2007 Metal Smelting Refining Ehs Guidelines en
2007 Metal Smelting Refining Ehs Guidelines en
2007 Metal Smelting Refining Ehs Guidelines en
Air Emissions • Use sealed furnaces and reactors with reduced pressure,
or retrofit existing furnaces with maximum sealing (e.g. use
Particulate Matter 2
of a “fourth hole” in the roof of an electric arc furnace to
Emissions of particulate matter (which may contain metals) may
extract the process gases as efficiently as possible);
result from fugitive and point sources, including receiving,
conditioning, handling, transport (e.g. conveyors, vehicular • Enclose, contain, or use hoods to collect emissions from
traffic), and storage (e.g. outdoor piles) of ores, concentrates, process vessels, feed and discharge points, and conveyor
and secondary raw materials; from hot gases during pyro- systems;
processing (e.g. sintering, smelting, roasting, and converting); • Use systems that maintain the sealing or hood deployment
during leach processing (e.g. dry material handling, filtering, during transfer of materials, such as through electrode
storage of leach residues); during pyro-refining (e.g. furnace additions of material; additions via tuyeres or lances; and
the use of robust rotary valves on feed systems;
2 Particulate matter (dust) is classified as total particulate matter with an upper
size limit of 100 µm (TPM), particulate matter less than µ10 m (PM10), and
particulate matter less than 2.5 µm (PM2.5). The impact of particulate matter
depends on the size and nature of the particles (e.g. PM 2.5 are more respirable), 3 For example, the converter stages that are used in the continuous Mitsubishi
their relative solubility , and the concentration and toxicity of the substances and Outokumpu/Kennecott flash smelting/flash converting processes do not
contained within the particulate matter. require ladle transfer and therefore remove this source of secondary fume.
• Use damper controls that change the extraction points • Employ a watering program to minimize airborne
automatically during different stages of the process in order particulate matter emissions from on-site roadways,
to target the extraction effort to the fume source and storage piles, and other sources;
thereby minimize energy consumption. Extraction of fumes • Diligent housekeeping and providing vehicle wash facilities
at the roof ventilator should generally only be used as a to prevent the migration of materials within the facility and
last resort because of the high energy use and reduced offsite.
collection efficiency;
• Control particulate matter emissions using electrostatic Metals
precipitators, bagfilters, scrubbers, or cyclones that are In addition to the primary base metals, feed materials may
appropriate for the exhaust stream characteristics (e.g. contain trace amounts of other metals (e.g. aluminum, arsenic,
considering temperature, size fraction of particulate antimony, bismuth, cadmium, chromium, copper, germanium,
matter). 4 gold, indium, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, thallium, tin
• Maintain the collector hood, ducts, and filter system to and zinc).
ensure that collection or extraction rates remain at the
designed level; Emissions of metals in various forms and compounds, which
• Cover all transport vehicles and enclose storage and may be mobilized as contaminants in particulate matter, mists,
abatement contr ols as particulate matter, mercury will remain as • Implement process control systems to ensure consistent
a vapor at ambient temperatures and pass through some control operation;
equipment. It is important to significantly cool the inlet gas to the • Install gas scrubbing processes that remove SO2 from low
particulate matter control system to ensure mercury capture is concentration streams;
sufficient or to use an activated charcoal media to adsorb the • Enclose process equipment and vessels to prevent fugitive
mercury.6 emissions;
• Use pre-treatment (e.g. flotation) to remove unwanted
Sulphur Dioxide sulphide and reduce sulphur in feeds;
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is produced from the combustion of fossil
• Use low-sulphur fuels (e.g. natural gas instead of heavy
fuels and when metal sulphide concentrates are roasted,
fuel oil or coke) and raw materials (e.g. lower sulphur raw
sintered, smelted, converted or refined. The concentration of
materials).
SO2 in the off-gas streams is an important characteristic for
managing SO2 emissions. Above concentrations of 5 – 7
Nitrogen Oxides
percent in the raw gas stream, SO2 can be processed into
NOx emissions are primarily related to the combustion of fuels
sulphuric acid. Lower concentrations in gas streams require the
(e.g. coal in smelting and natural gas in pyro-refining). NOX may
use of raw materials containing lower amounts of sulphur, or
be formed from nitrogen components that are present in the fuel
some form of scrubbing to fix the sulphur and minimize SO2
or the concentrates, or as thermal NOx. In aluminum
emissions to the atmosphere and achieve appropriate ambient
production, NOX is also produced during electrolysis due to the
air concentrations. Oxygen smelting processes reduce the
presence of nitrogen in the anode.
volume of off-gases and increase the concentration of SO2,
which results in greater conversion efficiency and reduced • Minimize N Ox generation by using low N Ox gas burners
contaminant emissions with the lower volume. and staged combustion air in pyro-refining furnaces and
other combustion facilities.
Measures to prevent and control sulphur dioxide emissions
• Treat roasting gases to remove NOx (e.g. using oxidizing
include the following:
scrubber) if high levels of NOX are present to enhance the
• Process (fix) the sulphur for safe storage and / or use as a quality and usability of sulfuric acid produced from off-
product (e.g. sulphuric acid, liquid sulphur dioxide, fertilizer, gasses containing SO2;
and elemental sulphur); • Use of oxy fuel burners can result in reduced NOX
• Consider technology choices to reduce gas volumes and formation. When using oxygen enrichment, consider
increase SO2 concentration; 7 introducing oxygen downstream of the burner if the higher
temperatures caused by using pure oxygen at the burner
result in additional NOX formation.
6 Further detailed information on technologies and methods to control mercury
emissions, in addition to management of residual substances (e.g. mercuric
chloride or calomel from the Boliden / Norzink and Outukumpu mercury control generally use a lower degree of oxygen enrichment. The use of oxygen also
systems) is provided in European Commission (2001). Reference document on gives higher sulphur dioxide concentrations that make the collection of the gas
best available techniques (BREF) for the non-ferrous metals industries , pg 135. more effective using one of the sulphur recovery systems (usually the production
7 There are two basic smelting processes in use, bath smelting and flash of sulphuric acid or production of liquid sulphur dioxide). European Commission
smelting. The flash smelting process uses oxygen enrichment to produce auto- (2001). Reference document on best available techniques (BREF) for the non-
thermal (autogenic) or nearly autothermal operation. Bath smelting processes ferrous metals industries.
the exhaust gases and mists using control equipment (e.g. measures to increase energy efficiency and reduce energy
scrubbers). consumption, both of which are addressed in the ‘Energy
• Use stack and candle filters to control acid mist emissions Consumption and Efficiency’ section below. Additional
at sulfuric acid plants; recommendations for the management of greenhouse gases are
• Collect and treat acid mist (e.g. using wet scrubbers or mist discussed in the General EHS Guidelines.
filters) generated in the milling stages of battery breaking.
Perfluorocarbons (Aluminum Only)10,11: Two perfluorocarbons
(PFCs), tetra-fluoromethane (CF 4) and hexa fluoroethane
Carbon Monoxide
(C2F 6), are formed during the anode effects (temporary
Some pyrometallurgical processes (i.e. the carbo- thermic
imbalance of raw material feed-in rate and the aluminum
production of ferro-alloys in closed submerged electric arc
production rate) stage of aluminum manufacturing and, once
furnaces) produce a carbon monoxide rich off-gas as a by-
formed, they cannot be removed from the gas stream with
product. The amount of CO varies largely depending on the
existing technology.
metal and the production process. Measures to control and
minimize CO emissions include collecting and cleaning the CO- Anode effects occur when the alumina content of the electrolyte
rich gas (e.g. using a cascade wet scrubber), and use or sale of falls below 1 - 2 percent which results in the formation of a gas
the gas as fuel. CO may also be produced by incomplete film on the electrode. The formation of the film on the anode
combustion and from smelting and refining of secondary results in stoppage of metal production and increases cell
feedstocks containing organic material. Control of CO from voltage from the 4 – 5 volt range to 8 - 50 volts. The generation
these sources is similar to control of VOCs, described above. of PFCs is dependent upon the frequency and duration of the
anode effects. 12
Greenhouse Gases
Carbon dioxide (CO2): Carbon dioxide is produced in significant Measures to control perfluorocarbons (and reduce overall GHG
quantities during smelting and refining operations. 9 The main emissions) include the following 13:
sources include the smelting of concentrates, the direct
combustion of fossil fuels for power and heat generation, and
10 Among the six GHGs to be abated under the Kyoto Protocol, two
the indirect emissions resulting from fossil fuels used to
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), namely tetra-fluoromethane (CF4) and hexa
generate electrical energy for facility operations (e.g. for fluoroethane (C 2F 6) are a by -product of aluminum smelting. The Global Warming
Potential (GWP) is a measurement technique to define the relative contribution
electrolysis in aluminum smelting). Further indirect contributions of each GHG to atmospheric warming. A GWP can be calculated for specified
time horizons (e.g. 20 to 500 years) and for given GHG concentration levels
to greenhouse gases in this sector are associated with the use (e.g. current). Both direct and indirect effects are considered. Indirect effects
include changes in atmospheric chemistry such as ozone formation and
of chemical reagents that release a significant quantity of changes in stratospheric water vapor. CO2 has been assigned a GWP of 1,
against which all other GHGs are compared. The GWP of tetra-fluoromethane
greenhouse gases during offsite manufacturing. Opportunities to (CF4) is 6500 times that of CO2 (100 year time horizon), and hexa fluoroethane
(C2F 6) is 9200 times that of CO2 (100 year time horizon). United Nations
reduce greenhouse gas generation are closely linked to Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
11 International Aluminum Institute. Greenhouse Gas Protocol: Greenhouse gas
emission monitoring and reporting by the aluminum industry, October, 2006.
9 Available at www.world-aluminium.org/environment/climate/ghg_protocol.pdf
Carbon dioxide is also formed in aluminum production during electrolysis by
12 European Commission (2001). Reference document on best available
the reaction of the carbon anode with the oxygen formed by electrolysis and by
a secondary reaction with air. This emission is, however, far less than the techniques (BREF) for the non-ferrous metals industries.
emission of CO2 by combustion of fossil fuels when used for the generation of 13 International Aluminum Institute. “PFC Emissions: A Decade of
the electric power required for electrolysis. Progress”.http://www.world-aluminium.org/environment/climate/index.html
• Increase the use of recycled aluminum (use of recycled roasting; and use of heat generated by smelting and
aluminum requires significantly less energy than is required refining processes to melt secondary material.
for primary production);
• Increase the electrical conversion efficiency; Nickel Carbonyl (Nickel Only)
• Reduce anode effects that produce PFS: Production of nickel carbonyl is an intermediate step in the
o Control anode effects by adjustment of cell voltage production of purified nickel. Depending on the process, other
and alumina additions carbonyls such as cobalt and iron carbonyl can also be formed.
o Use of semi-continuous point feeding of the alumina Carbonyl laden gas streams should be incinerated to convert
combined with process control the metal carbonyl to the base metal oxide and carbon dioxide.
• Change the reduction technology to minimize use of fossil Control technologies should be used to capture base metal
carbon14. oxide and carbon dioxide arising from the incineration of
carbonyl laden gas streams.
Energy Consumption and Efficiency: Smelting and refining
facilities require large amounts of energy, notably the fuel Fluorides (Aluminum Only)
energy used for drying, heating, smelting, fuming, melting and The main source of gaseous fluorides is the pots during
transportation, and the electrical energy used in electrolysis and electrolysis. The majority of the gaseous fluorides produced are
for powering utilities / equipment. The General EHS Guidelines in the form of hydrogen fluoride, which results from the reaction
contains guidance to improve energy efficiency performance. of aluminum fluoride and cryolite with hydrogen. Control of
The following recommendations are specific to this sector: fluoride emissions can be achieved through fume capture.
Captured fumes (typically greater than 98 percent of total
• Assess alternative smelting and processing technologies fumes) can be cleaned using alumina injection in the off gas for
that optimize energy use (e.g. flash smelting requires about the absorption of the fluoride, followed by use of bag filters (the
half the energy of conventional blast furnace smelting, and dust is returned to the pots) or wet scrubbers (typically greater
use of recycled aluminum typically requires significantly than 99.5 to 99.9 percent efficient).
less energy than needed for primary production);
• Employ heat and energy recovery techniques to maximize Tar and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
energy utility (e.g. waste heat boilers, heat exchangers, (Aluminum Only)
steam-driven drives) 15, for example from gases generated Tar and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) may be
by pyrometallurgical processes. Heat recovery techniques released (mainly from the anode baking plants). Measures to
will vary between facilities but may include use of oxygen prevent and control these emissions include the following:
• Use of dry anode paste and maintenance of anode tops at wastewater streams for reduction in heavy metals using
cold temperatures to reduce PAH emissions. chemical precipitation, coagulation and flocculation, etc. Typical
wastewater treatment steps include oil water separators or
Anode preparation (Aluminum only) dissolved air floatation for separation of oils and floatable solids;
The electrolysis of alumina into aluminum results in the filtration for separation of filterable solids; flow and load
consumption of the anode, during which the released oxygen equalization; sedimentation for suspended solids reduction
will burn away the carbon. These anodes are normally prepared using clarifiers; dewatering and disposal of residuals in
onsite in an anode baking facility where the carbon containing designated hazardous waste landfills. Additional engineering
materials (including petroleum pitch) are attached to a metal controls may be required for (i) advanced metals removal using
core and baked to increase the strength. The baking will release membrane filtration, electrloysis or other physical / chemical
volatile hydrocarbons and also other contaminants such as treatment technologies, (ii) removal of recalcitrant organics
sulfur from the raw materials. If feasible, the heating value from using activated carbon or advanced chemical oxidation, and (iii)
VOC emissions could be used by combusting these substances reduction in effluent toxicity using appropriate technology (such
within the baking furnace. The off-gas from the baking house as reverse osmosis, ion exchange, activated carbon, etc.).
Guidelines. Contaminated streams should be routed to the systems, and sludge from leaching and wastewater treatment
treatment system for industrial process wastewater. may be recycled into pyro-processing stages depending on the
Recommendations to reduce water consumption, especially level of process integration available at the facility. Anode and
where it may be a limited natural resource, are provided in the tank bottom sludge may be recycled for residual metals
General EHS Guidelines. recovery. Guidance for management and safe disposal of
hazardous and non-hazardous industrial waste is addressed in
Hazardous Materials the General EHS Guidelines. Generation and management of
The smelting and refining sector utilizes a number of acids, selected wastes specific to the non- ferrous metals smelting and
alkalis, and chemical reagents (in leaching and precipitation of refining sector are described below.
metals, and for pollution control systems); and process gases
(e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide, argon, nitrogen, chlorine, Spent Cathodes (Aluminum only)
hydrogen, among others). Guidance on the safe storage, Spent cathodes, also known as spent potlinings, are the major
transport, and use of hazardous materials is addressed in the source of waste in primary aluminum manufacturing. A spent
General EHS Guidelines. cathode consists of a carbon portion which was formerly the
cathode from the electrolysis cell, and the refractory material
Residues and Waste which consists of various types of insulating material. The spent
Sources of hazardous and non-hazardous residues and waste potlinings contain soluble fluoride and cyanide, and can produce
in the smelting and refining sector include slag, drosses, mattes, an alkaline leachate if the material is rendered wet. Spent
and skimmings from pyrometallurgical processes; spent linings potlinings should be treated and reused (e.g. in
and refractories from furnaces; waste from abatement systems pyrometallurgical furnaces, in cryolite production, in the cement
(e.g. flue gas dust, sludge, and spent filter material); sludge from industry, or as a fuel source) where possible, or disposed of
wastewater treatment (e.g., from wet scrubber systems and according to the hazardous waste management guidance in the
process water treatment, which may contain gypsum [CaSO4] General EHS Guidelines.
and metal hydroxides and sulphides); and sludge from leaching,
purification, and electrolysis activities. Red Mud (Aluminum only)
Red mud is generated from the extraction of aluminum from
Opportunities to recycle the by-products and waste from
bauxite and is an alkaline substance which requires controlled
smelting and refining activities16 back to the process (e.g.
storage, typically in sealed (lined) ponds, to minimize potential
drosses, mattes, and skimmings, pot and furnace linings,
for contamination of surface and ground water. Excess water
cleanouts) should be maximized. Large quantities of slag from the mud is returned to the process.
produced at the smelting stage may be processed (e.g., fuming
to recover residual metals) to produce an inert granular material Noise
that can be sold for industrial use, such as cement Smelting and refining operations are inherently noisy due to the
manufacturing and insulation products. Waste from abatement large amount of mechanical equipment, transport vehicles,
physical activities, and energy usage, notably furnaces and
16 Detailed guidance on waste minimization, reuse, and recycling opportunities steam. The significant sources are transport and handling of raw
is available in the European Commission (2001) Reference document on best
available techniques (BREF) for the non-ferrous metals industries.
Occupational health and safety issues should be considered as inorganic dusts, vapors, gases, mists and fume s released as
part of a comprehensive hazard or risk assessment, including, part of operations and / or human activities in all stages of
for example, a hazard identification study [HAZID], hazard and production and maintenance.
General facility design, operation, and monitoring measures to specific process being used. Exposure to acid mists may occur
manage principal risks to occupational health and safety are during leaching and / or electro-refining. Exposure to organic
provided in the General EHS Guidelines. General guidance materials may include dioxins and furans, residual organic
specific to construction and decommissioning activities is also solvents used as reagents, and polycyclic aromatics associated
provided along with guidance on health and safety training, with pitch fume and dust (in carbon electrode plants and
personal protective equipment and the management of physical, aluminum reduction cell processes). Exposure to gases may
chemical, biological and radiological hazards common to all include sulphur dioxide, ammonia, carbon monoxide, oxygen,
industries. arsine, chlorine, and fluoride, among others. Some gases may
be metallic in nature such as cobalt, iron, and nickel carbonyls.
Occupational health and safety issues for further consideration
in smelting and refining operations include: Guidance on managing exposure to chemicals and other
hazardous materials, including the use of personal protection
• Chemical exposure equipment (PPE), is addressed in the General EHS
• Physical hazards Guidelines. In addition, the following measures are
• Noise recommended to prevent, minimize, and control potential
• Radiation chemical exposures:
• Confined space entry
• Enclose and isolate potential sources of air emissions to
the extent practical;
to low frequency electromagnetic fields, are even less readily • Investigation of legacy issues for contaminated sites,
shown to exert consistent or reproducible biological effects. The including evaluation and remediation strategies
flux levels of the magnetic fields measured cell rooms are • Development of an emergency preparedness and
commonly found to be within threshold limit values for static response plan, with participation of affected communities
magnetic, sub-radio frequency and static electric fields. and relevant regulatory agencies.
Exposure to ultra-low frequency electromagnetic fields may • The General EHS Guidelines provides further guidance
occur in reduction plants, especially adjacent to rectifier rooms. for these and other community health and safety issues.
The flux levels found in the potrooms are minimal and below
present standards. 17 EMF exposure may also be associated
with electric arc furnaces and other electrical equipment. 18
Emissions guidelines are applicable to process emissions. Monitoring frequency should be sufficient to provide
Combustion source emissions guidelines associated with representative data for the parameter being monitored.
steam- and power-generation activities from sources with a Monitoring should be conducted by trained individuals following
capacity equal to or lower than 50 MWth are addressed in the monitoring and record-keeping procedures and using properly
General EHS Guidelines with larger power source emissions calibrated and maintained equipment. Monitoring data should be
addressed in the EHS Guidelines for Thermal Power. analyzed and reviewed at regular intervals and compared with
Guidance on ambient considerations based on the total load of the operating standards so that any necessary corrective
emissions is provided in the General EHS Guidelines. actions can be taken. Additional guidance on applicable
sampling and analytical methods for emissions and effluents is
Effluent guidelines are applicable for direct discharges of treated
provided in the General EHS Guidelines.
effluents to surface waters for general use. Site-specific
discharge levels may be established based on the availability
and conditions in the use of publicly operated sewage collection
and treatment systems or, if discharged directly to surface
waters, on the receiving water use classification as described in
Table 1. Air Emissions for Nickel, Copper, Lead, Zinc, and Aluminum Smelting & Refining*
Pollutant Emission Source ( by metal type / smelting process) Units Guideline Value
>99.1% conversion efficiency (for ~ 1
Copper: Primary smelting and converting – 4 percent SO2 off gas)
Lead and Zinc: Primary smelting, roasting and sintering
Nickel: Roasting and smelting of sulphide concentrates and intermediates >99.7 % conversion efficiency (for >5
SO 2 percent SO2 off gas)
Copper: Secondary smelting and converting, primary and secondary fire refining, electric slag cleaning and melting
Aluminum: Holding and de-gassing of molten metal from primary and secondary aluminum mg/Nm3 <50 – 2001,2,3
Lead and Zinc: Materials pre-treatment, secondary smelting, thermal refining, melting, slag fuming, and Waelz kiln operation
Copper: Secondary smelting and converting, primary and secondary fire refining, electric slag cleaning and melting 100 – 3004,5,6
mg/Nm3
Aluminum: Holding and de-gassing of molten metal from primary and secondary aluminum, materials pre-treatment, and from melting and smelting of secondary
aluminum
NOx Lead and Zinc: Melting of clean material, alloying, and zinc dust production; From materials pre-treatment, secondary smelting, thermal refining, melting, slag
fuming, and Waelz kiln operation
Nickel: Leaching, chemical extraction and refining, electro-winning and solvent extraction; From materials pre-treatment incineration or after-burning, roasting,
smelting thermal refining, and melting.
Copper: Hydrometallurgical and electro-winning processes 501,7
Acid Mists / mg/Nm3
Lead and Zinc: Chemical refining, electro-winning, and solvent extraction
Gases
Nickel: Leaching, chemical extraction and refining, electro-winning and solvent extraction
VOC / Copper: Hydrometallurgical and electro-winning processes 5 – 159
mg/Nm3
solvents Lead and Zinc: Chemical refining, electro-winning, and solvent extraction
(as C) Nickel: Leaching, chemical extraction and refining, electro-winning and solvent extraction
Copper: Secondary smelting and converting, primary and secondary fire refining, electric slag cleaning and melting, secondary fume collection systems, and drying. 1 – 53,10,11
mg/Nm3
Aluminum: Primary aluminum electrolysis, from holding and de-gassing of molten metal from primary and secondary aluminum, materials pre-treatment, and from
melting and smelting of secondary aluminum
Dust22
Lead and Zinc: Melti ng of clean material, alloying, and zinc dust production; From materials pre-treatment, secondary smelting, thermal refining, melting, slag
fuming, and Waelz kiln operation
Nickel: Materials pre-treatment incineration or after-burning, roasting, smelting thermal refining, and melting.
Copper: Secondary smelting and converting, primary and secondary fire refining, electric slag cleaning and melting 5 – 5012,13
mg/Nm3
Aluminum: Materials pre-treatment, and from melting and smelting of secondary aluminum
TOC (as C) Lead and Zinc: Melting of clean material, alloying, and zinc dust production; From materials pre-treatment, secondary smelting, thermal refining, melting, slag
fuming, and Waelz kiln operation
Nickel: Materials pre-treatment incineration or after-burning, roasting, smelting thermal refining, and melting.
Copper: Secondary smelting and converting, primary and secondary fire refining, electric slag cleaning and melting, secondary fume collection systems, and drying. 0.1 – 0.53,10,14,15,16
ngTEQ/m3
Aluminum: Materials pre-treatment, and from melting and smelting of secondary aluminum
Dioxins Lead and Zinc: Melting of clean material, alloying, and zinc dust production; From materials pre-treatment, secondary smelting, thermal refining, melting, slag
fuming, and Waelz kiln operation
Nickel: Materials pre-treatment incineration or after-burning, roasting, smelting thermal refining, and melting.
Table 1. Air Emissions for Nickel, Copper, Lead, Zinc, and Aluminum Smelting & Refining (con’t)*
Pollutant Emission Source ( by metal type / smelting process) Units Guideline Value
Chlorine Nickel: Leaching, chemical extraction and refining, electro-winning and solvent extraction mg/Nm3 0.52,18
Arsine Lead and Zinc: Chemical refining, electro-winning, and solvent extraction mg/Nm3 0.56
Table 2. Effluent Levels for Nickel, Copper, Lead, Zinc, and Table 3. Energy and Water Consumption
Aluminum Smelting & Refining
Facility Type Energy Use (GJ/t)a
Smelting Guideline
Pollutant Units Copper--production from concentrate
type Value 14 – 20
Nickel (Ni) Nickel, Copper mg/l 0.1 Zinc—imperial smelting furnace & New
44b
Jersey distillation
Copper, Lead Zinc—Waelz kiln 26b,c
Cadmium (Cd) mg/l 0.05
& Zinc
Zinc—slag fuming 7.7b,d
Copper, Lead
Zinc (Zn) mg/l 0.2
& Zinc Nickel—matte from sulfide ores containing
25 – 65
4 – 15% Ni
Mercury (Hg) All mg/l 0.01
Nickel--refining 17 - 20
Temperature Increase All °C < 3a
Facility Type Water Use (kg/t)
Toxicity To be determined on a case specific basis
Source: Based in part on EU BREF in the Non-Ferrous Metals Indus tries Alumina production 1000 – 6000
a At the edge of a scientifically established mixing zone which takes into
Aluminum--primary production
account ambient water quality, receiving water use, potential receptors and 200 - 12000
(electrolysis, including anode production)
assimilative capacity
Sources: EU BREF in the Non-Ferrous Metals Industries
Notes:
a Gigajoules (109 Joules) per metric ton
b Calculated based on quantities of coke, coal, natural gas, and electric power
used and typical heat values of the petroleum fuels.
c Per ton of Waelz oxide leached
d Per ton of slag
2.2 Occupational Health and Safety designed and implemented by accredited profe ssionals 24 as part
of an occupational health and safety monitoring program.
Occupational Health and Safety Guidelines Facilities should also maintain a record of occupational
Occupational health and safety performance should be accidents and diseases and dangerous occurrences and
evaluated against internationally published exposure guidelines, accidents. Additional guidance on occupational health and
of which examples include the Threshold Limit Value (TLV®) safety monitoring programs is provided in the General EHS
occupational exposure guidelines and Biological Exposure Guidelines.
Indices (BEIs®) published by American Conference of
Governmenta l Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), 19 the Pocket Guide
to Chemical Hazards published by the United States National
Institute for Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH),20
Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) published by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the United
States (OSHA),21 Indicative Occupational Exposure Limit Values
published by European Union member states, 22 or other similar
sources.
http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDAR
DS&p_id=9992
22 Available at: http://europe.osha.eu.int/good_practice/risks/ds/oel/ 24Accredited professionals may include Certified Industrial Hygienists,
23 Available at: http://www.bls.gov/iif/ and Registered Occupational Hygienists, or Certified Safety Professionals or their
http://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/index.htm equiv alent.
Price, L. Worrell, J.S., Sinton, J and J. Yun. 2001. Industrial energy efficiency
European Commission. 2001. European Integrated Pollution Prevention and
Control Bureau (EIPPC B). Reference Document on Bes t Available Techniques policy in China. The Proceedings of the 2001 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy
(BREF) in the Non-Ferrous Metals Industries. Seville: EIPPCB. Available at: Efficiency in Industry. Available at: http://ies.lbl.gov/iespubs/50452.pdf
http://eippcb.jrc.es/pages/FActivities.htm
United Kingdom (UK) Department of Environment Food and Rural Affairs. 2000.
The Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.
European Union. 1999. Directory of Community Legislation. EurLex. EU Council
Directive 1999/30/EC of 22 April 1999 relating to limit values for sulphur dioxide, January 2000. Working Together for Clean Air. Available at:
nitrogen dioxide and oxides of nitrogen, particulate matter and lead in ambient http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/airquality/strategy/strategy.htm
air. Brussels: EU. Available at: http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31999L0030:EN:HTML UK Health and Safety Executive. 2006a. Health and Safety Commission. Health
and Safety Statistics 2005/06. Available online at:
http:/www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/index.htm
Indian Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). National Air Quality Monitoring
Programme (NAMP). National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Delhi: CPCB.
Available at: http://www.cpcb.nic.in/as.htm UK Health and Safety Executive. 2006b. Health and Safety Commission.
Statistics of Fatal Injuries 2005/06. Available at:
Indian Central Pollution Control Board, Environmental Standards, Inorganic http:/www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/index.htm
Chemical Industry, Wastewater Standard. Available at:
http://www.cpcb.nic.in/index.php United States (US) Department of Labor. 2003. Bureau of Statistics. Injuries,
Illness and Fatalities Program.Table R8. Incidence rates for nonfatal
International Finance Corporation (IFC) World Bank Group. 2006a. Draft occupational injuries and illnesses involving days away from work per 10,000
General Environmental Health and Safety Guidelines. Available at: full-time workers by industry and selected events or exposures leading to injury
or illness, 2003. Available at: http://www.bls.gov/iif/oshwc/osh/case/ostb1386.pdf
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/policyreview.nsf/Content/EHSGuidelinesUpdate_Comm
ents
United States (US) Env ironmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2006a. Air Toxics.
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). ISO 14001 Environmental Final Rules. Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants. Washington, DC:
Management Systems Standards Available at: US EPA. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/mactfnlalph.html
http://www.iso.org/iso/en/stdsdevelopment/whowhenhow/how.html
US EPA. 2006b. Proposed National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 2005. NIOSH Pollutants for Area Sources: Polyvinyl Chloride & Copolymers Production,
Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. NIOSH Publication No. 2005-149. Available Primary Copper Smelting, Secondary Copper Smelting, & Primary Nonferrous
at: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/ Metals Zinc, Cadmium and Beryllium. Washington, DC: US EPA. Available at:
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/mactfnlalph.html
US EPA. 2002. Final Rule. National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. 2002. EMF Questions
Pollutants for Primary Copper Smelting-Final rule. Washington, DC: US EPA. and Answers. EMF Rapid. Electric and Magnetic Fields Research and Public
Available at: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/copper/copperpg.html Information and Dissemination Program. Available online at:
http://www.niehs.nih.gov/emfrapid/booklet.
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- 125.32. Effluent Limitations Guidelines, Pretreatment Standards, and New World Health Organization (WHO). 2005. Air Quality Guidelines Global Update.
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Combustor Subcategory of the Waste Combustors Point Source Category.
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25Environment Canada – Environmental Code of Practice, Canadian 26Relatively volatile metals such as zinc and lead can also be recovered from
Environmental Protection Act. Base Metals Smelters and Refineries. the off-gas.
refined copper is cast into anodes for further refining by solvent extraction and then purified prior to undergoing
electrowinning and refining.
electrolytic processes or is cast into shapes for sale.
Electrowinning
Electrorefining
Electrowinning is used to refine copper, nickel, and involves the
Electrorefining is used in copper, nickel and lead refining to
recovery of metals that were dissolved in the “pregnant” solution
produce a purified form of metal from a less pure form. An
during leaching. The purified electrolyte solution from the
electrolytic cell, of which the metal forms an anode, is utilized to
leaching process is placed in electrolytic cells containing inert
dissolve the metal into an acidic aqueous electrolyte or molten
anodes and starter cathodes. The dissolved metal ions are
salt. The pure metal is electroplated or placed on starter plates
deposited onto the cathode after electric current is applied to the
which act as cathodes. The metallic impurities dissolve in the cell. Electrowinning generates oxygen gas, acid mist and spent
electrolyte or precipitate out and typically form a sludge. Anode electrolyte (which is returned to the leaching process for reuse).
slimes generated by the process contain precious metals that Cathodes are subsequently sold or the metal is removed and
are recovered. Cathode deposits are cast into shapes. Impure cast.
electrolyte solutions are purified to remove unwanted impurities
and returned to the electrorefining process. The removed Casting
impurities are further processed to recover metal values. In the casting process, metal is melted and passed through a
holding furnace and into a caster where different metal shapes
Carbonyl Refining are produced. Casting is either continuous or stationary.
Carbonyl refining is used to refine crude nickel oxide. Carbon Stationary casting uses a wheel containing a series of moulds
that are cooled by jets of water. Continuous casting produces is
monoxide is added to the crude nickel oxide, and under high
used to produce wire. Tubes are extruded from heated billets.
pressure, nickel carbonyl is formed. Nickel carbonyl is highly
Sheets and strips of metal are produced from preheated slabs
volatile and therefore separates from the solid impurities and is
and cakes which are rolled into shape. A fixed mould casting
recovered from the off-gas stream. With additional heating,
process is used to produce ingots.
carbon monoxide is released and pure nickel powder or pellets
are produced. Carbon monoxide off-gas is recycled in the Aluminum Manufacturing
process.
The production of aluminum begins with the mining and
beneficiation of bauxite. At the mine, bauxite ore is moved to a
crusher following which the crushed ore is screened and
stockpiled ready for delivery to an alumina plant. In some cases,
Process
recycle
Pre-treatment
materials
Shipping