FINAL - Thermal+Power IFC REPORT

Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines
THERMAL POWER PLANTS
WORLD BANK GROUP
Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines for

Thermal Power Plants
Introduction of specific technical recommendations should be based on the
professional opinion of qualified and experienced persons. When
The Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines are host country regulations differ from the levels and measures
technical reference documents with general and industry-specific presented in the EHS Guidelines, projects are expected to
examples of Good International Industry Practice (GIIP) 1. When achieve whichever is more stringent. If less stringent levels or
one or more members of the World Bank Group are involved in a measures than those provided in these EHS Guidelines are
project, these EHS Guidelines are applied as required by their appropriate, in view of specific project circumstances, a full and
respective policies and standards. These industry sector EHS detailed justification for any proposed alternatives is needed as
guidelines are designed to be used together with the General part of the site-specific environmental assessment. This
EHS Guidelines document, which provides guidance to users on justification should demonstrate that the choice for any alternate
common EHS issues potentially applicable to all industry sectors. performance levels is protective of human health and the
For complex projects, use of multiple industry-sector guidelines environment.
may be necessary. A complete list of industry-sector guidelines
can be found at: Applicability
www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/Content/EnvironmentalGuideli
This document includes information relevant to combustion
nes
processes fueled by gaseous, liquid and solid fossil fuels and
biomass and designed to deliver electrical or mechanical power,
The EHS Guidelines contain the performance levels and
steam, heat, or any combination of these, regardless of the fuel
measures that are generally considered to be achievable in new
type (except for solid waste which is covered under a separate
facilities by existing technology at reasonable costs. Application
Guideline for Waste Management Facilities), with a total rated
of the EHS Guidelines to existing facilities may involve the
heat input capacity above 50 Megawatt thermal input (MWth) on
establishment of site-specific targets, based on environmental
Higher Heating Value (HHV) basis. 2 It applies to boilers,
assessments and/or environmental audits as appropriate, with an
reciprocating engines, and combustion turbines in new and
appropriate timetable for achieving them. The applicability of the
existing facilities. Annex A contains a detailed description of
EHS Guidelines should be tailored to the hazards and risks
industry activities for this sector, and Annex B contains guidance
established for each project on the basis of the results of an
for Environmental Assessment (EA) of thermal power projects.
environmental assessment in which site-specific variables, such
Emissions guidelines applicable to facilities with a total heat input
as host country context, assimilative capacity of the environment,
capacity of less than 50 MWth are presented in Section 1.1 of the
and other project factors, are taken into account. The applicability
General EHS Guidelines. Depending on the characteristics of
1 Defined as the exercise of professional skill, diligence, prudence and foresight that the project and its associated activities (i.e., fuel sourcing and
would be reasonably expected from skilled and experienced professionals engaged in
the same type of undertaking under the same or similar circumstances globally. The evacuation of generated electricity), readers should also consult
circumstances that skilled and experienced professionals may find when evaluating the
range of pollution prevention and control techniques available to a project may include,
but are not limited to, varying levels of environmental degradation and environmental
assimilative capacity as well as varying levels of financial and technical feasibility. 2 Total capacity applicable to a facility with multiple units.
DECEMBER 19, 2008 1

WORLD BANK GROUP
the EHS Guidelines for Mining and the EHS Guidelines for Electric 1.1 Environment
Power Transmission and Distribution.
Environmental issues in thermal power plant projects primarily
Decisions to invest in this sector by one or more members of the include the following:
World Bank Group are made within the context of the World Bank
Air emissions
Group strategy on climate change.
Energy efficiency and Greenhouse Gas emissions
This document is organized according to the following sections: Water consumption and aquatic habitat alteration
Effluents
Section 1.0 Industry Specific Impacts and Management
Section 2.0 Performance Indicators and Monitoring Solid wastes
Section 3.0 References and Additional Sources Hazardous materials and oil
Annex A General Description of Industry Activities
Annex B Environmental Assessment Guidance for Thermal Noise
Power Projects.
1.0 Industry-Specific Impacts and Air Emissions

The primary emissions to air from the combustion of fossil fuels or
Management
biomass are sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX),
The following section provides a summary of the most significant
particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), and greenhouse
EHS issues associated with thermal power plants, which occur
gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2). Depending on the fuel type
during the operational phase, along with recommendations for
and quality, mainly waste fuels or solid fuels, other substances
their management.
such as heavy metals (i.e., mercury, arsenic, cadmium, vanadium,
As described in the introduction to the General EHS Guidelines, nickel, etc), halide compounds (including hydrogen fluoride),
the general approach to the management of EHS issues in unburned hydrocarbons and other volatile organic compounds
industrial development activities, including power plants, should (VOCs) may be emitted in smaller quantities, but may have a
consider potential impacts as early as possible in the project significant influence on the environment due to their toxicity and/or
cycle, including the incorporation of EHS considerations into the persistence. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are also implicated
site selection and plant design processes in order to maximize the in long-range and trans-boundary acid deposition.
range of options available to prevent and control potential
The amount and nature of air emissions depends on factors such
negative impacts.
as the fuel (e.g., coal, fuel oil, natural gas, or biomass), the type
Recommendations for the management of EHS issues common to and design of the combustion unit (e.g., reciprocating engines,
most large industrial and infrastructure facilities during the combustion turbines, or boilers), operating practices, emission
construction and decommissioning phases are provided in the control measures (e.g., primary combustion control, secondary
General EHS Guidelines. flue gas treatment), and the overall system efficiency. For
example, gas-fired plants generally produce negligible quantities
of particulate matter and sulfur oxides, and levels of nitrogen
oxides are about 60% of those from plants using coal (without
DECEMBER 19, 2008 2

WORLD BANK GROUP
emission reduction measures). Natural gas-fired plants also Designing stack heights according to Good International
release lower quantities of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. Industry Practice (GIIP) to avoid excessive ground level
concentrations and minimize impacts, including acid
Some measures, such as choice of fuel and use of measures to
deposition; 4
increase energy conversion efficiency, will reduce emissions of
Considering use of combined heat and power (CHP, or co-
multiple air pollutants, including CO2, per unit of energy
generation) facilities. By making use of otherwise wasted
generation. Optimizing energy utilization efficiency of the
heat, CHP facilities can achieve thermal efficiencies of 70
generation process depends on a variety of factors, including the
90 percent, compared with 32 45 percent for conventional
nature and quality of fuel, the type of combustion system, the
thermal power plants.
operating temperature of the combustion turbines, the operating
pressure and temperature of steam turbines, the local climate As stated in the General EHS Guidelines, emissions from a
conditions, the type of cooling system used, etc. Recommended single project should not contribute more than 25% of the
measures to prevent, minimize, and control air emissions include: applicable ambient air quality standards to allow additional,
future sustainable development in the same airshed. 5
Use of the cleanest fuel economically available (natural gas
is preferable to oil, which is preferable to coal) if that is Pollutant-specific control recommendations are provided below.
consistent with the overall energy and environmental policy
of the country or the region where the plant is proposed. For Sulfur Dioxide
most large power plants, fuel choice is often part of the The range of options for the control of sulfur oxides varies
national energy policy, and fuels, combustion technology and substantially because of large differences in the sulfur content of
pollution control technology, which are all interrelated, should different fuels and in control costs as described in Table 1. The
be evaluated very carefully upstream of the project to choice of technology depends on a benefit-cost analysis of the
optimize the projects environmental performance; environmental performance of different fuels, the cost of controls,
When burning coal, giving preference to high-heat-content, and the existence of a market for sulfur control by-products 6.
low-ash, and low-sulfur coal; Recommended measures to prevent, minimize, and control SO2
Considering beneficiation to reduce ash content, especially emissions include:
for high ash coal; 3
Selection of the best power generation technology for the fuel 3 If sulfur is inorganically bound to the ash, this will also reduce sulfur content.
chosen to balance the environmental and economic benefits. 4 For specific guidance on calculating stack height see Annex 1.1.3 of the General
EHS Guidelines. Raising stack height should not be used to allow more
The choice of technology and pollution control systems will emissions. However, if the proposed emission rates result in significant
incremental ambient air quality impacts to the attainment of the relevant ambient
be based on the site-specific environmental assessment air quality standards, options to raise stack height and/or to further reduce
emissions should be considered in the EA. Typical examples of GIIP stack
(some examples include the use of higher energy-efficient heights are up to around 200m for large coal-fired power plants, up to around 80m
systems, such as combined cycle gas turbine system for for HFO-fueled diesel engine power plants, and up to 100m for gas-fired combined
cycle gas turbine power plants. Final selection of the stack height will depend on
natural gas and oil-fired units, and supercritical, ultra- the terrain of the surrounding areas, nearby buildings, meteorological conditions,
predicted incremental impacts and the location of existing and future receptors.
supercritical or integrated coal gasification combined cycle 5 For example, the US EPA Prevention of Significant Deterioration Increments
Limits applicable to non-degraded airsheds provide the following: SO2 (91 g/m3
(IGCC) technology for coal-fired units); for 2nd highest 24-hour, 20 g/m3 for annual average), NO2 (20 g/m3 for annual
average), and PM10 (30 g/m3 for 2nd highest 24-hour, and 17 g/m3 for annual
average).
DECEMBER 19, 2008 3

WORLD BANK GROUP
Use of fuels with a lower content of sulfur where Can remove SO3 as well at higher
removal rate than Wet FGD
economically feasible; Use 0.5-1.0% of electricity
Use of lime (CaO) or limestone (CaCO3) in coal-fired fluidized generated, less than Wet FGD
Lime is more expensive than
bed combustion boilers to have integrated desulfurization limestone
No wastewater
which can achieve a removal efficiency of up to 80-90 % Waste mixture of fly ash,
through use of Fluidized Bed Combustion 7, 8; unreacted additive and CaSO3
Seawater Removal efficiency up to 90% 7-10%
Depending on the plant size, fuel quality, and potential for FGD Not practical for high S coal
(>1%S)
significant emissions of SO2 , use of flue gas desulfurization
Impacts on marine environment
(FGD) for large boilers using coal or oil and for large need to be carefully examined
(e.g., reduction of pH, inputs of
reciprocating engines . The optimal type of FGD system remaining heavy metals, fly ash,
(e.g., wet FGD using limestone with 85 to 98% removal temperature, sulfate, dissolved
oxygen, and chemical oxygen
efficiency, dry FGD using lime with 70 to 94% removal demand)
Use 0.8-1.6% of electricity
efficiency, seawater FGD with up to 90% removal efficiency) generated
depends on the capacity of the plant, fuel properties, site Simple process, no wastewater or
solid waste,
conditions, and the cost and availability of reagent as well as Sources: EC (2006) and World Bank Group.
by-product disposal and utilization. 9
Table 1 - Performance / Characteristics of FGDs Nitrogen Oxides

Type of Characteristics Plant
FGD Capital Formation of nitrogen oxides can be controlled by modifying
Cost operational and design parameters of the combustion process
Increase
Wet FGD Flue gas is saturated with water 11-14% (primary measures). Additional treatment of NOX from the flue
Limestone (CaCO3) as reagent gas (secondary measures; see Table 2) may be required in some
Removal efficiency up to 98%
Use 1-1.5% of electricity generated cases depending on the ambient air quality objectives.
Most widely used Recommended measures to prevent, minimize, and control NOX
Distance to limestone source and
the limestone reactivity to be emissions include:
considered
High water consumption
Need to treat wastewater Use of low NOX burners with other combustion modifications,
Gypsum as a saleable by-product such as low excess air (LEA) firing, for boiler plants.
or waste
Semi-Dry Also called Dry Scrubbing 9-12% Installation of additional NOX controls for boilers may be
FGD under controlled humidification.
necessary to meet emissions limits; a selective catalytic
Lime (CaO) as reagent
Removal efficiency up to 94% reduction (SCR) system can be used for pulverized coal-
fired, oil-fired, and gas-fired boilers or a selective non-
6 Regenerative Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) options (either wet or semi-dray)
may be considered under these conditions. catalytic reduction (SNCR) system for a fluidized-bed boiler;
7 EC (2006).
8 The SO2 removal efficiency of FBC technologies depends on the sulfur and lime Use of dry low-NOX combustors for combustion turbines
content of fuel, sorbent quantity, ratio, and quality. burning natural gas;
9 The use of wet scrubbers, in addition to dust control equipment (e.g. ESP or
Fabric Filter), has the advantage of also reducing emissions of HCl, HF, heavy Use of water injection or SCR for combustion turbines and
metals, and further dust remaining after ESP or Fabric Filter. Because of higher
costs, the wet scrubbing process is generally not used at plants with a capacity of
less than 100 MWth (EC 2006).
DECEMBER 19, 2008 4

WORLD BANK GROUP
reciprocating engines burning liquid fuels; 10 and ambient air quality objectives. Particulate matter can also be
Optimization of operational parameters for existing released during transfer and storage of coal and additives, such
reciprocating engines burning natural gas to reduce NOx as lime. Recommendations to prevent, minimize, and control
emissions; particulate matter emissions include:
Use of lean-burn concept or SCR for new gas engines.
Installation of dust controls capable of over 99% removal
Table 2 - Performance / Characteristics of Secondary NOx efficiency, such as ESPs or Fabric Filters (baghouses), for
Reduction Systems
Type Characteristics Plant coal-fired power plants. The advanced control for
Capital particulates is a wet ESP, which further increases the
Cost
Increase removal efficiency and also collects condensables (e.g.,
SCR NOx emission reduction rate of 80 4-9% (coal-
sulfuric acid mist) that are not effectively captured by an ESP
95% fired boiler)
Use 0.5% of electricity generated or a fabric filter; 12
Use ammonia or urea as reagent. 1-2% (gas-
Ammonia slip increases with increasing fired Use of loading and unloading equipment that minimizes the
NH3/NOx ratio may cause a problem combined
cycle gas
height of fuel drop to the stockpile to reduce the generation of
(e.g., too high ammonia in the fly ash).
Larger catalyst volume / improving the turbine) fugitive dust and installing of cyclone dust collectors;
mixing of NH3 and NOx in the flue gas
may be needed to avoid this problem. 20-30% Use of water spray systems to reduce the formation of
Catalysts may contain heavy metals. (reciprocating
engines) fugitive dust from solid fuel storage in arid environments;
Proper handling and disposal / recycle
of spent catalysts is needed. Use of enclosed conveyors with well designed, extraction
Life of catalysts has been 6-10 years
(coal-fired), 8-12 years (oil-fired) and and filtration equipment on conveyor transfer points to
more than 10 years (gas-fired). prevent the emission of dust;
SNCR NOx emission reduction rate of 30 1-2%
50% For solid fuels of which fine fugitive dust could contain
Use 0.1-0.3% of electricity generated
vanadium, nickel and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Use ammonia or urea as reagent.
Cannot be used on gas turbines or gas (PAHs) (e.g., in coal and petroleum coke), use of full
engines.
Operates without using catalysts. enclosure during transportation and covering stockpiles
Source: EC (2006), World Bank Group where necessary;
Design and operate transport systems to minimize the
Particulate Matter generation and transport of dust on site;
Particulate matter 11 is emitted from the combustion process, Storage of lime or limestone in silos with well designed,
especially from the use of heavy fuel oil, coal, and solid biomass. extraction and filtration equipment;
The proven technologies for particulate removal in power plants Use of wind fences in open storage of coal or use of
are fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators (ESPs), shown in enclosed storage structures to minimize fugitive dust
Table 3. The choice between a fabric filter and an ESP depends
on the fuel properties, type of FGD system if used for SO2 control, 11 Including all particle sizes (e.g. TSP, PM10, and PM2.5)
12 Flue gas conditioning (FGC) is a recommended approach to address the issue
of low gas conductivity and lower ESP collection performance which occurs when
10 Water injection may not be practical for industrial combustion turbines in all
ESPs are used to collect dust from very low sulfur fuels. One particular FGC
cases. Even if water is available, the facilities for water treatment and the operating design involves introduction of sulfur trioxide (SO3) gas into the flue gas upstream
and maintenance costs of water injection may be costly and may complicate the of the ESP, to increase the conductivity of the flue gas dramatically improve the
operation of a small combustion turbine. ESP collection efficiency. There is typically no risk of increased SOx emissions as
the SO3 is highly reactive and adheres to the dust.
DECEMBER 19, 2008 5

WORLD BANK GROUP
emissions where necessary, applying special ventilation prevent, minimize, and control emissions of other air pollutants
systems in enclosed storage to avoid dust explosions (e.g., such as mercury in particular from thermal power plants include
use of cyclone separators at coal transfer points). the use of conventional secondary controls such as fabric filters or
ESPs operated in combination with FGD techniques, such as
See Annex 1.1.2 of the General EHS Guidelines for an additional
limestone FGD, Dry Lime FGD, or sorbent injection. 14 Additional
illustrative presentation of point source emissions prevention and
removal of metals such as mercury can be achieved in a high dust
control technologies.
SCR system along with powered activated carbon, bromine-
enhanced Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC) or other sorbents.
Table 3 Performance / Characteristics of Dust Removal
Systems Since mercury emissions from thermal power plants pose
Type Performance / Characteristics potentially significant local and transboundary impacts to
ESP Removal efficiency of >96.5% (<1 m), >99.95%
(>10 m) ecosystems and public health and safety through
0.1-1.8% of electricity generated is used
bioaccumulation, particular consideration should be given to their
It might not work on particulates with very high
electrical resistivity. In these cases, flue gas minimization in the environmental assessment and accordingly in
conditioning (FGC) may improve ESP performance.
Can handle very large gas volume with low plant design. 15
pressure drops
Fabric Filter Removal efficiency of >99.6% (<1 m), >99.95%
(>10 m). Removes smaller particles than ESPs. Emissions Offsets
0.2-3% of electricity generated is used
Filter life decreases as coal S content increases Facilities in degraded airsheds should minimize incremental
Operating costs go up considerably as the fabric impacts by achieving emissions values outlined in Table 6. Where
filter becomes dense to remove more particles
If ash is particularly reactive, it can weaken the these emissions values result nonetheless in excessive ambient
fabric and eventually it disintegrates.
impacts relative to local regulatory standards (or in their absence,
Wet Scrubber Removal efficiency of >98.5% (<1 m), >99.9%
(>10 m) other international recognized standards or guidelines, including
Up to 3% of electricity generated is used.
As a secondary effect, can remove and absorb World Health Organization guidelines), the project should explore
gaseous heavy metals and implement site-specific offsets that result in no net increase in
Wastewater needs to be treated
the total emissions of those pollutants (e.g., particulate matter,
Sources: EC (2006) and World Bank Group.
sulfur dioxide, or nitrogen dioxide) that are responsible for the
degradation of the airshed. Offset provisions should be
Other Pollutants implemented before the power plant comes fully on stream.
Depending on the fuel type and quality, other air pollutants may be Suitable offset measures could include reductions in emissions of
present in environmentally significant quantities requiring proper particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, or nitrogen dioxide, as necessary
consideration in the evaluation of potential impacts to ambient air through (a) the installation of new or more effective controls at
quality and in the design and implementation of management other units within the same power plant or at other power plants in
actions and environmental controls. Examples of additional for such heavy metals as mercury, nickel, vanadium, cadmium, lead, etc.
14 For Fabric Filters or Electrostatic Precipitators operated in combination with
pollutants include mercury in coal, vanadium in heavy fuel oil, and
FGD techniques, an average removal rate of 75% or 90 % in the additional
other heavy metals present in waste fuels such as petroleum coke presence of SCR can be obtained (EC, 2006).
15 Although no major industrial country has formally adopted regulatory limits for
(petcoke) and used lubricating oils 13. Recommendations to mercury emissions from thermal power plants, such limitations where under
consideration in the United States and European Union as of 2008. Future
updates of these EHS Guidelines will reflect changes in the international state of
13 In these cases, the EA should address potential impacts to ambient air quality
DECEMBER 19, 2008 6

WORLD BANK GROUP
the same airshed, (b) the installation of new or more effective same fuel type / power plant size than that of the
controls at other large sources, such as district heating plants or country/region average. New facilities should be aimed to be
industrial plants, in the same airshed, or (c) investments in gas in top quartile of the country/region average of the same fuel
distribution or district heating systems designed to substitute for type and power plant size. Rehabilitation of existing facilities
the use of coal for residential heating and other small boilers. must achieve significant improvements in efficiency. Typical
Wherever possible, the offset provisions should be implemented CO2 emissions performance of different fuels / technologies
within the framework of an overall air quality management strategy are presented below in Table 4;
designed to ensure that air quality in the airshed is brought into Consider efficiency-relevant trade-offs between capital and
compliance with ambient standards. The monitoring and operating costs involved in the use of different technologies.
enforcement of ambient air quality in the airshed to ensure that For example, supercritical plants may have a higher capital
offset provisions are complied with would be the responsibility of cost than subcritical plants for the same capacity, but lower
the local or national agency responsible for granting and operating costs. On the other hand, characteristics of
supervising environmental permits. Project sponsors who cannot existing and future size of the grid may impose limitations in
engage in the negotiations necessary to put together an offset plant size and hence technological choice. These tradeoffs
agreement (for example, due to the lack of the local or national air need to be fully examined in the EA;
quality management framework) should consider the option of Use of high performance monitoring and process control
relying on an appropriate combination of using cleaner fuels, more techniques, good design and maintenance of the combustion
effective pollution controls, or reconsidering the selection of the system so that initially designed efficiency performance can
proposed project site. The overall objective is that the new be maintained;
thermal power plants should not contribute to deterioration of the Where feasible, arrangement of emissions offsets (including
already degraded airshed. the Kyoto Protocols flexible mechanisms and the voluntary
carbon market), including reforestation, afforestation, or
Energy Efficiency and GHG Emissions capture and storage of CO2 or other currently experimental
Carbon dioxide, one of the major greenhouse gases (GHGs) options 16;
under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, is Where feasible, include transmission and distribution loss
emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels. Recommendations to reduction and demand side measures. For example, an
avoid, minimize, and offset emissions of carbon dioxide from new investment in peak load management could reduce cycling
and existing thermal power plants include, among others: requirements of the generation facility thereby improving its
Use of less carbon intensive fossil fuels (i.e., less carbon operating efficiency. The feasibility of these types of off-set
containing fuel per unit of calorific value -- gas is less than oil options may vary depending on whether the facility is part of
and oil is less than coal) or co-firing with carbon neutral fuels a vertically integrated utility or an independent power
(i.e., biomass); producer;
Use of combined heat and power plants (CHP) where Consider fuel cycle emissions and off-site factors (e.g., fuel
feasible;
16 The application of carbon capture and storage (CCS) from thermal power
Use of higher energy conversion efficiency technology of the projects is still in experimental stages worldwide although consideration has
started to be given to CCS-ready design. Several options are currently under
evaluation including CO2 storage in coal seams or deep aquifers and oil reservoir
practice regarding mercury emissions prevention and control. injection for enhanced oil recovery.
DECEMBER 19, 2008 7

WORLD BANK GROUP
supply, proximity to load centers, potential for off-site use of

waste heat, or use of nearby waste gases (blast furnace
Water Consumption and Aquatic Habitat Alteration
gases or coal bed methane) as fuel. etc).
Steam turbines used with boilers and heat recovery steam
generators(HRSG) used in combined cycle gas turbine units
Table 4 - Typical CO2 Emissions Performance of New
Thermal Power Plants require a cooling system to condense steam used to generate
Fuel Efficiency CO2 (gCO2 / electricity. Typical cooling systems used in thermal power plants
kWh Gross)
Efficiency (% Net, HHV) include: (i) once-through cooling system where sufficient cooling
Coal (*1, Ultra-Supercritical (*1):
*2) 37.6 42.7 676-795 water and receiving surface water are available; (ii) closed circuit
Supercritical:
wet cooling system; and (iii) closed circuit dry cooling system
35.9-38.3 (*1) 756-836
39.1 (w/o CCS) (*2) 763 (e.g., air cooled condensers).
24.9 (with CCS) (*2) 95
Subcritical:
33.1-35.9 (*1) 807-907 Combustion facilities using once-through cooling systems require
36.8 (w/o CCS) (*2) 808
24.9 (with CCS) (*2) 102 large quantities of water which are discharged back to receiving
IGCC:
39.2-41.8 (*1) 654-719 surface water with elevated temperature. Water is also required
38.241.1 (w/o CCS) (*2) 640 662
31.732.5 (with CCS) (*2) 68 86
for boiler makeup, auxiliary station equipment, ash handling, and
Gas (*2) Advanced CCGT (*2): FGD systems. 17 The withdrawal of such large quantities of water
50.8 (w/o CCS) 355
43.7 (with CCS) 39 has the potential to compete with other important water uses such
Efficiency (% Net, LHV) as agricultural irrigation or drinking water sources. Withdrawal
Coal (*3) 42 (Ultra-Supercritical) 811
40 (Supercritical) 851 and discharge with elevated temperature and chemical
30 38 (Subcritical) 896-1,050
46 (IGCC) 760 contaminants such as biocides or other additives, if used, may
38 (IGCC+CCS) 134
affect aquatic organisms, including phytoplankton, zooplankton,
Coal and (*4) 43-47 (Coal-PC) (*6) 725-792 (Net)
Lignite >41(Coal-FBC) <831 (Net) fish, crustaceans, shellfish, and many other forms of aquatic life.
(*4, *7) 42-45 (Lignite-PC) 808-866 (Net)
>40 (Lignite-FBC) <909 (Net) Aquatic organisms drawn into cooling water intake structures are
Gas (*4, (*4) 3640 (Simple Cycle GT) (*6) 505-561 (Net)
*7) 38-45 (Gas Engine) 531-449 (Net) either impinged on components of the cooling water intake
40-42 (Boiler) 481-505 (Net)
structure or entrained in the cooling water system itself. In the
54-58 (CCGT) 348-374 (Net)
Oil (*4, (*4) 40 45 (HFO/LFO (*6) case of either impingement or entrainment, aquatic organisms
*7) Reciprocating Engine) 449-505 (Net)
Efficiency (% Gross, LHV) may be killed or subjected to significant harm. In some cases
Coal (*5, (*5) 47 (Ultra-supercritical) (*6) 725
*7) 44 (Supercritical) 774 (e.g., sea turtles), organisms are entrapped in the intake canals.
41-42 (Subcritical) 811-831 There may be special concerns about the potential impacts of
47-48 (IGCC) 710-725
Oil (*5, (*5) 43 (Reciprocating Engine) (*6) 648 cooling water intake structures located in or near habitat areas
*7) 41 (Boiler) 680
Gas (*5) (*5) 34 (Simple Cycle GT) (*6) 594 that support threatened, endangered, or other protected species
51 (CCGT) 396
Source: (*1) US EPA 2006, (*2) US DOE/NETL 2007, (*3) World Bank,
or where local fishery is active.
April 2006, (*4) European Commission 2006, (*5) World Bank Group, Sep
2006, (*6) World Bank Group estimates
Conventional intake structures include traveling screens with
relative high through-screen velocities and no fish handling or
17 The availability of water and impact of water use may affect the choice of FGD
DECEMBER 19, 2008 8

WORLD BANK GROUP
return system. 18 Measures to prevent, minimize, and control o For lakes or reservoirs, intake flow must not disrupt the
environmental impacts associated with water withdrawal should thermal stratification or turnover pattern of the source
be established based on the results of a project EA, considering water
the availability and use of water resources locally and the o For estuaries or tidal rivers, reduction of intake flow to
ecological characteristics of the project affected area. 1% of the tidal excursion volume
Recommended management measures to prevent or control If there are threatened, endangered, or other protected
impacts to water resources and aquatic habitats include 19: species or if there are fisheries within the hydraulic zone of
influence of the intake, reduction of impingement and
Conserving water resources, particularly in areas with limited
entrainment of fish and shellfish by the installation of
water resources, by:
technologies such as barrier nets (seasonal or year-round),
o Use of a closed-cycle, recirculating cooling water
fish handling and return systems, fine mesh screens,
system (e.g., natural or forced draft cooling tower), or
wedgewire screens, and aquatic filter barrier systems.
closed circuit dry cooling system (e.g., air cooled
Examples of operational measures to reduce impingement
condensers) if necessary to prevent unacceptable
and entrainment include seasonal shutdowns, if necessary,
adverse impacts. Cooling ponds or cooling towers are
or reductions in flow or continuous use of screens.
the primary technologies for a recirculating cooling water
Designing the location of the intake structure in a different
system. Once-through cooling water systems may be
direction or further out into the water body may also reduce
acceptable if compatible with the hydrology and ecology
impingement and entrainment.
of the water source and the receiving water and may be
the preferred or feasible alternative for certain pollution
Effluents
control technologies such as seawater scrubbers
Effluents from thermal power plants include thermal discharges,
o Use of dry scrubbers in situations where these controls
wastewater effluents, and sanitary wastewater.
are also required or recycling of wastewater in coal-fired
plants for use as FGD makeup Thermal Discharges
o Use of air-cooled systems As noted above, thermal power plants with steam-powered
Reduction of maximum through-screen design intake velocity generators and once-through cooling systems use significant
to 0.5 ft/s; volume of water to cool and condense the steam for return to the
Reduction of intake flow to the following levels: boiler. The heated water is normally discharged back to the
o For freshwater rivers or streams to a flow sufficient to source water (i.e., river, lake, estuary, or the ocean) or the nearest
maintain resource use (i.e., irrigation and fisheries) as surface water body. In general, thermal discharge should be
well as biodiversity during annual mean low flow designed to ensure that discharge water temperature does not
conditions 20 result in exceeding relevant ambient water quality temperature
standards outside a scientifically established mixing zone. The
system used (i.e., wet vs. semi-dry).
18 The velocity generally considered suitable for the management of debris is 1 fps mixing zone is typically defined as the zone where initial dilution of
[0.30 m/s] with wide mesh screens; a standard mesh for power plants of 3/8 in (9.5
mm). a discharge takes place within which relevant water quality
19 For additional information refer to Schimmoller (2004) and USEPA (2001).
20 Stream flow requirements may be based on mean annual flow or mean low flow. 25% for mean low flows. Their applicability should be verified on a site-specific
Regulatory requirements may be 5% or higher for mean annual flows and 10% to
DECEMBER 19, 2008 9

WORLD BANK GROUP
temperature standards are allowed to exceed and takes into Recommendations to prevent, minimize, and control thermal
account cumulative impact of seasonal variations, ambient water discharges include:
quality, receiving water use, potential receptors and assimilative
capacity among other considerations. Establishment of such a Use of multi-port diffusers;
mixing zone is project specific and may be established by local Adjustment of the discharge temperature, flow, outfall
regulatory agencies and confirmed or updated through the location, and outfall design to minimize impacts to acceptable
project's environmental assessment process. Where no level (i.e., extend length of discharge channel before
regulatory standard exists, the acceptable ambient water reaching the surface water body for pre-cooling or change
temperature change will be established through the environmental location of discharge point to minimize the elevated
assessment process. Thermal discharges should be designed to temperature areas);
prevent negative impacts to the receiving water taking into Use of a closed-cycle, recirculating cooling water system as
account the following criteria: described above (e.g., natural or forced draft cooling tower),
or closed circuit dry cooling system (e.g., air cooled
The elevated temperature areas because of thermal condensers) if necessary to prevent unacceptable adverse
discharge from the project should not impair the integrity of impacts. Cooling ponds or cooling towers are the primary
the water body as a whole or endanger sensitive areas (such technologies for a recirculating cooling water system.
as recreational areas, breeding grounds, or areas with
sensitive biota); Liquid Waste
There should be no lethality or significant impact to breeding The wastewater streams in a thermal power plant include cooling
and feeding habits of organisms passing through the tower blowdown; ash handling wastewater; wet FGD system
elevated temperature areas; discharges; material storage runoff; metal cleaning wastewater;
There should be no significant risk to human health or the and low-volume wastewater, such as air heater and precipitator
environment due to the elevated temperature or residual wash water, boiler blowdown, boiler chemical cleaning waste, floor
levels of water treatment chemicals. and yard drains and sumps, laboratory wastes, and backflush
from ion exchange boiler water purification units. All of these
If a once-through cooling system is used for large projects (i.e., a wastewaters are usually present in plants burning coal or
plant with > 1,200MWth steam generating capacity), impacts of biomass; some of these streams (e.g., ash handling wastewater)
thermal discharges should be evaluated in the EA with a may be present in reduced quantities or may not be present at all
mathematical or physical hydrodynamic plume model, which can in oil-fired or gas-fired power plants. The characteristics of the
be a relatively effective method for evaluating a thermal discharge wastewaters generated depend on the ways in which the water
to find the maximum discharge temperatures and flow rates that has been used. Contamination arises from demineralizers;
would meet the environmental objectives of the receiving water. 21 lubricating and auxiliary fuel oils; trace contaminants in the fuel
(introduced through the ash-handling wastewater and wet FGD
system discharges); and chlorine, biocides, and other chemicals
basis taking into consideration resource use and biodiversity requirements.
21 An example model is CORMIX (Cornell Mixing Zone Expert System)
used to manage the quality of water in cooling systems. Cooling
hydrodynamic mixing zone computer simulation, which has been developed by the tower blowdown tends to be very high in total dissolved solids but
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This model emphasizes predicting the
site- and discharge-specific geometry and dilution characteristics to assess the is generally classified as non-contact cooling water and, as such,
environmental effects of a proposed discharge.
DECEMBER 19, 2008 10

WORLD BANK GROUP
is typically subject to limits for pH, residual chlorine, and toxic Use of SOX removal systems that generate less wastewater,
chemicals that may be present in cooling tower additives if feasible; however, the environmental and cost
(including corrosion inhibiting chemicals containing chromium and characteristics of both inputs and wastes should be assessed
zinc whose use should be eliminated). on a case-by-case basis;
Treatment of low-volume wastewater streams that are
Recommended water treatment and wastewater conservation
typically collected in the boiler and turbine room sumps in
methods are discussed in Sections 1.3 and 1.4, respectively, of
conventional oil-water separators before discharge;
the General EHS Guidelines. In addition, recommended
Treatment of acidic low-volume wastewater streams, such as
measures to prevent, minimize, and control wastewater effluents
those associated with the regeneration of makeup
from thermal power plants include:
demineralizer and deep-bed condensate polishing systems,
by chemical neutralization in-situ before discharge;
Recycling of wastewater in coal-fired plants for use as FGD
makeup. This practice conserves water and reduces the Pretreatment of cooling tower makeup water, installation of
number of wastewater streams requiring treatment and automated bleed/feed controllers, and use of inert
discharge 22; construction materials to reduce chemical treatment

requirements for cooling towers;
In coal-fired power plants without FGD systems, treatment of
process wastewater in conventional physical-chemical Elimination of metals such as chromium and zinc from
treatment systems for pH adjustment and removal of total chemical additives used to control scaling and corrosion in
suspended solids (TSS), and oil / grease, at a minimum. cooling towers;
Depending on local regulations, these treatment systems can Use the minimum required quantities of chlorinated biocides
also be used to remove most heavy metals to part-per-billion in place of brominated biocides or alternatively apply
(ppb) levels by chemical precipitation as either metal intermittent shock dosing of chlorine as opposed to
hydroxide or metal organosulfide compounds; continuous low level feed.
Collection of fly ash in dry form and bottom ash in drag chain
conveyor systems in new coal-fired power plants; Sanitary Wastewater
Consider use of soot blowers or other dry methods to remove Sewage and other wastewater generated from washrooms, etc.
fireside wastes from heat transfer surfaces so as to minimize are similar to domestic wastewater. Impacts and management of
the frequency and amount of water used in fireside washes; sanitary wastewater is addressed in Section 1.3 of the General
EHS Guidelines.
Use of infiltration and runoff control measures such as
compacted soils, protective liners, and sedimentation
controls for runoff from coal piles; Solid Wastes
Spraying of coal piles with anionic detergents to inhibit Coal-fired and biomass-fired thermal power plants generate the
bacterial growth and minimize acidity of leachate; 23 greatest amount of solid wastes due to the relatively high
percentage of ash in the fuel. 24 The large-volume coal
22 Suitable wastewater streams for reuse include gypsum wash water, which is a
different wastewater stream than the FGD wastewater. In plants that produce may increase or create foaming within the scrubber system. Therefore, use of
marketable gypsum, the gypsum is rinsed to remove chloride and other anionic surfactants on coal piles should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
undesirable trace elements. 24 For example, a 500 MWe plant using coal with 2.5% sulfur (S), 16% ash, and
23 If coal pile runoff will be used as makeup to the FGD system, anionic detergents 30,000 kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg) heat content will generate about 500 tons of

WORLD BANK GROUP
combustion wastes (CCW) are fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag, classification as hazardous or non-hazardous according to local
and FGD sludge. Biomass contains less sulfur; therefore FGD regulations or internationally recognized standards. Additional
may not be necessary. Fluidized-bed combustion (FBC) boilers information about the classification and management of
generate fly ash and bottom ash, which is called bed ash. Fly ash hazardous and non-hazardous wastes is presented in Section 1.6
removed from exhaust gases makes up 6085% of the coal ash of the General EHS Guidelines.
residue in pulverized-coal boilers and 20% in stoker boilers.
The high-volume CCWs wastes are typically managed in landfills
Bottom ash includes slag and particles that are coarser and
or surface impoundments or, increasingly, may be applied to a
heavier than fly ash. Due to the presence of sorbent material,
variety of beneficial uses. Low-volume wastes are also managed
FBC wastes have a higher content of calcium and sulfate and a
in landfills or surface impoundments, but are more frequently
lower content of silica and alumina than conventional coal
managed in surface impoundments. Many coal-fired plants co-
combustion wastes. Low-volume solid wastes from coal-fired
manage large-volume and low-volume wastes.
thermal power plants and other plants include coal mill
rejects/pyrites, cooling tower sludge, wastewater treatment
Recommended measures to prevent, minimize, and control the
sludge, and water treatment sludge.
volume of solid wastes from thermal power plants include:
Oil combustion wastes include fly ash and bottom ash and are
Dry handling of the coal combustion wastes, in particular fly
normally only generated in significant quantities when residual fuel
ash. Dry handling methods do not involve surface
oil is burned in oil-fired steam electric boilers. Other technologies
impoundments and, therefore, do not present the ecological
(e.g., combustion turbines and diesel engines) and fuels (e.g.,
risks identified for impoundments (e.g., metal uptake by
distillate oil) generate little or no solid wastes. Overall, oil
wildlife);
combustion wastes are generated in much smaller quantities than
Recycling of CCWs in uses such as cement and other
the large-volume CCW discussed above. Gas-fired thermal power
concrete products, construction fills (including structural fill,
plants generate essentially no solid waste because of the
flowable fill, and road base), agricultural uses such as
negligible ash content, regardless of the combustion technology.
calcium fertilizers (provided trace metals or other potentially
Metals are constituents of concern in both CCW and low-volume hazardous materials levels are within accepted thresholds),
solid wastes. For example, ash residues and the dust removed waste management applications, mining applications,
from exhaust gases may contain significant levels of heavy metals construction materials (e.g., synthetic gypsum for
and some organic compounds, in addition to inert materials. plasterboard), and incorporation into other products provided
the residues (such as trace metals and radioactivity) are not
Ash residues are not typically classified as a hazardous waste due considered hazardous. Ensuring consistent quality of fuels
to their inert nature. 25 However, where ash residues are expected and additives helps to ensure the CCWs can be recycled. If
to contain potentially significant levels of heavy metals, beneficial reuse is not feasible, disposal of CCW in permitted
radioactivity, or other potentially hazardous materials, they should landfills with environmental controls such as run-on/run-off
be tested at the start of plant operations to verify their controls, liners, leachate collection systems, ground-water
monitoring, closure controls, daily (or other operational)
solid waste per day.
25 Some countries may categorize fly ash as hazardous due to the presence of cover, and fugitive dust controls is recommended;
arsenic or radioactivity, precluding its use as a construction material.

WORLD BANK GROUP
Dry collection of bottom ash and fly ash from power plants m3; tanks of lesser capacity should be manufactured using
combusting heavy fuel oil if containing high levels of annealing processes (EC 2006).
economically valuable metals such as vanadium and recycle
for vanadium recovery (where economically viable) or Noise
disposal in a permitted landfill with environmental controls; Principal sources of noise in thermal power plants include the
Management of ash disposal and reclamation so as to turbine generators and auxiliaries; boilers and auxiliaries, such as
minimize environmental impacts especially the migration of coal pulverizers; reciprocating engines; fans and ductwork;
toxic metals, if present, to nearby surface and groundwater pumps; compressors; condensers; precipitators, including rappers
bodies, in addition to the transport of suspended solids in and plate vibrators; piping and valves; motors; transformers;
surface runoff due to seasonal precipitation and flooding. In circuit breakers; and cooling towers. Thermal power plants used
particular, construction, operation, and maintenance of for base load operation may operate continually while smaller
surface impoundments should be conducted in accordance plants may operate less frequently but still pose a significant
with internationally recognized standards. 26, 27 source of noise if located in urban areas.
Reuse of sludge from treatment of waste waters from FGD

Noise impacts, control measures, and recommended ambient
plants. This sludge may be re-used in the FGD plant due to
noise levels are presented in Section 1.7 of the General EHS
the calcium components. It can also be used as an additive
Guidelines. Additional recommended measures to prevent,
in coal-fired plant combustion to improve the ash melting
minimize, and control noise from thermal power plants include:
behavior
Siting new facilities with consideration of distances from the
Hazardous Materials and Oil
noise sources to the receptors (e.g., residential receptors,
Hazardous materials stored and used at combustion facilities
schools, hospitals, religious places) to the extent possible. If
include solid, liquid, and gaseous waste-based fuels; air, water,
the local land use is not controlled through zoning or is not
and wastewater treatment chemicals; and equipment and facility
effectively enforced, examine whether residential receptors
maintenance chemicals (e.g., paint certain types of lubricants, and
could come outside the acquired plant boundary. In some
cleaners). Spill prevention and response guidance is addressed
cases, it could be more cost effective to acquire additional
in Sections 1.5 and 3.7 of the General EHS Guidelines.
land as buffer zone than relying on technical noise control
In addition, recommended measures to prevent, minimize, and measures, where possible;
control hazards associated with hazardous materials storage and Use of noise control techniques such as: using acoustic
handling at thermal power plants include the use of double-walled, machine enclosures; selecting structures according to their
underground pressurized tanks for storage of pure liquefied noise isolation effect to envelop the building; using mufflers
ammonia (e.g., for use as reagent for SCR) in quantities over 100 or silencers in intake and exhaust channels; using sound-
absorptive materials in walls and ceilings; using vibration
isolators and flexible connections (e.g., helical steel springs
26 See, for example, U.S. Department of Labor, Mine Safety and Health
and rubber elements); applying a carefully detailed design to
Administration regulations at 30 CFR 77.214 - 77.216.
27 Additional detailed guidance applicable to the prevention and control of impacts prevent possible noise leakage through openings or to
to soil and water resources from non-hazardous and hazardous solid waste
disposal is presented in the World Bank Group EHS Guidelines for Waste minimize pressure variations in piping;
Management Facilities.

WORLD BANK GROUP
Modification of the plant configuration or use of noise barriers Identification of potential exposure levels in the workplace,
such as berms and vegetation to limit ambient noise at plant including surveys of exposure levels in new projects and the
property lines, especially where sensitive noise receptors use of personal monitors during working activities;
may be present. Training of workers in the identification of occupational EMF
levels and hazards;
Noise propagation models may be effective tools to help evaluate
noise management options such as alternative plant locations, Establishment and identification of safety zones to
general arrangement of the plant and auxiliary equipment, building differentiate between work areas with expected elevated
enclosure design, and, together with the results of a baseline EMF levels compared to those acceptable for public
noise assessment, expected compliance with the applicable exposure, limiting access to properly trained workers;
community noise requirements. Implementation of action plans to address potential or

confirmed exposure levels that exceed reference
1.2 Occupational Health and Safety occupational exposure levels developed by international
organizations such as the International Commission on Non-
Occupational health and safety risks and mitigation measures
Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), the Institute of
during construction, operation, and decommissioning of thermal
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). 28 Personal
power plants are similar to those at other large industrial facilities,
exposure monitoring equipment should be set to warn of
and are addressed in Section 2.0 of the General EHS
exposure levels that are below occupational exposure
Guidelines. In addition, the following health and safety impacts
reference levels (e.g., 50 percent). Action plans to address
are of particular concern during operation of thermal power plants:
occupational exposure may include limiting exposure time
Non-ionizing radiation through work rotation, increasing the distance between the
source and the worker, when feasible, or the use of shielding
Heat
materials.
Noise
Confined spaces
Electrical hazards Heat
Fire and explosion hazards Occupational exposure to heat occurs during operation and
maintenance of combustion units, pipes, and related hot
Chemical hazards
equipment. Recommended prevention and control measures to
Dust
address heat exposure at thermal power plants include:
Non-ionizing radiation Regular inspection and maintenance of pressure vessels and

Combustion facility workers may have a higher exposure to piping;
electric and magnetic fields (EMF) than the general public due to Provision of adequate ventilation in work areas to reduce
working in proximity to electric power generators, equipment, and heat and humidity;
connecting high-voltage transmission lines. Occupational EMF
exposure should be prevented or minimized through the
preparation and implementation of an EMF safety program
28 The ICNIRP exposure guidelines for Occupational Exposure are listed in
including the following components: Section 2.2 of this Guideline.

WORLD BANK GROUP
Reducing the time required for work in elevated temperature (during maintenance activities). Recommend confined space
environments and ensuring access to drinking water; entry procedures are discussed in Section 2.8 of the General EHS
Shielding surfaces where workers come in close contact with Guidelines.
hot equipment, including generating equipment, pipes etc;
Use of warning signs near high temperature surfaces and Electrical Hazards
personal protective equipment (PPE) as appropriate, Energized equipment and power lines can pose electrical hazards
including insulated gloves and shoes. for workers at thermal power plants. Recommended measures to
prevent, minimize, and control electrical hazards at thermal power
Noise plants include:
Noise sources in combustion facilities include the turbine
Consider installation of hazard warning lights inside electrical
generators and auxiliaries; boilers and auxiliaries, such as
equipment enclosures to warn of inadvertent energization;
pulverizers; diesel engines; fans and ductwork; pumps;
Use of voltage sensors prior to and during workers' entrance
compressors; condensers; precipitators, including rappers and
into enclosures containing electrical components;
plate vibrators; piping and valves; motors; transformers; circuit
Deactivation and proper grounding of live power equipment
breakers; and cooling towers. Recommendations for reducing
and distribution lines according to applicable legislation and
noise and vibration are discussed in Section 1.1, above. In
guidelines whenever possible before work is performed on or
addition, recommendations to prevent, minimize, and control
proximal to them;
occupational noise exposures in thermal power plants include:
Provision of specialized electrical safety training to those
Provision of sound-insulated control rooms with noise levels workers working with or around exposed components of
below 60 dBA 29; electric circuits. This training should include, but not be
Design of generators to meet applicable occupational noise limited to, training in basic electrical theory, proper safe work
levels; procedures, hazard awareness and identification, proper use
Identify and mark high noise areas and require that personal of PPE, proper lockout/tagout procedures, first aid including
noise protecting gear is used all the time when working in CPR, and proper rescue procedures. Provisions should be
such high noise areas (typically areas with noise levels >85 made for periodic retraining as necessary.
dBA).
Fire and Explosion Hazards
Confined Spaces Thermal power plants store, transfer, and use large quantities of
Specific areas for confined space entry may include coal ash fuels; therefore, careful handling is necessary to mitigate fire and
containers, turbines, condensers, and cooling water towers explosion risks. In particular, fire and explosion hazards increase
as the particle size of coal is reduced. Particle sizes of coal that
29 Depending on the type and size of the thermal power plants, distance between can fuel a propagating explosion occur within thermal dryers,
control room and the noise emitting sources differs. CSA Z107.58 provides design
guidelines for control rooms as 60 dBA. Large thermal power plants using steam cyclones, baghouses, pulverized-fuel systems, grinding mills, and
boilers or combustion turbines tend to be quieter than 60 dBA. Reciprocating
engine manufacturers recommend 65 to 70 dBA instead of 60 dBA (Euromot other process or conveyance equipment. Fire and explosion
Position as of 9 May 2008). This guideline recommends 60 dBA as GIIP, with an
understanding that up to 65 dBA can be accepted for reciprocating engine power
prevention management guidance is provided in Section 2.1 and
plants if 60 dBA is economically difficult to achieve.

WORLD BANK GROUP
2.4 of the General EHS Guidelines. Recommended measures to silicosis), arsenic (skin and lung cancer), coal dust (black lung),
prevent, minimize, and control physical hazards at thermal power and other potentially harmful substances. Dust management
plants include: guidance is provided in the Section 2.1 and 2.4 of the General
EHS Guidelines. Recommended measures to prevent, minimize,
Use of automated combustion and safety controls; and control occupational exposure to dust in thermal power plants
Proper maintenance of boiler safety controls; include:
Implementation of startup and shutdown procedures to
minimize the risk of suspending hot coal particles (e.g., in the Use of dust controls (e.g., exhaust ventilation) to keep dust
pulverizer, mill, and cyclone) during startup; below applicable guidelines (see Section 2) or wherever free
Regular cleaning of the facility to prevent accumulation of silica levels in airborne dust exceed 1 percent;
coal dust (e.g., on floors, ledges, beams, and equipment); Regular inspection and maintenance of asbestos containing
Removal of hot spots from the coal stockpile (caused by materials (e.g., insulation in older plants may contain
spontaneous combustion) and spread until cooled, never asbestos) to prevent airborne asbestos particles.
loading hot coal into the pulverized fuel system;
Use of automated systems such as temperature gauges or
1.3 Community Health and Safety
carbon monoxide sensors to survey solid fuel storage areas
to detect fires caused by self-ignition and to identify risk Many community health and safety impacts during the
points. construction, operation, and decommissioning of thermal power
plant projects are common to those of most infrastructure and
industrial facilities and are discussed in Section 3.0 the General
Chemical Hazards
EHS Guidelines. In addition to these and other aspects covered
Thermal power plants utilize hazardous materials, including
in Section 1.1, the following community health and safety impacts
ammonia for NOX control systems, and chlorine gas for treatment
may be of particular concern for thermal power plant projects:
of cooling tower and boiler water. Guidance on chemical hazards
management is provided in Section 2.4 of the General EHS
Water Consumption;
Guidelines. Additional, recommended measures to prevent,
Traffic Safety.
minimize, and control physical hazards at thermal power plants
include:
Water Consumption
Consider generation of ammonia on site from urea or use of Boiler units require large amounts of cooling water for steam
aqueous ammonia in place of pure liquefied ammonia; condensation and efficient thermal operation. The cooling water
Consider use of sodium hypochlorite in place of gaseous flow rate through the condenser is by far the largest process water
chlorine. flow, normally equating to about 98 percent of the total process
water flow for the entire unit. In a once-through cooling water
system, water is usually taken into the plant from surface waters,
Dust
but sometimes ground waters or municipal supplies are used.
Dust is generated in handing solid fuels, additives, and solid
The potential effects of water use should be assessed, as
wastes (e.g., ash). Dust may contain silica (associated with
discussed in Section 3.1 of the General EHS Guidelines, to

WORLD BANK GROUP
ensure that the project does not compromise the availability of

water for personal hygiene, agriculture, recreation, and other
community needs.
Traffic Safety
Operation of a thermal power plant will increase traffic volume, in
particular for facilities with fuels transported via land and sea,
including heavy trucks carrying fuel, additives, etc. The increased
traffic can be especially significant in sparsely populate areas
where some thermal power plants are located. Prevention and
control of traffic-related injuries are discussed in Section 3.4 of the
General EHS Guidelines. Water transport safety is covered in
the EHS Guidelines for Shipping.

WORLD BANK GROUP
2.0 Performance Indicators and

Monitoring Table 5 - Effluent Guidelines
(To be applicable at relevant wastewater stream: e.g., from FGD
2.1 Environment system, wet ash transport, washing boiler / air preheater and
precipitator, boiler acid washing, regeneration of demineralizers
and condensate polishers, oil-separated water, site drainage, coal
Emissions and Effluent Guidelines pile runoff, and cooling water)
Effluent guidelines are described in Table 5. Emissions guidelines Parameter mg/L, except pH and temp
pH 69
are described in Table 6. Effluent guidelines are applicable for TSS 50
direct discharges of treated effluents to surface waters for general Oil and grease 10
Total residual 0.2
use. Site-specific discharge levels may be established based on chlorine
Chromium - Total 0.5
the availability and conditions in the use of publicly operated (Cr)
sewage collection and treatment systems or, if discharged directly Copper (Cu) 0.5
Iron (Fe) 1.0
to surface waters, on the receiving water use classification as Zinc (Zn) 1.0
Lead (Pb) 0.5
described in the General EHS Guideline. Guideline values for
Cadmium (Cd) 0.1
process emissions and effluents in this sector are indicative of Mercury (Hg) 0.005
Arsenic (As) 0.5
good international industry practice as reflected in standards of Temperature Site specific requirement to be established
countries with recognized regulatory frameworks. These levels increase by by the EA.
thermal discharge Elevated temperature areas due to
should be achieved, without dilution, at least 95 percent of the from cooling discharge of once-through cooling water
system (e.g., 1 Celsius above, 2 Celsius above, 3
time that the plant or unit is operating, to be calculated as a
Celsius above ambient water temperature)
proportion of annual operating hours. Deviation from these levels should be minimized by adjusting intake
and outfall design through the project
due to specific local project conditions should be justified in the specific EA depending on the sensitive
aquatic ecosystems around the discharge
environmental assessment.
point.
Note: Applicability of heavy metals should be determined in the EA. Guideline
limits in the Table are from various references of effluent performance by
thermal power plants.
Emissions levels for the design and operation of each project

should be established through the EA process on the basis of
country legislation and the recommendations provided in this
guidance document, as applied to local conditions. The emissions
levels selected should be justified in the EA. 30 The maximum
emissions levels given here can be consistently achieved by well-
designed, well-operated, and well-maintained pollution control
systems. In contrast, poor operating or maintenance procedures
affect actual pollutant removal efficiency and may reduce it to well
30 For example, in cases where potential for acid deposition has been identified as
a significant issue in the EA, plant design and operation should ensure that
emissions mass loadings are effectively reduced to prevent or minimize such
impacts.

WORLD BANK GROUP
below the design specification. Dilution of air emissions to that any necessary corrective actions can be taken. Examples of
achieve these guidelines is unacceptable. Compliance with emissions, stack testing, ambient air quality, and noise monitoring
ambient air quality guidelines should be assessed on the basis of recommendations applicable to power plants are provided in
good international industry practice (GIIP) recommendations. Table 7. Additional guidance on applicable sampling and
analytical methods for emissions and effluents is provided in the
As described in the General EHS Guidelines, emissions should
General EHS Guidelines.
not result in pollutant concentrations that reach or exceed relevant
ambient quality guidelines and standards 31 by applying national
legislated standards, or in their absence, the current WHO Air
Quality Guidelines 32, or other internationally recognized sources 33.
Also, emissions from a single project should not contribute more
than 25% of the applicable ambient air quality standards to allow
additional, future sustainable development in the same airshed. 34
As described in the General EHS Guidelines, facilities or projects

located within poor quality airsheds 35, and within or next to areas
established as ecologically sensitive (e.g., national parks), should
ensure that any increase in pollution levels is as small as feasible,
and amounts to a fraction of the applicable short-term and annual
average air quality guidelines or standards as established in the
project-specific environmental assessment.
Environmental Monitoring
Environmental monitoring programs for this sector are presented
in Table 7. Monitoring data should be analyzed and reviewed at
regular intervals and compared with the operating standards so
31 Ambient air quality standards are ambient air quality levels established and
published through national legislative and regulatory processes, and ambient
quality guidelines refer to ambient quality levels primarily developed through
clinical, toxicological, and epidemiological evidence (such as those published by
the World Health Organization).
32 Available at World Health Organization (WHO). http://www.who.int/en
33 For example the United States National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
(http://www.epa.gov/air/criteria.html) and the relevant European Council Directives
(Council Directive 1999/30/EC of 22 April 1999 / Council Directive 2002/3/EC of
February 12 2002).
34 US EPA Prevention of Significant Deterioration Increments Limits applicable to
non-degraded airsheds.
35 An airshed should be considered as having poor air quality if nationally
legislated air quality standards or WHO Air Quality Guidelines are exceeded
significantly.

WORLD BANK GROUP
Table 6 (A) - Emissions Guidelines (in mg/Nm3 or as indicated) for Reciprocating Engine
Note:
- Guidelines are applicable for new facilities.
- EA may justify more stringent or less stringent limits due to ambient environment, technical and economic considerations provided there is compliance with applicable ambient air
quality standards and incremental impacts are minimized.
- For projects to rehabilitate existing facilities, case-by-case emission requirements should be established by the EA considering (i) the existing emission levels and impacts on the
environment and community health, and (ii) cost and technical feasibility of bringing the existing emission levels to meet these new facilities limits.
- EA should demonstrate that emissions do not contribute a significant portion to the attainment of relevant ambient air quality guidelines or standards, and more stringent limits may be
required.
Particulate Dry Gas, Excess
Combustion Technology / Fuel Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
Matter (PM) O2 Content (%)
Reciprocating Engine NDA DA NDA DA NDA DA
Natural Gas 200 (Spark Ignition) 200(SI) 15%
N/A N/A N/A N/A
400 (Dual Fuel) 400 (Dual Fuel /
(a) CI)
Liquid Fuels (Plant >50 MWth to <300 MWth) 1,460 (Compression Ignition, bore size diameter [mm] < 400) 400 15%
50 30 1,170 or use of 0.5% S
1,850 (Compression Ignition, bore size diameter [mm] 400)
2% or less S fuel
2,000 (Dual Fuel)
Liquid Fuels (Plant >/=300 MWth) 50 30 585 or use of 1% 0.2% S 740 (contingent upon water availability for injection) 400 15%
or less S fuel
Biofuels / Gaseous Fuels other than Natural Gas 30% higher limits than those provided above for Natural Gas 200 (SI, Natural 15%
50 30 N/A N/A
and Liquid Fuels. Gas), 400 (other)
General notes:
- MWth = Megawatt thermal input on HHV basis; N/A = not applicable; NDA = Non-degraded airshed; DA = Degraded airshed (poor air quality); Airshed should be considered as being degraded if
nationally legislated air quality standards are exceeded or, in their absence, if WHO Air Quality Guidelines are exceeded significantly; S = sulfur content (expressed as a percent by mass); Nm3 is at
one atmospheric pressure, 0 degree Celsius; MWth category is to apply to the entire facility consisting of multiple units that are reasonably considered to be emitted from a common stack. Guideline
limits apply to facilities operating more than 500 hours per year. Emission levels should be evaluated on a one hour average basis and be achieved 95% of annual operating hours.
- (a) Compression Ignition (CI) engines may require different emissions values which should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis through the EA process.
Comparison of the Guideline limits with standards of selected countries / region (as of August 2008):
- Natural Gas-fired Reciprocating Engine NOx
o Guideline limits: 200 (SI), 400 (DF)
o UK: 100 (CI) , US: Reduce by 90% or more, or alternatively 1.6 g/kWh
- Liquid Fuels-fired Reciprocating Engine NOx (Plant >50 MWth to <300 MWth)
o Guideline limits: 1,460 (CI, bore size diameter < 400 mm), 1,850 (CI, bore size diameter 400 mm), 2,000 (DF)
o UK: 300 (> 25 MWth), India: 1,460 (Urban area & 75 MWe ( 190 MWth), Rural area & 150 MWe ( 380 MWth))
- Liquid Fuels-fired Reciprocating Engine NOx (Plant 300 MWth)
o Guideline limits: 740 (contingent upon water availability for injection)
o UK: 300 (> 25 MWth), India: 740 (Urban area & > 75MWe ( 190 MWth), Rural area & > 150 MWe ( 380 MWth))
- Liquid Fuels-fired Reciprocating Engine SO2
o Guideline limits: 1,170 or use of 2% S (Plant >50 MWth to <300 MWth), 585 or use of 1% S (Plant 300 MWth)
o EU: Use of low S fuel oil or the secondary FGD (IPCC LCP BREF), HFO S content 1% (Liquid Fuel Quality Directive), US: Use of diesel fuel with max S of 500 ppm (0.05%); EU: Marine
HFO S content 1.5% (Liquid Fuel Quality Directive) used in SOx Emission Control Areas; India: Urban (< 2% S), Rural (< 4%S), Only diesel fuels (HSD, LDO) should be used in Urban
Source: UK (S2 1.03 Combustion Processes: Compression Ignition Engines, 50 MWth and over), India (SOx/NOx Emission Standards for Diesel Engines 0.8 MW), EU (IPCC LCP BREF July 2006), EU (Liquid Fuel
Quality Directive 1999/32/EC amended by 2005/33/EC), US (NSPS for Stationary Compression Ignition Internal Combustion Engine Final Rule July 11, 2006)
WORLD BANK GROUP
Table 6 (B) - Emissions Guidelines (in mg/Nm3 or as indicated) for Combustion Turbine
Note:
- EA may justify more stringent or less stringent limits due to ambient environment, technical and economic considerations provided there is compliance with
applicable ambient air quality standards and incremental impacts are minimized.
- For projects to rehabilitate existing facilities, case-by-case emission requirements should be established by the EA considering (i) the existing emission levels and
impacts on the environment and community health, and (ii) cost and technical feasibility of bringing the existing emission levels to meet these new facilities limits.
- EA should demonstrate that emissions do not contribute a significant portion to the attainment of relevant ambient air quality guidelines or standards, and more
stringent limits may be required.
Combustion Turbine NDA/DA NDA/DA
Natural Gas (all turbine types of Unit > 50MWth) N/A N/A N/A N/A 51 (25 ppm) 15%
Fuels other than Natural Gas (Unit > > 50MWth) 152 (74 ppm)a 15%
50 30 Use of 1% or Use of 0.5% or
less S fuel less S fuel
General notes:
nationally legislated air quality standards are exceeded or, in their absence, if WHO Air Quality Guidelines are exceeded significantly; S = sulfur content (expressed as a percent by mass); Nm3 is at
one atmospheric pressure, 0 degree Celsius; MWth category is to apply to single units; Guideline limits apply to facilities operating more than 500 hours per year. Emission levels should be
evaluated on a one hour average basis and be achieved 95% of annual operating hours.
- If supplemental firing is used in a combined cycle gas turbine mode, the relevant guideline limits for combustion turbines should be achieved including emissions from those supplemental firing units
(e.g., duct burners).
- (a) Technological differences (for example the use of Aeroderivatives) may require different emissions values which should be evaluated on a cases-by-case basis through the EA process but which
should not exceed 200 mg/Nm3.
- Natural Gas-fired Combustion Turbine NOx
o Guideline limits: 51 (25 ppm)
o EU: 50 (24 ppm), 75 (37 ppm) (if combined cycle efficiency > 55%), 50* / 35 (where = simple cycle efficiency)
o US: 25 ppm (> 50 MMBtu/h ( 14.6 MWth) and 850 MMBtu/h ( 249MWth)), 15 ppm (> 850 MMBtu/h ( 249 MWth))
o (Note: further reduced NOx ppm in the range of 2 to 9 ppm is typically required through air permit)
- Liquid Fuel-fired Combustion Turbine NOx
o Guideline limits: 152 (74 ppm) Heavy Duty Frame Turbines & LFO/HFO, 300 (146 ppm) Aeroderivatives & HFO, 200 (97 ppm) Aeroderivatives & LFO
o EU: 120 (58 ppm), US: 74 ppm (> 50 MMBtu/h ( 14.6 MWth) and 850 MMBtu/h ( 249MWth)), 42 ppm (> 850 MMBtu/h ( 249 MWth))
- Liquid Fuel-fired Combustion Turbine SOx
o Guideline limits: Use of 1% or less S fuel
o EU: S content of light fuel oil used in gas turbines below 0.1% / US: S content of about 0.05% (continental area) and 0.4% (non-continental area)
Source: EU (LCP Directive 2001/80/EC October 23 2001), EU (Liquid Fuel Quality Directive 1999/32/EC, 2005/33/EC), US (NSPS for Stationary Combustion Turbines, Final Rule July 6, 2006)

WORLD BANK GROUP
Table 6 (C) - Emissions Guidelines (in mg/Nm3 or as indicated) for Boiler

Note:
- EA may justify more stringent or less stringent limits due to ambient environment, technical and economic considerations provided there is compliance with
applicable ambient air quality standards and incremental impacts are minimized.
- For projects to rehabilitate existing facilities, case-by-case emission requirements should be established by the EA considering (i) the existing emission levels and
impacts on the environment and community health, and (ii) cost and technical feasibility of bringing the existing emission levels to meet these new facilities limits.
- EA should demonstrate that emissions do not contribute a significant portion to the attainment of relevant ambient air quality guidelines or standards, and more
stringent limits may be required.
Boiler NDA DA NDA DA NDA DA
Natural Gas N/A N/A N/A N/A 240 240 3%
Other Gaseous Fuels 50 30 400 400 240 240 3%
Liquid Fuels (Plant >50 MWth to <600 MWth) 50 30 900 1,500a 400 400 200 3%
Liquid Fuels (Plant >/=600 MWth) 50 30 200 850b 200 400 200 3%
510c
Solid Fuels (Plant >50 MWth to <600 MWth) 50 30 900 1,500a 400 6%
Or up to 1,100 if volatile matter of fuel < 10% 200
Solid Fuels (Plant >/=600 MWth) 50 30 200 850b 200 6%
General notes:
nationally legislated air quality standards are exceeded or, in their absence, if WHO Air Quality Guidelines are exceeded significantly; CFB = circulating fluidized bed coal-fired; PC = pulverized coal-
fired; Nm3 is at one atmospheric pressure, 0 degree Celsius; MWth category is to apply to the entire facility consisting of multiple units that are reasonably considered to be emitted from a common
stack. Guideline limits apply to facilities operating more than 500 hours per year. Emission levels should be evaluated on a one hour average basis and be achieved 95% of annual operating hours.
- a. Targeting the lower guidelines values and recognizing issues related to quality of available fuel, cost effectiveness of controls on smaller units, and the potential for higher energy conversion
efficiencies (FGD may consume between 0.5% and 1.6% of electricity generated by the plant). b. Targeting the lower guidelines values and recognizing variability in approaches to the management of
SO2 emissions (fuel quality vs. use of secondary controls) and the potential for higher energy conversion efficiencies (FGD may consume between 0.5% and 1.6% of electricity generated by the plant).
Larger plants are expected to have additional emission control measures. Selection of the emission level in the range is to be determined by EA considering the projects sustainability, development
impact, and cost-benefit of the pollution control performance. c. Stoker boilers may require different emissions values which should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis through the EA process.
- Natural Gas-fired Boiler NOx
o Guideline limits: 240
o EU: 150 (50 to 300 MWth), 200 (> 300 MWth)
- Solid Fuels-fired Boiler - PM
o Guideline limits: 50
o EU: 50 (50 to 100 MWth), 30 (> 100 MWth), China: 50, India: 100 - 150
- Solid Fuels-fired Boiler SO2
o Guideline limits: 900 1,500 (Plant > 50 MWth to < 600 MWth), 200 850 (Plant 600 MWth)
o EU: 850 (50 100 MWth), 200 (> 100 MWth)
o US: 180 ng/J gross energy output OR 95% reduction ( 200 mg/Nm3 at 6%O2 assuming 38% HHV efficiency)
o China: 400 (general), 800 (if using coal < 12,550 kJ/kg), 1,200 (if mine-mouth plant located in non-double control area of western region and burning low S coal (<0.5%))
Source: EU (LCP Directive 2001/80/EC October 23 2001), US (NSPS for Electric Utility Steam Generating Units (Subpart Da), Final Rule June 13, 2007), China (GB 13223-2003)

WORLD BANK GROUP
Table 7 Typical Air Emission Monitoring Parameters / Frequency for Thermal Power Plants
(Note: Detailed monitoring programs should be determined based on EA)
Emission Monitoring Stack Emission Testing
Combustion Technology /
Particulate Sulfur Dioxide Nitrogen Oxides Ambient Air Quality Noise
Fuel PM SO2 NOx Heavy Metals
Matter (PM) (SO2) (NOx)
Reciprocating Engine
Natural Gas (Plant >50 N/A N/A Continuous or N/A N/A Annual N/A If EA predicts
If incremental impacts predicted by EA >/=
MWth to <300 MWth) indicative noise levels at
25 % of relevant short-term ambient air
Natural Gas (Plant >/= 300 N/A N/A Continuous N/A N/A Annual N/A residential
quality standards or if the plant >/= 1,200
MWth) receptors or other
MWth:
Liquid (Plant >50 MWth to Continuous or Continuous if FGD Continuous or sensitive receptors
- Monitor parameters (e.g.,
<300 MWth) indicative is used or monitor indicative are close to the
Annual PM10/PM2.5/SO2/NOx to be consistent with
by S content. relevant ambient
the relevant ambient air quality standards)
Liquid (Plant >/=300 MWth) Continuous or Continuous noise standards /
by continuous ambient air quality
indicative guidelines, or if
monitoring system (typically a minimum of
there are such
Biomass Continuous or N/A Continuous or Annual N/A Annual N/A 2 systems to cover predicted maximum
receptors close to
indicative indicative ground level concentration point / sensitive
the plant boundary
receptor / background point).
(e.g., within 100m)
Combustion Turbine then, conduct
Natural Gas (all turbine N/A N/A Continuous or N/A N/A Annual N/A If incremental impacts predicted by EA <
ambient noise
types of Unit > 50MWth) indicative 25% of relevant short term ambient air
monitoring every
Fuels other than Natural Continuous or Continuous if FGD Continuous or quality standards and if the facility < 1,200
year to three years
Gas (Unit > 50MWth) indicative is used or monitor indicative MWth but >/= 100 MWth
Annual depending on the
by S content. - Monitor parameters either by passive
project
samplers (monthly average) or by
circumstances.
Boiler seasonal manual sampling (e.g., 1
weeks/season) for parameters consistent
N/A N/A Annual N/A Elimination of
Continuous or with the relevant air quality standards.
Natural Gas N/A N/A noise monitoring
indicative can be considered
Annual Annual Annual N/A Effectiveness of the ambient air quality
acceptable if a
Continuous or monitoring program should be reviewed
Other Gaseous fuels Indicative Indicative comprehensive
indicative regularly. It could be simplified or reduced
survey showed
if alternative program is developed (e.g.,
Continuous if FGD that there are no
Liquid (Plant >50 MWth to Continuous or local governments monitoring network).
is used or monitor receptors affected
<600 MWth) indicative Continuation of the program is
by S content. by the project or
recommended during the life of the project
affected noise
Liquid (Plant >=600 MWth) Continuous Annual if there are sensitive receptors or if
Continuous or levels are far
monitored levels are not far below the
indicative Continuous if FGD Continuous or below the relevant
Solid (Plant >50 MWth to relevant ambient air quality standards.
is used or monitor indicative ambient noise
<600 MWth) standards /
by S Content.
guidelines.
Solid (Plant >/=600 MWth) Continuous
Note: Continuous or indicative means Continuously monitor emissions or continuously monitor indicative parameters. Stack emission testing is to have direct measurement of emission levels to counter check the emission monitoring system.

WORLD BANK GROUP
2.2 Occupational Health and Safety
Occupational Health and Safety Guidelines Accident and Fatality Rates

Occupational health and safety performance should be Projects should try to reduce the number of accidents among
evaluated against internationally published exposure guidelines, project workers (whether directly employed or subcontracted) to
of which examples include the Threshold Limit Value (TLV) a rate of zero, especially accidents that could result in lost work
occupational exposure guidelines and Biological Exposure time, different levels of disability, or even fatalities. The accident
Indices (BEIs) published by American Conference of and fatality rates of the specific facility may be benchmarked
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), 36 the Pocket against the performance of facilities in this sector in developed
Guide to Chemical Hazards published by the United States countries through consultation with published sources (e.g., US
National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH), 37 Bureau of Labor Statistics and UK Health and Safety
Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) published by the Executive) 40.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the United

States (OSHA), 38 Indicative Occupational Exposure Limit Values Occupational Health and Safety Monitoring
published by European Union member states, 39 or other similar The working environment should be monitored for occupational
sources. hazards relevant to the specific project. Monitoring should be
designed and implemented by accredited professionals 41 as part
Additional indicators specifically applicable to electric power of an occupational health and safety monitoring program.
sector activities include the ICNIRP exposure limits for Facilities should also maintain a record of occupational
occupational exposure to electric and magnetic fields listed in accidents and diseases and dangerous occurrences and
Table 8. Additional applicable indicators such as noise, accidents. Additional guidance on occupational health and
electrical hazards, air quality, etc. are presented in Section 2.0 safety monitoring programs is provided in the General EHS
of the General EHS Guidelines. Guidelines.
Table 8 - ICNIRP exposure limits for occupational

exposure to electric and magnetic fields.
Frequency Electric Field (V/m) Magnetic Field (T)
50 Hz 10,000 500
60 Hz 8300 415
Source: ICNIRP (1998) : Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying

electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields (up to 300 GHz)
36 http://www.acgih.org/TLV/36 Available at: http://www.acgih.org/TLV/ and

http://www.acgih.org/store/
37 Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/ 40 Available at: http://www.bls.gov/iif/ and
38 Available at: http://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/index.htm
http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDAR 41 Accredited professionals may include Certified Industrial Hygienists,
DS&p_id=9992 Registered Occupational Hygienists, or Certified Safety Professionals or their
39 Available at: http://europe.osha.eu.int/good_practice/risks/ds/oel/ equivalent.

WORLD BANK GROUP
UNIPEDE / EURELECTRIC. 1997. Wastewater effluents Technology, Thermal

3.0 References and Additional Generation Study Committee. 20.04 THERCHIM 20.05 THERRES. April 1997.
Sources UNIPEDE. 1998. Wastewater and water residue management Regulations.
Thermal Generation Study Committee. 20.05 THERRES. February 1998
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E 1686-02, Standard Guide
for Selection of Environmental Noise Measurements and Criteria, January 2003. U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) / National Energy Technology Laboratory
(NETL), 2007. Cost and Performance Baseline for Fossil Energy Plants
ANZECC (Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council).
1992. National water quality management strategy: Australian water quality U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1994. Water Quality Standards
guidelines for fresh and marine waters. ISBN 0-642-18297-3. Australian and Handbook: Second Edition (EPA-823-B94-005a) August 1994.
New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council. Canberra Act 2600. New U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1988d. State water quality
Zealand. standards summary: District of Columbia. EPA 440/5-88-041. Criteria and
Commission of European Communities (CEC). 1988. European community Standards Division (WH-585). Office of Water Regulations and Standards.
environmental legislation: 1967-1987. Document Number XI/989/87. Directorate- Washington, District of Columbia. 7 pp.
General for Environment, Consumer Protection and Nuclear Safety. Brussels, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1997. EPA Office of Compliance
Belgium. 229 pp. Sector Notebook Project Profile of the Fossil Fuel Electric Power Generation
Euromot. 2006. World Bank International Finance Corporation General Industry. EPA/310-R-97-007. September 1997.
Environmental, Health and Safety Guidelines. Position Paper. November 2006. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2001. Federal Register / Vol. 66,
European Commission (EC), 2001. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control No. 243, National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System: Regulations
(IPCC) Reference Document on the Application of Best Available Techniques to Addressing Cooling Water Intake Structures for New Facilities, December 18,
Industrial Cooling Systems, December 2001 2001 pp. 65256 65345.
European Commission (EC). 2006. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2005. Control of Mercury
Reference Document on Best Available Techniques (BREF) for Large Emissions from Coal Fired Electric Utility Boilers: An Update. Air Pollution
Combustion Plants. July 2006. Prevention and Control Division National Risk Management Research
Laboratory Office of Research and Development.
G. G. Oliver and L. E. Fidler, Aspen Applied Sciences Ltd., Towards a Water
Quality Guideline for Temperature in the Province of British Columbia, March U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2006. Federal Register / Vol. 71,
2001. No. 129, Standards of Performance for Stationary Combustion Turbines; Final
Rule, July 6, 2006 pp. 38482-38506.
International Energy Agency. 2007. Fossil Fuel-Fired power Generation. Case
Studies of Recently Constructed Coal- and Gas-Fired Power Plants. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2006. Federal Register / Vol. 71,
No. 132, Standards of Performance for Stationary Compression Ignition Internal
International Organization for Standardization, ISO/DIS 1996-2.2, Acoustics Combustion Engines; Final Rule, July 11, 2006 pp. 39154-39184.
Description, assessment and measurement of environmental noise Part 2:
Determination of environmental noise levels. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2006. Final Report.
Environmental Footprints and Costs of Coal-Based Integrated Gasification
Jamaica. 2006. The Natural Resources Conservation Authority Act. The Combined Cycle and Pulverized Coal technologies. July 2006.
Natural Resources Conservation Authority (Air Quality) Regulations, 2006.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2007. Federal Register / Vol. 72,
NRC. 2002. Coal Waste Impoundments: Risks, Responses, and Alternatives. No. 113, Amendments to New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for
Committee on Coal Waste Impoundments, Committee on Earth Resources, Electric Utility Steam Generating Units and Industrial-commercial-Institutional
Board on Earth Sciences and Resources, National Research Council. ISBN: 0- Steam Generating Units; Final Rule, June 13, 2007 pp. 32710-32768
309-08251-X.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2008. Federal Register / Vol. 73,
Official Journal of the European Communities. 2001. Directive 2001/80/EC of No. 13, Standards of Performance for Stationary Spark Ignition Internal
the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2001 on limitation of Combustion Engines and National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
emissions of certain pollutants into the air from large combustion plants. Pollutants for Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines; Final Rule. pp3568-
3614
Peoples Republic of China. 2003. National Standards of the Peoples Republic
of China. GB 13223-2003. Emission Standard of Air Pollutants for Thermal West Virginia Water Research Institute. 2005. Guidance Document for Coal
Power Plants. December 23, 2003. Waste Impoundment Facilities & Coal Waste Impoundment Inspection Form.
Morgantown, WV. December 2005.
Republic of the Philippines. 1999. DENR Administrative Order No. 2000-81.
RA 8749: The Philippine Clean Air Act of f 1999 and its Implementing Rules and WHO (World Health Organization). 2006. Air Quality Guidelines Global Update
Regulations. December 2001. 2005, Particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide.
Schimmoller, Brian K. 2004. "Section 316(b) Regulations: The Yin and Yang of World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe Copenhagen. 2000. Air
Fish Survival and Power Plant Operation" Power Engineering/July 2004 p. 28. quality guidelines for Europe, 2nd edition, 2000.
Tavoulareas, E. Stratos, and Jean-Pierre Charpentier. 1995. Clean Coal World Bank Group. Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook 1998.
Technologies for Developing Countries. World Bank Technical Paper 286,
Energy Series. Washington, D.C. World Bank April 2006. Clean Energy and Development: Towards an
Investment Framework.
The Gazette of India. 2002. Ministry of Environment and Forest Notification,
New Delhi, the 9th of July, 2002. Emission Standards for Diesel Engines (Engine World Bank Group. Sep 2006. Technical and Economic Assessment of Off-
Rating More Than 0.8 MW (800kW) for Power Plant, Generator Set Applications Grid, Mini-Grid and Grid Electrification Technologies Summary Report.
and Other Requirements.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE), IEEE Guide for
Power-Station Noise Control, IEEE Std. 640-1985, 1985

WORLD BANK GROUP
Annex A: General Description of Industry Activities

Thermal power plants burn fossil fuels or biomass to generate system is usually provided by the combustion of coal, natural
electrical energy and heat. Mechanical power is produced by a gas, oil, or biomass as well as other types of waste or recovered
heat engine, which transforms thermal energy from combustion fuel. High-temperature, high-pressure steam is generated in the
of a fossil fuel into rotational energy. A generator converts that boiler and then enters the steam turbine. At the other end of the
mechanical energy into electrical energy by creating relative steam turbine is the condenser, which is maintained at a low
motion between a magnetic field and a conductor. Figure A-1 is temperature and pressure. Steam rushing from the high-
a generalized flow diagram of a boiler-based thermal power pressure boiler to the low-pressure condenser drives the turbine
plant and its associated operations. blades, which powers the electric generator.
Not all thermal energy can be transformed to mechanical power, Low-pressure steam exiting the turbine enters the condenser
according to the second law of thermodynamics. Therefore, shell and is condensed on the condenser tubes, which are
thermal power plants also produce low-temperature heat. If no maintained at a low temperature by the flow of cooling water.
use is found for the heat, it is lost to the environment. If reject As the steam is cooled to condensate, the condensate is
heat is employed as useful heat (e.g., for industrial processes or transported by the boiler feedwater system back to the boiler,
district heating), the power plant is referred to as a cogeneration where it is used again. A constant flow of low-temperature
power plant or CHP (combined heat-and-power) plant. cooling water in the condenser tubes is required to keep the
condenser shell (steam side) at proper pressure and to ensure
Types of Thermal power plants efficient electricity generation. Through the condensing
Thermal power plants can be divided based on the type of process, the cooling water is warmed. If the cooling system is
combustion or gasification: boilers, internal reciprocating engines, an open or a once-through system, this warm water is released
and combustion turbines. In addition, combined-cycle and back to the source water body. 42 In a closed system, the warm
cogeneration systems increase efficiency by utilizing heat lost by water is cooled by recirculation through cooling towers, lakes, or
conventional combustion systems. The type of system is chosen ponds, where the heat is released into the air through
based on the loads, the availability of fuels, and the energy evaporation and/or sensible heat transfer. If a recirculating
requirements of the electric power generation facility. Other cooling system is used, only a relatively small amount of make-
ancillary processes, such as coal processing and pollution control, up water is required to offset the evaporative losses and cooling
must also be performed to support the generation of electricity. tower blowdown that must be discharged periodically to control
The following subsections describe each system and then discuss the build-up of solids. A recirculating system uses about one-
ancillary processes at the facility (USEPA 1997). twentieth the water of a once-through system.
Steam turbines typically have a thermal efficiency of about 35

Boilers (Steam Turbines)
percent, meaning that 35 percent of the heat of combustion is
Conventional steam-producing thermal power plants generate
transformed into electricity. The remaining 65 percent of the
electricity through a series of energy conversion stages: fuel is
heat either goes up the stack (typically 10 percent) or is
burned in boilers to convert water to high-pressure steam, which is
then used to drive a steam turbine to generate electricity. Heat for the 42 If groundwater is used for cooling, the cooling water is usually discharged to a

WORLD BANK GROUP
discharged with the condenser cooling water (typically 55 at the mine by using gravity concentration, flotation, or
percent). dewatering methods.
Coal and lignite are the most common fuels in thermal power Coal is transported from the coal bunker or silo to be crushed,
plants although heavy fuel oil is also used. Coal-fired steam ground, and dried further before it is fired in the burner or
generation systems are designed to use pulverized coal or combustion system. Many mechanisms can be used to grind
crushed coal. Several types of coal-fired steam generators are the coal and prepare it for firing. Pulverizers, cyclones, and
in use, and are generally classified based on the characteristics stokers are all used to grind and dry the coal. Increasing the
of the coal fed to the burners and the mode of burning the coal. coals particle surface area and decreasing its moisture content
In fluidized-bed combustors, fuel materials are forced by gas greatly boosting its heating capacity. Once prepared, the coal is
into a state of buoyancy. The gas cushion between the solids transported within the plant to the combustion system. Devices
allows the particles to move freely, thus flowing like a liquid. By at the bottom of the boilers catch ash and/or slag.
using this technology, SO2 and NOX emissions are reduced
because an SO2 sorbent, such as limestone, can be used Reciprocating Engines
efficiently. Also, because the operating temperature is low, the Internal combustion engines convert the chemical energy of
amount of NOX gases formed is lower than those produced fuels (typically diesel fuel or heavy fuel oil) into mechanical
using conventional technology. energy in a design similar to a truck engine, and the mechanical
energy is used to turn a generator. Two types of engines
Natural gas and liquid fuels are usually transported to thermal
normally used: the medium-speed, four-stroke trunk piston
power plants via pipelines. Coal and biomass fuels can be
engine and the low-speed, two-stroke crosshead engine. Both
transported by rail, barge, or truck. In some cases, coal is
types of engine operate on the air-standard diesel
mixed with water to form slurry that can be pumped to the
thermodynamic cycle. Air is drawn or forced into a cylinder and
thermal power plant in a pipeline. Once coal arrives at the plant,
is compressed by a piston. Fuel is injected into the cylinder and
it is unloaded to storage or directly to the stoker or hopper. In
is ignited by the heat of the compression of the air. The burning
transporting coal during warmer months and in dry climates,
mixture of fuel and air expands, pushing the piston. The
dust suppression may be necessary.
products of combustion are then removed from the cylinder,
completing the cycle.
Coal may be cleaned and prepared before being either crushed
or pulverized. Impurities in coal such as ash, metals, silica, and
The exhaust gases from an engine are affected by the load
sulfur can cause boiler fouling and slagging. Coal cleaning can
profile of the prime mover; ambient conditions such as air
be used to reduce sulfur in the coal to meet sulfur dioxide (SO2)
humidity and temperature; fuel oil quality, such as sulfur content,
emissions regulations and also reduce ash content and the
nitrogen content, viscosity, ignition ability, density, and ash
amount of heavy metals. Cleaning the coal is costly, but the
content; and site conditions and the auxiliary equipment
cost can be at least partially offset by an increase in fuel
associated with the prime mover, such as cooling properties and
efficiency, reduced emission control requirements, and lower
exhaust gas back pressure. The engine parameters that affect
waste management costs. Coal cleaning is typically performed
NOX emissions are fuel injection in terms of timing, duration, and
atomization; combustion air conditions, which are affected by
surface water body.

WORLD BANK GROUP
valve timing, the charge air system, and charge air cooling Spark Ignition (SG)
before cylinders; and the combustion process, which is affected Often a spark ignited gas-otto engine works according to the
by air and fuel mixing, combustion chamber design, and the lean burn concept meaning that a lean mixture of combustion air
compression ratio. 43 The particulate matter emissions are and fuel is used in the cylinder (e.g., much more air than needed
dependent on the general conditions of the engine, especially for the combustion). In order to stabilize the ignition and
the fuel injection system and its maintenance, in addition to the combustion of the lean mixture, in bigger engine types a
ash content of the fuel, which is in the range 0.050.2%. SOx prechamber with a richer air/fuel mixture is used. The ignition is
emissions are directly dependent on the sulfur content of the initiated with a spark plug or some other device located in the
fuel. Fuel oil may contain as little as 0.3% sulfur and, in some prechamber, resulting in a high-energy ignition source for the
cases, up to 5% sulfur. main fuel charge in the cylinder. The most important parameter
governing the rate of NOx formation in internal combustion
Diesel engines are fuel flexible and can use fuels such as diesel
engines is the combustion temperature; the higher the
oil, heavy fuel oil, natural gas, crude oil, bio-fuels (such as palm
temperature the higher the NOx content of the exhaust gases.
oil, etc.) and emulsified fuels (such as Orimulsion, etc.).
One method is to lower the fuel/air ratio, the same specific heat
quantity released by the combustion of the fuel is then used to
Typical electrical efficiencies in single mode are typically ranging
heat up a larger mass of exhaust gases, resulting in a lower
from 40 % for the medium speed engines up to about 50 % for
maximum combustion temperature. This method low fuel/air
large engines and even higher efficiencies in combined cycle
ratio is called lean burn and it reduces NOx effectively. The
mode. Total efficiency in CHP (Combined Heat and Power) is
spark-ignited lean-burn engine has therefore low NOx
typically in liquid operation up to 60 80 % and in gas mode
emissions. This is a pure gas engine; it operates only on
even higher dependent on the application. The heat to power
gaseous fuels.
ratio is typically 0.5 to 1.3 in CHP applications, dependent on
the application.
Dual fuel engines (DF)
Some DF engine types are fuel versatile, these can be run on
Lean Burn Gas Engines
low pressure natural gas or liquid fuels such as diesel oil (as
Typical electrical efficiencies for bigger stationary medium
back-up fuel, etc.), heavy fuel oil, etc. This engine type can
speed engines in single mode are typically 40 47 % and up to
operate at full load in both fuel modes. Dual Fuel (DF) engines
close to 50 % in combined cycle mode. Total efficiency in CHP
can also be designed to work in gas mode only with a pilot liquid
facilities is typically up to 90 % dependent on the application.
fuel used for ignition of the gas.
The heat to power ratios are typically 0.5 to 1.3 in CHP-
applications, dependent on the application.
Combustion Turbines
Gas turbine systems operate in a manner similar to steam
turbine systems except that combustion gases are used to turn
the turbine blades instead of steam. In addition to the electric
43 If the fuel timing is too early, the cylinder pressure will increase, resulting in
higher nitrogen oxide formation. If injection is timed too late, fuel consumption
generator, the turbine also drives a rotating compressor to
and turbocharger speed will increase. NOX emissions can be reduced by later pressurize the air, which is then mixed with either gas or liquid
injection timing, but then particulate matter and the amount of unburned species
will increase.

WORLD BANK GROUP
fuel in a combustion chamber. The greater the compression, Cogeneration

the higher the temperature and the efficiency that can be Cogeneration is the merging of a system designed to produce
achieved in a gas turbine. Higher temperatures, however, electric power and a system used for producing industrial heat
typically lead to increases in NOX emissions. Exhaust gases are and steam and/or municipal heating. This system is a more
emitted to the atmosphere from the turbine. Unlike a steam efficient way of using energy inputs and allows the recovery of
turbine system, gas turbine systems do not have boilers or a otherwise wasted thermal energy for use in an industrial
steam supply, condensers, or a waste heat disposal system. process. Cogeneration technologies are classified as "topping
Therefore, capital costs are much lower for a gas turbine system cycle" and "bottoming cycle" systems, depending on whether
than for a steam system. electrical (topping cycle) or thermal (bottoming cycle) energy is
derived first. Most cogeneration systems use a topping cycle.
In electrical power applications, gas turbines are often used for
peaking duty, where rapid startup and short runs are needed.
Most installed simple gas turbines with no controls have only a
20- to 30-percent efficiency.
Combined Cycle
Combined-cycle generation is a configuration using both gas
turbines and steam generators. In a combined-cycle gas turbine
(CCGT), the hot exhaust gases of a gas turbine are used to
provide all, or a portion of, the heat source for the boiler, which
produces steam for the steam generator turbine. This
combination increases the thermal efficiency to approximately
50 - 60 percent. Combined-cycle systems may have multiple
gas turbines driving one steam turbine. Combined-cycle
systems with diesel engines and steam generators are also
sometimes used.
In addition, integrated coal gasification combined-cycle (IGCC)

units are emerging technologies. In an IGCC system, coal gas
is manufactured and cleaned in a "gasifier" under pressure,
thereby reducing emissions and particulates. 44 The coal gas
then is combusted in a CCGT generation system.
44 Gasification is a process in which coal is introduced to a reducing atmosphere

with oxygen or air and steam.

WORLD BANK GROUP
Figure A-1
Generalized Flow Diagram of a Thermal power plant 45 and Associated Operations
Source: EC 2006
45 Applicable to boiler plant with cooling tower only. Diagram does not apply to engines and turbines which have completely different configurations.

WORLD BANK GROUP
Annex B: Environmental Assessment Guidance for Thermal Power

Projects
The development of an environmental assessment (EA) for a dry disposal
Pollution control
thermal power project should take into account any government o Air emission primary vs.
energy and/or environmental policy or strategy including secondary flue gas treatment
(cost, performance)
strategic aspects such as energy efficiency improvements in o Effluent (cost, performance)
Effluent discharge
existing power generation, transmission, and distribution o Surface water
systems, demand side management, project siting, fuel choice, o Evaporation
o Recycling zero discharge
technology choice, and environmental performance. Siting
o Land acquisition
consideration
New Facilities and Expansion of Existing Facilities o Access to fuel / electricity
An (EA) for new facilities and a combined EA and environmental grid
o Existing and future land use
audit for existing facilities should be carried out early in the zoning
o Existing and predicted
project cycle in order to establish site-specific emissions environmental baseline (air,
requirements and other measures for a new or expanded water, noise)
thermal power plant. Table B-1 provides suggested key Impact Estimation of GHG emissions
Assessment (tCO2/year, gCO2/kWh)
elements of the EA, the scope of which will depend on project- Air quality impact
specific circumstances. o SO2, NO2, PM10, PM2.5,
Heavy metals as appropriate,
Acid deposition if relevant
Table B-1 Suggested Key EHS Elements for EA of New o Incremental impacts to the
Thermal Power Project attainment of relevant air
Analysis of Fuel selection including non-fossil fuel quality standards
Alternatives options (coal, oil, gas, biomass, other o Isopleth concentration lines
renewable options wind, solar, (short-term, annual average,
geothermal, hydro), fuel supply sources as appropriate) overlaid with
Power generation technology land use and topographic
o Thermal generating efficiency map
(HHV-gross, LHV-gross, o Cumulative impacts of
HHV-net, LHV-net) existing sources / future
o Cost projects if known
o CO2 emissions performance o Stack height determination
(gCO2/kWh) o Health impact consideration
GHG emissions reduction / offset Water quality / intake impact
options o thermal discharge if once-
o Energy conversion efficiency through cooling system is
o Offset arrangement used
o Use of renewable energy o other key contaminants as
sources, etc. appropriate
Baseline water quality of receiving water o water intake impact
bodies Noise impact
Water supply o Noise contour lines overlaid
o Surface water, underground with land use and locations of
water, desalination receptors
Cooling system Determination of pollution prevention
o Once-through, wet closed and abatement measures
circuit, dry closed circuit Mitigation Air (Stack height, pollution control
Ash disposal system - wet disposal vs. Measures / measures, cost)

WORLD BANK GROUP
Management Effluent (wastewater treatment dispersion models to estimate the impact of the project on
Program measures, cost)
Noise (noise control measures, cost) the ambient concentrations of these pollutants;
Waste utilization / disposal (e.g., ash, If acid deposition is considered a potentially significant
FGD by-product, used oil)
o Ash management plan impact, use of appropriate air quality models to evaluate
(quantitative balance of ash
generation, disposal, long-range and trans-boundary acid deposition;
utilization, size of ash The scope of baseline data collection and air quality impact
disposal site, ash
transportation arrangement) assessment will depend on the project circumstances (e.g.,
Fuel supply arrangement
Emergency preparedness and response
project size, amount of air emissions and the potential
plan impacts on the airshed). Examples of suggested practices
Industrial risk assessment if relevant
Monitoring Parameters are presented in Table B-2.
Program Sampling Frequency
Evaluation Criteria
Table B-2 - Suggested Air Quality Impact Assessment
Sampling points overlaid with relevant
site layout / surrounding maps
Approach
Cost Baseline air Qualitative information (for small
quality projects e.g., < 100MWth)
collection Seasonal manual sampling (for mid-
sized projects e.g., < 1,200MWth)
Tasks related to carrying out the quality impact analysis for the Continuous automatic sampling (for
large projects e.g., >= 1,200MWth)
EA should include:
Modeling existing sources
Collection of baseline data ranging from relatively simple Baseline Continuous one-year data for
meteorological dispersion modeling from nearby
qualitative information (for smaller projects) to more data collection existing meteorological station (e.g.,
comprehensive quantitative data (for larger projects) on airport, meteorological station) or site-
specific station, if installed, for mid-
ambient concentrations of parameters and averaging time sized and large projects
consistent with relevant host country air quality standards Evaluation of Determining if the airshed is degraded
airshed quality (i.e., ambient air quality standards are
(e.g., parameters such as PM10, PM2.5, SO2 (for oil and not attained) or non-degraded (i.e.,
ambient air quality standards are
coal-fired plants), NOX, and ground-level ozone; and
attained)
averaging time such as 1-hour maximum, 24-hour Air quality Assess incremental and resultant
impact levels by screening models (for small
maximum, annual average), within a defined airshed projects)
assessment
encompassing the proposed project; 46 Assess incremental and resultant
levels by refined models (for mid-sized
Evaluation of the baseline airshed quality (e.g., degraded and large projects, or for small
or non-degraded); projects if determined necessary after
using screening models) 47
Evaluation of baseline water quality, where relevant; Modify emission levels, if needed, to
ensure that incremental impacts are
Use of appropriate mathematical or physical air quality
small (e.g., 25% of relevant ambient
air quality standard levels) and that
the airshed will not become degraded.
46 The term airshed refers to the local area around the plant whose ambient air
quality is directly affected by emissions from the plant. The size of the relevant
local airshed will depend on plant characteristics, such as stack height, as well
as on local meteorological conditions and topography. In some cases, airsheds
are defined in legislation or by the relevant environmental authorities. If not, the 47 For further guidance on refined / screening models, see Appendix W to Part
EA should clearly define the airshed on the basis of consultations with those 51 Guidelines on Air Quality Models by US EPA (Final Rule, November 9,
responsible for local environmental management. 2005)

WORLD BANK GROUP
When there is a reasonable likelihood that in the medium or long scope, focusing on only a small number of specific concerns
term the power plant will be expanded or other pollution sources that would be affected by the project, or it may be as extensive
will increase significantly, the analysis should take account of as would be appropriate for the construction of a new unit at the
the impact of the proposed plant design both immediately and same site. Normally, it should cover the following points:
after any formally planned expansion in capacity or in other
sources of pollution. Plant design should allow for future Ambient environmental quality in the airshed or water basin
installation of additional pollution control equipment, should this affected by the plant, together with approximate estimates
prove desirable or necessary based upon predicted air quality of the contribution of the plant to total emissions loads of
impacts and/or anticipated changes in emission standards (i.e., the main pollutants of concern
impending membership into the EU). The EA should also The impact of the plant, under existing operating conditions
address other project-specific environmental concerns, such as and under alternative scenarios for rehabilitation, on
fuel and emissions from fuel impurities. In cases where fuel ambient air and water quality affecting neighboring
impurities lead to known hazardous emissions, the EA should populations and sensitive ecosystems
estimate the emission amount, assess impacts and propose The likely costs of achieving alternative emissions
mitigations to reduce emissions. 48 Examples of compounds standards or other environmental targets for the plant as a
which may be present in certain types of coal, heavy fuel oil, whole or for specific aspects of its operations
petroleum coke, etc. include cadmium, mercury, and other Recommendations concerning a range of cost effective
heavy metals. measures for improving the environmental performance of
the plant within the framework of the rehabilitation project
Rehabilitation of Existing Facilities and any associated emissions standards or other
An environmental assessment of the proposed rehabilitation requirements implied by the adoption of specific measures.
should be carried out early in the process of preparing the These issues should be covered at a level of detail appropriate
project in order to allow an opportunity to evaluate alternative to the nature and scale of the proposed project. If the plant is
rehabilitation options before key design decisions are finalized. located in an airshed or water basin that is polluted as a result of
The assessment should include an environmental audit that emissions from a range of sources, including the plant itself,
examines the impacts of the existing plants operations on comparisons should be made of the relative costs of improving
nearby populations and ecosystems, supplemented by an EA ambient air or water quality by reducing emissions from the
that examines the changes in these impacts that would result plant or by reducing emissions from other sources.
under alternative specifications for the rehabilitation, and the

estimated capital and operating costs associated with each
option. Depending on the scale and nature of the rehabilitation,
the audit/environmental assessment may be relatively narrow in
48 Several U.S. states have adopted regulations that give coal-fired power plants
the option to meet either a mercury emissions standard based on electricity
output or a control-based standard. For instance, Illinois requires all coal-fired
power plants of 25 MW electrical capacity or greater to meet either an emissions
standard of 0.0080 lbs mercury per gigawatt hour (GWh) gross electrical output
or an emissions control requirement of 90 percent relative to mercury input.

FINAL - Thermal+Power IFC REPORT

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FINAL - Thermal+Power IFC REPORT

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

FINAL - Thermal+Power IFC REPORT

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines

THERMAL POWER PLANTS

WORLD BANK GROUP

Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines for

DECEMBER 19, 2008 1

WORLD BANK GROUP

1.0 Industry-Specific Impacts and Air Emissions

DECEMBER 19, 2008 2

WORLD BANK GROUP

DECEMBER 19, 2008 3

WORLD BANK GROUP

Table 1 - Performance / Characteristics of FGDs Nitrogen Oxides

DECEMBER 19, 2008 4

WORLD BANK GROUP

Particulate Matter generation and transport of dust on site;

DECEMBER 19, 2008 5

WORLD BANK GROUP

DECEMBER 19, 2008 6

WORLD BANK GROUP

DECEMBER 19, 2008 7

WORLD BANK GROUP

supply, proximity to load centers, potential for off-site use of

DECEMBER 19, 2008 8

WORLD BANK GROUP

DECEMBER 19, 2008 9

WORLD BANK GROUP

assessment process. Thermal discharges should be designed to temperature areas);

DECEMBER 19, 2008 10

WORLD BANK GROUP

discharge 22; construction materials to reduce chemical treatment

suspended solids (TSS), and oil / grease, at a minimum. cooling towers;

hydroxide or metal organosulfide compounds; continuous low level feed.

DECEMBER 19, 2008 11

WORLD BANK GROUP

DECEMBER 19, 2008 12

WORLD BANK GROUP

Reuse of sludge from treatment of waste waters from FGD

DECEMBER 19, 2008 13

WORLD BANK GROUP

community noise requirements. Implementation of action plans to address potential or

Non-ionizing radiation Regular inspection and maintenance of pressure vessels and

DECEMBER 19, 2008 14

WORLD BANK GROUP

DECEMBER 19, 2008 15

WORLD BANK GROUP

DECEMBER 19, 2008 16

WORLD BANK GROUP

ensure that the project does not compromise the availability of

DECEMBER 19, 2008 17

WORLD BANK GROUP

2.0 Performance Indicators and

Emissions levels for the design and operation of each project

DECEMBER 19, 2008 18

WORLD BANK GROUP

As described in the General EHS Guidelines, facilities or projects

DECEMBER 19, 2008 19

WORLD BANK GROUP

DECEMBER 19, 2008 21

WORLD BANK GROUP