Opamp Wiki Book
Opamp Wiki Book
Opamp Wiki Book
WIKIPEDIA
Contents
i
ii CONTENTS
2 Comparator applications 10
2.1 Comparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Threshold detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Zero crossing detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Schmitt trigger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Relaxation oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3 Dierential amplier 12
3.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2 Long-tailed pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.1 Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.2 Congurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.3 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.4 Dierential Amplier Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.5 Interfacing considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Operational amplier as dierential amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.4.1 Symmetrical feedback network eliminates common-mode gain and common-mode bias . . 16
3.5 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4 Instrumentation amplier 18
4.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5 Comparator 20
5.1 Dierential voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.2 Op-amp voltage comparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.3 Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.4 Key specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.4.1 Speed and power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.4.2 Hysteresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.4.3 Output type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.4.4 Internal reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.4.5 Continuous versus clocked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.5 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.5.1 Null detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
CONTENTS iii
6 Op amp integrator 25
6.1 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.2.1 Ideal circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.2.2 Practical circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.3 Frequency response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7 Gyrator 28
7.1 Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7.2 Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.3 Relationship to the ideal transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.4 Application: a simulated inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.4.1 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.4.2 Comparison with actual inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.4.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.5 Passive gyrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.6 In other energy domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
9 Precision rectier 35
9.1 Basic circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
9.2 Improved circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
9.3 Peak detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
iv CONTENTS
9.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
9.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
10 Log amplier 37
10.1 Basic op-amp diode circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
10.2 Transdiode conguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
10.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
10.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
11 Voltage regulator 39
11.1 Electronic voltage regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
11.2 Electromechanical regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
11.3 Automatic voltage regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
11.4 AC voltage stabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
11.4.1 Coil-rotation AC voltage regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
11.4.2 Electromechanical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
11.4.3 PWM static voltage regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
11.4.4 Constant-voltage transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
11.4.5 Commercial use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
11.5 DC voltage stabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
11.6 Active regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
11.6.1 Linear regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
11.6.2 Switching regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
11.6.3 Comparing linear versus switching regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
11.6.4 SCR regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
11.6.5 Combination or hybrid regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
11.7 Example linear regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
11.7.1 Transistor regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
11.7.2 Regulator with an operational amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
11.8 Measures of regulator quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
11.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
11.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
11.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
13 Transimpedance amplier 49
13.1 DC operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
13.2 Bandwidth and stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
13.3 Noise considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
13.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
13.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
13.6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
13.6.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
13.6.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
13.6.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Chapter 1
Main article: Operational amplier operation susceptible to signicant errors due to bias or
leakage currents.
A non-ideal op amps equivalent circuit has a nite in-
put impedance, a non-zero output impedance, and a nite
gain. This article illustrates some typical applications of
operational ampliers. A real op amp has a number of 1.1.3 Input bias currents and input oset
non-ideal features as shown in the diagram, but here a
simplied schematic notation is used, and the reader is Practical operational ampliers draw a small current from
reminded that many details such as device selection and each of their inputs due to bias requirements (in the case
power supply connections are not shown. Operational of bipolar junction transistor-based inputs) or leakage (in
ampliers are optimised for use with negative feedback, the case of MOSFET-based inputs).
and this article discusses only negative-feedback applica-
These currents ow through the resistances connected to
tions. When positive feedback is required, a comparator
the inputs and produce small voltage drops across those
is usually more appropriate. See Comparator applications
resistances. Appropriate design of the feedback network
for further information.
can alleviate problems associated with input bias currents
and common-mode gain, as explained below. The heuris-
tic rule is to ensure that the impedance looking out of
1.1 Practical considerations each input terminal is identical.
To the extent that the input bias currents do not match,
1.1.1 Operational ampliers parameter there will be an eective input oset voltage present,
requirements which can lead to problems in circuit performance. Many
commercial op amp oerings provide a method for tun-
In order for a particular device to be used in an applica- ing the operational amplier to balance the inputs (e.g.,
tion, it must satisfy certain requirements. The operational oset null or balance pins that can interact with an
amplier must external voltage source attached to a potentiometer). Al-
ternatively, a tunable external voltage can be added to one
have large open-loop signal gain (voltage gain of of the inputs in order to balance out the oset eect.
200,000 is obtained in early integrated circuit ex- In cases where a design calls for one input to be short-
emplars), and circuited to ground, that short circuit can be replaced with
a variable resistance that can be tuned to mitigate the o-
have input impedance large with respect to values set problem.
present in the feedback network.
Operational ampliers using MOSFET-based input
stages have input leakage currents that will be, in many
With these requirements satised, the op amp is consid- designs, negligible.
ered ideal, and one can use the method of virtual ground
to quickly and intuitively grasp the 'behavior' of any of
the op amp circuits below.
1.1.4 Power supply eects
1.1.2 Component specication
Although power supplies are not indicated in the (sim-
Resistors used in practical solid-state op-amp circuits are plied) operational amplier designs below, they are
typically in the k range. Resistors much greater than 1 nonetheless present and can be critical in operational am-
M cause excessive thermal noise and make the circuit plier circuit design.
1
2 CHAPTER 1. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER APPLICATIONS
( )
Rin Vout = 1+
R2
Vin
R1
Vin
Vout
To intuitively see this gain equation, use the virtual
ground technique to calculate the current in resistor R1 :
Vin When R1 = R2 = = Rn = Rf
Vout
Vout = (V1 + V2 + + Vn )
Used as a buer amplier to eliminate loading eects
(e.g., connecting a device with a high source impedance
to a device with a low input impedance).
Output is inverted
Vout = Vin
Input impedance of the nth input is Zn = Rn ( V
Zin =
is a virtual ground)
Due to the strong (i.e., unity gain) feedback and certain
non-ideal characteristics of real operational ampliers,
this feedback system is prone to have poor stability mar-
gins. Consequently, the system may be unstable when
connected to suciently capacitive loads. In these cases,
1.2.6 Instrumentation amplier
a lag compensation network (e.g., connecting the load to
the voltage follower through a resistor) can be used to re-
store stability. The manufacturer data sheet for the oper-
R2 R3
ational amplier may provide guidance for the selection V1
of components in external compensation networks. Al-
ternatively, another operational amplier can be chosen R1
that has more appropriate internal compensation.
Rgain Vout
1.2.5 Summing amplier
R1
Rn
Vn V2
R2 R3
( )
V1 V2 Vn
Vout = Rf + + +
R1 R2 Rn
1.3 Oscillators
When R1 = R2 = = Rn , and Rf independent
1.6. INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION 5
1.3.1 Wien bridge oscillator output to swing to nearly the supply voltage. However,
it is usually better to use a dedicated comparator for this
purpose, as its output has a higher slew rate and can reach
either power supply rail. Some op-amps have clamping
diodes on the input that prevent use as a comparator.[3]
R
Produces a very low distortion sine wave. Uses negative
temperature compensation in the form of a light bulb or Vin
diode.
Vout
1.4 Filters
Integrates (and inverts) the input signal V (t) over a time
Main article: Active lter interval t, t 0 < t < t 1 , yielding an output voltage at time t
= t 1 of
Operational ampliers can be used in construction of
active lters, providing high-pass, low-pass, band-pass, t1
reject and delay functions. The high input impedance 1
Vout (t1 ) = Vout (t0 ) Vin (t) d t
and gain of an op-amp allow straightforward calculation RC t0
of element values, allowing accurate implementation of
any desired lter topology with little concern for the load- where V (t 0 ) represents the output voltage of the circuit
ing eects of stages in the lter or of subsequent stages. at time t = t 0 . This is the same as saying that the out-
However, the frequencies at which active lters can be put voltage changes over time t 0 < t < t 1 by an amount
implemented is limited; when the behavior of the am- proportional to the time integral of the input voltage:
pliers departs signicantly from the ideal behavior as-
sumed in elementary design of the lters, lter perfor- t1
mance is degraded. 1
Vin (t) d t
RC t0
A slightly more complex circuit can ameliorate the second analysis would show, increasing feedback gain will
two problems, and in some cases, the rst as well. drive a closed-loop pole toward marginal stability at
the DC zero introduced by the dierentiator.
Rf
Ri Cf
Vin
Vout
+
Rn RL
Here, the feedback resistor R provides a discharge path 1.7 Synthetic elements
for capacitor C , while the series resistor at the non-
inverting input R , when of the correct value, alleviates
input bias current and common-mode problems. That
value is the parallel resistance of R and R , or using the 1.7.1 Inductance gyrator
shorthand notation ||:
1
Rn = 1 1 = Ri ||Rf
+
Ri Rf
RL
The relationship between input signal and output signal is Z in
now:
t1
1
Vout (t1 ) = Vout (t0 ) Vin (t) d t
Ri Cf t0 C
R
1.6.2 Inverting dierentiator
R RL
C
Vin Z in
Vout L=R L RC
1.7.2 Negative impedance converter (NIC) output voltage across the load with the input voltage and
increases its own output voltage with the value of VF. As a
result, the voltage drop VF is compensated and the circuit
R2 behaves very nearly as an ideal (super) diode with VF =
0 V.
R1 I2 The circuit has speed limitations at high frequency be-
cause of the slow negative feedback and due to the low
slew rate of many non-ideal op-amps.
VS D
R
Main article: Negative impedance converter Vin
Vout
Creates a resistor having a negative value for any signal
generator.
In this case, the ratio between the input voltage and the
input current (thus the input resistance) is given by:
The relationship between the input voltage V and
the output voltage V is given by:
R1
Rin = R3
R2
( )
Vin
In general, the components R1 , R2 , and R3 need not Vout = VT ln
be resistors; they can be any component that can be de- IS R
scribed with an impedance.
where IS is the saturation current and VT is the
thermal voltage.
1.8 Non-linear
If the operational amplier is considered ideal, the
inverting input pin is virtually grounded, so the cur-
1.8.1 Precision rectier rent owing into the resistor from the source (and
thus through the diode to the output, since the op-
amp inputs draw no current) is:
Vin
Vin
Vout R
= IR = ID
Capacitance multiplier
1.8.3 Exponential output
Charge amplier
R
Frequency compensation
Operational amplier
The relationship between the input voltage Vin and
the output voltage Vout is given by: Operational transconductance amplier
V in Transimpedance amplier
Vout = RIS e VT
where IS is the saturation current and VT is the thermal
voltage.
1.11 Notes
Considering the operational amplier ideal, then the
negative pin is virtually grounded, so the current [1] If you think of the left-hand side of the relation as the
through the diode is given by: closed-loop gain of the inverting input, and the right-hand
side as the gain of the non-inverting input, then matching
( VD ) these two quantities provides an output insensitive to the
ID = IS e VT 1 common-mode voltage of V1 and V2 .
audio and video preampliers and buers [4] AN1177 Op Amp Precision Design: DC Errors (PDF).
Microchip. 2 January 2008. Archived from the original
lters on 2013-01-11. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
1.14. EXTERNAL LINKS 9
Operational Ampliers - Theory and Design; 2nd Ed; Basic OpAmp Applications (PDF). (173 KiB)
Johan Huijsing; Springer; 430 pages; 2011; ISBN
Handbook of operational amplier applications
978-9400705951. (7 MB PDF)
(PDF). (2.00 MiB) Texas Instruments Application
Small Signal Audio Design; 1st Ed; Douglas Self; Fo- note
cal Press; 556 pages; 2010; ISBN 978-0240521770.
Low Side Current Sensing Using Operational Am-
Lessons in Electric Circuits - Volume III - Semicon- pliers
ductors; 2009. (Chapter 8 is 59 pages) (4 MB PDF)
Log/anti-log generators, cube generator, multi-
Linear Circuit Design Handbook; 1st Ed; Hank ply/divide amp (PDF). (165 KiB)
Zumbahlen; Newnes; 960 pages; 2008; ISBN 978-
0750687034. (35 MB PDF) Logarithmically variable gain from a linear variable
component
Op Amp Applications Handbook; 1st Ed; Wal-
ter Jung; Newnes; 896 pages; 2004; ISBN 978- Impedance and admittance transformations using
0750678445. (17 MB PDF) operational ampliers by D. H. Sheingold
Op Amps For Everyone; 1st Ed; Ron Mancini; 464 High Speed Amplier Techniques very practical and
pages; 2002; Texas Instruments SLOD006B. (2 MB readable with photos and real waveforms
PDF)
Single supply op-amp circuit collection
Design with Operational Ampliers and Analog In-
tegrated Circuits; 3rd Ed; Sergio Franco; 672 pages; Properly terminating an unused op amp
2002; ISBN 978-0072320848.
Op Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits; 1st Ed;
James Fiore; Cengage Learning; 616 pages; 2000;
ISBN 978-0766817937.
Operational Ampliers and Linear Integrated Cir-
cuits; 6th Ed; Robert Coughlin; Prentice Hall; 529
pages; 2000; ISBN 978-0130149916.
Op-Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits; 4th Ed;
Ram Gayakwad; Prentice Hall; 543 pages; 1999;
ISBN 978-0132808682.
Basic Operational Ampliers and Linear Integrated
Circuits; 2nd Ed; Thomas Floyd and David Buchla;
Prentice Hall; 593 pages; 1998; ISBN 978-
0130829870.
Troubleshooting Analog Circuits; 1st Ed; Bob Pease;
Newnes; 217 pages; 1991; ISBN 978-0750694995.
IC Op-Amp Cookbook; 3rd Ed; Walt Jung; Prentice
Hall; 433 pages; 1986; ISBN 978-0138896010.
Engineers Mini-Notebook OpAmp IC Circuits;
Forrest Mims III; Radio Shack; 49 pages; 1985;
ASIN B000DZG196. (4 MB PDF)
Analog Applications Manual; Signetics; 418 pages;
1979. (Chapter 3 is 32 pages) (32 MB PDF)
Chapter 2
Comparator applications
2.1 Comparator
R1 R5
Main article: Comparator Va = Vin + VT HRout
R1 + R5 R1 + R5
Unlike the zero crossing detector, the detector with hys-
Bistable output that indicates which of the two inputs has
teresis does not switch when Vin is zero, rather the out-
a higher voltage. That is,
put becomes Vsat+ when Va becomes positive and Vsat-
when Va becomes negative. Further examination of the
Va equation reveals that Vin can exceed zero (positive or
VS+ ifV1 > V2 , negative) by a certain magnitude before the output of the
Vout = VS ifV1 < V2 , detector is caused to switch. By adjusting the value of
0 ifV1 = V2 , R1, the magnitude of Vin that will cause the detector to
switch can be increased or decreased. Hysteresis is useful
where VS+ and VS are nominally the positive and nega- in various applications. It has better noise immunity than
tive supply voltages (which are not shown in the diagram). the level detector, so it is used in interface circuits. Its
positive feedback has a faster transition, so it is used in
timing applications such as frequency counters. It is also
used in astable multivibrators found in instruments such
2.2 Threshold detector as function generators.
10
2.5. RELAXATION OSCILLATOR 11
a positive value, when the input voltage is negative, the 2.5 Relaxation oscillator
output voltage is a negative value. The magnitude of the
output voltage is a property of the operational amplier Main article: Relaxation oscillator
and its power supply.
Applications include converting an analog signal into a
form suitable to use for frequency measurements, in phase
C R
locked loops, or for controlling power electronics circuits
that must switch with a dened relationship to an alter-
nating current waveform.
This detector exploits the property that the instantaneous
frequency of an FM wave is approximately given by fi =
Vout
t
2 where t is the time dierence between adjacent zero
crossings of FM wave
[1]
R R
2.4 Schmitt trigger By using an RC network to add slow negative feedback
to the inverting Schmitt trigger, a relaxation oscillator is
Main article: Schmitt trigger formed. The feedback through the RC network causes
the Schmitt trigger output to oscillate in an endless sym-
metric square wave (i.e., the Schmitt trigger in this con-
A bistable multivibrator implemented as a comparator guration is an astable multivibrator).
with hysteresis.
R2
2.6 References
R1 [1] Elliott Sound Products Application Notes : Zero Crossing
Detectors and Comparators
Vin
Vout
R1
Vout
Vin
Dierential amplier
Where Vin+ and Vin are the input voltages and Ad is the
VS+ dierential gain.
In practice, however, the gain is not quite equal for the
two inputs. This means, for instance, that if Vin+ and Vin
are equal, the output will not be zero, as it would be in
V+ the ideal case. A more realistic expression for the output
Vout of a dierential amplier thus includes a second term.
( )
Vin+ + Vin
V Vout = Ad (Vin+ Vin ) + Ac
2
Ac is called the common-mode gain of the amplier.
VS As dierential ampliers are often used to null out
noise or bias-voltages that appear at both inputs, a low
common-mode gain is usually desired.
Dierential amplier symbol The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), usually de-
The inverting and non-inverting inputs are distinguished by "" ned as the ratio between dierential-mode gain and
and "+" symbols (respectively) placed in the amplier triangle. common-mode gain, indicates the ability of the amplier
Vs+ and Vs are the power supply voltages; they are often omit-
to accurately cancel voltages that are common to both in-
ted from the diagram for simplicity, but of course must be present
puts. The common-mode rejection ratio is dened as:
in the actual circuit.
12
3.2. LONG-TAILED PAIR 13
3.2.2 Congurations
3.2.3 Operation common point does not change its voltage; it behaves
like a virtual ground with a magnitude determined by the
To explain the circuit operation, four particular modes are common-mode input voltages. The high-resistive emitter
isolated below although, in practice, some of them act element does not play any role it is shunted by the other
simultaneously and their eects are superimposed. low-resistive emitter follower. There is no negative feed-
back since the emitter voltage does not change at all when
the input base voltages change. he common quiescent
Biasing current vigorously steers between the two transistors and
the output collector voltages vigorously change. The two
In contrast with classic amplifying stages that are biased transistors mutually ground their emitters; so, although
from the side of the base (and so they are highly - they are common-collector stages, they actually act as
dependent), the dierential pair is directly biased from common-emitter stages with maximum gain. Bias stabil-
the side of the emitters by sinking/injecting the total qui- ity and independence from variations in device parame-
escent current. The series negative feedback (the emit- ters can be improved by negative feedback introduced via
ter degeneration) makes the transistors act as voltage cathode/emitter resistors with relatively small resistances.
stabilizers; it forces them to adjust their VBE voltages
(base currents) to pass the quiescent current through their Overdriven. If the input dierential voltage changes
collector-emitter junctions.[nb 4] So, due to the negative signicantly (more than about a hundred millivolts), the
feedback, the quiescent current depends only slightly on transistor driven by the lower input voltage turns o and
the transistors . its collector voltage reaches the positive supply rail. At
high overdrive the base-emitter junction gets reversed.
The biasing base currents needed to evoke the quiescent The other transistor (driven by the higher input voltage)
collector currents usually come from the ground, pass drives all the current. If the resistor at the collector is
through the input sources and enter the bases. So, the relatively large, the transistor will saturate. With rela-
sources have to be galvanic (DC) to ensure paths for the tively small collector resistor and moderate overdrive, the
biasing current and low resistive enough to not create sig- emitter can still follow the input signal without saturation.
nicant voltage drops across them. Otherwise, additional This mode is used in dierential switches and ECL gates.
DC elements should be connected between the bases and
the ground (or the positive power supply). Breakdown. If the input voltage continues increasing
and exceeds the base-emitter breakdown voltage, the
base-emitter junction of the transistor driven by the lower
Common mode input voltage breaks down. If the input sources are low
resistive, an unlimited current will ow directly through
At common mode (the two input voltages change in the the diode bridge between the two input sources and will
same directions), the two voltage (emitter) followers co- damage them.
operate with each other working together on the common
At common mode, the emitter voltage follows the input
high-resistive emitter load (the long tail). They all to-
voltage variations; there is a full negative feedback and the
gether increase or decrease the voltage of the common
gain is minimum. At dierential mode, the emitter voltage
emitter point (guratively speaking, they together pull
is xed (equal to the instant common input voltage); there
up or pull down it so that it moves). In addition, the
is no negative feedback and the gain is maximum.
dynamic load helps them by changing its instant ohmic
resistance in the same direction as the input voltages (it
increases when the voltage increases and vice versa.) thus
keeping up constant total resistance between the two sup- 3.2.4 Dierential Amplier Improvements
ply rails. There is a full (100%) negative feedback; the
two input base voltages and the emitter voltage change Emitter constant current source
simultaneously while the collector currents and the total
current do not change. As a result, the output collector The quiescent current has to be constant to ensure con-
voltages do not change as well. stant collector voltages at common mode. This require-
ment is not so important in the case of a dierential out-
put since the two collector voltages will vary simultane-
Dierential mode ously but their dierence (the output voltage) will not
vary. But in the case of a single-ended output, it is ex-
Normal. At dierential mode (the two input voltages tremely important to keep a constant current since the
change in opposite directions), the two voltage (emitter) output collector voltage will vary. Thus the higher the
followers oppose each other - while one of them tries to resistance of the current source Re , the lower (better) is
increase the voltage of the common emitter point, the the common mode gain Ac . The constant current needed
other tries to decrease it (guratively speaking, one of can be produced by connecting an element (resistor) with
them pulls up the common point while the other pulls very high resistance between the shared emitter node and
down it so that it stays immovable) and v.v. So, the the supply rail (negative for NPN and positive for PNP
3.3. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AS DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER 15
+U
0.5
current
output
-0.5
non-inv
Q1 Q2
input (+)
-1
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2
input (-)
current Figure 4: Transmission characteristic
source
3.2.5 Interfacing considerations
-U
Floating input source
Figure 3: An improved long-tailed pair with current-mirror load It is possible to connect a oating source between the two
and constant-current biasing
bases, but it is necessary to ensure paths for the biasing
base currents. In the case of galvanic source, only one re-
sistor has to be connected between one of the bases and
transistors) but this will require high supply voltage. That the ground. The biasing current will enter directly this
is why, in more sophisticated designs, an element with base and indirectly (through the input source) the other
high dierential (dynamic) resistance approximating a one. If the source is capacitive, two resistors have to be
constant current source/sink is substituted for the long connected between the two bases and the ground to en-
tail (Figure 3). It is usually implemented by a current sure dierent paths for the base currents.
mirror because of its high compliance voltage (small volt-
age drop across the output transistor).
Input/output impedance
Vout
Rd
I+
b
Figure 5: Op-amp dierential amplier
V+
Vout =Aol (V+ V)
+
Vin Ri+ Rf+
which implies that the closed-loop gain for the dieren- 3.6 See also
tial signal is V + - V , but the common-mode gain is
identically zero. It also implies that the common-mode Gilbert cell
input bias current has cancelled out, leaving only the in-
put oset current I = 'I+ b - 'I still present, and with Instrumentation amplier
a coecient of R. It is as if the input oset current is
Op-amp dierential conguration
equivalent to an input oset voltage acting across an in-
put resistance R, which is the source resistance of the Emitter-coupled logic
feedback network into the input terminals. Finally, as
long as the open-loop voltage gain A is much larger than
unity, the closed-loop voltage gain is R / R, the value one
would obtain through the rule-of-thumb analysis known
3.7 References
as virtual ground.[nb 6]
[1] Laplante, Philip A. (2005). Comprehensive Dictionary of
Electrical Engineering, 2nd Ed. CRC Press. p. 190. ISBN
1420037803.
3.5 Footnotes [2] Eglin, J. M. (1 May 1929). A Direct-Current Am-
plier for Measuring Small Currents. Journal of
[1] Details of the long-tailed pair circuitry used in early com- the Optical Society of America. 18 (5): 393402.
puting can be found in Alan Turings Automatic Comput- doi:10.1364/JOSA.18.000393.
ing Engine (Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-19- [3] Matthews, Bryan H. C. (1 December 1934).
856593-3) in Part IV, ELECTRONICS PROCEEDINGS OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL
SOCIETY. The Journal of Physiology. 81 (suppl):
[2] Long-tail is a gurative name of high resistance that rep- 2829. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1934.sp003151. Retrieved
resents the high emitter resistance at common mode with 15 February 2016.
a common long tail with a proportional length (at dier-
ential mode this tail shortens up to zero). If additional [4] US Patent 2185367 (PDF). Freepatensonline.com. Re-
emitter resistors with small resistances are included be- trieved 15 February 2016.
tween the emitters and the common node (to introduce a
small negative feedback at dierential mode), they can be [5] Oner, Franklin (1937). Push-Pull Resistance Coupled
guratively represented by short tails. Ampliers. Review of Scientic Instruments. 8 (1): 20
21. doi:10.1063/1.1752180.
[3] More generally, this arrangement can be considered as [6] Schmitt, Otto H. (1941). Cathode Phase Inversion
two interacting voltage followers with negative feedback: (PDF). Review of Scientic Instruments. 12 (11): 548.
the output part of the dierential pair acts as a voltage doi:10.1063/1.1769796. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
follower with constant input voltage (a voltage stabilizer)
producing constant output voltage; the input part acts as [7] US Patent 2147940 (PDF). Google Inc. Retrieved 16
a voltage follower with varying input voltage trying to February 2016.
change the steady output voltage of the stabilizer. The
[8] Geddes, L. A. Who Invented the Dierential Amplier?.
stabilizer reacts to this intervention by changing its out-
IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology, May/June
put quantity (current, respectively voltage) that serves as
1996, p.116-117.
a circuit output.
Instrumentation amplier
This article is about ampliers for measurement and elec- The rightmost amplier, along with the resistors labelled
tronic test equipment. For ampliers for musical instru- R2 and R3 is just the standard dierential amplier cir-
ments, see instrument amplier. cuit, with gain = R3 /R2 and dierential input resistance
An instrumentation (or instrumentational) ampli- = 2 R2 . The two ampliers on the left are the buers.
With Rgain removed (open circuited), they are simple
unity gain buers; the circuit will work in that state, with
V1 R2 R3
gain simply equal to R3 /R2 and high input impedance be-
cause of the buers. The buer gain could be increased
R1 by putting resistors between the buer inverting inputs
and ground to shunt away some of the negative feedback;
however, the single resistor Rgain between the two invert-
Rgain Vout ing inputs is a much more elegant method: it increases
the dierential-mode gain of the buer pair while leav-
R1 ing the common-mode gain equal to 1. This increases the
common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of the circuit and
V2 also enables the buers to handle much larger common-
R2 R3 mode signals without clipping than would be the case if
they were separate and had the same gain. Another bene-
t of the method is that it boosts the gain using a single re-
Typical instrumentation amplier schematic sistor rather than a pair, thus avoiding a resistor-matching
problem, and very conveniently allowing the gain of the
er is a type of dierential amplier that has been outt- circuit to be changed by changing the value of a single
ted with input buer ampliers, which eliminate the need resistor. A set of switch-selectable resistors or even a po-
for input impedance matching and thus make the ampli- tentiometer can be used for Rgain , providing easy changes
er particularly suitable for use in measurement and test to the gain of the circuit, without the complexity of hav-
equipment. Additional characteristics include very low ing to switch matched pairs of resistors.
DC oset, low drift, low noise, very high open-loop gain,The ideal common-mode gain of an instrumentation am-
very high common-mode rejection ratio, and very high plier is zero. In the circuit shown, common-mode gain
input impedances. Instrumentation ampliers are used is caused by mismatch in the resistor ratios R2 /R3 and
where great accuracy and stability of the circuit both short
by the mis-match in common mode gains of the two in-
and long-term are required. put op-amps. Obtaining very closely matched resistors is
Although the instrumentation amplier is usually shown a signicant diculty in fabricating these circuits,
[3]
as is
schematically identical to a standard operational ampli- optimizing the common mode performance.
er (op-amp), the electronic instrumentation amp is al- An instrumentation amp can also be built with two op-
most always internally composed of 3 op-amps. These amps to save on cost, but the gain must be higher than
are arranged so that there is one op-amp to buer each two (+6 dB).[4][5]
input (+,), and one to produce the desired output with
Instrumentation ampliers can be built with individual
adequate impedance matching for the function.[1][2]
op-amps and precision resistors, but are also available in
The most commonly used instrumentation amplier cir- integrated circuit form from several manufacturers (in-
cuit is shown in the gure. The gain of the circuit is cluding Texas Instruments, Analog Devices, Linear Tech-
nology and Maxim Integrated Products). An IC instru-
mentation amplier typically contains closely matched
( )
Vout 2R1 R3 laser-trimmed resistors, and therefore oers excellent
= 1+ common-mode rejection. Examples include AD8221,
V2 V1 Rgain R2
18
4.3. EXTERNAL LINKS 19
4.2 References
[1] R.F. Coughlin, F.F. Driscoll Operational Ampliers and
Linear Integrated Circuits (2nd Ed.1982. ISBN 0-13-
637785-8) p.161.
Comparator
For other uses, see Comparator (disambiguation). to swing below the negative rail and above the positive
rail, although by a narrow margin of only 0.2 V.[3] Dier-
In electronics, a comparator is a device that compares ential input voltage (the voltage between two inputs) of a
modern rail-to-rail comparator is usually limited only by
two voltages or currents and outputs a digital signal indi-
cating which is larger. It has two analog input terminals the full swing of power supply.
V+ and V and one binary digital output Vo . The output
is ideally
5.2 Op-amp voltage comparator
{
1, if V+ > V
Vo =
0, if V+ < V
V1
A comparator consists of a specialized high-gain Vout
dierential amplier. They are commonly used in devices V2
that measure and digitize analog signals, such as analog-
to-digital converters (ADCs), as well as relaxation oscil-
lators. A simple op-amp comparator
20
5.4. KEY SPECIFICATIONS 21
has a lengthy recovery time from saturation. Almost though the performance still lags that of circuits with am-
all op-amps have an internal compensation capaci- pliers using analog signals. Slew rate has no meaning
tor which imposes slew rate limitations for high fre- for these devices. For applications in ash ADCs the dis-
quency signals. Consequently, an op-amp makes a tributed signal across eight ports matches the voltage and
sloppy comparator with propagation delays that can current gain after each amplier, and resistors then be-
be as long as tens of microseconds. have as level-shifters.
The LM339 accomplishes this with an open collector out-
2. Since op-amps do not have any internal hysteresis,
put. When the inverting input is at a higher voltage than
an external hysteresis network is always necessary
the non inverting input, the output of the comparator con-
for slow moving input signals.
nects to the negative power supply. When the non invert-
3. The quiescent current specication of an op-amp is ing input is higher than the inverting input, the output
valid only when the feedback is active. Some op- is 'oating' (has a very high impedance to ground). The
amps show an increased quiescent current when the gain of op amp as comparator is given by this equation
inputs are not equal. V(out)=V(in)
6. Many op-amps have back to back diodes between 5.4.1 Speed and power
their inputs. Op-amp inputs usually follow each
other so this is ne. But comparator inputs are not While in general comparators are fast, their circuits are
usually the same. The diodes can cause unexpected not immune to the classic speed-power tradeo. High
current through inputs. speed comparators use transistors with larger aspect ra-
tios and hence also consume more power.[6] Depend-
ing on the application, select either a comparator with
5.3 Working high speed or one that saves power. For example, nano-
powered comparators in space-saving chip-scale pack-
A dedicated voltage comparator will generally be faster ages (UCSP), DFN or SC70 packages such as MAX9027,
than a general-purpose operational amplier pressed into LTC1540, LPV7215, MAX9060 and MCP6541 are
service as a comparator. A dedicated voltage comparator ideal for ultra-low-power, portable applications. Like-
may also contain additional features such as an accurate, wise if a comparator is needed to implement a relax-
internal voltage reference, an adjustable hysteresis and a ation oscillator circuit to create a high speed clock sig-
clock gated input. nal then comparators having few nano seconds of prop-
agation delay may be suitable. ADCMP572 (CML out-
A dedicated voltage comparator chip such as LM339 is put), LMH7220 (LVDS Output), MAX999 (CMOS out-
designed to interface with a digital logic interface (to a put / TTL output), LT1719 (CMOS output / TTL output),
TTL or a CMOS). The output is a binary state often MAX9010 (TTL output), and MAX9601 (PECL output)
used to interface real world signals to digital circuitry (see are examples of some good high speed comparators.
analog to digital converter). If there is a xed voltage
source from, for example, a DC adjustable device in the
signal path, a comparator is just the equivalent of a cas- 5.4.2 Hysteresis
cade of ampliers. When the voltages are nearly equal,
the output voltage will not fall into one of the logic lev- A comparator normally changes its output state when the
els, thus analog signals will enter the digital domain with voltage between its inputs crosses through approximately
unpredictable results. To make this range as small as pos- zero volts. Small voltage uctuations due to noise, al-
sible, the amplier cascade is high gain. The circuit con- ways present on the inputs, can cause undesirable rapid
sists of mainly Bipolar transistors. For very high frequen- changes between the two output states when the input
cies, the input impedance of the stages is low. This re- voltage dierence is near zero volts. To prevent this out-
duces the saturation of the slow, large P-N junction bipo- put oscillation, a small hysteresis of a few millivolts is in-
lar transistors that would otherwise lead to long recovery tegrated into many modern comparators.[7] For example,
times. Fast small Schottky diodes, like those found in bi- the LTC6702, MAX9021 and MAX9031 have internal
nary logic designs, improve the performance signicantly hysteresis desensitizing them from input noise. In place
22 CHAPTER 5. COMPARATOR
of one switching point, hysteresis introduces two: one for high, open drain comparators can also be used to connect
rising voltages, and one for falling voltages. The dier- multiple comparators on to a single bus. Push pull out-
ence between the higher-level trip value (VTRIP+) and put does not need a pull up resistor and can also source
the lower-level trip value (VTRIP-) equals the hysteresis current unlike an open drain output.
voltage (VHYST).
If the comparator does not have internal hysteresis or
if the input noise is greater than the internal hysteresis
5.4.4 Internal reference
then an external hysteresis network can be built using
The most frequent application for comparators is the
positive feedback from the output to the non-inverting
comparison between a voltage and a stable reference.
input of the comparator. The resulting Schmitt trig-
Most comparator manufacturers also oer comparators
ger circuit gives additional noise immunity and a cleaner
in which a reference voltage is integrated on to the chip.
output signal. Some comparators such as LMP7300,
Combining the reference and comparator in one chip
LTC1540, MAX931, MAX971 and ADCMP341 also
not only saves space, but also draws less supply cur-
provide the hysteresis control through a separate hystere-
rent than a comparator with an external reference.[9]
sis pin. These comparators make it possible to add a pro-
ICs with wide range of references are available such as
grammable hysteresis without feedback or complicated
MAX9062 (200 mV reference), LT6700 (400 mV ref-
equations. Using a dedicated hysteresis pin is also conve-
erence), ADCMP350 (600 mV reference), MAX9025
nient if the source impedance is high since the inputs are
(1.236 V reference), MAX9040 (2.048 V reference),
isolated from the hysteresis network.[8] When hysteresis
TLV3012 (1.24 V reference) and TSM109 (2.5 V ref-
is added then a comparator cannot resolve signals within
erence).
the hysteresis band.
is usually on the inverting input (). (A circuit diagram This circuit requires only a single comparator with
would display the inputs according to their sign with re- an open-drain output as in the LM393, TLV3011 or
spect to the output when a particular input is greater than MAX9028. The circuit provides great exibility in
the other.) The output is either positive or negative, for choosing the voltages to be translated by using a suitable
example 12 V. In this case, the idea is to detect when pull up voltage. It also allows the translation of bipolar
there is no dierence between in the input voltages. This 5 V logic to unipolar 3 V logic by using a comparator
gives the identity of the unknown voltage since the refer- like the MAX972.[9]
ence voltage is known.
When using a comparator as a null detector, there are lim-
5.5.5 Analog-to-digital converters
its as to the accuracy of the zero value measurable. Zero
output is given when the magnitude of the dierence in
When a comparator performs the function of telling if
the voltages multiplied by the gain of the amplier is less
an input voltage is above or below a given threshold, it
than the voltage limits. For example, if the gain of the
is essentially performing a 1-bit quantization. This func-
amplier is 106 , and the voltage limits are 6 V, then no
tion is used in nearly all analog to digital converters (such
output will be given if the dierence in the voltages is less
as ash, pipeline, successive approximation, delta-sigma
than 6 V. One could refer to this as a sort of uncertainty
modulation, folding, interpolating, dual-slope and others)
in the measurement.[11]
in combination with other devices to achieve a multi-bit
quantization.[14]
5.5.2 Zero-crossing detectors
5.5.6 Window detectors
For this type of detector, a comparator detects each time
an ac pulse changes polarity. The output of the compara- Comparators can also be used as window detectors. In a
tor changes state each time the pulse changes its polarity, window detector, a comparator is used to compare two
that is the output is HI (high) for a positive pulse and LO voltages and determine whether a given input voltage is
(low) for a negative pulse squares the input signal.[12] under voltage or over voltage.
Sorting network
5.5.4 Level shifter
Zero crossing threshold detector
5.7 References
[1] LM111/LM211/LM311 datasheet. Texas Instruments.
August 2003. Retrieved 2014-07-02.
Op amp integrator
6.1 Applications
25
26 CHAPTER 6. OP AMP INTEGRATOR
Furthermore, the capacitor has a voltage-current relation- currents ( IB ). This can cause several issues for the
ship governed by the equation: ideal design; most importantly, if vin = 0 , both the
output oset voltage and the input bias current IB can
cause current to pass through the capacitor, causing
dVc the output voltage to drift over time until the op-amp
IC = C
dt saturates. Similarly, if vin were a signal centered about
zero volts (i.e. without a DC component), no drift would
Substituting the appropriate variables:
be expected in an ideal circuit, but may occur in a real
circuit. To negate the eect of the input bias current, it
is necessary to set:
vin v2 d(v2 vo )
= CF Ron = R1 ||Rf ||RL . The error voltage then becomes:
R1 dt
v2 = v1 = 0 in an ideal op-amp, resulting in:
vin dvo
= CF
R1 dt
Integrating both sides with respect to time:
( )
Rf
VE = + 1 VIOS
t t R1
vin dvo
dt = CF dt
0 R1 0 dt
If the initial value of vo is assumed to be 0 V, this results
in a DC error of:[2]
t
1 The input bias current thus causes the same voltage drops
vo = vin dt
R1 CF 0 at both the positive and negative terminals.
Also, in a DC steady state, the capacitor acts as an open
6.2.2 Practical circuit circuit. The DC gain of the ideal circuit is therefore in-
nite (or in practice, the open-loop gain of a non-ideal
op-amp). To counter this, a large resistor RF is inserted
in parallel with the feedback capacitor, as shown in the
gure above. This limits the DC gain of the circuit to a
nite value, and hence changes the output drift into a -
nite, preferably small, DC error. Referring to the above
diagram:
( )
Rf
VE = + 1 (VIOS + IBI (Rf R1 ))
R1
The ideal circuit is not a practical integrator design for where VIOS is the input oset voltage and IBI is the input
a number of reasons. Practical op-amps have a nite bias current on the inverting terminal. Rf R1 indicates
open-loop gain, an input oset voltage and input bias two resistance values in parallel.
6.4. REFERENCES 27
6.3 Frequency response [2] AN1177 Op Amp Precision Design: DC Errors (PDF).
Microchip. 2 January 2008. Archived from the original
on 2013-01-11. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
1
fb =
2R1 CF
The 3 dB cuto frequency fa of the practical circuit is
given by:
1
fa =
2RF CF
The practical integrator circuit is equivalent to an active
rst-order low-pass lter. The gain is relatively constant
up to the cuto frequency and decreases by 20 dB per
decade beyond it. The integration operation occurs for
frequencies in the range [fa , fb ] , provided that fa < fb .
This condition can be achieved by appropriate choice of
RF CF and R1 CF time constants.
6.4 References
[1] Transducers with Charge Output
Chapter 7
Gyrator
v2 = Ri1
v1 = Ri2
where R is the gyration resistance of the gyrator.
The gyration resistance (or equivalently its reciprocal the
gyration conductance) has an associated direction indi-
cated by an arrow on the schematic diagram.[3] By con-
vention, the given gyration resistance or conductance re-
Tellegens proposed symbol for his gyrator
lates the voltage on the port at the head of the arrow to the
current at its tail. The voltage at the tail of the arrow is
related to the current at its head by minus the stated resis-
Tellegen invented a circuit symbol for the gyrator and tance. Reversing the arrow is equivalent to negating the
suggested a number of ways in which a practical gyrator gyration resistance, or to reversing the polarity of either
might be built. port.
An important property of a gyrator is that it inverts the Although a gyrator is characterized by its resistance value,
current-voltage characteristic of an electrical component it is a lossless component. From the governing equa-
or network. In the case of linear elements, the impedance tions, the instantaneous power into the gyrator is iden-
is also inverted. In other words, a gyrator can make a tically zero.
capacitive circuit behave inductively, a series LC circuit
behave like a parallel LC circuit, and so on. It is primarily
used in active lter design and miniaturization. P = v1 i1 + v2 i2 = (Ri2 )i1 + (Ri1 )i2 0
28
7.2. NAME 29
( )
Zin = (RL + jRL RC) R + 1
jC
RL
Z in With RLRC = L, it can be seen that the impedance of
the simulated inductor is the desired impedance in par-
allel with the impedance of the RC circuit. In typical
designs, R is chosen to be suciently large such that the
rst term dominates; thus, the RC circuits eect on input
C impedance is negligible.
R Zin = RL + jRL RC
This is the same as a resistance RL in series with an in-
ductance L = RLRC. There is a practical limit on the min-
RL imum value that RL can take, determined by the current
output capability of the op amp.
Z in
L=R L RC 7.4.2 Comparison with actual inductors
Simulated elements are electronic circuits that imitate ac-
tual elements. Simulated elements cannot replace physi-
cal inductors in all the possible applications as they do not
possess all the unique properties of physical inductors.
An example of a gyrator simulating inductance, with an approx- Magnitudes. In typical applications, both the inductance
imate equivalent circuit below. The two Z have similar values
and the resistance of the gyrator are much greater than
in typical applications. Circuit from Berndt & Dutta Roy (1969)
that of a physical inductor. Gyrators can be used to create
inductors from the microhenry range up to the megahenry
7.4 Application: a simulated in- range. Physical inductors are typically limited to tens of
henries, and have parasitic series resistances from hun-
ductor dreds of microhms through the low kilohm range. The
parasitic resistance of a gyrator depends on the topology,
A gyrator can be used to transform a load capacitance but with the topology shown, series resistances will typi-
into an inductance. At low frequencies and low pow- cally range from tens of ohms through hundreds of kilo-
ers, the behaviour of the gyrator can be reproduced by hms.
a small op-amp circuit. This supplies a means of provid- Quality. Physical capacitors are often much closer to
ing an inductive element in a small electronic circuit or ideal capacitors than physical inductors are to ideal in-
integrated circuit. Before the invention of the transistor, ductors. Because of this, a synthesized inductor realized
coils of wire with large inductance might be used in with a gyrator and a capacitor may, for certain applica-
electronic lters. An inductor can be replaced by a much tions, be closer to an ideal inductor than any (practical)
smaller assembly containing a capacitor, operational am- physical inductor can be. Thus, use of capacitors and
pliers or transistors, and resistors. This is especially use- gyrators may improve the quality of lter networks that
ful in integrated circuit technology. would otherwise be built using inductors. Also, the Q fac-
tor of a synthesized inductor can be selected with ease.
The Q of an LC lter can be either lower or higher than
7.4.1 Operation that of an actual LC lter for the same frequency, the
inductance is much higher, the capacitance much lower,
In the circuit shown, one port of the gyrator is between the but the resistance also higher. Gyrator inductors typically
input terminal and ground, while the other port is termi- have higher accuracy than physical inductors, due to the
nated with the capacitor. The circuit works by inverting lower cost of precision capacitors than inductors.
and multiplying the eect of the capacitor in an RC dif-
ferentiating circuit where the voltage across the resistor Energy storage. Simulated inductors do not have the
R behaves through time in the same manner as the volt- inherent energy storing properties of the real inductors
age across an inductor. The op-amp follower buers this and this limits the possible power applications. The cir-
voltage and applies it back to the input through the resis- cuit cannot respond like a real inductor to sudden input
tor RL. The desired eect is an impedance of the form changes (it does not produce a high-voltage back EMF);
of an ideal inductor L with a series resistance RL: its voltage response is limited by the power supply. Since
gyrators use active circuits, they only function as a gyra-
Z = RL + jL tor within the power supply range of the active element.
From the diagram, the input impedance of the op-amp Hence gyrators are usually not very useful for situations
circuit is: requiring simulation of the 'yback' property of induc-
7.5. PASSIVE GYRATORS 31
tors, where a large voltage spike is caused when current cuits to build an active gyrator are either expensive
is interrupted. A gyrators transient response is limited or non-existent. However, passive gyrators are pos-
by the bandwidth of the active device in the circuit and sible.
by the power supply.
Power conversion, where a coil is used as energy
Externalities. Simulated inductors do not react to ex- storage.
ternal magnetic elds and permeable materials the same
way that real inductors do. They also don't create mag-
netic elds (and induce currents in external conductors)
the same way that real inductors do. This limits their use
7.5 Passive gyrators
in applications such as sensors, detectors and transducers.
Numerous passive circuits exist in theory for a gyrator
Grounding. The fact that one side of the simulated in- function. However, when constructed of lumped ele-
ductor is grounded restricts the possible applications (real ments there are always negative elements present. These
inductors are oating). This limitation may preclude its negative elements have no corresponding real component
use in some low-pass and notch lters.[11] However the so cannot be implemented in isolation. Such circuits can
gyrator can be used in a oating conguration with an- be used in practice, in lter design for instance, if the
other gyrator so long as the oating grounds are tied negative elements are absorbed into an adjacent positive
together. This allows for a oating gyrator, but the induc- element. Once active components are permitted, how-
tance simulated across the input terminals of the gyrator ever, a negative element can easily be implemented with a
pair must be cut in half for each gyrator to ensure that negative impedance converter. For instance, a real capac-
the desired inductance is met (the impedance of induc- itor can be transformed into an equivalent negative induc-
tors in series adds together). This is not typically done as tor. A passive gyrator that does not have the drawback of
it requires even more components than in a standard con- negative elements is the quarter-wave impedance trans-
guration and the resulting inductance is a result of two former which is widely used in microwave circuits. This
simulated inductors, each with half of the desired induc- is an example of a distributed element circuit.[14]
tance.
[3] Chua, Leon, EECS-100 Op Amp Gyrator Circuit Synthe- LC lter design using equal value R gyrator, an al-
sis and Applications (PDF), Univ. of Calif. at Berkeley, ternative design
retrieved May 3, 2010
An alternative circuit
[4] Fox, A. G.; Miller, S. E.; Weiss, M. T.. (January 1955).
Behavior and Applications of Ferrites in the Microwave Webarchive backup: Another alternative circuit
Region (PDF). The Bell System Technical Journal. 34
(1): 5103. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1955.tb03763.x. Discussion of the gyrator in general and a macro for
Micro-Cap V
[5] Graphic Symbols for Electrical and Electronics Diagrams
(Including Reference Designation Letters): IEEE-315-1975 Java simulation of this circuit
(Rearmed 1993), ANSI Y32.2-1975 (Rearmed 1989),
CSA Z99-1975. IEEE and ANSI, New York, NY. 1993. Single transistor gyrator for telephony applications
[6] Hogan, C. Lester (January 1952). The Ferromagnetic SPICE Analysis of gyrator for telephony applica-
Faraday Eect at Microwave Frequencies and its Ap- tions
plications - The Microwave Gyrator. The Bell System
Technical Journal. 31 (1): 131. doi:10.1002/j.1538- Negative oating inductor with only 2 Op-amps
7305.1952.tb01374.x. Article here
[7] The IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electron-
ics terms (6th ed.). IEEE. 1996 [1941]. ISBN 1-55937-
833-6.
[8] Theodore Deliyannis, Yichuang Sun, J. Kel Fidler,
Continuous-time active lter design, pp.81-82, CRC Press,
1999 ISBN 0-8493-2573-0.
[9] Arthur Garratt, Milestones in electronics: an interview
with professor Bernard Tellegen, Wireless World, vol. 85,
no. 1521, pp. 133-140, May 1979.
[10] Forbes T. Brown, Engineering System Dynamics, pp. 56-
57, CRC Press, 2006 ISBN 0849396484.
[11] Carter, Bruce (July 2001). An audio circuit collection,
Part 3 (PDF). Analog Applications Journal. Texas In-
struments. SLYT134.. Carter page 1 states, The fact
that one side of the inductor is grounded precludes its use
in low-pass and notch lters, leaving high-pass and band-
pass lters as the only possible applications.
[12] Joe Randolph. AN-5: Transformer-based phone line in-
terfaces (DAA, FXO)".
[13] Gyrator - DC Holding Circuit
[14] Matthaei, George L.; Young, Leo and Jones, E. M. T. Mi-
crowave Filters, Impedance-Matching Networks, and Cou-
pling Structures, pp. 434-440, McGraw-Hill 1964 (1980
edition is ISBN 0-89006-099-1).
[15] Clarence W. de Silva, Mechatronics: An Integrated Ap-
proach, pp. 62-65, CRC Press, 2004 ISBN 0203502787.
[16] Forbes T. Brown, Engineering System Dynamics, pp. 57-
58, CRC Press, 2006 ISBN 0849396484.
The negative impedance converter (NIC) is a one-port The current going from the operational amplier output
op-amp circuit acting as a negative load which injects en- through resistor R3 toward the source Vs is Is , and
ergy into circuits in contrast to an ordinary load that con-
sumes energy from them. This is achieved by adding or
subtracting excessive varying voltage in series to the volt- R
Vopamp Vs 2
R2 8.2 Application
VS
Is Rs -Rs ZL
33
34 CHAPTER 8. NEGATIVE IMPEDANCE CONVERTER
resistance, and the INIC has the same magnitude but in- 8.3 See also
verted resistance value, there will be Rs and Rs in par-
allel. Hence, the equivalent resistance is Negative resistance
The ideal behavior in this application depends upon the [2] Mehrotra, S. R. (2005). The Synthetic oating negative
Norton resistance Rs and the INIC resistance RNIC being inductor using only two op-amps. Electronics World. 111
matched perfectly. As long as RINIC > Rs , the equiva- (1827): 47.
lent resistance of the combination will be greater than Rs [3] US patent 3493901, Deboo, G. J., Gyrator type circuit,
; however, if RINIC Rs , then the eect of the INIC issued 1970-02-03, assigned to NASA
will be negligible. However, when
1 1 1
8.5 External links
> + , when (i.e., RINIC < Rs RL )
RINIC Rs RL
Introduction to Negative Impedance Converters
the circuit is unstable (e.g., when RINIC < Rs in an un- Nonlinear Circuit Analysis
loaded system). In particular, the surplus current from the
INIC generates positive feedback that causes the voltage
driving the load to reach its power supply limits. By re-
ducing the impedance of the load (i.e., by causing the load
to draw more current), the generatorNIC system can be
rendered stable again.
In principle, if the Norton equivalent current source was
replaced with a Norton equivalent voltage source, a VNIC
of equivalent magnitude could be placed in series with
the voltage sources series resistance. Any voltage drop
across the series resistance would then be added back to
the circuit by the VNIC. However, a VNIC implemented
as above with an operational amplier must terminate
on an electrical ground, and so this use is not practi-
cal. Because any voltage source with nonzero series resis-
tance can be represented as an equivalent current source
with nite parallel resistance, an INIC will typically be
placed in parallel with a source when used to improve the
impedance of the source.
Precision rectier
The precision rectier, also known as a super diode, high open loop gain operational amplier, the output sat-
is a conguration obtained with an operational amplierurates. If the input then becomes positive again, the op-
in order to have a circuit behave like an ideal diode and
amp has to get out of the saturated state before positive
rectier.[1] It is useful for high-precision signal process-
amplication can take place again. This change gener-
ing. ates some ringing and takes some time, greatly reducing
The op-amp based precision rectier should not be con- the frequency response of the circuit.
fused with the power MOSFET-based active rectication
ideal diode.
9.2 Improved circuit
9.1 Basic circuit
R2
Vin
D2
R1
Vin
Vout Vout
D1
RL
35
36 CHAPTER 9. PRECISION RECTIFIER
-R2
R1
Vin
Vin
Vout
Peak detector
9.4 References
[1] Paul Horowitz and Wineld Hill, The Art of Electronics.
2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1989
ISBN 0-521-37095-7
Log amplier
( )
Vin
Vout = K ln
Vref
R VBE = Vout
Vin ( VBE )
Vout VBE
IC = ISO e VT 1 ISO e VT
( )
IC
VBE = VT ln
ISO
where ISO is the saturation current of the emitter-base
Basic op-amp diode log converter diode and VT is the thermal voltage. Due to the virtual
ground at the op amp dierential input,
The relationship between the input voltage Vin and the
output voltage Vout is given by:
Vin
IC =
( ) R1
Vin ( )
Vout = VT ln Vin
IS R Vout = VT ln
ISO R1
where IS and VT are the saturation current and the thermal The output voltage is expressed as the natural log of the
voltage of the diode respectively. input voltage. Both the saturation current ISO and the
thermal voltage VT are temperature dependent, hence,
temperature compensating circuits may be required.
10.2 Transdiode conguration
10.3 See also
A necessary condition for successful operation of a log
amplier is that the input voltage, V , is always positive.
Diode
This may be ensured by using a rectier and lter to con-
dition the input signal before applying it to the log amp Operational amplier applications Logarithmic
input. As V is positive, V is obliged to be negative output
37
38 CHAPTER 10. LOG AMPLIFIER
Voltage regulator
39
40 CHAPTER 11. VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Basic design principle and circuit diagram for the rotating-coil 11.4.3 PWM static voltage regulator
AC voltage regulator.
This is the latest technology of voltage regulation to pro-
vide real-time control of voltage uctuation, sag, surge
This is an older type of regulator used in the 1920s that
and also to control other power quality issues such as
uses the principle of a xed-position eld coil and a sec-
spikes and EMI/RFI electrical noises. This uses an
ond eld coil that can be rotated on an axis in parallel with
IGBT regulator engine generating pulse width modulated
the xed coil, similar to a variocoupler.
(PWM) AC voltage at high switching frequency. This AC
When the movable coil is positioned perpendicular to the PWM wave is superimposed on the main incoming wave
xed coil, the magnetic forces acting on the movable coil through a buck-boost transformer, to provide precisely
balance each other out and voltage output is unchanged. regulated AC voltage. The regulation in this technology is
Rotating the coil in one direction or the other away from instantaneous, thus making it suitable for electronic ma-
the center position will increase or decrease voltage in the chines which need precise regulated power.
secondary movable coil.
This type of regulator can be automated via a servo con-
trol mechanism to advance the movable coil position in 11.4.4 Constant-voltage transformer
order to provide voltage increase or decrease. A braking
mechanism or high ratio gearing is used to hold the ro- The ferroresonant transformer, ferroresonant regu-
tating coil in place against the powerful magnetic forces lator or constant-voltage transformer is a type of sat-
acting on the moving coil. urating transformer used as a voltage regulator. These
transformers use a tank circuit composed of a high-
voltage resonant winding and a capacitor to produce a
nearly constant average output voltage with a varying in-
put current or varying load. The circuit has a primary
on one side of a magnet shunt and the tuned circuit coil
and secondary on the other side. The regulation is due to
magnetic saturation in the section around the secondary.
The ferroresonant approach is attractive due to its lack of
active components, relying on the square loop saturation
characteristics of the tank circuit to absorb variations in
average input voltage. Saturating transformers provide a
simple rugged method to stabilize an AC power supply.
Older designs of ferroresonant transformers had an output
with high harmonic content, leading to a distorted output
waveform. Modern devices are used to construct a perfect
sine wave. The ferroresonant action is a ux limiter rather
than a voltage regulator, but with a xed supply frequency
it can maintain an almost constant average output voltage
Magnetic mains regulator
even as the input voltage varies widely.
The ferroresonant transformers, which are also known as
42 CHAPTER 11. VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Constant Voltage Transformers (CVTs) or ferros, are also use out-dated technology.
good surge suppressors, as they provide high isolation and Voltage regulators are used in devices like air condition-
inherent short-circuit protection. ers, refrigerators, televisions etc. in order to protect them
A ferroresonant transformer can operate with an input from uctuating input voltage. The major problem faced
voltage range 40% or more of the nominal voltage. is the use of relays in voltage regulators. Relays create
Output power factor remains in the range of 0.96 or sparks which result in faults in the product.
higher from half to full load.
Because it regenerates an output voltage waveform, out-
put distortion, which is typically less than 4%, is indepen-
dent of any input voltage distortion, including notching.
Eciency at full load is typically in the range of 89%
to 93%. However, at low loads, eciency can drop be-
low 60%. The current-limiting capability also becomes
a handicap when a CVT is used in an application with
moderate to high inrush current like motors, transform-
ers or magnets. In this case, the CVT has to be sized to
accommodate the peak current, thus forcing it to run at
low loads and poor eciency.
Minimum maintenance is required, as transformers and
capacitors can be very reliable. Some units have included
A three-phase bank of voltage regulators used to control the volt-
redundant capacitors to allow several capacitors to fail age on long AC power distribution lines. This bank is mounted
between inspections without any noticeable eect on the on a wooden pole structure. Each regulator weighs about 2600
devices performance. lbs and is rated 576 kVA.
Output voltage varies about 1.2% for every 1% change
in supply frequency. For example, a 2 Hz change in gen-
erator frequency, which is very large, results in an output
voltage change of only 4%, which has little eect for most 11.5 DC voltage stabilizers
loads.
Many simple DC power supplies regulate the voltage us-
It accepts 100% single-phase switch-mode power supply
ing either series or shunt regulators, but most apply a
loading without any requirement for derating, including
voltage reference using a shunt regulator such as a Zener
all neutral components.
diode, avalanche breakdown diode, or voltage regulator
Input current distortion remains less than 8% THD even tube. Each of these devices begins conducting at a speci-
when supplying nonlinear loads with more than 100% ed voltage and will conduct as much current as required
current THD. to hold its terminal voltage to that specied voltage by
Drawbacks of CVTs are their larger size, audible hum- diverting excess current from a non-ideal power source
ming sound, and the high heat generation caused by sat- to ground, often through a relatively low-value resistor
uration. to dissipate the excess energy. The power supply is de-
signed to only supply a maximum amount of current that
is within the safe operating capability of the shunt regu-
11.4.5 Commercial use lating device.
If the stabilizer must provide more power, the shunt reg-
Voltage regulators or stabilizers are used to compensate ulator output is only used to provide the standard voltage
for voltage uctuations in mains power. Large regula- reference for the electronic device, known as the voltage
tors may be permanently installed on distribution lines. stabilizer. The voltage stabilizer is the electronic device,
Small portable regulators may be plugged in between sen- able to deliver much larger currents on demand.
sitive equipment and a wall outlet. Automatic voltage
regulators are used on generator sets on ships, in emer-
gency power supplies, on oil rigs, etc. to stabilize uc-
tuations in power demand. For example, when a large 11.6 Active regulators
machine is turned on, the demand for power is suddenly
a lot higher. The voltage regulator compensates for the Active regulators employ at least one active (amplifying)
change in load. Commercial voltage regulators normally component such as a transistor or operational amplier.
operate on a range of voltages, for example 150240 V Shunt regulators are often (but not always) passive and
or 90280 V. Servo stabilizers are also manufactured and simple, but always inecient because they (essentially)
used widely in spite of the fact that they are obsolete and dump the excess current not the load. When more power
11.6. ACTIVE REGULATORS 43
Switching regulators
SCR regulators
See also: Switched-mode power supply Switching regulators are best when power eciency
Switching regulators rapidly switch a series device on and is critical (such as in portable computers), except that
o. The duty cycle of the switch sets how much charge linear regulators are more ecient in a small num-
is transferred to the load. This is controlled by a simi- ber of cases (such as a 5 V microprocessor often in
lar feedback mechanism as in a linear regulator. Because sleep mode fed from a 6 V battery, if the com-
the series element is either fully conducting, or switched plexity of the switching circuit and the junction ca-
o, it dissipates almost no power; this is what gives the pacitance charging current means a high quiescent
switching design its eciency. Switching regulators are current in the switching regulator)
also able to generate output voltages which are higher than
the input, or of opposite polarity something not pos- Switching regulators are required when the only
sible with a linear design. power supply is a DC voltage, and a higher output
voltage is required.
Like linear regulators, nearly complete switching regula-
tors are also available as integrated circuits. Unlike linear At power levels above a few watts, switching regula-
regulators, these usually require an inductor that acts as tors are cheaper (for example, the cost of removing
the energy storage element.[1][2] heat generated is less)
44 CHAPTER 11. VOLTAGE REGULATOR
11.6.4 SCR regulators stant output voltage, Uout, for changes in the voltage of
the power source, Uin, and for changes in load, RL, pro-
Regulators powered from AC power circuits can use vided that Uin exceeds Uout by a sucient margin, and
silicon controlled rectiers (SCRs) as the series device. that the power handling capacity of the transistor is not
Whenever the output voltage is below the desired value, exceeded.
the SCR is triggered, allowing electricity to ow into the
The output voltage of the stabilizer is equal to the Zener
load until the AC mains voltage passes through zero (end-
diode voltage minus the baseemitter voltage of the tran-
ing the half cycle). SCR regulators have the advantages
sistor, UZ UBE, where UBE is usually about 0.7 V for
of being both very ecient and very simple, but because
a silicon transistor, depending on the load current. If the
they can not terminate an ongoing half cycle of conduc-
output voltage drops for any external reason, such as an
tion, they are not capable of very accurate voltage regula-
increase in the current drawn by the load (causing a de-
tion in response to rapidly changing loads. An alternative
crease in the Collector-Emitter junction voltage to ob-
is the SCR shunt regulator which uses the regulator out-
serve KVL), the transistors baseemitter voltage (UBE)
put as a trigger, both series and shunt designs are noisy,
increases, turning the transistor on further and delivering
but powerful, as the device has a low on resistance.
more current to increase the load voltage again.
Rv provides a bias current for both the Zener diode and
11.6.5 Combination or hybrid regulators the transistor. The current in the diode is minimum
when the load current is maximum. The circuit de-
Many power supplies use more than one regulating signer must choose a minimum voltage that can be toler-
method in series. For example, the output from a switch- ated across Rv, bearing in mind that the higher this volt-
ing regulator can be further regulated by a linear regula- age requirement is, the higher the required input voltage,
tor. The switching regulator accepts a wide range of in- Uin, and hence the lower the eciency of the regula-
put voltages and eciently generates a (somewhat noisy) tor. On the other hand, lower values of Rv lead to higher
voltage slightly above the ultimately desired output. That power dissipation in the diode and to inferior regulator
is followed by a linear regulator that generates exactly the characteristics.[3]
desired voltage and eliminates nearly all the noise gener-
Rv is given by:
ated by the switching regulator. Other designs may use
an SCR regulator as the pre-regulator, followed by an-
Rv = IDmin +IVLmax
Rmin
other type of regulator. An ecient way of creating a /(hF E +1)
variable-voltage, accurate output power supply is to com-
bine a multi-tapped transformer with an adjustable linear where VR min is the minimum voltage to be maintained
post-regulator. across Rv
ID min is the minimum current to be maintained through
the Zener diode
IL max is the maximum design load current
11.7 Example linear regulators hFE is the forward current gain of the transistor (IC/IB).[3]
U U
CE CE
+U +U +U
In
+U
In Out Out
Rv Q R1
Q OA
Rv +
U
BE
U R2
BE U R
_ Out L
U R
Out L
U Dz R3
Z
U Dz
Z
non-inverting input. Using the voltage divider (R1, R2 cycles of the input waveform when rst energized
and R3) allows choice of the arbitrary output voltage be- or switched on. Power converters also often have
tween U and U . inrush currents much higher than their steady state
currents, due to the charging current of the input ca-
pacitance.
11.8 Measures of regulator quality
Absolute maximum ratings are dened for regula-
The output voltage can only be held roughly constant. The tor components, specifying the continuous and peak
regulation is specied by two measurements: output currents that may be used (sometimes inter-
nally limited), the maximum input voltage, maxi-
Load regulation is the change in output voltage for mum power dissipation at a given temperature, etc.
a given change in load current (for example, typ-
ically 15 mV, maximum 100 mV for load currents Output noise (thermal white noise) and output
between 5 mA and 1.4 A, at some specied temper- dynamic impedance may be specied as graphs
ature and input voltage). versus frequency, while output ripple noise (mains
hum or switch-mode hash noise) may be given
Line regulation or input regulation is the degree as peak-to-peak or RMS voltages, or in terms of
to which output voltage changes with input (supply) their spectra.
voltage changes - as a ratio of output to input change
(for example, typically 13 mV/V), or the output
voltage change over the entire specied input volt- Quiescent current in a regulator circuit is the cur-
age range (for example, plus or minus 2% for input rent drawn internally, not available to the load, nor-
voltages between 90 V and 260 V, 50-60 Hz). mally measured as the input current while no load is
connected and hence a source of ineciency (some
linear regulators are, surprisingly, more ecient at
Other important parameters are:
very low current loads than switch-mode designs be-
cause of this).
Temperature coecient of the output voltage is the
change with temperature (perhaps averaged over a
given temperature range). Transient response is the reaction of a regulator
when a (sudden) change of the load current (called
Initial accuracy of a voltage regulator (or simply the load transient) or input voltage (called the line
the voltage accuracy) reects the error in output transient) occurs. Some regulators will tend to os-
voltage for a xed regulator without taking into ac- cillate or have a slow response time which in some
count temperature or aging eects on output accu- cases might lead to undesired results. This value
racy. is dierent from the regulation parameters, as that
is the stable situation denition. The transient re-
Dropout voltage is the minimum dierence be- sponse shows the behaviour of the regulator on a
tween input voltage and output voltage for which the change. This data is usually provided in the tech-
regulator can still supply the specied current. A low nical documentation of a regulator and is also de-
drop-out (LDO) regulator is designed to work well pendent on output capacitance.
even with an input supply of only a Volt or so above
the output voltage. The input-output dierential at
which the voltage regulator will no longer maintain Mirror-image insertion protection means that a
regulation is the dropout voltage. Further reduction regulator is designed for use when a voltage, usually
in input voltage will result in reduced output voltage. not higher than the maximum input voltage of the
This value is dependent on load current and junction regulator, is applied to its output pin while its input
temperature. terminal is at a low voltage, volt-free or grounded.
Some regulators can continuously withstand this sit-
Inrush current or input surge current or switch-on uation. Others might only manage it for a limited
surge is the maximum, instantaneous input current time such as 60 seconds (usually specied in the data
drawn by an electrical device when rst turned on. sheet). For instance, this situation can occur when a
Inrush current usually lasts for half a second, or a three terminal regulator is incorrectly mounted on a
few milliseconds, but it is often very high, which PCB, with the output terminal connected to the un-
makes it dangerous because it can degrade and burn regulated DC input and the input connected to the
components gradually (over months or years), espe- load. Mirror-image insertion protection is also im-
cially if there is no inrush current protection. Al- portant when a regulator circuit is used in battery
ternating current transformers or electric motors in charging circuits, when external power fails or is not
automatic voltage regulators may draw and output turned on and the output terminal remains at battery
several times their normal full-load current for a few voltage.
46 CHAPTER 11. VOLTAGE REGULATOR
DC-to-DC converter
List of LM-series integrated circuits
Low-dropout regulator
11.10 References
[1] Texas Instruments LM2825 Integrated Power Supply 1A
DC-DC Converter, retrieved 2010-09-19
47
48 CHAPTER 12. OPERATIONAL TRANSCONDUCTANCE AMPLIFIER
Earlier versions of the OTA had neither the I termi- Comparison of Operational Transconductance Am-
nal (shown in the diagram) nor the diodes (shown ad- pliers (content found on wayback machine)
jacent to it). They were all added in later versions. As
Examples: CA3080(obsolete product) , MAX
depicted in the diagram, the anodes of the diodes are at-
435(obsolete product) , MAX 436(obsolete prod-
tached together and the cathode of one is attached to the
uct) , LM13700 , OPA860 , OPA861 .
non inverting input (Vin+) and the cathode of the other
to the inverting input (Vin). The diodes are biased at Discussion of alternatives: .
the anodes by a current (I ) that is injected into the I
terminal. These additions make two substantial improve-
ments to the OTA. First, when used with input resistors,
the diodes distort the dierential input voltage to oset a
signicant amount of input stage non linearity at higher
dierential input voltages. According to National Semi-
conductor, the addition of these diodes increases the lin-
earity of the input stage by a factor of 4. That is, using
the diodes, the signal distortion level at 80 mV of dier-
ential input is the same as that of the simple dierential
amplier at a dierential input of 20 mV.[3] Second, the
action of the biased diodes osets much of the tempera-
ture sensitivity of the OTAs transconductance.
A second improvement is the integration of an optional-
use output buer amplier to the chip on which the OTA
resides. This is actually a convenience to a circuit designer
rather than an improvement to the OTA itself; dispensing
with the need to employ a separate buer. It also allows
the OTA to be used as a traditional op-amp, if desired,
by converting its output current to a voltage.
An example of a chip combining both of these features is
the National Semiconductor LM13600 and its successor,
the LM13700.[4]
Chapter 13
Transimpedance amplier
Rf 13.1 DC operation
In the circuit shown above the photodiode is connected
IP between ground and the inverting input of the op-amp.
The other input of the op-amp is also connected to
Vout ground. This provides a low-impedance load for the pho-
todiode, which keeps the photodiode voltage low. The
photodiode is operating in photovoltaic mode with no ex-
ternal bias. The high gain of the op-amp keeps the pho-
todiode current equal to the feedback current through R .
The input oset voltage due to the photodiode is very
low in this self-biased photovoltaic mode. This permits a
Simplied transimpedance amplier large gain without any large output oset voltage. This
conguration is used with photodiodes that are illumi-
nated with low light levels and require a lot of gain.
The DC and low-frequency gain of a transimpedance am-
plier is determined by the equation
Vout
In electronics, a transimpedance amplier (TIA) is Ip = ,
Rf
a current-to-voltage converter, most often implemented
using an operational amplier. The TIA can be used so
to amplify[1] the current output of GeigerMller tubes,
photomultiplier tubes, accelerometers, photo detectors
and other types of sensors to a usable voltage. Current- Vout
= Rf .
to-voltage converters are used with sensors that have a Ip
current response that is more linear than the voltage re-
sponse. This is the case with photodiodes, where it is If the gain is large, any input oset voltage at the non-
not uncommon for the current response to have better inverting input of the op-amp will result in an output DC
than 1% linearity over a wide range of light input. The oset. An input bias current on the inverting terminal
transimpedance amplier presents a low impedance to of the op-amp will similarly result in an output oset.
the photodiode and isolates it from the output voltage To minimize these eects, transimpedance ampliers are
of the operational amplier. In its simplest form a tran- usually designed with FET input op-amps that have very
simpedance amplier has just a large-valued feedback re- low input oset voltages.[3]
sistor, R . The gain of the amplier is set by this resistor An inverting TIA can also be used with the photodiode
and has a value of R (because the amplier is in an in- operating in the photoconductive mode, as shown in the
verting conguration). There are several dierent con- gure. A positive voltage at the cathode of the photo-
gurations of transimpedance ampliers, each suited to diode applies a reverse bias. This reverse bias increases
a particular application. The one factor they all have in the width of the depletion region and lowers the junction
common is the requirement to convert the low-level cur- capacitance, improving the high-frequency performance.
rent of a sensor to a voltage. The gain, bandwidth, as The photoconductive conguration of a transimpedance
well as current and voltage osets, change with dier- photodiode amplier is used where fast switching speed
ent types of sensors, requiring dierent congurations of is required but high gain is not. The feedback capacitor
transimpedance ampliers.[2] C is usually required to improve stability.
49
50 CHAPTER 13. TRANSIMPEDANCE AMPLIFIER
Cf A OL
Rf
I-to-V
Ip Ci Vout gain
1/
f
Incremental model showing sensor capacitance fzf fi fc
The frequency response of a transimpedance amplier Bode plot of uncompensated transimpedance amplier.[5]
is inversely proportional to the gain set by the feedback
resistor. The product of the gain, V /V, is very close In the Bode plot of a transimpedance amplier with no
to being a constant for any given op-amp. The sensors compensation, the at curve with the peak, labeled I-to-
that transimpedance ampliers are used with usually have V gain, is the frequency response of the transimpedance
more capacitance than an op-amp can handle. The sen- amplier. The peaking of the gain curve is typical of
sor can be modeled as a current source and a capacitor uncompensated or poorly compensated transimpedance
C.[4] This capacitance across the input terminals of the ampliers. The curve labeled AOL is the open-loop re-
op-amp, which includes the internal capacitance of the sponse of the amplier. The feedback factor, plotted as
op-amp, introduces a low-pass lter in the feedback path. a reciprocal, is labeled 1/. In Fig. 5 the 1/ curve and
The low-pass response of this lter can be characterized AOL form an equilateral triangle with the frequency axis.
as the feedback factor The two sides have equal but opposite slopes, since one
is the result of a rst-order pole, and the other of a rst-
order zero. Each slope has a magnitude of 20 dB/decade,
XCi 1 corresponding to a phase shift of 90. When the ampli-
= = ,
Rf + XCi 1 + Rf Ci s ers 180 of phase inversion is added to this, the result is
a full 360 at the f intercept, indicated by the dashed ver-
where XCi is the reactance of the capacitance C. This l- tical line. At that intercept, 1/ = AOL for a loop gain of
ter attenuates the feedback signal, which places a greater AOL = 1. Oscillation will occur at the frequency f be-
demand on the amplier gain. cause of the 360 phase shift, or positive feedback, and
[6]
When the eect of this low-pass lter response is consid- the unity gain. To mitigate these eects, designers of
ered, the circuits response equation becomes transimpedance ampliers add a small-value compensat-
ing capacitor (C in the gure above) in parallel with the
feedback resistor. When this feedback capacitor is con-
Ip Rf sidered, the compensated feedback factor becomes
Vout = 1 ,
1 + AOL
1 + Rf Cf s
where AOL is the open-loop gain of the op-amp. = .
1 + Rf (Ci + Cf )s
13.4. SEE ALSO 51
The feedback capacitor produces a zero, or deection in The output-referred voltage noise is directly the volt-
the response curve, at the frequency age noise over the feedback resistance. This Johnson
Nyquist noise has an RMS amplitude
1
fCf = .
2Rf Cf vn,or = 4kB T Rf f .
This counteracts the pole produced by C at the frequency
Though
the output noise voltage increases proportionally
to Rf , the transimpedance increases linearly with Rf
, resulting in an input-referred noise current
1
fzf = .
2Rf (Ci + Cf )
In the Bode plot of a transimpedance amplier that has a 4kB T f
in,ir = .
Rf
|A|
For a good noise performance, a high feedback resis-
A OL tance should thus be used. However, a larger feedback
resistance increases the output voltage swing, and con-
sequently a higher gain from the operational amplier is
needed, demanding an operational amplier with a high
gain-bandwidth product. The feedback resistance and
therefore the sensitivity are thus limited by the required
I-to-V operating frequency of the transimpedance amplier.
gain
1/
13.4 See also
f Photodiode
f zf fi fC
PIN diode
Bode plot of compensated transimpedance amplier[7] Optical communication
13.6.2 Images
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54 CHAPTER 13. TRANSIMPEDANCE AMPLIFIER