Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines

BASE METAL SMELTING AND REFINING

WORLD BANK GROUP

Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines

Base Metal Smelting and Refining

capacity of the environment, and other project factors, are

Introduction
taken into account. The applicability of specific technical
The Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines are recommendations should be based on the professional opinion
technical reference documents with general and industry- of qualified and experienced persons.
specific examples of Good International Industry Practice
(GIIP) 1. When one or more members of the World Bank Group When host country regulations differ from the levels and
are involved in a project, these EHS Guidelines are applied as measures presented in the EHS Guidelines, projects are
required by their respective policies and standards. These expected to achieve whichever is more stringent. If less
industry sector EHS guidelines are designed to be used stringent levels or measures than those provided in these EHS
together with the General EHS Guidelines document, which Guidelines are appropriate, in view of specific project
provides guidance to users on common EHS issues potentially circumstances, a full and detailed justification for any proposed
applicable to all industry sectors. For complex projects, use of alternatives is needed as part of the site- specific environmental
multiple industry-sector guidelines may be necessary. A assessment. This justification should demonstrate that the
complete list of industry-sector guidelines can be found at: choice for any alternate performance levels is protective of
www.ifc.org/ifcext/enviro.nsf/Content/EnvironmentalGuidelines human health and the environment.

The EHS Guidelines contain the performance levels and Applicability

measures that are generally considered to be achievable in new
The EHS Guidelines for Smelting & Refining cover information
facilities by existing technology at reasonable costs. Application
relevant to base metal smelting and refining of lead, zinc,
of the EHS Guidelines to existing facilities may involve the
copper, nickel, and aluminum. It does not include the mining and
establishment of site-specific targets, with an appropriate
concentration of the raw materials, which is covered in the EHS
timetable for achieving them.
Guidelines for Mining. Annex A contains a description of
The applicability of the EHS Guidelines should be tailored to industry sector activities.
the hazards and risks established for each project on the basis
This document is organized according to the following sections:
of the results of an environmental assessment in which site-
specific variables, such as host country context, assimilative
Section 1.0 — Industry-Specific Impacts and Management
Section 2.0 — Performance Indicators and Monitoring
1 Defined as the exercise of professional skill, diligence, prudence and foresight Section 3.0 — References
that would be reasonably expected from skilled and experienced professionals Annex A — General Description of Industry Activities
engaged in the same type of undertaking under the same or similar
circumstances globally. The circumstances that skilled and experienced
professionals may find when evaluating the range of pollution prevention and
control techniques available to a project may include, but are not limited to,
varying levels of environmental degradation and environmental assimilative
capacity as well as varying levels of financial and technical feasibility.

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 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines
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WORLD BANK GROUP

processing and transfer of the hot materials); during collection

1.0 Industry-Specific Impacts
and transport of contents of abatement systems (e.g. baghouse
and Management
filters); and during melting and casting (e.g. molten metal and
The following section provides a summary of EHS issues
dross handling). Fugitive emissions can be greater than those
associated with base metal smelting and refining, which
that are collected and abated; therefore, control of fugitive
generally occur during the operational phase, along with
emissions is particularly important.
recommendations for their management. Recommendations for
the management of EHS issues common to most large industrial Measures to prevent and control particulate matter emissions
facilities during the construction, operation and include the following:
decommissioning phases are provided in th e General EHS
Guidelines. • Characterize all feed materials with regard to risk reduction
potential;
1.1 Environment • Store dust- forming materials in enclosed buildings or
containers and transfer using pneumatic or enclosed
Significant environment aspects of smelting and refining during
conveyor systems. Cover all transport vehicles;
the operational phase relate to:
• Reduce the quantity of materials transported, and transport
• Air Emissions distances, through efficient plant layout and design;
• Wastewater • Reduce off-gas volumes where possible (e.g. by employing
• Hazardous materials oxygen-smelting processes);
• Residues and waste • Design for continuous operation where possible, and
• Noise ensure environmental control systems are adequate to
optimize smooth, consistent operation. 3

Air Emissions • Use sealed furnaces and reactors with reduced pressure,
or retrofit existing furnaces with maximum sealing (e.g. use
Particulate Matter 2
of a “fourth hole” in the roof of an electric arc furnace to
Emissions of particulate matter (which may contain metals) may
extract the process gases as efficiently as possible);
result from fugitive and point sources, including receiving,
conditioning, handling, transport (e.g. conveyors, vehicular • Enclose, contain, or use hoods to collect emissions from

traffic), and storage (e.g. outdoor piles) of ores, concentrates, process vessels, feed and discharge points, and conveyor

and secondary raw materials; from hot gases during pyro- systems;

processing (e.g. sintering, smelting, roasting, and converting); • Use systems that maintain the sealing or hood deployment

during leach processing (e.g. dry material handling, filtering, during transfer of materials, such as through electrode

storage of leach residues); during pyro-refining (e.g. furnace additions of material; additions via tuyeres or lances; and
the use of robust rotary valves on feed systems;
2 Particulate matter (dust) is classified as total particulate matter with an upper
size limit of 100 µm (TPM), particulate matter less than µ10 m (PM10), and
particulate matter less than 2.5 µm (PM2.5). The impact of particulate matter
depends on the size and nature of the particles (e.g. PM 2.5 are more respirable), 3 For example, the converter stages that are used in the continuous Mitsubishi
their relative solubility , and the concentration and toxicity of the substances and Outokumpu/Kennecott flash smelting/flash converting processes do not
contained within the particulate matter. require ladle transfer and therefore remove this source of secondary fume.

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• Use damper controls that change the extraction points • Employ a watering program to minimize airborne
automatically during different stages of the process in order particulate matter emissions from on-site roadways,
to target the extraction effort to the fume source and storage piles, and other sources;
thereby minimize energy consumption. Extraction of fumes • Diligent housekeeping and providing vehicle wash facilities
at the roof ventilator should generally only be used as a to prevent the migration of materials within the facility and
last resort because of the high energy use and reduced offsite.
collection efficiency;
• Control particulate matter emissions using electrostatic Metals
precipitators, bagfilters, scrubbers, or cyclones that are In addition to the primary base metals, feed materials may
appropriate for the exhaust stream characteristics (e.g. contain trace amounts of other metals (e.g. aluminum, arsenic,
considering temperature, size fraction of particulate antimony, bismuth, cadmium, chromium, copper, germanium,
matter). 4 gold, indium, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, thallium, tin
• Maintain the collector hood, ducts, and filter system to and zinc).
ensure that collection or extraction rates remain at the
designed level; Emissions of metals in various forms and compounds, which

• Cover all transport vehicles and enclose storage and may be mobilized as contaminants in particulate matter, mists,

process equipment. fumes or in liquids, may be generated throughout all of the

production stages including pyro-processing (e.g. large volumes
of hot gas are generated containing particulate matter and metal
fumes during sintering, smelting, roasting, and converting); pyro-
4 The following is adapted from information contained in the European
Commission (2001). Reference document on best available techniques (BREF) refining (e.g. fine particulate matter and metal fume are
for the non-ferrous metals industries: Fabric filter system s are employed
extensively within this industry sector, due to their high efficiency in controlling generated during the furnace processing and transfer of the hot
the fine particulate matter encountered in melting operations. Due to their
tendency to blind and their sensitivity to fire, they are not suitable for all materials); electro-refining (e.g. acid mist emissions from
applications / situations . Settling and cooling chambers and also waste heat
electrolyte solutions); and melting and casting (e.g. metal fume
recovery boilers are used before bag-houses to reduce the likelihood of fires, to
condition the particles, and to recover the heat content of the off-gas before de- emissions from molten metal and dross handling, and baghouse
dusting. The electrostatic precipitator (EP) is also used extensively in the
industry and is capable of operating over a wide range of conditions of particles). The degree to which these metals may impact the
temperature, pressure and dust burden. It is not particularly sensitive to particle
size, and collects dust in both wet and dry conditions. Corrosion and abrasion environment depends on their form, toxicity and concentration 5.
resistance is built into the design. However, the EP usually does not achieve
final dust concentrations as low as those achieved by a fabric filter. Wet
electrostatic precipitators are necessary when humid, saturated gases with a Emissions of metals are controlled through the application of
high particulate content have to be cleaned (e.g., off-gas from the production of
primary zinc and copper, which contains dust and sulphur dioxide, is cleaned by measures to control particulate matter.
using a scrubber and a wet electrostatic precipitator). Wet precipitators are also
used to collect the tar mist in the waste gases from an electrode-baking furnace.
Cascade wet scrubbers are often used for the de-dusting of CO-rich off-gases Mercury: A special note is made for metal emissions that are
from sealed electric arc furnaces; the gas is used as high calorific-value gas. It is
also used to treat gases from a steel belt sintering machine, where the dust is generated from smelting and refining processes that have the
very abrasive but easily wetted, and the use of scrubber allows gas cooling to be
achieved at the same time as dus t removal. Cyclones are not generally suitable potential to release mercury. While most exhaust streams that
for controlling emissions directly from the processes in this industry sector. The
efficiency in collecting fine dust is too low to deal effectively with furnace contain metals are effectively controlled using the same
releases. Operational experience has shown that they are not capable of
meeting modern release standards. However, cyclones are used effectively as a
primary collector in conjunction with another technique, particularly on larger 5 European Commission (2001). Reference document on best available
processes where throughput can vary. techniques (BREF) for the non-ferrous metals industries.

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abatement contr ols as particulate matter, mercury will remain as • Implement process control systems to ensure consistent
a vapor at ambient temperatures and pass through some control operation;
equipment. It is important to significantly cool the inlet gas to the • Install gas scrubbing processes that remove SO2 from low
particulate matter control system to ensure mercury capture is concentration streams;
sufficient or to use an activated charcoal media to adsorb the • Enclose process equipment and vessels to prevent fugitive
mercury.6 emissions;
• Use pre-treatment (e.g. flotation) to remove unwanted
Sulphur Dioxide sulphide and reduce sulphur in feeds;
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is produced from the combustion of fossil
• Use low-sulphur fuels (e.g. natural gas instead of heavy
fuels and when metal sulphide concentrates are roasted,
fuel oil or coke) and raw materials (e.g. lower sulphur raw
sintered, smelted, converted or refined. The concentration of
materials).
SO2 in the off-gas streams is an important characteristic for
managing SO2 emissions. Above concentrations of 5 – 7
Nitrogen Oxides
percent in the raw gas stream, SO2 can be processed into
NOx emissions are primarily related to the combustion of fuels
sulphuric acid. Lower concentrations in gas streams require the
(e.g. coal in smelting and natural gas in pyro-refining). NOX may
use of raw materials containing lower amounts of sulphur, or
be formed from nitrogen components that are present in the fuel
some form of scrubbing to fix the sulphur and minimize SO2
or the concentrates, or as thermal NOx. In aluminum
emissions to the atmosphere and achieve appropriate ambient
production, NOX is also produced during electrolysis due to the
air concentrations. Oxygen smelting processes reduce the
presence of nitrogen in the anode.
volume of off-gases and increase the concentration of SO2,
which results in greater conversion efficiency and reduced • Minimize N Ox generation by using low N Ox gas burners
contaminant emissions with the lower volume. and staged combustion air in pyro-refining furnaces and
other combustion facilities.
Measures to prevent and control sulphur dioxide emissions
• Treat roasting gases to remove NOx (e.g. using oxidizing
include the following:
scrubber) if high levels of NOX are present to enhance the

• Process (fix) the sulphur for safe storage and / or use as a quality and usability of sulfuric acid produced from off-

product (e.g. sulphuric acid, liquid sulphur dioxide, fertilizer, gasses containing SO2;

and elemental sulphur); • Use of oxy fuel burners can result in reduced NOX

• Consider technology choices to reduce gas volumes and formation. When using oxygen enrichment, consider

increase SO2 concentration; 7 introducing oxygen downstream of the burner if the higher
temperatures caused by using pure oxygen at the burner
result in additional NOX formation.
6 Further detailed information on technologies and methods to control mercury
emissions, in addition to management of residual substances (e.g. mercuric
chloride or calomel from the Boliden / Norzink and Outukumpu mercury control generally use a lower degree of oxygen enrichment. The use of oxygen also
systems) is provided in European Commission (2001). Reference document on gives higher sulphur dioxide concentrations that make the collection of the gas
best available techniques (BREF) for the non-ferrous metals industries , pg 135. more effective using one of the sulphur recovery systems (usually the production
7 There are two basic smelting processes in use, bath smelting and flash of sulphuric acid or production of liquid sulphur dioxide). European Commission
smelting. The flash smelting process uses oxygen enrichment to produce auto- (2001). Reference document on best available techniques (BREF) for the non-
thermal (autogenic) or nearly autothermal operation. Bath smelting processes ferrous metals industries.

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Dioxins and Furans Recommended measures to prevent, minimize, and control

Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans releases of VOCs include:

(PCDFs) may be generated during the production of metals (e.g.

• Use water-based solvents were possible, or use the least
pyro-processing), particularly with respect to production from
toxic solvent suitable for the application;
secondary raw materials or in processes that require
• Contain emissions (e.g. by use of sealed equipment or
chlorination. Impurities in the scrap material may result in
hoods);
PCDD/F formation during incomplete combustion or de-novo
• Use mixer / settlers that minimize contact with air to
synthesis. 8
minimize evaporation of VOCs;
Measures to prevent and control dioxins and furans include the • Control VOC emissions using afterburners, scrubbers,
following: biofilters or bioreactors, activated carbon traps, or chiller /
condenser systems, depending on, for example, the
• Cull metal scrap to eliminate or minimize the presence of composition of the gas stream;
organic materials (e.g. plastics and wood) prior to any
• Use back venting of displaced gases to the delivery vehicle
combustion and / or heating involving metal scrap;
when filling solvent or fuel tanks, and use of automatic
• Implement procedures for the operation and maintenance resealing of delivery connections to prevent spillage.
of combustion equipment to ensure efficient combustion at
the designed temperatures and residence times to ensure
Acid Mist and Arsine
destruction of dioxins, and avoid reformation as gases cool;
Electro winning and other processes such as pressure leaching
• Consider use of activated carbon in a fixed bed or moving
and production of sulfuric acid may produce acid mist containing
bed reactor or by injection into the gas stream, and
soluble metals. Acid mists can also be generated during of
subsequent removal as filter dust.
breaking lead-acid batteries. Arsine gas may be produced when
certain trace metals and acid are mixed (e.g. during the leaching
Volatile Organic Compounds
process). Acid mist is produced by the reactions in the electro
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are produced by poor
winning cells, as well as by any aeration or aggressive mixing
combustion and during operations such as degreasing of
and / or chemical reactions in subsidiary processes and / or at
components, solvent extraction processes, and from the venting
open drop points handling liquid flows.
of tanks used to store solvents and fuel. VOCs can also be
released during smelting and refining of secondary metals if the Measures to prevent and control acid mist and arsine emissions
feed includes organic materials. include the following:

• Monitor process control parameters to reduce and / or

8 The presence of oils and other organic materials on scrap or other sources of eliminate upset conditions;
carbon (partially burnt fuels and reductants, such as coke), can produce fine
carbon particles which react with inorganic chlorides or organically bound • Install hoods on tanks, maintaining an adequate foam layer
chlorine in the temperature range of 250 to 500 °C to produce dioxins. This
process is known as de-novo synthesis and is catalyzed by the presence of on the surface of the electrolyte solution, and treatment of
metals such as copper or iron. European Commission (2001). Reference
document on best available techniques (BREF) for the non-ferrous metals
industries.

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the exhaust gases and mists using control equipment (e.g. measures to increase energy efficiency and reduce energy
scrubbers). consumption, both of which are addressed in the ‘Energy
• Use stack and candle filters to control acid mist emissions Consumption and Efficiency’ section below. Additional
at sulfuric acid plants; recommendations for the management of greenhouse gases are
• Collect and treat acid mist (e.g. using wet scrubbers or mist discussed in the General EHS Guidelines.
filters) generated in the milling stages of battery breaking.
Perfluorocarbons (Aluminum Only)10,11: Two perfluorocarbons
(PFCs), tetra-fluoromethane (CF 4) and hexa fluoroethane
Carbon Monoxide
(C2F 6), are formed during the anode effects (temporary
Some pyrometallurgical processes (i.e. the carbo- thermic
imbalance of raw material feed-in rate and the aluminum
production of ferro-alloys in closed submerged electric arc
production rate) stage of aluminum manufacturing and, once
furnaces) produce a carbon monoxide rich off-gas as a by-
formed, they cannot be removed from the gas stream with
product. The amount of CO varies largely depending on the
existing technology.
metal and the production process. Measures to control and
minimize CO emissions include collecting and cleaning the CO- Anode effects occur when the alumina content of the electrolyte
rich gas (e.g. using a cascade wet scrubber), and use or sale of falls below 1 - 2 percent which results in the formation of a gas
the gas as fuel. CO may also be produced by incomplete film on the electrode. The formation of the film on the anode
combustion and from smelting and refining of secondary results in stoppage of metal production and increases cell
feedstocks containing organic material. Control of CO from voltage from the 4 – 5 volt range to 8 - 50 volts. The generation
these sources is similar to control of VOCs, described above. of PFCs is dependent upon the frequency and duration of the
anode effects. 12
Greenhouse Gases
Carbon dioxide (CO2): Carbon dioxide is produced in significant Measures to control perfluorocarbons (and reduce overall GHG
quantities during smelting and refining operations. 9 The main emissions) include the following 13:
sources include the smelting of concentrates, the direct
combustion of fossil fuels for power and heat generation, and
10 Among the six GHGs to be abated under the Kyoto Protocol, two
the indirect emissions resulting from fossil fuels used to
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), namely tetra-fluoromethane (CF4) and hexa
generate electrical energy for facility operations (e.g. for fluoroethane (C 2F 6) are a by -product of aluminum smelting. The Global Warming
Potential (GWP) is a measurement technique to define the relative contribution
electrolysis in aluminum smelting). Further indirect contributions of each GHG to atmospheric warming. A GWP can be calculated for specified
time horizons (e.g. 20 to 500 years) and for given GHG concentration levels
to greenhouse gases in this sector are associated with the use (e.g. current). Both direct and indirect effects are considered. Indirect effects
include changes in atmospheric chemistry such as ozone formation and
of chemical reagents that release a significant quantity of changes in stratospheric water vapor. CO2 has been assigned a GWP of 1,
against which all other GHGs are compared. The GWP of tetra-fluoromethane
greenhouse gases during offsite manufacturing. Opportunities to (CF4) is 6500 times that of CO2 (100 year time horizon), and hexa fluoroethane
(C2F 6) is 9200 times that of CO2 (100 year time horizon). United Nations
reduce greenhouse gas generation are closely linked to Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
11 International Aluminum Institute. Greenhouse Gas Protocol: Greenhouse gas
emission monitoring and reporting by the aluminum industry, October, 2006.
9 Available at www.world-aluminium.org/environment/climate/ghg_protocol.pdf
Carbon dioxide is also formed in aluminum production during electrolysis by
12 European Commission (2001). Reference document on best available
the reaction of the carbon anode with the oxygen formed by electrolysis and by
a secondary reaction with air. This emission is, however, far less than the techniques (BREF) for the non-ferrous metals industries.
emission of CO2 by combustion of fossil fuels when used for the generation of 13 International Aluminum Institute. “PFC Emissions: A Decade of
the electric power required for electrolysis. Progress”.http://www.world-aluminium.org/environment/climate/index.html

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• Increase the use of recycled aluminum (use of recycled roasting; and use of heat generated by smelting and
aluminum requires significantly less energy than is required refining processes to melt secondary material.
for primary production);
• Increase the electrical conversion efficiency; Nickel Carbonyl (Nickel Only)
• Reduce anode effects that produce PFS: Production of nickel carbonyl is an intermediate step in the
o Control anode effects by adjustment of cell voltage production of purified nickel. Depending on the process, other
and alumina additions carbonyls such as cobalt and iron carbonyl can also be formed.
o Use of semi-continuous point feeding of the alumina Carbonyl laden gas streams should be incinerated to convert
combined with process control the metal carbonyl to the base metal oxide and carbon dioxide.
• Change the reduction technology to minimize use of fossil Control technologies should be used to capture base metal
carbon14. oxide and carbon dioxide arising from the incineration of
carbonyl laden gas streams.
Energy Consumption and Efficiency: Smelting and refining
facilities require large amounts of energy, notably the fuel Fluorides (Aluminum Only)
energy used for drying, heating, smelting, fuming, melting and The main source of gaseous fluorides is the pots during
transportation, and the electrical energy used in electrolysis and electrolysis. The majority of the gaseous fluorides produced are
for powering utilities / equipment. The General EHS Guidelines in the form of hydrogen fluoride, which results from the reaction
contains guidance to improve energy efficiency performance. of aluminum fluoride and cryolite with hydrogen. Control of
The following recommendations are specific to this sector: fluoride emissions can be achieved through fume capture.
Captured fumes (typically greater than 98 percent of total
• Assess alternative smelting and processing technologies fumes) can be cleaned using alumina injection in the off gas for
that optimize energy use (e.g. flash smelting requires about the absorption of the fluoride, followed by use of bag filters (the
half the energy of conventional blast furnace smelting, and dust is returned to the pots) or wet scrubbers (typically greater
use of recycled aluminum typically requires significantly than 99.5 to 99.9 percent efficient).
less energy than needed for primary production);
• Employ heat and energy recovery techniques to maximize Tar and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
energy utility (e.g. waste heat boilers, heat exchangers, (Aluminum Only)
steam-driven drives) 15, for example from gases generated Tar and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) may be

by pyrometallurgical processes. Heat recovery techniques released (mainly from the anode baking plants). Measures to

will vary between facilities but may include use of oxygen prevent and control these emissions include the following:

rich air to reduce energy consumption; use of steam raising

• Improve combustion efficiency;
boilers to capture hot gases generated by smelting or
• Switch to another type of anode;
• Removal of tar and PAHs utilizing alumina scrubbers and
14 Reduction technologies that do not use carbon are currently at a pilot stage of
development. fabric filters;
15 Detailed guidance on energy efficiency for smelting is available in the
European Commission (2001). Reference document on best available
techniques (BREF) for the non-ferrous metals industries.

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• Use of dry anode paste and maintenance of anode tops at wastewater streams for reduction in heavy metals using
cold temperatures to reduce PAH emissions. chemical precipitation, coagulation and flocculation, etc. Typical
wastewater treatment steps include oil water separators or

Anode preparation (Aluminum only) dissolved air floatation for separation of oils and floatable solids;

The electrolysis of alumina into aluminum results in the filtration for separation of filterable solids; flow and load

consumption of the anode, during which the released oxygen equalization; sedimentation for suspended solids reduction

will burn away the carbon. These anodes are normally prepared using clarifiers; dewatering and disposal of residuals in

onsite in an anode baking facility where the carbon containing designated hazardous waste landfills. Additional engineering

materials (including petroleum pitch) are attached to a metal controls may be required for (i) advanced metals removal using

core and baked to increase the strength. The baking will release membrane filtration, electrloysis or other physical / chemical

volatile hydrocarbons and also other contaminants such as treatment technologies, (ii) removal of recalcitrant organics

sulfur from the raw materials. If feasible, the heating value from using activated carbon or advanced chemical oxidation, and (iii)

VOC emissions could be used by combusting these substances reduction in effluent toxicity using appropriate technology (such

within the baking furnace. The off-gas from the baking house as reverse osmosis, ion exchange, activated carbon, etc.).

should be treated by scrubbing or by absorption followed by

Management of industrial wastewater and examples of
filtering in plants integrated with a primary aluminum smelter,
treatment approaches are discussed in the General EHS
where hydrocarbons are returned to the production process;
Guidelines. Through use of these technologies and good
alternatively afterburners and wet ESPs can be used depending
practice techniques for wastewater management, facilities
on the site and scale of production.
should meet the Guideline Values for wastewater discharge as
indicated in the relevant table of Section 2 of this industry sector
Wastewater
document.
Industrial process wastewater
The main sources of wastewater in the smelting and refining
Other Wastewater Streams & Water Consumption
sector include process water from hydro-metallurgical processes
Guidance on the management of non-contaminated wastewater
(e.g. roasting gas cleaning, leaching, purification, and
from utility operations, non-contaminated stormwater, and
electrolysis); wet off-gas cleaning; slag granulation; cooling
sanitary sewage is provided in the General EHS Guidelines.
water; and surface runoff / stormwater. Wastewaters typically
Non-contact cooling water systems in the smelting and refining
contain soluble and non-soluble metal compounds, oil and
sector may be a direct once- through design, or a recirculation
organic material. Direct contact cooling water (e.g. for some
route involving the use of evaporative cooling towers. Water
casting operations) may contain elevated levels of metals and
from a once through, system is typically discharged to surface
suspended solids, and should be routed through the facility
waters after appropriate consideration / reduction of temperature
wastewater treatment system.
effects on the receiving water body. Stormwater may become
contaminated through contact with material stockpiles and
Process Wastewater Treatment
surface deposition of airborne contaminants. Guidance for the
Techniques for treating industrial process wastewater in this
management of stormwater is provided in the General EHS
sector include source segregation and pretreatment of

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Guidelines. Contaminated streams should be routed to the systems, and sludge from leaching and wastewater treatment
treatment system for industrial process wastewater. may be recycled into pyro-processing stages depending on the
Recommendations to reduce water consumption, especially level of process integration available at the facility. Anode and
where it may be a limited natural resource, are provided in the tank bottom sludge may be recycled for residual metals
General EHS Guidelines. recovery. Guidance for management and safe disposal of
hazardous and non-hazardous industrial waste is addressed in
Hazardous Materials the General EHS Guidelines. Generation and management of
The smelting and refining sector utilizes a number of acids, selected wastes specific to the non- ferrous metals smelting and
alkalis, and chemical reagents (in leaching and precipitation of refining sector are described below.
metals, and for pollution control systems); and process gases
(e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide, argon, nitrogen, chlorine, Spent Cathodes (Aluminum only)
hydrogen, among others). Guidance on the safe storage, Spent cathodes, also known as spent potlinings, are the major
transport, and use of hazardous materials is addressed in the source of waste in primary aluminum manufacturing. A spent
General EHS Guidelines. cathode consists of a carbon portion which was formerly the
cathode from the electrolysis cell, and the refractory material
Residues and Waste which consists of various types of insulating material. The spent
Sources of hazardous and non-hazardous residues and waste potlinings contain soluble fluoride and cyanide, and can produce
in the smelting and refining sector include slag, drosses, mattes, an alkaline leachate if the material is rendered wet. Spent
and skimmings from pyrometallurgical processes; spent linings potlinings should be treated and reused (e.g. in
and refractories from furnaces; waste from abatement systems pyrometallurgical furnaces, in cryolite production, in the cement
(e.g. flue gas dust, sludge, and spent filter material); sludge from industry, or as a fuel source) where possible, or disposed of
wastewater treatment (e.g., from wet scrubber systems and according to the hazardous waste management guidance in the
process water treatment, which may contain gypsum [CaSO4] General EHS Guidelines.
and metal hydroxides and sulphides); and sludge from leaching,
purification, and electrolysis activities. Red Mud (Aluminum only)
Red mud is generated from the extraction of aluminum from
Opportunities to recycle the by-products and waste from
bauxite and is an alkaline substance which requires controlled
smelting and refining activities16 back to the process (e.g.
storage, typically in sealed (lined) ponds, to minimize potential
drosses, mattes, and skimmings, pot and furnace linings,
for contamination of surface and ground water. Excess water
cleanouts) should be maximized. Large quantities of slag from the mud is returned to the process.
produced at the smelting stage may be processed (e.g., fuming
to recover residual metals) to produce an inert granular material Noise
that can be sold for industrial use, such as cement Smelting and refining operations are inherently noisy due to the
manufacturing and insulation products. Waste from abatement large amount of mechanical equipment, transport vehicles,
physical activities, and energy usage, notably furnaces and
16 Detailed guidance on waste minimization, reuse, and recycling opportunities steam. The significant sources are transport and handling of raw
is available in the European Commission (2001) Reference document on best
available techniques (BREF) for the non-ferrous metals industries.

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materials and products; the production processes involving Chemical exposure

pyro-metallurgy, grinding and milling operations; the use of The smelting and refining sector utilizes a number of hazardous
pumps and fans; the venting of steam and the existence of materials including acids, alkalis, and chemical reagents (e.g., in
unattended alarm systems. Guidance for noise management is leaching and precipitation of metals, and for pollution control
provided in the General EHS Guidelines. systems); and process gases (e.g., oxygen, carbon dioxide,
argon, nitrogen, chlorine, hydrogen, among others). Workers
1.2 Occupational Health and Safety may be exposed to hazardous materials in organic and

Occupational health and safety issues should be considered as inorganic dusts, vapors, gases, mists and fume s released as

part of a comprehensive hazard or risk assessment, including, part of operations and / or human activities in all stages of

for example, a hazard identification study [HAZID], hazard and production and maintenance.

operability study [HAZOP], or other risk assessment studies.

Inorganic hazardous materials typically include soluble and
The results should be used for health and safety management
insoluble base metals (e.g. nickel, copper, and trace
planning, in the design of the facility and safe working systems,
contaminants such as arsenic, antimony, thallium, mercury, and
and in the preparation and communication of safe working
cadmium, among others). Trace contaminants and their metals
procedures.
depend on the nature of the ore being processed and the

General facility design, operation, and monitoring measures to specific process being used. Exposure to acid mists may occur

manage principal risks to occupational health and safety are during leaching and / or electro-refining. Exposure to organic

provided in the General EHS Guidelines. General guidance materials may include dioxins and furans, residual organic

specific to construction and decommissioning activities is also solvents used as reagents, and polycyclic aromatics associated

provided along with guidance on health and safety training, with pitch fume and dust (in carbon electrode plants and

personal protective equipment and the management of physical, aluminum reduction cell processes). Exposure to gases may

chemical, biological and radiological hazards common to all include sulphur dioxide, ammonia, carbon monoxide, oxygen,

industries. arsine, chlorine, and fluoride, among others. Some gases may
be metallic in nature such as cobalt, iron, and nickel carbonyls.
Occupational health and safety issues for further consideration
in smelting and refining operations include: Guidance on managing exposure to chemicals and other
hazardous materials, including the use of personal protection
• Chemical exposure equipment (PPE), is addressed in the General EHS
• Physical hazards Guidelines. In addition, the following measures are
• Noise recommended to prevent, minimize, and control potential
• Radiation chemical exposures:
• Confined space entry
• Enclose and isolate potential sources of air emissions to
the extent practical;

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• Provide continuous monitoring in areas where sudden and Noise

unexpected hazards may occur (e.g. where arsine or Smelting and refining personnel may be potentially exposed to
hydrogen cyanide releases might be possible); high levels of noise from heavy equipment operation and
• Monitor worker exposure using personal occupational furnaces. As most of these noise sources cannot be prevented,
hygiene sampling devices; control measures should include the use of personal hearing
• Provide training and encourage good personal hygiene, protection by exposed personnel and implementation of work
and prohibit smoking and eating at the worksite; rotation programs to reduce cumu lative exposure. Additional
• Automate processes and material handling to the extent recommendations on the management of occupational noise are
practical and provide enclosures for operators; provided in the General EHS Guidelines.
• Provide local exhaust ventilation to limit exposure to, for
example, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and sulfuric acid Radiation
mists. Occupational exposure to radiation may occur as a result of
radioactive sources in certain process equipment (e.g. load cells
and particulate monitors) and laboratory equipment.
Physical hazards
Recommendations on the management of radiation exposure
Physical hazards, including exposure to heat from furnaces and
are provided in the General EHS Guidelines.
molten metal and ergonomic stress, may result in bodily injury
related to equipment operation, burns, and explosions
Confined spaces
associated with work involving hot metals (e.g. during pyro-
A smelting and refining facility has equipment and situations that
processing activities), acids, caustics, solvents, leach solutions,
require entry into confined spaces. Facilities should develop
and solutions used in electro-refining. Guidance on the
and implement confined space entry procedures as described in
management of physical hazards is provided in the General
the General EHS Guidelines.
EHS Guidelines. In addition, the following measures are
recommended to prevent, minimize, and control potential heat
Electric and Magnetic Fields
illnesses:
Electric and magnetic fields (EMF) are invisible lines of force
emitted by and surrounding any electrical device. Electric fields
• Use water screens or air curtains in front of furnaces;
are produced by voltage and increase in strength as the voltage
• Provide spot cooling where necessary;
increases. Magnetic fields result from the flow of electric current
• Install enclosed air-conditioned booths for operators;
and increase in strength as the current increases. Electric fields
• Proved heat-protective clothing and air-cooled suits;
are shielded by materials that conduct electricity and other
• Allow sufficient time for acclimatization to hot
materials, such as trees and building materials. Magnetic fields
environments, provide work breaks in cool areas, and
pass through most ma terials and are difficult to shield. Both
provide an adequate supply of beverages for frequent
electric and magnetic fields decrease rapidly with distance. The
drinking.
power supplied to electrolytic reduction cells is direct current,
and the electromagnetic fields generated in the potrooms are
mainly of the static or standing field type. Such fields, in contrast

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to low frequency electromagnetic fields, are even less readily • Investigation of legacy issues for contaminated sites,
shown to exert consistent or reproducible biological effects. The including evaluation and remediation strategies
flux levels of the magnetic fields measured cell rooms are • Development of an emergency preparedness and
commonly found to be within threshold limit values for static response plan, with participation of affected communities
magnetic, sub-radio frequency and static electric fields. and relevant regulatory agencies.
Exposure to ultra-low frequency electromagnetic fields may • The General EHS Guidelines provides further guidance
occur in reduction plants, especially adjacent to rectifier rooms. for these and other community health and safety issues.
The flux levels found in the potrooms are minimal and below
present standards. 17 EMF exposure may also be associated
with electric arc furnaces and other electrical equipment. 18

1.3 Community Health

Smelting and refining facilities are significant emitters of
pollutants, which may result in health and safety hazards for
nearby communities. A significant risk involves the accumulative
contamination of land and dwellings in the community with fine
metal particulate, and the consequential exposure and health
risk to residents and the surrounding ecosystem. Deposition of
metals (e.g., cadmium, copper, lead, zinc, and manganese) and
other pollutants can also potentially affect crop and livestock
production and the quality of agricultural products from nearby
land. Emission controls described in Section 1.1 can minimize
such impacts.

Smelting and refining facilities should develop and maintain a

comprehensive environmental, health, and safety program
through a cooperative process involving all interested parties,
including community residents. The program should include the
following components:

• Education and awareness raising among communities with

regarding health risks related to smelter operations
• Baseline health assessment, as necessary

17 International Labour Organization, Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and

Safety, Fourth Edition, Volume 3, Part XIII, Chapter 82. Available at
http://www.ilo.org/encyclopedia/ .
18 Individuals using cardiac pacemakers should be excluded from reduction

operations because of the risk of magnetic field induced dysrhythmias.

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the General EHS Guideline. These levels should be achieved,

2.0 Performance Indicators and
without dilution, at least 95 percent of the time that the plant or
Monitoring
unit is operating, to be calculated as a proportion of annual
2.1 Environment operating hours. Deviation from these levels in consideration of
specific, local project conditions should be justified in the
Emissions and Effluent Guidelines
environmental assessment.
Tables 1 and 2 present the emission and effluent concentration
guidelines for smelting and refining projects. Guideline values
Resource Use
for process emissions and effluents in this sector are indicative
Table 3 provides an example of energy and water use from
of good international industry practice as reflected in relevant
selected processes in the smelting and refining sector, which
standards of countries with recognized regulatory frameworks.
can be considered as an indicator of the efficiency of the sector
These guidelines are assumed to be achievable under normal
and may be used to track performance changes over time.
operating conditions in appropriately designed and operated
facilities through the application of pollution prevention and Environmental Monitoring
control techniques discussed in the preceding sections of this Environmental monitoring programs for this sector should be
document. These levels should be achieved, without dilution, at implemented to address all activities that have been identi fied to
least 95 percent of the time that the plant or unit is operating, to have potentially significant impacts on the environment, during
be calculated as a proportion of annual operating hours. normal operations and upset conditions. Environmental
Deviation from these levels in consideration of specific, local monitoring activities should be based on direct or indirect
project conditions should be justified in the environmental indicators of emissions, effluents, and resource use applicable
assessment. to the particular project.

Emissions guidelines are applicable to process emissions. Monitoring frequency should be sufficient to provide
Combustion source emissions guidelines associated with representative data for the parameter being monitored.
steam- and power-generation activities from sources with a Monitoring should be conducted by trained individuals following
capacity equal to or lower than 50 MWth are addressed in the monitoring and record-keeping procedures and using properly
General EHS Guidelines with larger power source emissions calibrated and maintained equipment. Monitoring data should be
addressed in the EHS Guidelines for Thermal Power. analyzed and reviewed at regular intervals and compared with
Guidance on ambient considerations based on the total load of the operating standards so that any necessary corrective
emissions is provided in the General EHS Guidelines. actions can be taken. Additional guidance on applicable
sampling and analytical methods for emissions and effluents is
Effluent guidelines are applicable for direct discharges of treated
provided in the General EHS Guidelines.
effluents to surface waters for general use. Site-specific
discharge levels may be established based on the availability
and conditions in the use of publicly operated sewage collection
and treatment systems or, if discharged directly to surface
waters, on the receiving water use classification as described in

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Table 1. Air Emissions for Nickel, Copper, Lead, Zinc, and Aluminum Smelting & Refining*

Pollutant Emission Source ( by metal type / smelting process) Units Guideline Value
>99.1% conversion efficiency (for ~ 1
Copper: Primary smelting and converting – 4 percent SO2 off gas)
Lead and Zinc: Primary smelting, roasting and sintering
Nickel: Roasting and smelting of sulphide concentrates and intermediates >99.7 % conversion efficiency (for >5
SO 2 percent SO2 off gas)
Copper: Secondary smelting and converting, primary and secondary fire refining, electric slag cleaning and melting
Aluminum: Holding and de-gassing of molten metal from primary and secondary aluminum mg/Nm3 <50 – 2001,2,3
Lead and Zinc: Materials pre-treatment, secondary smelting, thermal refining, melting, slag fuming, and Waelz kiln operation
Copper: Secondary smelting and converting, primary and secondary fire refining, electric slag cleaning and melting 100 – 3004,5,6
mg/Nm3
Aluminum: Holding and de-gassing of molten metal from primary and secondary aluminum, materials pre-treatment, and from melting and smelting of secondary
aluminum
NOx Lead and Zinc: Melting of clean material, alloying, and zinc dust production; From materials pre-treatment, secondary smelting, thermal refining, melting, slag
fuming, and Waelz kiln operation
Nickel: Leaching, chemical extraction and refining, electro-winning and solvent extraction; From materials pre-treatment incineration or after-burning, roasting,
smelting thermal refining, and melting.
Copper: Hydrometallurgical and electro-winning processes 501,7
Acid Mists / mg/Nm3
Lead and Zinc: Chemical refining, electro-winning, and solvent extraction
Gases
Nickel: Leaching, chemical extraction and refining, electro-winning and solvent extraction
VOC / Copper: Hydrometallurgical and electro-winning processes 5 – 159
mg/Nm3
solvents Lead and Zinc: Chemical refining, electro-winning, and solvent extraction
(as C) Nickel: Leaching, chemical extraction and refining, electro-winning and solvent extraction
Copper: Secondary smelting and converting, primary and secondary fire refining, electric slag cleaning and melting, secondary fume collection systems, and drying. 1 – 53,10,11
mg/Nm3
Aluminum: Primary aluminum electrolysis, from holding and de-gassing of molten metal from primary and secondary aluminum, materials pre-treatment, and from
melting and smelting of secondary aluminum
Dust22
Lead and Zinc: Melti ng of clean material, alloying, and zinc dust production; From materials pre-treatment, secondary smelting, thermal refining, melting, slag
fuming, and Waelz kiln operation
Nickel: Materials pre-treatment incineration or after-burning, roasting, smelting thermal refining, and melting.
Copper: Secondary smelting and converting, primary and secondary fire refining, electric slag cleaning and melting 5 – 5012,13
mg/Nm3
Aluminum: Materials pre-treatment, and from melting and smelting of secondary aluminum
TOC (as C) Lead and Zinc: Melting of clean material, alloying, and zinc dust production; From materials pre-treatment, secondary smelting, thermal refining, melting, slag
fuming, and Waelz kiln operation
Nickel: Materials pre-treatment incineration or after-burning, roasting, smelting thermal refining, and melting.
Copper: Secondary smelting and converting, primary and secondary fire refining, electric slag cleaning and melting, secondary fume collection systems, and drying. 0.1 – 0.53,10,14,15,16
ngTEQ/m3
Aluminum: Materials pre-treatment, and from melting and smelting of secondary aluminum
Dioxins Lead and Zinc: Melting of clean material, alloying, and zinc dust production; From materials pre-treatment, secondary smelting, thermal refining, melting, slag
fuming, and Waelz kiln operation
Nickel: Materials pre-treatment incineration or after-burning, roasting, smelting thermal refining, and melting.

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Table 1. Air Emissions for Nickel, Copper, Lead, Zinc, and Aluminum Smelting & Refining (con’t)*

Pollutant Emission Source ( by metal type / smelting process) Units Guideline Value

Ammonia mg/Nm3 517

Chlorine Nickel: Leaching, chemical extraction and refining, electro-winning and solvent extraction mg/Nm3 0.52,18

CO and carbonyls mg/Nm3 519

Arsine Lead and Zinc: Chemical refining, electro-winning, and solvent extraction mg/Nm3 0.56

Mercury All types of metals / smelting processes mg/Nm3 0.02

Aluminum: Holding and de-gassing of molten metal from primary & secondary aluminum, materials pre-treatment, melting and smelting of secondary 51
Hydrogen Chloride mg/Nm3
aluminum
Hydrogen Fluoride Aluminum: Primary aluminum electrolysis, materials pre-treatment, and from melting and smelting of secondary aluminum mg/Nm3 0.510,20

Total Fluoride mg/Nm3 0.810,22

Aluminum: Primary aluminum electrolysis
Polyfluorinated 0.1
hydrocarbons (anode effects / cell / day)
1. Alkali scrubber (semi -dry and fabric filter, wet scrubber or double alkali using lime, magnesium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide).
2. Combinations of sodium or alumina/aluminum sulphate in combination with lime.
3. For copper smelting, an SO2 emission concentration of 500 mg/m3 can be achieved through use of a fabric filter with lime injection.
4. Low NOx burner
5. O x y-fuel burner
6. Oxidizing scrubber
7. De-mister
8. Excluding Aluminum smelting.
9. Containment, condenser, carbon and bio -filter
10. Fabric filter
11. Temperature control
12. Afterburner
13. Optimized combustion Source: Based in part on EU BREF in the Non-Ferrous Metals Industries (2001) *Associated emissions to air are given as
14. Afterburner followed by quenching daily averages based on continuous monitoring and standard conditions of 273 K, 101.3 kPa, measured oxygen content
15. Adsorption by activated carbon and dry gas without dilution of the gases with air. In cases where continuous monitoring is not practicable the value
16. Oxidation catalyst should be the average over the sampling period. If thermal cleaning and pyrolysis systems (e.g. swarf drying and de-
17. Acidic scrubber
18. Collection and re -use coating) are used to destroy combustion products (e.g. VOCs and dioxins) oxygen content 6 percent dry.
19. Process control and sealed reactor
20. Alumina scrubber
21. Excluding Aluminum smelting
22. Emissions of metals are dependent on the composition of the dust produced by the processes. The composition varies and is influenced by the process source of dust and by the raw materials that are being processed.

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Table 2. Effluent Levels for Nickel, Copper, Lead, Zinc, and Table 3. Energy and Water Consumption
Aluminum Smelting & Refining
Facility Type Energy Use (GJ/t)a
Smelting Guideline
Pollutant Units Copper--production from concentrate
type Value 14 – 20

pH All S.U. 6-9 Copper—electro-refining 1.1 – 1.4

Total Suspended Alumina production 8 – 13.5

All mg/l 20
solids
Aluminum--primary production
COD All mg/l 50 53 - 61
(electrolysis, including anode production)
Fluoride Aluminum mg/l 5 Lead—shaft furnace, primary 6.8 – 10.3b

Hydrocarbons Aluminum mg/l 5 Lead—shaft furnace, secondary 4.4 – 5.5b

Lead—rotary furnace, secondary, with CX
Aluminum Aluminum mg/l 0.2 4.0 – 4.7b
system and Na2SO4 production
Copper (Cu) Copper mg/l 0.1 Lead—QSL 2.3 – 3.5b

Copper, Lead Lead—Kivcet 4.9b

Lead (Pb) mg/l 0.1
& Zinc
Lead—top blown rotary converter 4.0 – 4.4b
Copper, Lead
Arsenic (As) mg/l 0.05
& Zinc Zinc—electrolysis 15

Nickel (Ni) Nickel, Copper mg/l 0.1 Zinc—imperial smelting furnace & New
44b
Jersey distillation
Copper, Lead Zinc—Waelz kiln 26b,c
Cadmium (Cd) mg/l 0.05
& Zinc
Zinc—slag fuming 7.7b,d
Copper, Lead
Zinc (Zn) mg/l 0.2
& Zinc Nickel—matte from sulfide ores containing
25 – 65
4 – 15% Ni
Mercury (Hg) All mg/l 0.01
Nickel--refining 17 - 20
Temperature Increase All °C < 3a
Facility Type Water Use (kg/t)
Toxicity To be determined on a case specific basis
Source: Based in part on EU BREF in the Non-Ferrous Metals Indus tries Alumina production 1000 – 6000
a At the edge of a scientifically established mixing zone which takes into
Aluminum--primary production
account ambient water quality, receiving water use, potential receptors and 200 - 12000
(electrolysis, including anode production)
assimilative capacity
Sources: EU BREF in the Non-Ferrous Metals Industries
Notes:
a Gigajoules (109 Joules) per metric ton
b Calculated based on quantities of coke, coal, natural gas, and electric power
used and typical heat values of the petroleum fuels.
c Per ton of Waelz oxide leached
d Per ton of slag

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2.2 Occupational Health and Safety designed and implemented by accredited profe ssionals 24 as part
of an occupational health and safety monitoring program.
Occupational Health and Safety Guidelines Facilities should also maintain a record of occupational
Occupational health and safety performance should be accidents and diseases and dangerous occurrences and
evaluated against internationally published exposure guidelines, accidents. Additional guidance on occupational health and
of which examples include the Threshold Limit Value (TLV®) safety monitoring programs is provided in the General EHS
occupational exposure guidelines and Biological Exposure Guidelines.
Indices (BEIs®) published by American Conference of
Governmenta l Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), 19 the Pocket Guide
to Chemical Hazards published by the United States National
Institute for Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH),20
Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) published by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the United
States (OSHA),21 Indicative Occupational Exposure Limit Values
published by European Union member states, 22 or other similar
sources.

Accident and Fatality Rates

Projects should try to reduce the number of accidents among
project workers (whether directly employed or subcontracted) to
a rate of zero, especially accidents that could result in lost work
time, different levels of disability, or even fatalities. Facility rates
may be benchmarked against the performance of facilities in this
sector in developed countries through consultation with
published sources (e.g. US Bureau of Labor Statistics and UK
Health and Safety Executive)23.

Occupational Health and Safety Monitoring

The working environment should be monitored for occupational
hazards relevant to the specific project. Monitoring should be

19 Available at: http://www.acgih.org/TLV/ and http://www.acgih.org/store/

20 Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/
21 Available at:

http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDAR
DS&p_id=9992
22 Available at: http://europe.osha.eu.int/good_practice/risks/ds/oel/ 24Accredited professionals may include Certified Industrial Hygienists,
23 Available at: http://www.bls.gov/iif/ and Registered Occupational Hygienists, or Certified Safety Professionals or their
http://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/index.htm equiv alent.

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3.0 References and Additional Sources

American Council of Government Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). 2006. The Nickel Institute. 2003. Lifecycle Assessment Data. Overall Inventories and
Threshold Limit Values (TLV) and Biological Ex posure Indices (BEI). Cincinnati, Potential Impacts: Ferronickel, Nickel Oxide, and Class I Nickel. Last revised 31
OH. Available at: http://www.acgih.org/TLV October 2003. Available at:
http://www.nickelinstitute.org/index.cfm/ci_id/317.htm
Ayres, R. U., L.W. Ayres and I. Rade. 2002. The Life Cycle of Copper its Co-
Products and By -Products. Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development Norgate, T. E. & Rankin, W. J., 2002. 'An Environmental Assessment of Lead
Report, International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). London: and Zinc Production Processes' , Proceedings, Green Processing 2002,
IIED. Available at: http://www.iied.org/mmsd/mmsd_pdfs/ayres_lca_main.pdf International Conference on the Sustainable Processing of Minerals, May 2002,
pp 177-184. Available at:
Bergsdahl, H., A.H. Stomman, E.G. Hertwich. 2004. The Aluminum Industry. http://www.minerals.csiro.au/sd/CSIRO_Paper_LCA_PbZn.pdf
Environment Technology and Production. Available at:
http://www.indecol.ntnu.no/indecolwebnew/publications/reports/rapport04/rappor Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OHSA). 2006. Standards – 29
t8_04web.pdf CFR TABLE Z-1 Limits for Air Contaminants. - 1910.1000 TABLE Z-1
Permissible Exposure Limits. Available at:
Environment Canada. 2006. Environmental Code of Practice. Canadian http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDAR
Environmental Protection Act, 1999. Base Metals Smelters and Refineries. DS&p_id=9992
Document EPS 1/MM/11E. Gatineau, Québec: Environment Canada. Available
at http://199.212.18.76/ceparegistry/documents/code/smelters/toc.cfm Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OHSA). Occupational Health
and Safety Administration System 18001 Occupational Health and Safety
European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (OSHA). Occupational Management System. Available at: http://www.ohsas-18001-occupational-
Exposure Limits. Available at: http://osha.europa.eu/good_practice/risks/ds/oel/ health-and-safety.com

Price, L. Worrell, J.S., Sinton, J and J. Yun. 2001. Industrial energy efficiency
European Commission. 2001. European Integrated Pollution Prevention and
Control Bureau (EIPPC B). Reference Document on Bes t Available Techniques policy in China. The Proceedings of the 2001 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy
(BREF) in the Non-Ferrous Metals Industries. Seville: EIPPCB. Available at: Efficiency in Industry. Available at: http://ies.lbl.gov/iespubs/50452.pdf
http://eippcb.jrc.es/pages/FActivities.htm
United Kingdom (UK) Department of Environment Food and Rural Affairs. 2000.
The Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.
European Union. 1999. Directory of Community Legislation. EurLex. EU Council
Directive 1999/30/EC of 22 April 1999 relating to limit values for sulphur dioxide, January 2000. Working Together for Clean Air. Available at:
nitrogen dioxide and oxides of nitrogen, particulate matter and lead in ambient http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/airquality/strategy/strategy.htm
air. Brussels: EU. Available at: http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31999L0030:EN:HTML UK Health and Safety Executive. 2006a. Health and Safety Commission. Health
and Safety Statistics 2005/06. Available online at:
http:/www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/index.htm
Indian Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). National Air Quality Monitoring
Programme (NAMP). National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Delhi: CPCB.
Available at: http://www.cpcb.nic.in/as.htm UK Health and Safety Executive. 2006b. Health and Safety Commission.
Statistics of Fatal Injuries 2005/06. Available at:
Indian Central Pollution Control Board, Environmental Standards, Inorganic http:/www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/index.htm
Chemical Industry, Wastewater Standard. Available at:
http://www.cpcb.nic.in/index.php United States (US) Department of Labor. 2003. Bureau of Statistics. Injuries,
Illness and Fatalities Program.Table R8. Incidence rates for nonfatal
International Finance Corporation (IFC) World Bank Group. 2006a. Draft occupational injuries and illnesses involving days away from work per 10,000
General Environmental Health and Safety Guidelines. Available at: full-time workers by industry and selected events or exposures leading to injury
or illness, 2003. Available at: http://www.bls.gov/iif/oshwc/osh/case/ostb1386.pdf
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/policyreview.nsf/Content/EHSGuidelinesUpdate_Comm
ents
United States (US) Env ironmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2006a. Air Toxics.
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). ISO 14001 Environmental Final Rules. Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants. Washington, DC:
Management Systems Standards Available at: US EPA. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/mactfnlalph.html
http://www.iso.org/iso/en/stdsdevelopment/whowhenhow/how.html
US EPA. 2006b. Proposed National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 2005. NIOSH Pollutants for Area Sources: Polyvinyl Chloride & Copolymers Production,
Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. NIOSH Publication No. 2005-149. Available Primary Copper Smelting, Secondary Copper Smelting, & Primary Nonferrous
at: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/ Metals Zinc, Cadmium and Beryllium. Washington, DC: US EPA. Available at:
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/mactfnlalph.html

Natural Resources Canada. 2006. Guide to Energy Efficiency Opportunities in

Canadian Foundries. In Partnership with the Canadian Foundry Association. US EPA. 2005. Final Rule National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Available at: Pollutants for Primary Aluminum Reduction Plants: Final rule; amendments.
http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/cipec/ieep/newscentre/foundry/index.cfm?attr=24 Washington, DC: US EPA. Available at
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/alum/alum pg.html

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US EPA. 2002. Final Rule. National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. 2002. EMF Questions
Pollutants for Primary Copper Smelting-Final rule. Washington, DC: US EPA. and Answers. EMF Rapid. Electric and Magnetic Fields Research and Public
Available at: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/copper/copperpg.html Information and Dissemination Program. Available online at:
http://www.niehs.nih.gov/emfrapid/booklet.
US EPA. 2000. Federal Register Effluent Limitations Guidelines 40 CFR 125.30
- 125.32. Effluent Limitations Guidelines, Pretreatment Standards, and New World Health Organization (WHO). 2005. Air Quality Guidelines Global Update.
Source Performance Standards for the Commercial Hazardous Waste Geneva: WHO. Available at: http://www.euro.who.int/Document/E87950.pdf
Combustor Subcategory of the Waste Combustors Point Source Category.
Washington, DC: US EPA. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/fedrgstr/EPA- WHO. 2000. Air Quality Guidelines for Europe. 2nd Edition. Geneva: WHO.
WATER/2000/January/Day -27/w2019.htm http://www.euro.who.int/document/e71922.pdf

US EPA. 1999. Final Rule. National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants Primary Lead Smelting. Washington, DC: US EPA. Available at:
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/leadp/leadppg.html

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Annex A: General Description of Industry Activities

through a process known as fluxing. Metal concentrate from the
Base Metals Smelting and Refining
roasting step is added to a furnace in addition with fluxing
The process steps in base metals (copper, lead/zinc and agents, fuel and oxygen. Combustion and oxidation occur in the
nickel) 25 smelting and refining are similar and are shown in furnace and cause the metals to melt and partially separate.
Figure A.1. The aluminum smelting process is described later in Smelting produces molten matte (copper, nickel, zinc) or bullion
this annex. Depending on the ore grade and type of ore (e.g., (lead) forms of concentrated metals. The matte may be cast
sulphidic or lateritic ore) there are potential residual metals, and allowed to cool before further processing. Process off-
including gold, silver, cadmium, arsenic, selenium etc., that may gases are captured by furnace ducts or overhead canopies and
be recovered as co-products. A brief description of each treated to remove sulphur dioxide, particulate matter, fumes etc.
process step has been provided below: Smelter slag is usually treated to recover any residual metals of
value.
Pretreatment
Pretreatment consists of concentrating the ore by milling and Converting
drying slurried concentrates, and sorting/separating scrap Converting is used to remove residual sulphur and iron in
materials to provide a feed material appropriate for further copper and nickel matte. High-grade scrap metals can also be
processing. processed in converters. Process gases are cooled followed by
removal of particulates by gas cleaning devices. Both batch and
Roasting continuous converters are used; continuous converters allow for
Roasting is a pyrometallurgical processing where the better capture of process off-gases and enable the use of
concentrate is heated/dried and oxidized to achieve a sulphur oxygen instead of air, resulting in high concentration of sulphur
content which is considered to be optimal for smelting. dioxide that can be captured to produce sulphuric acid. 26 The
Incomplete roasting is used to prepare copper and nickel matte (copper-iron sulphides) from the smelting step is charged
sulphides for matte smelting, while complete roasting eliminates to converters where the molten material is oxidized in the
sulphur and is used to produce metal oxide for (1) reduction by presence of air to remove the iron and sulphur impurities (as
carbon or carbon monoxide or (2) leaching in sulphuric acid converter slag). Oxides form a slag that is skimmed off. Slag
followed by electro-winning. Sulphur dioxide released during with high copper/nickel concentrations generated during the
roasting is recovered as sulphuric acid or liquefied sulphur converting process is returned to the smelting process for
dioxide if cost effective, or the sulfur dioxide is removed by off- recovery of copper and nickel. Slags may be processed in an
gas treatment. electric furnace prior to discard to recover nickel.

Smelting Fire or Anode Refining

Smelting produces molten metals and is used to separate Fire refining is used to remove impurities and lowers sulphur
valuable metals from less valuable metals and impurities and oxygen levels in blister copper prior to casting or

25Environment Canada – Environmental Code of Practice, Canadian 26Relatively volatile metals such as zinc and lead can also be recovered from
Environmental Protection Act. Base Metals Smelters and Refineries. the off-gas.

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electrorefining. Blister copper is further refined as either fire- Leaching

refined copper or anode copper (99.5% pure copper), which is Leaching which occurs prior to refining and electrowinning,
used in subsequent electrolytic refining. Molten blister copper is involves the dissolution of metal from ores/concentrates in acid
placed in a fire-refining furnace, a flux may be added and air is or other solvent. The metal used for leaching is generally in an
blown through the molten mixture to remove residual sulphur. oxide form. Sulphidic ores are leached less frequently because
Air blowing results in residual oxygen, which is removed by the they require conditions that promote oxidation. The resulting
addition of natural gas, propane, ammonia or wood. The fire- solution, known as the pregnant leach solution is processed by

refined copper is cast into anodes for further refining by solvent extraction and then purified prior to undergoing
electrowinning and refining.
electrolytic processes or is cast into shapes for sale.

Electrowinning
Electrorefining
Electrowinning is used to refine copper, nickel, and involves the
Electrorefining is used in copper, nickel and lead refining to
recovery of metals that were dissolved in the “pregnant” solution
produce a purified form of metal from a less pure form. An
during leaching. The purified electrolyte solution from the
electrolytic cell, of which the metal forms an anode, is utilized to
leaching process is placed in electrolytic cells containing inert
dissolve the metal into an acidic aqueous electrolyte or molten
anodes and starter cathodes. The dissolved metal ions are
salt. The pure metal is electroplated or placed on starter plates
deposited onto the cathode after electric current is applied to the
which act as cathodes. The metallic impurities dissolve in the cell. Electrowinning generates oxygen gas, acid mist and spent
electrolyte or precipitate out and typically form a sludge. Anode electrolyte (which is returned to the leaching process for reuse).
slimes generated by the process contain precious metals that Cathodes are subsequently sold or the metal is removed and
are recovered. Cathode deposits are cast into shapes. Impure cast.
electrolyte solutions are purified to remove unwanted impurities
and returned to the electrorefining process. The removed Casting
impurities are further processed to recover metal values. In the casting process, metal is melted and passed through a
holding furnace and into a caster where different metal shapes
Carbonyl Refining are produced. Casting is either continuous or stationary.

Carbonyl refining is used to refine crude nickel oxide. Carbon Stationary casting uses a wheel containing a series of moulds
that are cooled by jets of water. Continuous casting produces is
monoxide is added to the crude nickel oxide, and under high
used to produce wire. Tubes are extruded from heated billets.
pressure, nickel carbonyl is formed. Nickel carbonyl is highly
Sheets and strips of metal are produced from preheated slabs
volatile and therefore separates from the solid impurities and is
and cakes which are rolled into shape. A fixed mould casting
recovered from the off-gas stream. With additional heating,
process is used to produce ingots.
carbon monoxide is released and pure nickel powder or pellets
are produced. Carbon monoxide off-gas is recycled in the Aluminum Manufacturing
process.
The production of aluminum begins with the mining and
beneficiation of bauxite. At the mine, bauxite ore is moved to a
crusher following which the crushed ore is screened and
stockpiled ready for delivery to an alumina plant. In some cases,

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ore is upgraded by beneficiation (washing, size classification,

liquid/solid separation) to remove unwanted materials such as
clay and silica.

At the alumina plant the bauxite ore is further crushed and/or

ground to the correct particle size for efficient extraction of the
alumina through digestion by hot sodium hydroxide liquor. After
removal of a mixture of metal oxides known as “red mud” and
fine solids from the process liquor, aluminum trihydrate crystals
are precipitated and calcined in rotary kilns or fluidized bed
calciners to produce alumina. Some alumina processes include
a liquor purification step.

Primary aluminum is produced by the electrolysis of the

alumina. The molten alumina is dissolved in a bath of cryolite
(Na3AlF 6) and an electric current is passed through the bath that
causes the alumina to dissociate to form liquid aluminum at the
cathode and oxygen at the anode. The oxygen then reacts with
carbon in the electrode to produce carbon dioxide and carbon
monoxide. Molten aluminum collects in the bottom of the
individual cells or pots and is removed by means of vacuum
tapping. This electrolysis is carried out in large scale with a high
number of pots connected in series and result in the creation of
a strong magnetic field in the process building.

Raw materials for secondary aluminum production are scrap,

chips and dross. Scrap pretreatment by shredding, sieving
magnetic separation, drying, etc. is designed for the removal of
undesirable substances, which affect both aluminum quality and
air emissions. The prevailing process for secondary aluminum
production is smelting in rotary kilns under a salt cover. Salt slag
processing and re-utilization is possible. Other processes,
smelting in induction furnaces and hearth furnaces, need no or
substantially less salt and are associated with lower energy
demand. However, they are only suitable for high grade scrap.
Depending on the desired application, additional refining may be
necessary.

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Figure A.1: Process Modules for Smelting and Refining

Recycle materials Minerals Co-process

concentrates materials

Process
recycle
Pre-treatment
materials

Sintering and Pressure Roasting and Leaching

smelting leaching leaching

Fire refining Electro Electro Carbonyl Chemical

refining winning refining refining

By-product Melting and By-product

chemicals product casting metals

Shipping

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