis of a road project can be prone to substantial errors and it is important to recognise
that these exist and to take steps to minimise them [Thagesen, 1996].
The IRR method is popular with international lending agencies like the World Bank. It lends
itself admiringly well for use in a computer-aided design model. It avoids the need for
selecting a discount rate initially. The rate derived from computations can be easily
compared with the market rate of interest, with which economists, financial experts and
bankers are familiar. Its disadvantage is that the computations are tedious and a solution can
only be obtained only by trial and error.
The NPV method suffers from the same disadvantage as in case of B/C ratio method in that
a rate of discount has to be assumed.
22
Selection of the Discount Rate 23
Example
An existing single lane road, 30 km long, is to be widened to two lanes. The cost of
widening is US$ 10,000 per km. The vehicle operating costs, accident costs and
maintenance costs, with and without widening, for a 10 year period are tabulated in Table
2.1. The discount rate is 12 per cent. Is the project worthwhile? Compare the results of NPV,
B/C ratio and IRR methods.
Solution
Cost of project = US$ 10,000 x 30 = US$ 300,000
Year Road User Costs Accident Costs Maintenance Costs Benefits DiscountedBenefits DiscountedBenefits
With Impr. Without Impr. With Impr. Without Impr. With Impr. Without Impr. (NPV, B/C) (IRR)
1 101.5 160.7 2.5 3.6 10 7.5 57.8 51.607 49.048
2 105.6 168.2 2.6 3.7 10 7.5 61.2 48.788 44.070
3 110.2 176.3 2.7 3.8 10 7.5 64.7 46.052 39.536
4 116.2 185.2 2.8 3.9 10 7.5 67.6 42.961 35.053
5 122.3 190 2.9 4 10 7.5 66.3 37.620 29.173
6 128.4 199 2.9 4 10 7.5 69.2 35.059 25.839
7 135.6 210 3 4.1 10 7.5 73 33.021 23.130
8 143.2 219.5 3.1 4.2 10 7.5 74.9 30.251 20.139
9 149.1 228.2 3.2 4.3 10 7.5 77.7 28.019 17.729
10 154.6 240.1 3.2 4.3 10 7.5 84.1 27.078 16.283
Total 380.458 300.000
Project is Economically Justified NPVo 80.458
Project is Economically Justified B/C Ratio 1.268
Project is Economically Justified IRR 17.84%
Example
The Ministry of Works and Transport (MoW&T) has proposed an upgrade of the Kampala-Jinja
road to a dual carriageway and to improve some of its junctions. The time for construction of
the scheme has been set at two years, with the benefits of the scheme accruing to the road users
at the start of the third year. The three main benefits considered are time savings, accident cost
savings and vehicle operating cost reduction. Construction costs are incurred mainly during the
two years of construction, but ongoing annual maintenance costs must be allowed for
throughout the economic life of the project which is expected to be 10years after the road has
been commissioned. The following basic data has already been ascertained by experts in
highway economics for this analysis:
23
Selection of the Discount Rate 24
Discount rate: 6%
The traffic flows and the construction/maintenance costs for the highway proposal are shown in
the table below
Traffic flows and costs throughout the economic life of the highway proposal
Year Predicted Flow Construction Costs Operating Cost
(106 veh-km/yr) (in US $) (in US $)
1 - 150,000,000 -
2 - 10,000,000 -
3 250 - 500,000
4 260 - 500,000
5 270 - 500,000
6 280 - 500,000
7 290 - 500,000
8 300 - 500,000
9 310 - 500,000
10 320 - 500,000
11 330 - 500,000
12 340 - 500,000
As a consultant engineer to the Ministry of Works & Transport (MoW&T), you have been assigned
the task of ascertaining whether the project is economically justified, or not, using both the NPV
and B/C ratio techniques of economic evaluation. Briefly comment on your results.
Solution
1.0 Data Summary
a) Accident rates: Re = 0.85/mil.veh-km (Existing road)
Ru = 0.25/mil.veh-km (Upgraded road)
b) Average accident cost: Ca = US$10,000
c) Average vehicle savings: St = US$2.00/hr
d) Average vehicle speeds: Ve = 40km/hr (Existing road)
Vu = 85km/hr (Upgraded road)
e) Average vehicle operating cost: Co = 0.01[2+35/V+0.00005V2]
f) Discount rate, r = 6%
Total Benefit, B = Ba + Bt + Bo
Where the above terms are defined as below for the 3rd year, F being the predicted flow;
Accident Savings;
. . 0.85 0.25 10000 250 $1,500,000/
Operating Cost Savings;
1 1
0.01 35 0.00005 .
24
1 1
0.01 35 0.00005 40 85 250 10 $454,963/
40 85
Time Savings;
24
Selection of Routes 25
1 1 1 1
. . 2.00 250 10 $6,617,647/
40 85
8572610
$7,197,729
1 1 0.06
3.0 Computation of discounted benefits and costs
BENEFITS COSTS
Year Flow Accident Cost Operating Cost Travel Time Total User Discounted Construction & Discounted
F Savings Savings Savings Benefits, B Benefits (PVB) Maintenace Costs Cost, (PVC)
mil.veh-km/yr US$/yr US$/yr US$/yr US$/yr US$/yr US$/yr US$/yr
1 15,000,000 14,150,943
2 10,000,000 8,899,964
3 250 1,500,000 454963 6,617,647 8,572,610 7,197,729 500,000 419,810
4 260 1,560,000 473162 6,882,353 8,915,515 7,061,923 500,000 396,047
5 270 1,620,000 491360 7,147,059 9,258,419 6,918,429 500,000 373,629
6 280 1,680,000 509559 7,411,765 9,601,324 6,768,555 500,000 352,480
7 290 1,740,000 527757 7,676,471 9,944,228 6,613,480 500,000 332,529
8 300 1,800,000 545956 7,941,176 10,287,132 6,454,274 500,000 313,706
9 310 1,860,000 564154 8,205,882 10,630,036 6,291,902 500,000 295,949
10 320 1,920,000 582353 8,470,588 10,972,941 6,127,233 500,000 279,197
11 330 1,980,000 600551 8,735,294 11,315,845 5,961,046 500,000 263,394
12 340 2,040,000 618750 9,000,000 11,658,750 5,794,042 500,000 248,485
PVB 65,188,613 PVB 26,326,133
65,188,613
/ 2.476
26,326,133
2.7.1 Introduction 25
The location of a new or major road requires consideration of many complex and
interrelated factors and brings together different professionals namely economists,
geologists, planners, surveyors and road engineers. The process of defining the physical
location of a new road must be preceded by the analysis of data on traffic volumes, planning
25
Overview of the Location Process 26
intentions in the area to be traversed and preliminary estimates of the anticipated design of
the new road. Route location consists of selecting the best compromise between demand
factors and terrain factors. Demand factors determine the areas to be served by the new road
standard and terrain factors influence the engineering cost. Terrain factors include: Ground
conditions, materials for construction, earthworks, drainage both surface and subsurface and
the need for structures. The choice of route is normally associated with the problem
identification and feasibility stages of the project life cycle. Road locations are easier to
determine through low cost relatively undeveloped lands than through well developed rural
and urban areas.
The first step requires the fixing of end termini and then defining a region which will
determine all feasible routes between these two points. In a non-urban setting this region can
be one third as wide as it is long. The region is then searched using reconnaissance
techniques to obtain a limited number of broad bands within which further searches can be
concentrated. Such a band can be up to 16km wide for a rural motorway. Within these
bands, further reconnaissance searches result in the selection of say three narrower corridors
each 3-8km wide that can be labelled A, B and C. A comparison of these may then suggest
that C will provide the best route and then Route E is generated through it. In rural setting
route E may be 1-1.5km wide.
The next step is preliminary location where route E is searched and one or more feasible
alignments is located within it each perhaps 30m wide containing minor design differences.
These alignments are then compared during the final location phase of the analysis and the
most suitable one is selected for further development in terms of design and construction.
The above process is iterative in nature. Tangible considerations that might influence the
selection process include topographic, soil and geological survey data, land usage and
population distributions, travel demands and road user costs, construction and maintenance
costs and safety factors. Intangible considerations of a political, social and environmental
nature requiring extensive public consultation may need to be considered as well.
a) Reconnaissance Survey
The reconnaissance stage of the survey process takes place during the identification stage of
the project where alternative possible routes are determined in terms of the corridors in
which they lie. The first step in the reconnaissance survey is to carry out a major desk study
of the bands/corridors being evaluated within the region. The types of information typically
gathered for a desk study include:
26
a) General land survey locating the site on maps. Dated air photographs, site
boundaries, outlines of structures, meteorological information e.t.c.
26
Location Surveys in Non-Built-Up Areas 27
Next, armed with questions from the desk study, the reconnaissance engineer visits the field
to fill in omissions in information gathered from the desk study and further limit the corridor
under study into a more suitable terrain and provide further data useful for design. The
reconnaissance study should be low key so as not to attract attention of local residents who
may pre-empt the development of the project. On completion of the reconnaissance survey
the engineer should have sufficient information which when combined with economic,
environmental, planning, social and traffic inputs enable the selection of the feasible
corridor routes. The renaissance report describes the preferred corridor routes; a state of
criteria satisfied by the project, presents tentative project cost estimates, provides
provisional geotechnical maps and shows characteristics of important engineering features.
It also states special issues that may lead to design and construction problems.
In the course of carrying out the preliminary survey, a ground survey, which is one of the
approaches, the other being an aerial survey is taken by means of traversing and levelling to
produce a strip map of the proposed corridor for the route showing the physical features
along the route, locations of soft ground, locations of water bodies, power lines pipelines,
houses monuments etc. These are converted into a topographic map that shows both
horizontal and vertical data usually with the aid of contour lines that enable the road
alignment to be defined in both horizontal and vertical planes. The survey area should be
greater than the roadway width of the proposed route.
The next step is the determination of the centreline of the proposed road. It should fit the
topography while meeting the intended traffic service requirements. It is a trial and error
process were trial centrelines are drawn on the strip map and are adjusted according to the
skill and judgement of the engineer. Sketching can be by the method of arcs or the method
of tangents. The process of sketching on paper should go hand in hand with field
observations.
27
Many considerations influence the choice of centreline finally selected. These include;
a) Locating the road along property edges rather than through them in rural areas;
b) Avoiding alignments that cause the motorist to drive into the rising or setting sun for
long periods;
27
Road Location in Built up Areas 28
c) locating the road such that the users are able to view a prominent scenic feature;
d) Minimising the destruction of manmade culture, cemeteries etc;
e) Avoiding highly developed expensive land areas and seeking alignments that cause
minimum environmental damage;
f) Avoiding the locating bridges on or near curves;
g) Minimising the use of alignments that require excavation of rock;
h) Balancing excavation quantities with embankment quantities.
i) If a vertical curve is superimposed on a horizontal curve, ensure the horizontal curve is
longer or make the tangent/straight points coincident to those of the longer curve ;
j) Avoiding the introduction of a sharp horizontal curve at the top of a pronounced crest
curve or the low point of a pronounced sag vertical curve. For safety reasons, make
horizontal and vertical curves as flat as possible at junctions with other roads;
The final location survey is similar to the one described above for rural areas except it is
more complex to carry out. Setting out may need more complicated offsetting and reference
methods.
28
28
2.7.5 Other Considerations in the route location processes
On the other hand, considerable field work must be done before the designer can fix:
1. the exact alignment,
2. grade elevations,
3. shoulder width,
4. and culvert locations to fit selected standards safely and with the greatest overall
economy
In route location it is usually found that the termini and possible intermediate controlling
points are at different elevations. Moreover, the topography and existing physical features
rarely permit a straight location location between points. These circumstances invariably
require the introduction of vertical and horizontal changes in direction, therefore, grades,
and vertical curves are important features of route surveying and design
29
Excessively or poorly designed curvature, however, may introduce serious operating
hazards, or may add greatly to the costs of constructing, maintaining, or operating over
the route. Steep grades are likely to have the safety and cost as excessive curvature. Thus,
on highway and railroad location it is often the practice to increase the distance between
two fixed points in order to reduce the grade. This process, known as development,
necessarily adds to the total curvature, it is not always a feasible solution, for the added
curvature may be more objectionable than the original steep grade.
The type of route to be built between given termini has a decided influence on its
location. As an example, the best location of a railroad would not necessarily be the most
suitable one for a power transmission line. A railroad requires a location having fairly flat
grades and curves. Moreover, there are usually intermediate controlling points such as
major stream and highway crossings, mountain passes, and revenue-producing markets
d) Influence of terrain
The character of terrain between termini or major controlling points is apt to impress a
characteristic pattern upon a route location, particularly in the case of a highway or a
railroad. Terrain may be generally classified as level, rolling or mountainous
1. Level regions, the line may be straight for long distance, minor deviations being
introduced merely skirt watercources, to avoid poor foundations, or possibly to
reduce land damages.
2. Rolling terrain, the location pattern depends on the orientation of the ridges and
valleys with respect to the general direction of the route. Parallel orientation may
result in a valley line having flat grades, much curvature, frequent culverts and
bridges, and fill in excess of cut or it may permit a ridge line (from which the
word highway originated) on which the alignment and drainage problems are
simpler to connect two such situations, and also in case the ridges are oblique
(slopping) to the general direction of the route, there may be a side-hill line. This
has a characteristics of uniformly rising grades, curvature fitted to the hill sides,
and relatively light, balanced grading
3. Mountainous terrain imposes the severest burden upon the ingenuity of the
locating engineer.
30
References 31
2.7.5 References
1. Kadiyali, L.R., 2006. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering (including
Expressways and Airport Engineering), 4th Edition. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
2. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Danida, 1998. Kampala to Fort-Portal Road Upgrading
Project, Uganda: Design, Tendering and Supervision of Mityana-Mubende-Kyenjojo
Section. Interim Engineering Report, COWI in Joint Venture with Road Directorate,
Denmark Ministry of Transport.
3. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications and Gauff Ingenieur, 1993. Transport
Rehabilitation Project Upgrading, Regravelling and Rehabilitation of Roads. IDA
Credit No. P593 UG, Part 1, Volume I, Engineering Report, Detailed Engineering
Study.
4. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, 2004. Draft Road Design Manual.
5. OFlaherty C.A., 2002. Highways: The Location, Design, Construction and
Maintenance of Pavements. 4th Edition, Oxford, Butterworth Heinemann.
6. Thagesen, B., 1996. Highway and Traffic Engineering in Developing Countries. 1st
Edition. E & FN Spon Publishers, London, Uk.
7. Transport and Road Research Laboratory, 2005. A Guide to Road Project Appraisal.
Overseas Road Note 5. Crowthorne, England.
29
The Road User and the Vehicle 30
3.1 Introduction
A highway engineer is required to design road facilities which will be used by pedestrians,
cyclists animal-drawn vehicles and a variety of motor-powered vehicles. The great variation
in road user behaviour and vehicle characteristics necessitates an understanding of these
variations as a precondition to highway design.
Human factors that govern the behaviour of the driver, cyclist and the pedestrians have a
considerable effect on the design elements. Knowledge of how this behaviour is influenced
by various external conditions is useful in designing the road facility. The characteristics of
the different types of vehicles will influence the geometric design elements of the highway
and will determine the safety of traffic using the road [Kadiyali, 2006].
a) Physiological
i) Vision;
ii) Hearing;
b) Psychological
i) Perception;
ii) Intellection;
iii) Emotion;
iv) Volition
3.2.2 Vision
Pedestrians, cyclists and drivers are able to use the road safely because of the help received
by the eyes in seeing the road and traffic thereon and in evaluating the size, shape, colour,
distance and speed of approach of various objects on the road. Safety of traffic depends
upon the ability of the road users to see traffic lights, traffic signs, vehicles on the road, safe
gap and safe crossing places. The drivers are able to cross, overtake, stop, accelerate and
decelerate their vehicles on seeing the road conditions, the traffic conditions and the
environmental conditions affecting safe traffic movement.
30
3.2.3 Hearing
For safe driving, cycling and walking, sound is an invaluable aid. Horns can alert the road
user. Similarly the sound of a nearing vehicle or that of skidding may alert the road user and
30
Perception, Intellection, Emotion and Volition 31
avert an accident. Efforts are being made to take measures for the control of noise pollution
on roads.
The next stage is intellection, which means the identification of the stimuli by the
development of new thoughts and ideas. When a person receives certain stimuli, new
thoughts and ideas may form leading to better understanding of the stimuli.
Volition is the ability to make conscious choices or decisions. It is a persons will to react to
any given situation.
In highway design practice, the time that elapses between the perception of danger by a road
user and the decision to take action (Perception and brake-reaction time) is an important
consideration especially in the design of sight distances. The perception time is that time
required for a driver to come to a realisation that brakes must be applied. The brake
reaction time is that time between the perception of danger and the effective application of
brakes. The AASHO practice is to use a combined perception and brake-reaction time of 2.5
seconds.
3.3.1 Speed
Speed of walk of pedestrians is needed for design of traffic signals and other pedestrian
facilities. The average walking speeds range from 0.75m/s to 1.8m/s. The rate assumed in
the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) for timing pedestrian signals is
1.2m/s.
The designers may keep in mind that many pedestrians consider themselves as not being
governed by any laws. In addition, any regulations pertaining to the movement of
pedestrians are not being enforced.
31
References 32
a) Size;
b) Power performance of vehicles;
c) Rolling resistance;
d) Air resistance;
e) Grade resistance; and
f) Inertial forces during acceleration.
3.5 References
1. Kadiyali, L.R., 2006. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering (including
Expressways and Airport Engineering), 4th Edition. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
2. MoWH&C, 2005, Road Design Manual Vol.1 Geometric Design Manual, Kampala,
Uganda.
32
32
Geometric Design of Highways 33
4.1 Introduction
Geometric design is an aspect of the highway design dealing with the visible dimensions of
a roadway. It is dictated, within economic limitations, by the requirements of traffic and
includes the design elements of horizontal and vertical alignment, sight distance, cross-
section components, lateral and vertical clearances, intersection treatment, control of access
etc [Kadiyali, 2006].
The purpose of geometric design is to reduce the number and severity of road accidents
while ensuring high traffic flow with minimum delay to vehicles [Thagesen, 1996]. The
safe, efficient and economic operation of a highway is governed to a large extent by the care
with which the geometric design has been worked out. Safety or the lack of it is an
immediate corollary of the various design features of the highway. Efficient and comfortable
operation of traffic is possible only if the design elements have been meticulously
considered. A well designed highway has to be consistent with economy. Too liberal
standards may not fit in with the available resources, whereas if the standards are too low,
the cost of operation may mount up [Kadiyali, 2006].
The basic inputs are the Design speed and the Design hourly volume. The design speed
governs the design of vertical and horizontal curvatures while design hour volume governs
capacity required.
The design engineer has to consider the following points when selecting the design
standards for a highway.
a) Adequate geometric design in planning a highway facility ensures that the facility
will not become obsolete in the foreseeable future. Hence the volume and
composition of traffic in the design year should be the basis of design.
b) Faulty geometrics are costly, and in some cases impossible to rectify at a later date
and so, due to consideration should be given to geometric design at the initial stage
itself.
c) The design should be consistent with and the standards proposed for different
elements should be compatible with one another. Abrupt changes in design should be
avoided.
d) The design should embrace all aspects of geometrics of the road, including signs,
markings, proper lighting, intersections, etc.
e) The highway should be considered as an element of the total environment and its
location and design should enhance rather than degrade the environment. The
highway should be aesthetically satisfying. The design elements should strive to
control pollution.
f) The design should be so selected that not only the initial cost of construction of the
facility, but also the total transportation cost, including maintenance cost and road
user cost should be minimised. 33
g) Safety should be inbuilt into the design elements.
h) The design should enable all the road users (motor vehicles, cyclists, pedestrians and
animal drawn vehicles) to use the facility. The performance of the vehicles using the
facility should be given due consideration.
33
Highway Design Standards in Uganda 34
It is important for engineers to exercise judgement in the use of a given design standard to
ensure that they come up with an economical solution for a geometric design. Sometimes,
more than one design standard is used for the purposes of comparing one pavement design
with another so that the comparison guides the engineer in selecting the most economical
option.
Roads of the highest classes, A and B, have as their major function to provide mobility and
have longer trip lengths. They are required to provide a high level of service with a high
design speed. The roads of Classes C and D serve a dual function in accommodating shorter
trips and feeding the higher classes or road. For these roads an intermediate design speed
and level of service is required. Road Class E has short trip length and their primary
function is to provide access. Design speeds and level of service for these roads may be low
[MoWH&C, 2005].
4.4.1 General
There are certain basic design controls and criteria which govern the geometric features of a
highway. These are: topography, traffic (its volume, directional distribution, and
34
Topography 35
composition, including the future estimates), speed, capacity design vehicle and control of
access.
4.4.2 Topography
Topography and physical features play an important role in the location and design of a
highway. The various design elements should be related to topographical features if an
economical and sound judgement is to emerge. The classification of terrain is normally done
by means of the cross (transverse) slope of the country, i.e. the slope approximately
perpendicular to the centre-line of the highway location.
Table 4.1: Terrain Classification
Type of terrain Description
Flat Level or gently rolling country which offers few obstacles to the construction of a road
having continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope
around 5%)
Rolling
Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and fall moderately gently
and where occasional steep slopes may be encountered. It will offer some restrictions in
horizontal and vertical alignment. (20% transverse terrain slope > 5%)
Mountainous
Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of terrain imposes
definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often involves long steep
grades and limited sight distances (70% transverse terrain slope > 20%)
Escarpment In addition to the terrain class given above, a fourth class is added to cater for those
situations whereby the standards associated with each of the above terrain types cannot be
met. Escarpment situations are where it is required to switchback road alignments or side
hill traverse sections where earthwork quantities are huge (transverse terrain slope >70%)
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005
4.4.3 Traffic
a) Importance of traffic data in Geometric Design
Of crucial importance in highway design is the traffic data both current and future
estimates. Traffic volume indicates the level of service for which the highway is being
planned and directly affects the geometric features such as width, alignment, grades etc.
Without traffic data, it is futile to design any highway.
35
Traffic 36
The 30th HV is expressed as a fraction of ADT can vary as indicated in the following table.
d) Traffic Composition
Traffic composition has a vital effect on capacity and other design considerations. In
Uganda, the traffic is heterogeneous in character, consisting of fast driven cars, trucks, and
buses. It is customary in this country to express the traffic volume in terms of passenger car
units (PCUs). The values in indicated in the table below.
The following definitions apply to the different vehicle types mentioned in the above table.
36
Design Vehicle Dimensions 37
a) Design Vehicles
A design vehicle is a selected motor vehicle, the weight, dimensions and operating
characteristics of which are used to establish highway design controls to accommodate
vehicles of a designated type. The dimensions and operating characteristics of a vehicle
profoundly influence geometric design aspects such as radii, width of pavements, parking
geometrics, etc. The weight of the axles and the weight of the vehicles affect the structural
design of the pavement and structures, as also the operating characteristics of vehicles on
grades. Because of its crucial importance the standardisation of the dimensions and the
weights of design vehicles is the first step in formulating geometric design standards. This
has been done in many countries. In Uganda, the Ministry of Works, Housing and
Communications Uganda Road Design Manual Vol.1 - Geometric Design Manual 2005, is
being followed [MoWH&C, 2005].
Rear
4x4
DV-1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3 4.2
passenger car
Single unit
DV-2 4.1 2.6 9.1 1.2 1.8 6.1 12.8 8.5
truck
Single unit
DV-3 4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8 7.4
bus
Semitrailer
6.1 &
combination DV-4 4.1 2.6 16.7 0.9 0.6 13.7 5.8
9.1
large
Interstate 6.1 &
DV-5 4.1 2.6 21.0 1.2 0.9 13.7 2.9 37
Semitrailer 12.8
Sou rc e: Ug and a Road Design manu al Vol .1 , 2005
37
Selection of the Design Vehicle 38
b) Design Speed
Design speed is the speed determined for design and correlation of the physical features of a
highway that influence vehicle operation. It is the maximum safe speed that can be
maintained over a specified section of a highway when conditions are so favourable that the
design features of the highway govern. The design speed obviously has to be correlated with
terrain conditions and the classification of the highway. There is considerable variation in
the speed adopted by different drivers and by different types of vehicles. This raises the
question of what value of speed should be adopted for design. The value selected should
accommodate nearly all demands with reasonable adequacy, yet the design should not fail
completely under severe or extreme load. The speed adopted should satisfy nearly all drivers
with exception of those few who drive at extremely high speed [Kadiyali, 2006].
The standard design speeds are 50km/h, 60km/h, 70km/h, 85km/h, 100km/h and 120km/h.
These speed bands are based on the premise that for a given highway, it is considered
acceptable if 85% of the drivers travel at or below the designated design speed, generally
inducing a situation where approximately 99% of the drivers travel at or below one design
speed category above the design speed. Thus if a chosen design speed is by definition the
85th percentile speed for the highway, then the next speed band up will constitute the 99th
percentile speed. Speed bands are related to each other as follows:
99 85
2 . 4.1
85 50
The 85th percentile speed is selected as the design speed on the basis that it constitutes the
most appropriate choice. Use of the 99th percentile speed would be safer but extremely
expensive while use of the 50th percentile speed would be unduly unsafe for faster travelling
vehicles [Rogers, 2003].
The curve depicting the cumulative distribution of speeds has a typical S shape. It is
important to note that designers use typical data previously obtained on similar roads.
38
4.4.6 Control of Access
Uncontrolled access to road side development along whose major function is to provide
mobility will result in an increased accident hazard, reduced capacity and early obsolescence
of the roads. In order to preserve major roads as high standard traffic facilities it is necessary
38
Sight Distance 39
to exercise access control, whereby the right of owners or occupants of land to access is
controlled by the Road Authority.
Although control of access is one of the most important means for preserving the efficiency
and road safety of major roads, roads without access control are equally essential as land
service facilities. The following three levels of access control are applicable:
(1) Full access control: - means that the authority to control access is exercised to give
preference to through traffic by providing access connections with selected public
roads only and by prohibiting direct access connections.
(2) Partial access control:- means that the authority to control access is exercised to give
preference to through traffic to a degree in that, in addition to access connections with
selected public roads, there may be (some) private access connections.
(3) Unrestricted access: - means that preference is given to local traffic, with the road
serving the adjoining areas through direct access connection. However, the detailed
location and layout of the accesses should be subject to approval by the Road
Authority in order to ensure adequate standards of visibility, surfacing, drainage, etc.
Road function determines the level of access control needed. Roads of higher classes have
their major function to provide mobility, while the function of lower classes is to provide
access. Motorways should always have full control of access. For all purpose roads the
following general guidelines are given for the level of access control in relation to the
functional road classification:
The reduced levels of access control may have to be applied for some road projects because of
practical and financial constraints.
The design of a highway with adequate sight ahead of a travelling vehicle results in safe
operation. Knowledge of the sight distance requirements is needed in designing vertical
curves. It also governs the set-back of buildings, slopes, fence, and other obstructions
adjacent to a carriageway on a horizontal curve [Kadiyali, 2006].
When sensations received through the eyes, ears or body are strong enough to be recognised
and interpreted, they become perceptions. In the cases of a motorist, it is the time which
elapses between the instant the driver perceives the object on the carriageway and the instant
that he realises that braking is needed. The time lag or the brief interval between the
perception of danger and the effective application of the brakes is called the brake-reaction
time. The perception time and the brake reaction time depend upon a variety of factors, e.g.
age, sex, alertness and visual acuity of the driver, visibility, vehicle design, the size and type
of the object etc.
According to Ugandan practice, a perception reaction time of 2.5s, eye height of 1.07m
above the road surface and an object height of 0.15m are used in computing stopping sight
distance. The distance travelled during this interval, d1 is given by:
0.278 . 4.2
Where;
d1 = distance travelled in metres;
v = speed in m/s;
V = speed in km/h;
t = perception and brake reaction time in seconds (2.5 seconds)
The braking distance is the distance within which a moving vehicle comes to a stop after the
application of the brakes. On a level road, the distance is given by;
. 4.3
254
Where;
d2 = braking distance travelled in metres;
V = speed in km/h;
f = coefficient of longitudinal friction between the tyre and the pavement.
The coefficient of friction (for a wet pavement condition) is assumed to vary from 0.40 at 30 40
km/h to 0.28 at 120 km/h. The above considerations yield the values in Table 4.5 below as
recommended by MoWH&C.
40
Stopping Sight distance, SSD 41
Table 4.5: Stopping Sight Distance on Level Ground for Wet Pavement Condition
Brake Reaction Coeffi-
Assumed cient of
Breaking Stopping
Design Speed for friction for
distance sight
Speed Conditio Time Distance wet
on level distance for
[km/hr] n [sec] [m] pavement
[m] design [m]
[km/hr] conditin
(f)
30 30-30 2.5 20.8-20.8 0.40 8.9-8.9 29.7-29.7
40 40-40 2.5 27.8-27.8 0.38 16.6-16.6 44.4-44.4
50 47-50 2.5 32.6-34.7 0.35 24.8-28.1 57.5-62.8
60 55-60 2.5 38.2-41.7 0.33 36.1-42.9 74.3-84.6
70 63-70 2.5 43.8-48.6 0.31 50.4-62.2 94.2-110.8
80 70-80 2.5 48.6-55.6 0.30 64.3-84.0 112.9-139.5
90 77-90 2.5 53.5-62.5 0.30 77.8-106.3 131.3-168.8
100 85-100 2.5 59.0-69.4 0.29 98.1-135.8 157.0-205.2
116.4-
110 91-110 2.5 63.2-76.4 0.28 179.6-246.5
170.1
135.0-
120 98-120 2.5 68.1-83.3 0.28 203.1-285.8
202.5
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual Vol.1, 2005
Some slight adjustments are needed in the values of the braking sight distance to take into
account the effect of grades. The following amended formula may be used to calculate d1.
. 4.4
254
Where;
G = Longitudinal grade in percent (%).
The positive sign is used when the gradient is upgrade and the negative sign may be used if
the gradient is downgrade. Correction for grade should not be applied on undivided roads
with two-way traffic but must invariably be considered for divided highways which have
independently designed profiles. The safe stopping sight distance, SSD is given by d1 + d2.
0.278 . 4.5
254
Example:
Calculate the safe stopping distance of a vehicle travelling at a speed of 80kph on an upward
gradient of 2%. Make suitable assumptions.
Solution
Overtaking sight distance is of central importance to the efficient working of a given section
of highway. Overtaking sight distance only applies to single carriageways. There is no full
overtaking sight distance (FOSD) for a highway with a design speed of 120km/h since this
speed is not suitable for a single carriageway road. Full overtaking sight distances are much
larger in value than stopping sight distances. Therefore, economic realities dictate that they
can only be complied with in relatively flat terrain where alignments, both vertical and
horizontal, allow the design of a relatively straight and level highway [Rogers, 2003].
Full overtaking sight distance is measured from vehicle to vehicle (the hazard or object in
this case another car) between points 1.05m and 2.00m above the centre of the carriageway.
FOSD is made up of three components: d1, d2 and d3 as described below:
d2 = distance between the overtaking and opposing vehicles at the point in time at
which the overtaking vehicle returns to its designated lane (Safety Time);
In order to establish the values for full overtaking sight distance, it is assumed that the driver
making the overtaking manoeuvre commences it at two design speed steps below the
designated design speed of the section of highway in question. The overtaking vehicle then
accelerates to the designated design speed. During this time frame, the approaching vehicle
is assumed to travel towards the overtaking vehicle at the designated design speed. The
safety time, d2 is assumed to be 20% of d3. These assumptions yield the following equation:
. 4.6
Where; 42
v = speed in m/s;
V = speed in km/h;
t = time taken to complete the entire manoeuvre.
42
Sight Distance for Multi-Lane Roads 43
The value of, t is generally taken as 10 seconds, as it has been established that it is less
than this figure in 85% of observed cases [Rogers, 2003].
Extra
distance Passing Sight Distance
for large
vehicles
Note that in Uganda, the AASHTO standard and NOT the British Standard has been adopted
for computation of FOSD (See Uganda Road Design manual Vol.1, 2005).
43
43
Set-back Distance at Obstructions of Horizontal Curves 44
a) Required Sight distance, S lies wholly within the length of the curve, L (S L)
The offset M can be approximated by considering the vehicle truck to be along the
chords AC and CB.
When the radius of horizontal curvature is large, then it can be assumed that the required
sight distance, S, approximates to a straight line. When S lies within the curve length,
the minimum offset M from the centreline to the obstruction can be estimated by
considering the triangle OAM and ACD. Thus:
From triangle OAM,
R 2 = x 2 + (R M )
2
(i)
From triangle ACD,
2
S
= x +M
2 2
(ii)
2
Solving (i) and (ii),
. 4.8
8
b) Required Sight distance, S lies outside the length of the curve, L (S > L)
S is greater than the available length of the curve L and overlaps on the tangents for a
distance l on each side.
44
44
Set-back Distance at Obstructions of Horizontal Curves 45
Assuming a large horizontal radius of curvature and considering triangles ACP and OAP,
2
S
= x +M
2 2
(i)
2
d 2 = x 2 + (R M ) .
2
(ii)
Also,
d 2 = l 2 + R2 (iii)
S L
But = + l so that (iii) becomes
2 2
2
S L
d2 = + R2 (iv)
2
Solving (i), (iii) and (iv),
2
. 4.9
8
Example
A 2-lane 7.3 m single carriageway road has a horizontal curve of radius of 600 m. If the
minimum sight stopping distance required is 160 m, calculate in metres the required
distance to be kept clear of obstructions if the length of the curve is:
(a) 200 m; 45
(b) 100 m.
45
Horizontal Alignment 46
Solution
From the question, S = 160 m, R = 600 m.
(a) The length of the curve 200 m > 160 m. So the required sight distance S lies
wholly within the length of the curve. Applying equation (4.8), the required offset
M=
(160)2 = 5.33 m
8(600)
(b) The length of the curve 100 m < 160 m. So the required sight distance S lies
outside the length of the curve. Applying equation (4.9), the required offset
100 [2 (160 ) 100 ]
M = = 4 .58 m
8(600 )
Minimum permitted horizontal radii depend on the design speed and the super-elevation of
the carriageway, which has a maximum allowable value of 7% in the UK, with designs in
most cases using a value of 5%. The relationship between super-elevation, design speed and
horizontal curvature is detailed in the following sub section.
46
Figure 4.4: Forces acting on a vehicle on a horizontal curve
Source: Kadiyali, 2006
46
Basic Formula for Movement of Vehicles on Curves 47
. 4.10
127
Equation 4.10 above is the basic equation relating the speed of vehicles, the radius of
the curve, the super-elevation and coefficient of friction. This equation forms the basis
of design of horizontal curves,
Equation 4.10 can be rewritten as shown below and is known as the minimum radius 47
equation:
. 4.11
127
47
Value of the Coefficient of Lateral Friction, 48
v2 v2
The terms and are known as the centrifugal ratio and centrifugal acceleration
gR R
respectively.
If the entire centrifugal force is counteracted by super-elevation, then frictional force will
not come into play. In this case, = 0 in equation 4.10. The super-elevation then provided is
said to be equilibrium super-elevation. In such a case, the pressures on the inner and outer
wheels would be equal.
Design practice is based on the assumption that at absolute minimum radius the 99 th
percentile speed vehicle should not experience more than the maximum level of
v2
centrifugal acceleration acceptable for comfort. Its value is 0.22g. Thus if = 0.22 g ,
R
then the total centrifugal acceleration at the design speed (85th percentile speed) should
not exceed:
0.22
0.156 . 4.12
2
48
Radii of curves for which no super-elevation is required 49
The above is achieved as per UK practice by providing full super-elevation for a speed of
67.082% of the design speed such that 45% of the centrifugal force is balanced by super-
elevation while 55% of the centrifugal force is balanced by friction. Therefore equation 4.10
becomes:
0.67082 0.45
. 4.13
127 127 282
. 4.14
282
Substituting the values of camber for e in equation 4.14 above, the minimum radius beyond
which no super-elevation is required is obtained. In such cases where the radius is greater
than those given by the above formula it is desirable to remove the adverse crown in the
outer half of the carriageway and super-elevate at the normal crown slope.
49
49
Method of Attainment of Super-elevation 50
It is desirable to accomplish the raising of the outer-half till it is level before the starting
point of the transition curve. The raising of the outer edge should be done in a slope not
exceeding 1 in 150 for plain and rolling terrain and 1 in 60 for hilly terrain.
In the second stage, any of the three methods given below may be adopted to attain the full
super-elevation:
a) The surface of the road is rotated about the centre-line of the carriageway, gradually
lowering the inner edge and raising the outer edge while keeping the level of the
centre-line constant (Figure 4.5 d);
b) The surface of the road is rotated about the inner edge, raising the centre and the
outer edge (Figure 4.5 e);
c) The surface of the road is rotated about the outer edge depressing the centre and the
inner edge (Figure 4.5 f);
In most circumstances method (a) is generally used a it results in the least distortion of the
pavement. Figure 4.6 below shows the method of attaining super-elevation using method
(a).
50
50
Method of Attainment of Super-elevation 51
Example
Calculate the super-elevation to be provided for a horizontal curve with a radius of 400m for
a design speed of 100kph in plain terrain. Comment on the results. What is the coefficient of
lateral friction mobilised if super-elevation is to be restricted to 7%.
Solution
100
0.089 8.9%
282 282 400
127
100
0.07 0.127
127 127 400 51
This is less than the recommended value of 0.15
51
Transition Curves 52
b) The Spiral
Various forms of curves are suitable for highway transitions, but the most popular and
recommended for use in this country is the spiral. It is easy to set out in the field and the rate
of acceleration is uniform through the length of transition. Figure 4.7 below shows the main
elements of a circular curve provided with spirals for transition at its two ends.
52
52
Transition Curves 53
c) Length of Transition
The length of the transition should be determined from the following two considerations:
i) The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration adopted in the design should not cause
discomfort to the drivers. If C is the rate of change of acceleration then:
. 4.19
Where;
aT1 = radial acceleration at T1 (= v2/R)
aT = radial acceleration at T (= 0)
t = time taken (= L/v)
0
. 4.20
1 53
. . 4.21
3.6
53
Curve Widening 54
Where v is speed in m/s and V is speed in Km/hr. The value of C is usually taken as
0.3m/s3.
ii) The rate of change of change of super-elevation should also be such as not to cause
higher gradients and unsightly appearances. This could be kept in 1 in 150 for roads
in plain and rolling terrain and 1 in 60 for roads in hilly terrain. Since the super-
elevation can be given by rotating about the centreline, inner or outer edge, the
length of the transition will be governed accordingly. In calculating the length of
transition, the pavement width should include any widening that may have been
provided at the curve.
The higher of the values given by the above two methods should be adopted.
. 4.22
2
Figure 4.8: Widening on Curves
18
. 4.23
54
Where; R = radius in metres
The widening due to psychological reasons is a function of speed and can be assumed to be
given by the empirical formula, Wp;
54
Curve Widening 55
0.1 . 4.24
. 0.1 . 4.25
2
Solution
55
Curve Widening 56
Since super-elevation is obtained by rotation about the centre line then the transition
length, L, will be given by;
.
2
Since radius, R < 300m, extra widening, We, of the carriageway is required.
6.1 80
2. 0.1 0.655
2 250 250
7.655
2.5 7.0 72.723
2 0.5
Therefore;
Adopt L = 146.319m since La > Ls. (i.e. take the greater of the two values)
L
T R S tan
2 2
Where;
L 146.319
S 3.57m
24R 24 250
Therefore;
60 146.319
T 250 3.57 tan 219.558
2 2
220m
LT L 2L
56
General Controls for Horizontal Alignment 57
L R 2 anglesareinradians
L 60 146.319
L R 2 R 2 115.500m
180 2R 180 2x250
From which;
LT 115.500 2 146.319
408.138m
57
Vertical Alignment 58
In order to provide adequate visibility, oncoming vehicles or any obstructions in the road
must be seen clearly and in good time to ensure that vehicles travelling at the design speed
can stop or overtake safely. This requirement is achieved by use of sight distances and K-
Values to be discussed shortly in this chapter.
In order to provide passenger comfort, the effect of the radial force on the vehicle traversing
a vertical curve must be minimised. In crest curve design this effect could cause the vehicle
to leave the road surface (e.g. in hump-back bridges) while in the sag curve the underside of
the vehicle would come into contact with the surface, particularly where the gradients are
steep and opposed. The result is discomfort and danger to passengers travelling. This can be
minimised by:
Restricting the gradients; which has the effect of reducing the radial force;
Choosing a suitable type and length of curve such that this reduced force is
introduced gradually and uniformly as possible [Uren et al, 1989].
4.7.2 Gradients
The rate of rise or fall of road surface along its length with respect to horizontal distance is
termed as gradient [MoWH&C, 2004]. The use of steep gradients in hilly terrain generally
results in lower road construction and environmental costs. However, it also adds to road
user costs through delays, extra fuel costs and accidents. Gradients of up to about 7% have
little effect on the speeds of passenger cars. Nevertheless, the speeds of commercial vehicles
are considerably reduced on long hills with gradients in excess of 2%. For short distances,
gradients of 5% or 6% may have little detrimental effect on commercial vehicle speeds
[OFlaherty, 2002]. Long, steep, downhill grades are very dangerous and need careful
design, preferably with escape roads (side roads that are designed to bring out-of-control
vehicles to a safe stop) [MoWH&C, 2004]. The Uganda Road Design manual (2004),
suggests maximum gradients as presented in Table 2.16 below:
58
Climbing Lanes 59
In Uganda, however, climbing lanes are recommended for use if the design truck speed
decreases more than 20 km/h under the truck speed limit, normally 80 km/h in rural
conditions. A climbing lane is inserted into the carriageway by means of entry and exit
tapers to the left of the continuous lane so that slow moving vehicles have to merge into the
faster traffic at the termination point as shown below.
59
Vertical Curves 60
60
b) Equation of a Vertical Curve
According to Thagesen (1996), a simple parabola is recommended when modelling vertical
curves. The parabola provides a constant rate of change of curvature, and hence visibility,
along its length. The vertical curve is of the form:
60
Vertical Curves 61
Let;
Then;
.
At x = L
.
100 100 100
.
100 100
From the above equation, it implies that If x = 0, the y = C2 = RLPC (i.e. reduced level at PC)
Therefore the general equation used determine the reduced level at any point on the vertical
curve, RLx is given by;
. 4.26
100 200
/
100 200
From which;
/ . 4.27 61
200
61
Vertical Curves 62
c) Sight Distances
The length of curve to be used in any given situation depends on the sight distance. It is the
distance of visibility from one side of the curve to the other [Uren et al, 1989].
There are two categories of sight distance namely:
Stopping sight distance (SSD); which is the theoretical forward sight distance
required by a driver in order to stop safely and comfortably when faced with an
unexpected hazard on the carriageway, and
Full overtaking sight distance (FOSD); which is the length of visibility required by
motorists to enable them to safely and comfortably overtake vehicles ahead of them.
Figure 4.13: Sight distance over crest curves when a) S L and b) when S > L
Source: OFlaherty (2002)
d) K-Values
In the past it was necessary to use the appropriate sight distance for the road type and design
speed in question to calculate the minimum length of the vertical curve required. Nowadays,
however, constants which greatly simplify calculations have been provided by the
MoWH&C [Uren et al, 1989]. The minimum length of vertical curve Lmin for any given road
is obtained from the formula.
. 4.28
Where;
K = constant obtained from MoWH&C standards (K = R/100)
R = radius of curvature of the curve (in meters)
A = algebraic difference in grade (%)
There are three categories of K-Values for crest curves (SSD and FOSD crest curve values
obtained from Table 2.17) and one category of K-Values for sags obtained from Table 2.18.
The K-Values obtained are derived from the sight distances as already discussed
[MoWH&C, 2004]. 62
62
Vertical Crest Curve Design and Sight Distance Requirements 63
For S > L;
200
2 . 4.30
Where;
Lmin = minimum length of vertical crest curve (m)
S = required sight distance (m)
A = Algebraic difference in gradients
h1 = Driver eye height (m); taken as 1.05m
h2 = Object height (m); taken as 0.26m
For full overtaking sight distance, FOSD, h1 = h2 = 1.05m. The decision to which equation 63
should be used at a given site can be made by solving either of the equations below;
. 4.31
8 8
63
Vertical Sag Curve Design and Sight Distance Requirements 64
If e > h1 then equation (4.29) is used and when e < h1, equation (4.30) is used [OFlaherty,
2002].
When SSD L
AS 2
Lmin =
h1 + h2
8 D 8 2
....(4.33)
When SSD > L
h + h2
2S 8 1
= 2
Lmin ....(4.34)
A
Where;
h1 =`Drivers eye height (Usually 1.05m)
h2 = Object height (usually 0.26m)
L = minimum length of sag curve (m)
A = algebraic difference in grades expressed as a decimal.
D = vertical clearance (ideally taken as 5.7m) to the critical edge of the
bridge
The critical edge is assumed to be directly over the point of intersection of tangents. In
practice both equations can be considered valid provided that the critical edge is not more
than 60m from the point of intersection [OFlaherty, 2002].
For SSD L
AS 2
Lnight = ....(4.35)
200(h3 + S tan )
For SSD > L
200 ( h3 + S tan )
L night = 2 S ....(4.36)
A
Where h3 = headlight height (usually 0.6m above the carriageway), = angle of upward
divergence of light beam (usually 1.0o), and L, A, and S are as defined previously.
64
It should however be noted that the above equations (based on night time conditions) are;
64
Vertical Sag Curve Design and Sight Distance Requirements 65
Speed limit on the other hand is the maximum allowable speed on a road. The normal speed
limit on rural roads in Uganda is 80km/hr and that in trading centres, towns and cities is
50km/hr. Speed limits may be reduce but not increased by local speed limits shown on
regulatory traffic signs [MoWH&C, 2004].
In a nutshell, the design speed should not be lower than the speed limit and should be
preferably 10km/hr higher than the speed limit. Short rural sections with design speeds
lower than the speed limit should be treated with warning signs and no overtaking markings
[MoWH&C, 2004].
It is this last point that often gives the length of vertical curve in order to avoid the creation
of optical illusions in the vertical plane [Uren et al, 1989].
g) Setting-Out Data
In setting out a vertical curve on ground, the objective is to place large pegs at the required
intervals along the line of the proposed roadway and to nail a cross-piece to each peg at a
certain height (usually 1.0m), above the proposed road level. These pegs are called profiles
and the erection of these profiles is the standard method of setting out proposed levels on
any construction site. The following information is required for any setting out calculations;
the length of the curve (which is dependent on the gradient of the straights and site distance)
and the gradients of slopes together with one change point preferably a point of vertical
intersection [Irvine, 1998].
a) The grade line selected should be smooth with gradual changes, consistent with the
class of highway and terrain. Numerous breaks and short lengths of grades should be
avoided;
b) The roller-coaster or hidden type of profile should be avoided as it is hazardous
and aesthetically unpleasant;
c) Undulating grade line, involving substantial lengths of momentum grades, should be
appraised for their effect upon traffic operation. Such profiles permit heavy trucks to
operate at higher overall speeds than when an upgrade is not preceded by a down
grade, but may encourage excessive speeds of trucks with consequent hazard to
traffic;
d) A broken-back grade line (two vertical curves in the same direction separated by
short section of tangent grade) should generally be avoided;
e) On long continuous grades, it may be preferable to place the steepest grades at the
bottom and flatten the grades near the top. Alternatively, long grades may be broken
by short intervals of flatter grades;
f) Intersections on grades should be avoided as far as possible. Where unavoidable, the
approach gradients and the gradient through the intersections should be flattened to
the maximum possible extent.
66
General Controls for Vertical Curve Alignment 67
Solution
1.0 Data Summary
a) Grades; Initial, m = 1.5%
Final, n = -1.0%
b) Point of Intersection
Stationing of PVI = 0 + 671.340
Elevation of PVI = 93.600m AOD
c) K-value = 55
67
General Controls for Vertical Curve Alignment 68
The elevation of the highest point is located at x = 82.5m, therefore from the above
equation
1.5 82.5 2.5
. 92.570 82.5 93.189mAOD
100 200
Question Two
An equal tangent vertical curve is to be constructed between grades of -2.0% (initial) and
+1.0% (final). The PVI (Point of vertical intersection) is at station 11 + 000.000 and
elevation 420.000m AOD. Due to a street crossing, the elevation of the roadway at station
11 + 071.000 must be at elevation 421.500m. Design the curve assuming it has a shape of
the form; y = ax 2 + bx + c .
Solution
1.0 Data Summary
a) Type of vertical curve : Equal tangent
b) Grades; Initial, m = -2.0%
Final, n = +1.0%
c) Point of Intersection, PVI
Stationing = 11+000.000
Elevation = 420.000m AOD
d) Point of Interest
Stationing = 11+710.000
Elevation = 421.500m AOD
68
68
General Controls for Vertical Curve Alignment 69
Note: There is need to determine, L such that station 11+071.000 is at elevation 421.500m
AOD
4.0 Determination of the Length of Vertical Curve, L based on the Point of interest
The point of interest (Sta. 11+071.000) is 71m from PVI (Sta.11+000.000). Hence, from
PVC, this point is located at:
0.5 71 . vii
Equation (vii) in (vi) for L gives;
0.015
0.5 71 0.02 0.5 71 420 0.01L 421.500
L
Multiply through by L and simplify to obtain
0.00375 1.855L 75.615 0
69
Cross-Sectional Elements 70
Exercise
A 150m long equal tangent vertical curve connecting grades of +1.2% (initial) and -1.08%
(final) crosses a one-meter diameter pipe at right angles. The pipe is located at station 11 +
025.000 and its centerline is at elevation 1091.6m. The PVI of the vertical curve is at station
11 + 000.000 and elevation 1095.2m. Using offsets determine the depth, below the surface
of the curve, to the top of the pipe and determine the station of the highest point on the
curve.
4.8.1 General
The cross-sectional elements of a highway design pertain to those features which deal with
its width. They embrace aspects such as road reserve width, carriageway width, central
reservation (median), shoulders, camber, side slopes, horizontal and vertical clearances etc.
carriageway right-of-way
boundary
support support
strip shoulder traffic lane traffic lane shoulder strip cut
catch drain
lateral
lateral clearance
camber % camber % back or outer
clearance
slope
fill or
embankment edge strip for road markings
fore or inner table drain
slope
natural terrain verge
roadside area
road prism safety zone
verge
road reserve
70
70
Road Reserve 71
divider
kerbed edge separate
footway edge edge edge footway/
strip strip strip
traffic lanes strip median traffic lanes cycleway
outer inner
camber % camber %
a) The design volume, i.e. the greater the traffic volume the wider the carriageway and,
normally, the greater the number of lanes;
b) Vehicle dimensions, i.e. heavy commercial vehicles require wider carriageways to
ensure adequate clearances when passing each other;
c) The design speeds, i.e. vehicles travelling at high speed, especially commercial
vehicles, require wider carriageways to ensure safe clearances between passing
vehicles;
d) The road classification, i.e. the higher the road classification the greater the level of
service (and width of carriageway) expected.
The central reservations on high-speed heavily trafficked rural roads in the United States are
typically 15m to 30m. In Europe they tend to be much narrower (say 4 10m) and to be
used with safety barriers. Those in Britain are normally 4.5m wide, and include a crash
barrier. In urban areas they can be as narrow as 1m, but 3m is preferred so that a crossing
pedestrian pushing a pram or wheelchair has space to wait in safety [OFlaherty, 2002]. On
severely restricted arterial streets, where a narrow separator of 0.6 1.2m is feasible, it may
be desirable to have few, if any, openings in median except at intersections.
4.8.5 Shoulders
A shoulder is a portion of the roadway adjacent to the carriageway and is intended for
accommodation of stopped vehicles, emergency use and lateral support of base and surface
courses. The width of the shoulder should be adequate for giving working space around a
stopped vehicle. American practice recommends a 3m width for high type facility and a
width of 1.2m -2.4m for low type facilities. UK practice for rural roads recommends widths
ranging from 1.2m to 3.65m depending upon the road type and nature of kerb treatment.
Full bus bays (3.25m by at least 12m, plus 20m end tapers) may be provided at bus stops in
urban areas; however, the appropriateness of this provision is dependent on the traffic
volumes on the road in question.
4.8.7 Kerbs
A kerb (as termed as curb) is a vertical or sloping member along the edge of a pavement or
shoulder, forming part of gutter, strengthening or protecting the edge, and clearly defining
the edge to vehicle operators. Its functions are:
72
Camber 73
Kerbs are classified as barrier or mountable. Barrier kerbs are designed to discourage
vehicles from leaving the pavement. The face may be vertical or sloping and the height may
range from 15cm to 25cm. Mountable kerbs are those which can be easily crossed by
vehicles if required. They are used at medians and channelizing islands.
4.8.8 Camber
Camber, also known as cross fall, facilitates drainage of the pavement laterally. The
pavement can have a crown or a high point in the middle with slopes downwards towards
both edges. This is favoured on two-lane roads and wider undivided roads. On divided
roads, the individual carriageways may be centrally crowned separately or a unidirectional
slope may be provided across the entire carriageway width. The amount of camber to be
provided depends upon the smoothness of the surface and the intensity of rainfall. In the
UK, a value of 2.5% is generally adopted for design. A cross fall for the shoulders should be
generally steeper than for the pavement by about 0.3 0.5% to facilitate quick drainage. The
UK practice is to provide 5% slope on the shoulder [Kadiyali, 2006].
4.9.1 General
An intersection is defined as the general area where two or more highways join or cross,
within which are included the roadway and roadside design features which facilitate orderly
traffic movements in that area. An intersection leg is that part of any one of the highways
radiating from an intersection which is outside of the area of the intersection.
The importance of intersection design stems from the fact that efficiency of operation,
safety, speed, cost of operation and capacity are directly governed by the design. Since an
intersection involves conflicts between traffic in different directions, its scientific design can
control accidents and delay and can lead to orderly movement of traffic. Intersections
represent potentially dangerous locations from the point of view of traffic safety. It is
believed that well over half the fatal and serious road accidents in built-up areas occur at
junctions [Kadiyali, 2006].
73
At-grade and Grade Separated Junctions 74
b) The geometric layout should be so selected that hazardous movements by drivers are
eliminated. This can be achieved by various techniques such as channelizing and
staggering;
c) The design should permit the driver to discern quickly either from the layout or from
traffic signs about which path he/she should follow and the actions of merging and
diverging. This can be achieved by good layout, traffic islands, signs and
carriageway markings. Good visibility improves safety;
d) The layout should follow the natural vehicle paths. Smoothness, in contrast to abrupt
and sharp corners, should guide minor streams of traffic into stopping or slowing
down positions;
e) The number of conflict points should be minimised by separating some of the many
cutting, merging or diverging movements;
f) Vehicles that are forced to wait in order to cross a traffic stream should be provided
with adequate space at the junction.
The choice between an at-grade and grade separated intersection at a particular site depends
upon various factors such as traffic, economy, safety, aesthetics, delay etc. Grade-separated
junctions generally are more expensive initially, and are justified in certain situations. These
are:
74
74
Overview of the Design Process 75
Traffic data gathered for design purposes normally include peak period volumes, turning
movements and composition for the design year, vehicle operating speeds on the intersecting
roads (these are needed for sight-distance/ speed-change lane design) pedestrian and bicycle
movements (these affect the layout/traffic control design), public transport needs (e.g. bus
priority measures and bus stop locations affect the layout/traffic control design), special
needs of oversize vehicles (the selected design may have to cope with the occasional heavily
loaded commercial vehicle with a wide turning path), accident experience (if an existing
intersection is being upgraded), and parking practices (especially in built-up areas).
Site data collected typically include topography, land usage, and related physical features
(natural and manufactured), public and private utility services (above and below ground),
items of special interest (e.g. environmental, cultural and historical features), horizontal and
vertical alignments of intersecting roads (existing and future), sight distances (and physical
features which limit them), and adjacent (necessary) accesses.
The preliminary design phase is essentially an iterative one. It involves preparing a number
of possible intersection layouts and generally examining each in terms of its operating
characteristics (especially safety and capacity), ease of construction and likely capital cost,
and environmental and local impacts that might affect the design selection. The most
promising of the rough layouts are then selected for further development and analysis
(including road user and vehicle operating costs, if appropriate), refined and examined in
greater detail until that considered most suitable for the intersection is selected for detailed
design and preparation of final construction plans and specifications [OFlaherty, 2002].
75
4.9.5 At-grade Intersection Types (from a design perspective)
Different at-grade junction (intersection) types will be appropriate under different
circumstances depending on traffic flows, speeds, and site limitations.
75
At-grade Intersection Types (from a design perspective) 76
a) An Access
According to MoWH&C (2005), an access is defined as the intersection of an unclassified
road with a classified road and shall generally be provided within the road reserve boundary
of the classified road. Access roads are used to connect properties etc. to the road network.
Accident risk increases with the frequency of access roads, so they should, as far as possible,
be discouraged on higher classes of roads. The lay out and location of the access must
satisfy the visibility requirement for "stop conditions given in Figure 4.17 below.
b) A Junction or an Intersection
A junction is the intersection of two or more classified roads on the same surface / at grade.
At grade intersections can be classified in to two main intersection categories based on the
type of control used. For each category, there are a number of intersection types as shown
below.
i) Priority Intersections
Priority intersections will be adequate in most rural situations. Three types of T intersections
are given below:
76
Unchannelised T-Intersection (A)
The unchannelised design is suitable for intersections where there is a very small amount
of turning traffic. It is the simplest design and has no traffic islands (see Figure 4.18).
76
At-grade Intersection Types (from a design perspective) 77
Roundabout (D)
Roundabouts are controlled by the rule that all entry traffic must give way to circulating
traffic. The ratio of minor road incoming traffic to the total incoming traffic should
preferably be at least 10 to 15%. Roundabouts can be of normal size, i.e. with central island
radius 10 m or more, or small size, i.e. with central island radius less than 10 m (see Figure
4.18).
77
At-grade Intersection Types (from a design perspective) 78
c) Design Requirements
The design of at-grade junctions must take account of the following basic
requirements:
safety
operational comfort
capacity
economy
Perception
The junction should be sited so that the major road approaches are readily visible;
Early widening of the junction approaches;
The use of traffic islands in the minor road to emphasize a yield or stop requirement.
The use of early and eye-catching traffic signs;
Optical guidance by landscaping and the use of road furniture, especially where a
junction must be located on a crest curve;
The provision of visibility splays which ensure unobstructed sight lines to the left and
right along the major road;
The angle of intersection of the major and minor roads should be between 70 and 110
degrees;
The use of single lane approaches is preferred on the minor road in order to avoid mutual
sight obstruction from two vehicles waiting next to each other to turn or cross the major
road.
Comprehension 78
The right of way should follow naturally and logically from the junction layout;
The types of junctions used throughout the whole road network should be as much as
possible similar;
78
At-grade Intersection Types (from a design perspective) 79
The provision of optical guidance by the use of clearly visible kerbs, traffic islands, road
markings, road signs and other road furniture.
Manoeuvrability
A1l traffic lanes should be of adequate width for the appropriate vehicle turning
characteristics. To accommodate truck traffic, turning radii shall be 15 meters minimum;
The edges of traffic lanes should be clearly indicated by road markings;
Traffic islands and kerbs should not conflict with the natural vehicle paths.
ii) Capacity
The operation of uncontrolled junctions depends principally upon the frequency of gaps
which naturally occur between vehicles in the main road flow. These gaps should be of
sufficient duration to permit vehicles from the minor road to merge with, or cross, the major
road flow. In consequence junctions are limited in capacity, but this capacity may be
optimized by, for example, channelisation or the separation of manoeuvres.
iii) Economy
An economical junction design generally results from a minimization of the construction,
maintenance and operational costs.
Delay can be an important operational factor and the saving in time otherwise lost may
justify a more expensive, even grade separated, junction.
Loss of lives, personal injuries and damage to vehicles caused by junction-accidents are
considered as operational "costs" and should be taken into account.
The optimum economic return may often be obtained by a phased construction, for example
by constructing initially an at-grade junction which may later become grade separated
[MoWH&C, 2005].
The selection is divided into two steps; selection of intersection category (priority or control)
and selection of intersection type. It is based on the following assumptions:
Priority intersections can be safe and give sufficient capacity for certain traffic volumes
and speed limits;
If a priority intersection is not sufficient for safety and capacity, the major road traffic
must also be controlled.
Depending on location, traffic conditions and speed limits, different types of priority or
control intersection should be selected.
experience on relationships between speed, safety and traffic flows. They are judged
reasonable to be used in Uganda until sufficient local research is available.
Minor road approaching AADT, Q3 veh/day Minor road approaching AADT, Q3 veh/day
1000
Select priority
intersection
5000 10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
The diagrams are based on Swedish capacity studies with findings similar to other European
countries. It is judged reasonable to be used in Uganda until sufficient Ugandan research is
available.
Minor road approaching DHV, Q3 pcu/design hour Minor road approaching DHV, Q3 pcu/design hour
50km/h 80km/h
400 Control or grade-separated
400 Control or grade-separated
Acceptable
intersection needed intersection needed
Acceptable
Desired
Desired
200 200
Q3
Q3
Q1 Q2
Q1
Q2
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500
Major road approaching DHV,Q1+Q2 pcu/design hour Major road approaching DHV,Q1+Q2 pcu/design hour
80
80
At-grade Intersection Types (from a design perspective) 81
Q1 Q2
0
0 500 1000 1500
Major road approaching DHV,Q1+Q2 pcu/design hour
81
81
At-grade Intersection Types (from a design perspective) 82
6000 Q3 50 km/h
Q1 Select channelised
Q2
T-intersection
4000
Select unchannelised
2000 or partly channelised
T-intersection
5000 10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
3000 Q3 80 km/h
Q1 Q2
2000
Select channelised
T-intersection
1000
Select unchannelised
or partly channelised
T-intersection
5000 10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
1000 Q1
Q2
Select channelised
T-intersection
500
Select unchannelised
or partly channelised T-intersection
5000 10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
Control intersections
Roundabouts are suitable for almost all situations, provided there is enough space.
Roundabouts have been found to be safer than signalised intersections, and are suitable for
both low and medium traffic flows. At very high traffic volumes they tend to become
blocked due to drivers failing to obey the priority rules. Well-designed roundabouts slow
traffic down, which can be useful at the entry to a built-up area, or where there is a 82
significant change in road standard, such as the change from a dual carriageway to a single
carriageway.
82
Capacity of a T-Junction 83
Traffic signals are the favoured option in the larger urban areas. Co-ordinated networks of
signals (Area Traffic Control) can bring major improvements in traffic flow and a
significant reduction in delays and stoppages. However, they must be demand-responsive, in
order to get the maximum capacity from each intersection. Observance of traffic signals by
Ugandan drivers is reasonably good, and could be improved through enforcement
campaigns.
For some traffic distributions, for example high traffic volumes on the major road, the total
delay can be shorter in a signalised intersection than in a roundabout. The diagram in Figure
8-8 shows the traffic conditions for which signalised intersections are most suited, based on
Kenyan and UK experience.
10 000
Interchange
needed
Roundabout
5 000
Consider
Signalised
Intersection
0
0 10 000 20 000 30 000
Major road approaching AADT, veh/day
Field measurements on single carriageway roads indicate that the critical time gaps accepted
by minor road vehicles at the head of a queue average about 3 seconds for left turn merging
with, and 4 to 5 seconds for right turn cutting off, the traffic stream in the nearside lane of
the main road. Empirical research has resulted in predictive capacity equations for T-
intersections, which were derived from traffic flow measurements and from certain broad
features of junction layout. 83
A T-intersection has six separate traffic streams (see Figure 4.24 below), of which the
through streams on the major road (C-A and A-C) and the left-turn stream off the major road
(A-B) are generally assumed to be priority streams and to suffer no delays from other traffic,
83
Capacity of a T-Junction 84
while the two minor road streams (B-A and B-C) and the major road right-turn stream (C-B)
incur delays due to their need to give way to higher priority streams. Predictive capacity
equations for the three non-priority streams are as follows:
Where;
1 0.0345 . 4.41
The superscript s (e.g. qsB-A) denotes the flow from the saturated stream i.e. one in which
there is stable queuing.
The geometric parameters wB-A and wB-C denote the average widths of each of the minor
road approach lanes for waiting vehicles in streams B-A and B-C respectively, measured
over a distance 20m upstream from the Give Way line;
wC-B denotes the average width of the right-turn (central) lane on the major road, or 2.1m
if there is no explicit provision for right turners in stream C-B.
The parameters VrB-A and VlB-C denote right and left visibility distances, respectively,
available from the road;
VrC-B is the visibility available to right-turning vehicles waiting to turn right from the
major road; 84
W is the average major road carriageway width at the intersection; in the case of ghost or
raised islands, W excludes the width of the central (turning) lane;
84
Design Reference Flow (DRF) 85
WCR is the average width of the central reserve lane at the intersection on a dual
carriageway road.
All capacities and flows are in passenger car units per hour (pcu/hr) and distances are in
meters. One heavy vehicle is considered equivalent to two (2) pcu for calculation purposes.
Capacities are always positive or zero; if the right-hand side of any equation is negative, the
capacity is taken as zero. The ranges within which the geometric data are considered valid
are as follows: w = 2.05-4.70m, Vr = 17 250m, Vl = 22 250m, WCR = 1.2 - 9m (dual
carriageway sites only), W = 6.4 - 20m.
4.9.8 Delay
An estimate of the total 24 hour delay due to congestion, D24x, at an existing T-intersection
can be estimated from the empirically derived equation
. 4.45
8
Where; D3 = Total intersection delay (h) during the peak three hours, and P3 = Ratio of flow
in the peak three hours to the 24-hour flow. The above formula assumes that delays are
inflicted only on minor road vehicles, which have to yield priority to the major road streams.
T-Junction Example
A new industrial complex is planned to be sited adjacent to an existing priority intersection.
The width of the main carriageway is 8m. The width of the carriageway for traffic
movements B-A, B-C and C-B are 3, 3 and 2m respectively. The visibility distances at the
drivers eye height for the junction are: VrB-A = 60m, VlB-A = 75m, VrB-C = 60m, VrC-B =
60m. The width of the central reservation is 2m wide. The design flows (in pcu/hr) are
represented in the figure below.
85
85
Delay 86
Solution
1.0 Summary of Design Data
W = 8m VrB-A = 60m qA-C = 800pcu/hr qB-A = 100pcu/hr
WB-A = 3m VlB-A = 75m qA-B = 500pcu/hr qB-C = 400pcu/hr
WB-C = 3m VrB-C = 60m qC-A = 800pcu/hr qC-B = 400pcu/hr
WC-B = 2m VrC-B = 60m qC-B = 400pcu/hr WCR = 2m
745 0.364 . .
Where;
1 0.0345 . .
1 0.0345 8 0.7240
Substituting the above values in equation (i), (ii) and (iii), the required turning movement
capacities can then be obtained as shown below; 86
0.0965 627 14 2 0.7240 0.364 800 0.114 500 0.229 800 0.520 400
59
11.5485796
86
Rotary Intersections (Roundabouts) 87
Arm B-A
1.69 0.85
Arm B-C
0.93 0.85
Arm C-B
1.24 0.85
Based on the reference flow capacity ratios obtained, it is apparent that all the arms have
exceeded their capacities and therefore need to be redesigned.
The main objective of roundabout design is to secure the safe interchange of traffic between
crossing traffic streams with the minimum delay. The operating efficiency of a roundabout
depends upon entering drivers accepting headway gaps in the circulating traffic stream.
Traffic streams merge and diverge at small angles and low relative speeds. For this reason,
accidents between vehicles in roundabouts rarely have fatal consequences [OFlaherty,
2002].
b) Types of Roundabouts
In Uganda there are two types of roundabouts namely:
i) Normal roundabouts with a centre island radius greater than or equal to 10m. The
central island radius should normally be between 10m and 25m otherwise it becomes
difficult to control speeds for a radius bigger than the above range and puts
pedestrians and cyclists at risk. The width of the circulating carriageway depends on
whether it is one or two lane.
ii) Small roundabouts with a central island less than 10m. The inner central island
radius should be at least 2m.
88
Rotary Intersections (Roundabouts) 89
provided wherever possible. A deflection island may fulfil this function but should be at
least 1.2m wide;
Pedestrian guard rail should be used, where necessary to control haphazard pedestrian
crossing of the traffic streams. It also improves safety.
d) Capacity of Roundabouts
The capacity of a roundabout as a whole is a function of the capacities of the individual
entry arms. The capacity of each arm is defined as the maximum inflow when the traffic
flow at the entry is sufficient to cause continuous queuing in its approach road.
The main factors influencing entry capacity are the approach half width, and the width and
flare of the entry, while the entry angle and radius also have small but significant effects.
The predictive equation used with all types of single at-grade roundabouts is
. 4.46
0 . 4.47
Where;
Qe = saturation or capacity entry flow (pcu/h);
Qc = circulating flow across the entry (pcu/h);
k = 1 - 0.00347(-30) 0.978[(1/r)-0.05];
F = 303x2; where; x2 = v + (e v)/(1+2S) and S = 1.6(e v)/l;
fc = 0.210tD(1 + 0.2x2) where tD = 1 + 0.5/(1 +M) and M = exp[(D-
60)/10].
The symbols e, v, l, S, D, and r are described in Table 4.11. Qe and Qc are in pcu/h, and
one heavy goods vehicle is assumed equivalent to 2 pcu for computation purposes.
Table 4.11: The Limits of the Parameters used in Roundabout Capacity Equation
Geometric Parameter Symbol Unit Practical Limits
Entry width e m 4 - 15
Approach half-Width v m 2 -7 .3
Average effective flare length l' m 1 - 100
Sharpness of flare S - 0 - 2.9
Inscribed circle diameter D m 15 - 100
Entry angle deg 10 - 60
Entry radius r m 6 - 100
Source: OFlaherty, 2002
From the roundabout equation above, entry capacity decreases as circulation flow increases.
The sharpness of flare, S is a measure of the rate at which extra width is developed in the
entry flare. Small S values correspond to long gradual flares and big ones to short severe
ones. The angle acts as an alternative for the conflict angle between the entering and
circulating traffic streams. The entry radius, r is measured as the minimum radius of
curvature of the nearest kerbline at entry.
89
Rotary Intersections (Roundabouts) 90
Roundabout Example
The table below shows measured turning
movements in the AM peak period as recorded
in a traffic survey at a four arm roundabout.
The survey was carried out in 2005. The
expected rate of traffic growth is 2%. It is
assumed that funding will be readily available
and that if any redesign and reconstruction is
needed, the roundabout will be reopened to
traffic in the same year the survey was carried
out. The roundabout is being assessed for
capacity to carry peak flows in 2019. The
geometric parameters for arms A and B are as
shown below:
The base year traffic survey carried out in 2005 revealed the following traffic flows in
pcu/hr.
To (Destination)
A B C D
From A - 220 450 210
(Origin) B 200 - 320 450
C 550 250 - 320
D 100 420 220 50
Solution 90
1.0 Summary of Design Data
a) Traffic growth rate, r = 2%
b) Design life, Y [= (2019-2005)+1] = 15yrs
c) Geometric parameters of Arm A and B as shown in the table
90
Rotary Intersections (Roundabouts) 91
1.125 1.125 1
Where;
P = present flows (in pcu/hr);
r = traffic growth rate (in %);
Y = design life (in years);
DF = Design Flow (a modification of the future traffic flow);
DRF = Design Reference Flow.
The design flows, DF in 2019 are presented in the table below using the above
formulae
To (Destination)
A B C D
From A 0 333 681 318
(Origin) B 303 0 485 681
C 833 379 0 485
D 151 636 333 76
a) Values of k
1
k 1 0.00347 30 0.978 0.05
r
1
: 1 0.00347 30 30 0.978 0.05 1.0245
40
1
: 1 0.00347 40 30 0.978 0.05 0.9816
30
b) Values of F
F 303
Where;
1.6 e v 1.6 14 8 1.6 9 4.5
S SA A 0.240,SA B 0.180
l 40 40
e v 14 8 91
x v x A A 8 12.054
1 2S 1 2 0.24
91
Rotary Intersections (Roundabouts) 92
9 4.5
x A B 4.5 7.809
1 2 0.180
c) Values of fc
f 0.210 1 0.2x
Where;
60
M exp MA A e 0.0498,MA B e 0.0498
10
And;
0.5 0.5
tD 1 t DA A 1 1.476,t DA B 1.476
1 1 0.0498
Therefore;
: 0.210 1.476 1 0.2 12.054 1.057
: 0.210 1.476 1 0.2 7.809 0.794
d) Circulating Capacity Qc
Arm A: Qc = QBB + QCC + QDD + QCB + QDB + QDC
= 0 0 76 379 636 333
= 1424 /
92
3.4 Capacity Check, RFC
For sufficient capacity;
92
References 93
Q
RFC 0.85
Q
Q 1332
ArmA:RFC 0.61 0.85
Q C
2200
Q 1469
ArmB:RFC 1.20 0.85
Q D
1225
4.0 Conclusion
Arm C has a RFC ratio of 61% which is less than 70%, implying that queuing on this
arm will be avoided for 39 out of 40 peak hours.
Arm D, on the other hand, has a RFC ratio of 120% which is far greater than 85%,
implying that queuing will occur on this arm of the roundabout in all the peak hours.
4.10 References
1. Banister, A. and Baker, R, 1998, Surveying, 7th Edition, Longman limited, Singapore.
2. Irvine W, H, 1998, Surveying for construction, 4th Edition, Patson press, Great Britain.
3. Kadiyali, L.R., 2006. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering (including
Expressways and Airport Engineering), 4th Edition. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
4. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, 2004. Draft Road Design Manual.
5. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, 2005. Road Design Manual
Vol.1,Geometric Design Manual, Republic of Uganda, Kampala.
6. OFlaherty C.A., 2002. Highways: The Location, Design, Construction and Maintenance of
Pavements. 4th Edition, Oxford, Butterworth Heinemann.
7. Rogers, Martin 2003, Highway Engineering, Oxford, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
8. Thagesen, B., 1996. Highway and Traffic Engineering in Developing Countries. 1st Edition.
E & FN Spon Publishers, London, Uk.
9. Transport Research Laboratory, 1988, A Guide to Geometric Design, Overseas Road Note 6,
Crowthorne, England.
10. Uren, J, and Price, W.F, 1989, Surveying for Engineers, 2nd Edition, Macmillan Publishers,
Hong Kong.
93
93
94
5.1 Introduction
The highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected and
processed material whose function is to distribute the applied wheel loads to the subgrade.
This is to ensure that the stresses transmitted to the subgrade do not exceed its support
capacity. Road traffic is carried by the pavement, which in engineering terms is a horizontal
structure supported by in situ natural material. In order to support this structure, existing
records must be examined and sub surface explorations conducted. The engineering
properties of the local rock and soil are established, particularly with respect to strength,
stiffness, durability, susceptibility to moisture, and propensity to shrink and swell over time.
The relevant properties are determined by either field tests, by empirical estimates based on
soil type, or by laboratory measurements. The material is tested in its weakest expected
condition, usually at its highest moisture content. Probable performance under traffic is then
determined. Soils unsuitable for the final pavement are identified for removal, suitable
replacement materials are earmarked, the maximum slopes for embankments and cuttings
are established, the degree of compaction to be achieved during construction is determined,
and drainage needs are specified. If the road is in cut, the subgrade will consist of the in situ
soil. If it is constructed on fill, the top layers of the embankment structure are collectively
termed the subgrade [TRL, 1993].
The pavement designer must develop the most economical combination of layers that will
guarantee adequate dispersion of the incident wheel stresses so that each layer in the
pavement does not become overstressed during the design life of the highway. The major
variables in design of a highway pavement are:
The thickness of each layer in the pavement;
The material contained within each layer of the pavement;
The type of vehicles in the traffic stream;
The volume of traffic predicted to use the highway over its design life;
The strength of the underlying subgrade [Rogers, 2003].
Pavements are called either flexible or rigid depending on their relative flexural stiffness.
94
Rigid Pavements 95
5.3.1 Surfacing
The surfacing forms the topmost layer of the pavement. It usually consists of a bituminous
surface dressing or a layer of premixed bituminous material. It is comparatively thin, but
resists abrasion and the impacts caused by wheel loads and the effects of weather condition
[Bindra, 1999]. The functions of this layer are; provision of a safe and comfortable riding
surface to traffic, taking up wear and tear stresses caused by traffic, provide a water tight
surface against infiltration of water, provide a hard surface which can withstand tyre
pressure. Where premixed materials are laid in two layers, these are known as the wearing
course and the base course (or binder course) as shown in Figure 5.1 [TRL, 1993].
Wearing Course
Base Course or Binder Course
Surfacing
Roadbase
Sub-base
Subgrade
5.3.2 Roadbase
The roadbase is the main load-spreading layer of the pavement. It is structurally the most
important layer of a flexible pavement. It distributes the applied wheel load to the subgrade
in such a way that the bearing capacity of the subgrade soil is not exceeded. This layer 95
requires higher quality material often obtained by stabilizing sub-base materials. It will
normally consist of crushed stone or gravel, or of gravely soils, decomposed rock, sands and
sand-clays stabilised with cement, lime or bitumen [TRL, 1993].
95
Subbase 96
5.3.3 Subbase
This is the secondary load-spreading layer underlying the roadbase. It will normally consist
of a material of lower quality than that used in the roadbase such as unprocessed natural
gravel, gravel-sand, or gravel-sand-clay. It may or may not be present as a separate layer
since its presence is justified by the insufficiency of the subgrade or reliability [TRL, 1993].
Major uses include:
Distribution of stresses to the subgrade; as a result the sub base material must be
stronger than the subgrade material;
Acts as a drainage layer in case of poor subgrade. A good drainage layer should be
able to drain very fast if water is logged, but also must be able to retain some
moisture in times of extreme drought;
Serving as a separating layer preventing contamination of the roadbase by the
subgrade material;
Under wet conditions; it has an important role to play in protecting the subgrade
from damage by construction traffic;
Preventing capillary attraction effect.
The sub-base is omitted when the subgrade is a hard intact rock or if it is granular and has a
CBR greater than 30% and has no high water table [TRL, 1993].
5.3.5 Subgrade
This is the top surface of a road bed on which the pavement structure and shoulders
including kerbs are constructed. Generally the top soil portion up to 0.5m of the
embankment or cut-section is referred to as the subgrade [Bindra, 1999].
It may be undisturbed local material or may be soil excavated elsewhere and placed as fill.
The loads on the pavement are ultimately received by the subgrade layer; it is therefore,
essential that the layer should not be over-stressed. The top part of the layer requires
preparation to receive layers on top either by stabilizing it adequately and therefore reduce
required pavement thickness or designing and constructing a sufficiently thick pavement to
suit subgrade strength. The subgrade strength depends on the type of material, Moisture
content, dry density, internal structure of the soil particles, and type and mode of stress
applied [TRL, 1993]. The major factors that influence pavement thickness are; design wheel
load, strength of subgrade (and other pavement materials), climatic and environmental
factors [Singh, 2001].
96
Traffic Assessment 97
The three main steps to be followed in designing a new road pavement are discussed below.
97
Highway Design Standards 98
pavement structures 1972-1986. The latest version of the AASHTO design guide was
printed in 1993. The above design guides have been adapted to suit most materials and
climatic conditions found in developing countries. The AASHTO design equation in the
design guide 1972-1986 was also modified through research done by the World Bank to suit
conditions in developing countries.
It is important for engineers to exercise judgement in the use of a given design standard to
ensure that they come up with an economical solution for a pavement design. Use of local
materials has to always be taken into considerations. Sometimes, more than one design
standard is used for the purposes of comparing one pavement design with another so that the
comparison guides the engineer in selecting the most economical option.
99
Regional Adjustment 100
Where;
DT = Design Traffic in 80kN e.s.a.;
SN = Total Required Structural Number;
R = Regional Factor;
S = Soil Support Value.
The above equation assumes a terminal serviceability index of 1.5. This equation represents
the relationship between the weighted structural number and the design traffic. The design
traffic has been grouped into classes as shown in Table 5.4. For low traffic volumes less
than 0.5 million equivalent standard axles, reference is made to TRL Overseas Road Note 31
for design thicknesses [Ruhweza, 2005].
Based on research carried out by the transportation department of the World Bank in
connection with the development of the HDM III model, a method for weighing SNW and
SND was developed to obtain the Design Structural Number DSN taking the actual wet and
dry periods into account. The modified formula for weighing of the structural number in
accordance with the applicable seasonal conditions (rainfall) assumes the form:
SND SNW
DSN . 5.2
n . nD . .
SND SNW
12 12
Where;
DSN = Design Structure Number;
SND, SNw = The structure number for dry and wet condition respectively;
nD, nw = Number of wet and dry months respectively during one year (nD+ nw
= 12);
100
Design Tables 101
Table 5.5: Determination of DSN for different Subgrade and Traffic Classes
Nw 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
S2 T4 27.0 27.6 28.2 29.0 29.7 30.6 31.6 32.7 33.9 35.4 37.2 39.3 42.0
T3 59.0 60.1 61.3 62.5 63.9 65.4 67.1 68.9 70.9 73.1 75.7 78.6 82.0
T2 69.0 70.3 71.7 73.1 74.8 76.5 78.4 80.6 82.9 85.6 88.6 92.0 96.0
T1 80.0 81.4 83.0 84.6 86.4 88.3 90.4 92.7 95.2 98.1 101.2 104.9 109.0
S3 T4 24.0 24.5 25.0 25.5 26.1 26.7 27.4 28.2 29.1 30.1 31.2 32.5 34.0
T3 54.0 55.0 56.1 57.3 58.6 60.0 61.6 63.3 65.2 67.4 69.8 72.7 76.0
T2 64.0 65.2 66.5 67.8 69.3 71.0 72.7 74.7 76.9 79.3 82.1 85.3 89.0
T1 74.0 75.3 76.7 78.3 79.9 81.7 83.7 85.8 88.2 90.8 93.8 97.1 101.0
S4 T4 21.0 21.4 21.8 22.2 22.7 23.2 23.8 24.5 25.2 25.9 26.8 27.8 29.0
T3 49.0 50.0 51.0 52.1 53.3 54.6 56.1 57.7 59.6 61.6 64.0 66.7 70.0
T2 59.0 60.1 61.3 62.5 63.9 65.4 67.1 68.9 70.9 73.1 75.7 78.6 82.0
T1 68.0 69.2 70.6 72.0 73.6 75.3 77.2 79.2 81.5 84.0 86.9 90.2 94.0
S5 T4 12.0 12.3 12.6 13.0 13.4 13.8 14.4 15.0 15.7 16.5 17.6 19.0 21.0
T3 29.0 29.7 30.4 31.3 32.2 33.2 34.4 35.7 37.3 39.1 41.4 44.2 48.0
T2 37.0 37.8 38.8 39.8 40.9 42.1 43.5 45.1 46.9 49.1 51.7 54.9 59.0 101
T1 46.0 47.0 48.1 49.2 50.5 51.9 53.5 55.3 57.4 59.7 62.5 65.8 70.0
Source: AASHTO, 1993
101
Steps involved in the AASHTO method of Design 102
Base
Bitumen Macadam a2 = 0.20
Natural or Crushed Gravel a2 = 0.12
Crushed Stone on:
Natural Gravel Subbase a2 = 0.14
Stabilised Subbase a2 = 0.18
Cement Treated Gravel:
Type A, 3.5 UCS (MPa) 5.0 a2 = 0.18
Type B, 2.0 UCS (MPa) 3.5 a2 = 0.14
Subbase
Natural Gravel, CBR 30% a3 = 0.11
Cement Treated Material:
Type B, 2.0 UCS (MPa) 5.0 a3 = 0.16
Type C, 0.7 UCS (MPa) 2.0 a3 = 0.12
Source: AASHTO, 1993
Base
Natural and Crushed Gravel 125 200
Crushed Stone 125 200
Cement Treated Gravel:
Type B 125 175
Type A 125 175
Bituminous Dense Graded Macadam 70 150
Bituminous Semi-Dense Macadam 70 150
Subbase
Natural Gravel 100 250
Cement or Lime treated Material, Type C 100 200
Cement Treated Gravel, Type B 100 200
Source: AASHTO, 1993
102
Steps involved in the AASHTO method of Design 103
P
C . 5.3
80
Where;
C = 80kN equivalence factor;
P = Load of a single axle (in kN);
= Influence coefficient (may be taken as 4.0 for most instances).
It is better to measure actual axle loads using a mobile weighbridge for medium to heavily
trafficked roads. For purposes of feasibility studies or where it may not be possible to obtain
actual axle loads especially in lightly trafficked roads, the equivalence factors in Table 5.3
may be applied.
The average daily traffic from equivalent standard axles is obtained using the formula
below:
T V C . 5.4
Where;
Vi = average daily number of each type of commercial vehicle;
Ci = appropriate equivalence factor.
For all commercial vehicles having the same growth rate, a cumulative number of standard
axles during the design period are calculated using the formula below:
1 r Y 1
DT 365T . 5.5
r
Where;
DT = Design traffic as cumulative number of 80kN esa;
Td = Average daily number of esa in the first year after opening;
r = average growth rate for the design period in percent per annum;
Y = Design period in years.
1 r Y 1
G . 5.7
Y. r
DSN a h a h a h . 5.8
Where;
DSN = Weighted structural number for the entire pavement;
a1,a2,a3 = layer coefficients representing the surfacing, base and subbase course
respectively.
h1,h2,h3= actual thicknesses in mm of surface, base and subbase courses respectively
Note: The layer coefficients assumed are in Table 5.6. For different types of materials
considered, guide values for the minimum and maximum practical thicknesses of a layer are
given in Table 5.7 for effective compaction [Ruhweza, 2005].
104
Steps involved in the AASHTO method of Design 105
Solution
1.0 Design Information
(a) Number of wet months in the region, nW = 5
(b) Subgrade CBR = 20 30%
(c) Traffic growth rate, r = 2.5%
(d) Design life, Y = 15yrs
(e) Construction Materials:
Surfacing Material Asphalt Concrete (AC)
Roadbase material Crushed stone on stabilised
subbase
Subbase material Cement treated Type C
Where;
365. . . . 10
b) Wear factor, W
From equation 5.3
.
,
80
e.g. for 2-Axle and Tandem Trucks; C = 2.0 (from Table 5.3) since no axle loads
were provided.
c) Growth Factor, G
According to AASHTO growth factor equation;
1 r Y 1
G
Y. r
1 0.025 1
G 1.1955
15 0.025
105
105
Steps involved in the AASHTO method of Design 106
d) Table of results
Vehicle Class V C G Y DT
(Veh/day) (esa) (years) (msa)
2-Axle and TandemTrucks 140 2 1.1955 15 1.833
Trucks with Drawbar Trailer 30 6 1.1955 15 1.178
Articulated Units 16 6 1.1955 15 0.628
Buses 40 1 1.1955 15 0.262
Cumulative Design Traffic, DT (in msa) 3.901
From Table 5.4 a cumulative design traffic of 3.901 msa corresponds to a traffic
class of T2 i.e. 2.5 < T (in msa) < 8.0.
SND SNW
DSN
n . nD . .
SND SNW
12 12
59 82
65.4
5 . 7 .
.
59 82
12 12
5.0 Layer Thicknesses based on the Actual Design Structural Number, DSNa
The Actual Design Structural Number, DSNa is given by
DSN a h a h a h
From design chart no. 6, for a subgrade strength class S4 and Traffic Class of T2 (i.e.
S4 T2) corresponds to an asphalt surfacing thickness, h1 of 50mm. And from Table
5.6 a1 = 0.35, a2 = 0.18 and a3 = 0.12. Therefore;
By trial and error with guidance from Table 5.7, lets try h2 = 200mm and h3 =
200mm. From which;
Since DSNa (= 77.5) > DSN (= 65.4), it implies that the design thicknesses of the
layers are acceptable.
6.0 Conclusion
The pavement should therefore be composed of the following layer thicknesses
a) Surfacing material : 50mm
b) Roadbase : 200mm 106
c) Subbase : 200mm
106
References 107
5.8 References
1. Arora, K. R, 2000, Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 5th Edition.
2. Bindra, S.P, 1999, A Course in Highway Engineering, 4th Edition, Dhanpat Rai Publishers,
New Delhi.
3. Gupta, B.L, 1995, Roads, railways Bridges and Tunnels engineering, 4th edition, Standard
publishers Distributors, Nai sarak, Delhi.
4. Kadiyali, L.R., 2000. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering, 4th Edition. Khanna
Publishers, New Delhi.
5. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, 2004. Draft Road Design Manual.
6. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, 2005. Road Design Manual Vol.1,
Geometric Design Manual, Republic of Uganda, Kampala.
7. Rogers, M., 2003, Highway Engineering, Oxford, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
8. Ruhweza, D., 2005, Highway Engineering I. Course notes, Department of Civil
Engineering, Kyambogo University.
9. Singh, G, 2001, Highway Engineering, 3rd edition, Standard publishers and Distributors,
Delhi.
10. Transport Research Laboratory, 1993, A Guide to Design of Bitumen Surfaced Roads in
Tropical and Sub Tropical Countries, Overseas Road Note 31, Crowthorne, England.
107
107