The Seven Contemplations of Insight

The Seven
Contemplations
of Insight
A Treatise on
Insight Meditation
Prepared under the guidance of

Venerable Matara
Sri Ñanarama Mahathera
Publisher's Note
This book was prepared under the guidance of the Venerable

Matara Sri Nar:tarc1ma Mahathera, widely recognized as one of Sri
Lanka's outstanding meditation masters of recent times. Born in
the southern town of Matara in 1901, he received novice ordina-
tion (pabbajja) in 1917 and higher ordination (upasampada) in 1922.
From 1967 until his death in 1992 he was the resident meditation
master of the Nissaral).a Vanaya Hermitage at Mitirigala, an aus-
tere monastery devoted to the strict meditative life. He also served
as the head master (pradFianacarya) of the Sri Kalyill).i Yogasrama
Association, a Buddhist monastic organization of the forest tradi-
tion comprising more than a hundred branch monasteries in Sri
Lanka. The Sri Lanka Ramafi:fia Mahanikaya conferred on him the
honorary title of chief preceptor (mahopadhyaya). His numerous pub-
lications in Sinhala include Sapta Visuddhiya-ha-Vidarsanii-gfiii1.1a,
Samatha-Vidarsana Bhavana Margaya, ifnapanasati Bhavana, and
Vidarsana Parapura. (The first of these is published by the BPS in
English translation under the title The Seven Stages of Purification
and the Insight Knowledges.) He was also a prolific author of Bud-
dhist poetry in Sinhala, Pali, and Sanskrit.
The Seven
· Contemplations
of Insight
First published in 1997
Buddhist Publication Society

P.O. Box 61
54, Sangharaja Mawatha
Kandy, Sri Lanka
Copyright© 1997 by The Sangha,

Nissara~;ta Vanaya, Mitirigala
All rights reserved ,
Originally published in Sinhala as Sat Anupassana by Mithra

Wettimuny (1991).
ISBN 955-24-0124-0
Typeset at the BPS
Printed in Sri Lanka by

Karunaratne & Sons Ltd.
Colombo 10
The Seven
Contemplations
of Insight
A Treatise on Insight Meditation
Prepared under the guidance of

Venerable Matara
Sri Nanarama Mahathera
by one of his pupil-monks

based on a treatise of
the Venerable Mahathera
English translation from the Sinhala by

A.G.S. Kariyawasam

Kand y • Sri Lanka
The Seven Contemplations of Insight
Abbreviations
A. Anguttara Nikaya (PTS)

AA. Anguttara Nikaya Atthakatha (SHB)
A ':f. Anguttara Nikaya Tika (BCS)
BCS Burmese script Chattha Sangayana ed.
CNid. Culaniddesa (Sinhala script Buddhajayanti ed.)
D. Digha Nikaya (PTS)
DA. Digha Nikaya Atthakatha (SHB)
DT. Digha Nikaya Tika (SHB)
Dhp. Dhammapada (by verse)
It. Itivuttaka (PTS)
ItA. Itivuttaka Atthakatha (SHB)
KhuA. Khuddakapatha Atthakatha (SHB)
M. Majjhima Nikaya (PTS)
MA. Majjhima Nikaya Atthakatha (SHB)
Pm. Patisambhidamagga (PTS)
PmA. Patisambhidamagga Atthakatha (SHB)
PTS Pali Text Society
Pug. Puggalapa:f\.fiatti (PTS)
S. Samyutta Nikaya (PTS)
SA. Samyutta Nikaya Atthakatha (SHB)
Sn. Suttanipata (by verse)
SHB Sinhala script Simon Hewavitarne Bequest ed.
Thag. Theragatha (by verse)
Ud. Udana (PTS)
Vism. Visuddhimagga (chapter and paragraph of the
translation by Bhikkhu Nat:tamoli, The Path of Puri-
fication)
VismT. Visuddhimagga Tika
i: Sinhala scripted. (Byron Senaviratne)
ii: BSC ed.
vi
Contents
Abbreviations vi
Message: Most Venerable Par:tqita Kaqawadduwe Sri
Jinavamsa Mahathera vii
Foreword: Ven. Nauyane Ariyadhamma Mahathera xi
Compiler's Preface xiii
Introduction 1
1 Contemplation of Impermanence (aniccifnupassanif) 15
2 Contemplation of Suffering (dukkhiinupassanif) 26
3 Contemplation of Non-self (anattifnupassanif) 36
4 Contemplation of Revulsion (nibbidtinupassanif) 50
5 Contemplation of Dispassion (virifgifnupassanif) 62
6 Contemplation of Cessation (nirodhiinupassanif) 74
7 Contemplation of Relinquishment (patinissagifnupassanif) 85
8 Synopsis 96
Appendixes
1 Conventional and Ultimate Truth 104
2 Two Kinds of Knowledge 107
3 The Four Protective Meditations 110
4 Personality View 112
5 The Eighteen Principal Insights 117
Notes 128
Index 160
v
By following the Buddha's instruction and bringing the

faculties into harmony, the Venerable So!fa soon attained
arahantship. After reaching the goal he came to the Master
and delivered an inspiring address in which he described the
nature of the arahant' s mind. The epigram at the beginning
of this Message is part of that description, showing how the
arahant' s mind responds to sense objects. Since the arahant
sees the dissolution of all sense objects, none of them can get
a foothold in his mind.
Let us too develop our own minds to that exalted level.
This will free us from the burdens and sufferings of life and
finally enable us to experience true deliverance and peace of
heart. We have spent enough time wandering mournfully
through the cycle of birth and death, burdening the mind with
all the useless sense objects demanded by the defilements,
just as a trader loads his caravan with merchandise. Let us
now prepare ourselves to cast off this burden. We should aim
to reach the domain of the noble ones by following the path
to free our minds from the deadweight of obstructive pas-
sions and desires. That is the fruit of meditation.
As we constantly engage ourselves in our march towards
peace, our "pilgrim's progress," let us be able to rejoice by
looking at our own forward march. We should not hold to
any suffering but should strive to cast off all suffering by its
total extirpation. Although we may still be surrounded by
suffering, we can be content that we are gradually progressing
towards the state where there is no more suffering, cutting
off suffering along the way. Let us be constantly mindful of
this "pilgrim's progress," for that will surely lead us to the
attainment of our life's purpose.
A lighted lamp, wherever it is placed, dispels the darkness
and spreads light, illuminating all objects in its range. The
change of location makes no difference, for the lamp shines
everywhere alike and does not discriminate one dark place
from another. Let us be like inextinguishable lamps. First we
viii
Message
Most Venerable Pa:q.qita

Kaqawadduwe Sri Jinava:ni.sa Mahathera
Founder-Patron,
Sri Kalyai].i Yogasrama Association
Thus, Lord, even though many diverse forms percepti-

ble by the eye come within the range of sight of a monk
whose mind has been fully liberated thus ... he also
sees their dissolution.
Mahavagga (Vinaya i,184)
The life story of the Venerable Sol).a Thera, one of the promi-
nent disciples of the Buddha, is quite a variegated one on the
right approach to the practice of meditation. As a layman Sol).a
had led a life of extreme luxury. He was brought up in such
comfort, it is said, that hair had grown on the soles of his
feet. He had renounced all this luxury and entered the Order,
but though he applied himself vigorously to his meditation
practice he still could not attain arahantship. Finally, think-
ing that he must be unsuited to the monkhood, he decided to
disrobe and return to the household life.
The Buddha came to know of his decision and paid him a
visit. He taught the Venerable Sol).a the simile of the lute. Just
as a lute can be played only when its strings are neither too
tight nor too loose but in perfect balance, so spiritual progress
on the path of meditation requires proper balance of the five
spiritual faculties: of faith with wisdom, and energy with
concentration, mindfulness acting as the supervisor. In the
Venerable Sol).a's case the faculty of energy was in excess,
and therefore his meditation had not brought forth fruit.
vii
Foreword
Ven. Nauyane Ariyadhamma Mahathera

Hony. Registrar,
Sri Kalya~i Yogasrama Association
The omniscient Buddha declared Nibbana to be the highest

bliss because all other so-called pleasures and comforts are
impermanent and mixed with suffering. Insight meditation
is the sole way, the unequalled path, leading to the eternal
bliss of Nibbana. We often hear the phrase "the thousandfold
path of stream-entry," which implies that there are a thousand
approaches to entering the path of stream-entry. Therefore it
should be understood that numerous methods of insight medi-
tation are available for attaining the peace of Nibbana. The
present treatise, The Seven Contemplations of Insight, draws our
attention to this rich diversity of methods.
This book has been compiled by combining the sermons
and other instructions of the late Venerable Matara Sri
Na.t:tarama Mahathera, the rich discourses contained in the
Sutta Pitaka, and reports on the actual experiences of insight
meditators. The skilful manner in which this treatise has been
composed is highly commendable: by collecting various modes
of insight meditation and relevant information from the Pali
Canon and commentaries, it is comparable to a necklace made
by beading gold and precious gems: As a research study, this
book is invaluable. Intelligent readers will find that to read it
repeatedly and understand its core message is a successful
insight meditation in itself.
The compilation has been made by one of the late
Mahathera's numerous pupils, who had practised meditation
under him for many years and who has proven his ability as
a gifted preacher and writer. Within this book the Buddha's
xi
message of mind development and insight has been recorded

with admirable lucidity. The Venerable Compiler has offered
a magnificent gift of Dhamma by compiling such an impor-
tant treatise. Let me wish him the fulfilment of all his good
wishes. May he obtain: wisdom as deep as that of the Arahant
Sariputta, the Buddha's chief disciple.
The late Venerable Chief Preceptor, by rendering his excel-
lent guidance to the present work, had shown the sole way
to deliverance. Thereby he has enabled those with sufficient
supporting conditions to realize Nibbana in this very life, and
those who have not completed the perfections to reach
Nibbana in a future life. May there be more great masters of
his calibre to uphold the message of the Enlightened One!
May the Buddha's Teaching be firmly established in the
world for a long time to come.
NAUYANE ARIYADHAMMA THERA
Gl.mawardhana Yogasrama Centre

Galduwa, Kahawa
Sri Lanka
xii
Compiler's Preface
In 1981 our teacher, the Most Venerable Matara Sri Nal).arama

Mahathera, delivered a series of discourses on "the eighteen
principal insights" (afthiirasa mahiivipassanii) for the benefit of
the meditating monks at his monastery, the Nissaral).a Vanaya
Hermitage, at Mitirigala. These discourses brought to light
an ancient system of insight meditation comprising eighteen
insights, which had received only scant attention in Buddhist
literature since the age of the great commentators. Fortunately
these lectures were recorded. The other meditators who
listened to the tapes were highly benefited by the Master's
discourses and thus the tapes became very popular.
Portions of the talks were translated into English for the
Western bhikkhus residing at our monastery, several of whom
proposed having the entire series translated into English and
published in book form. The Venerable Master was agreeable
to t~is proposal. However, rather than simply transcribe his
extemporaneous oral discourses, he preferred to compose a
fresh book giving extensive coverage to all the eighteen
insights, using as a basis the canonical and post-canonical texts
as well as the actual experiences of present-day meditators.
When the original text was finished several attempts were
made to have it translated into English, but for various rea-
sons none succeeded.
In the meantime it was decided to revise the original text
on a broader basis. Accordingly, the ancient treatises as well
as modern works on meditation were further scrutinized, and
simultaneously research was carried out on the practical expe-
riences and observations of senior meditators. As a result the
range of information on the principal insights increased
significantly. At the same time various problems arose in
resolving apparent contradictions in the interpretations of the
xiii
insights found in the commentarialliterature. In order to break

this deadlock, it was decided that rather than attempt to treat
all eighteen insights in a comprehensive manner, the book
·would describe the first seven contemplations extensively and
would deal with the other eleven insights only briefly in an
appendix. As the first seven contemplations already formed
a distinct set, the challenge of examining them in detail
promised to be sufficiently rewarding. It is thus that the
present book gradually took shape.
While the book was evolving over the years, our Vener-
able Teacher, who was then in his eighties, grew physically
weaker and more infirm. Because it had become too difficult
for him to collect the relevant passages from the scriptures
and to write the book, these tasks devolved upon us, his
pupils. We took up this responsibility in constant consulta-
tion with our teacher, seeking his advice at every crucial turn,
and at the end we submitted the entire manuscript to him for
his perusal and final approval.
The main purpose of this book is to offer an analysis and
clarification of the "seven contemplations of insight"
(sattrinupassanri), a model of the path of Buddhist meditation
frequently referred to in the Pali commentaries. We have
focused on the pragmatic side of this model, but at the same
time we have tried to be responsive to the theoretical
explanations found in the Pali source material. The work
draws extensively upon the Buddha's discourses from the
Sutta Pi~aka, upon exegetical works such as the Patisam-
bhidrimagga and the Visuddhimagga, and upon the Venerable
Master's own long-time experience of meditation, both as
practitioner and teacher. We have also drawn upon the
meditation experiences and explanations of some of the
master's pupils. Though our approach is generally practical,
we have included discussions of a few controversial points
relating to the theoretical foundations of meditation.
A large body of footnotes has been included. These are
xiv
Compiler's Preface
intended to serve three main purposes: to clarify obscure

points in the basic text; to provide references and signposts
for further investigation; and to offer practical hints to the
meditator. If the reader finds it distracting to refer to the notes
while reading the main body of the exposition, he or she may
read the main text first and then refer to the notes on a later
occasion. The treatise itself, we hope, strikes a happy balance
between practical guidance and theoretical explanation.
Although we have tried to keep the presentation clear and
simple, owing to the intrinsic depth and difficulty of the points
being discussed and the need to be concise the exposition
may at times veer towards the abstruse. Readers who find
themselves out of their element amidst these doctrinal
digressions may simply skip over them and pick up the thread
of the practical discussion where it resumes, rarely more than
a few paragraphs later. Digressive points raised in the body
of the work that required fuller separate treatment have been
dealt with in appendices.
While the relative beginner to Buddhist insight meditation
may find useful guidance in this book, we recognize that it
will be more meaningful for the experienced meditator who
is also conversant with the canonical texts. We hope it will be
found especially illuminating by those involved in the teach-
ing of insight meditation.
The present work should go far in rekindling an interest in
the seven contemplations, which in recent times have fallen
into neglect. To our knowledge there is no other work avail-
able in print which analyses the seven contemplations so
thoroughly. Thus this book serves to fill a major gap in our
understanding of the stages of meditative realization. Yet, even
in this work, the seven contemplations have been elucidated
from within a limited framework. If a broader perspective
had been adopted they might have been explained still more
extensively and profoundly. And if all the sundry contem-
plations referred to by the Buddha in the suttas were to be
XV
explored systematically, in all their implications, a separate

and much larger volume would be required. We hope that,
despite its limitations, the present book, compiled under the
supervision of one of our age's best qualified meditation
masters, may still prove beneficial to meditators in search of
authoritative guidance in treading the higher ranges of the
path.
* * *
For us it was a source of immense pleasure that we could

issue the original Sinhala edition of this book in time for our
Venerable Teacher's 90th birthday celebration on 11 Decem-
ber 1991. The book was offered to him as a fitting tribute to
one who, during his long and fruitful life in the Sangha, shone
like a bright lamp illuminating the Buddha Sasana in Sri Lanka
for many decades. His demise on 30 April 1992, a month
after the second edition appeared, was a great loss to all of
his pupils personally as well as to the Sasana.
Many people, both monks and laity, assisted us in differ-
ent ways in the production of this book. The first and fore-
most among these was our Venerable Master himself, who
despite his physical ailments was always ready to give us his
invaluable guidance and blessings, helping us in every possi-
ble manner. For his compassionate contribution we are
extremely grateful, and we hope this volume will stand as a
monument to his revered memory.
More than forty-five years ago, with the Most Venerable
Nal).arama Mahathera as the head master, the Sri Kalyal).i
Yogasrama Association was founded for the purpose of re-
viving the practice of the Buddha's Teaching in this present
degenerate age. This organization, which now comprises more
than a hundred branch monasteries in the forest tradition,
was founded by the Most Venerable Kaqawadduwe Sri
Jinavan'lsa Mahathera, who for many years has guided its
xvi
Compiler's Preface
affairs with great success. When the original Sinhala edition

was being prepared he had given us his unreserved encour-
agement and contributed an inspiring message, for which we
express our respectful thanks.
We also thank the indefatigable honorary registrar of the
Association, Ven. Nauyane Ariyadhamma Mahathera, a prom-
inent meditation teacher and popular preacher, who, despite
his many religious duties, had read through the original manu-
script, corrected some errors, and provided a foreword. We
recall too the enthusiastic and dedicated patronage afforded
us by Mr. Mithra Wettimuny, who as a pupil and benefactor
of the Venerable Master undertook without hesitation the
printing and publication of the Sinhala edition of this work
for free distribution, in the spirit of a truly munificent devo-
tee of the Dhamma.
The Buddhist Publication Society of Kandy is to be ap-
plauded for its efforts in having the Sinhala text translated
and published in English, so that the precious Dhamma con-
tained in this treatise might reach a wide circle of readers
beyond the shores of Sri Lanka. Special appreciation is ex-
tended to Mr. A.G.S. Kariyawasam, Assistant Editor of the
Society, for an exceptionally fine translation, which required
a rare combination of talents: excellent knowledge of Sinhala
and Pali, a fluent English literary style, and keen understand-
ing of the Dhamma. We also thank Susan Jootla, a long-time
American Buddhist, who typed the handwritten manuscript
of the translation into computer format as an expression of
her own devotion to the Dhamma.
Many other people, too numerous to mention by name,
helped us in various ways to bring this work to light both in
the original Sinhala edition as well as in this English transla-
tion. To all of them we extend our grateful thanks.
Despite our best efforts, there may have crept into this book
errors of omission and commission. For these, we take full
responsibility and humbly beg the pardon of our virtuous
teachers as well as of the reader.
xvii
The Buddha's constant injunction to his disciples was to

develop insight knowledge diligently, "like one whose head
or clothing is in flames/' in order to achieve liberation from
the fearful suffering involved in the cycle of birth and death.
Therefore, if anyone who reads this book is inspired thereby
to strive for that noble goat or if anyone already involved in
the practice is helped by this book to achieve success, we can
be overjoyed that our efforts have borne fruit in ample
measure.
May all beings share in any merits we may have acquired
in preparing this book for publication, a task that was under-
taken for the sole purpose of offering the priceless gift of the
Dhamma. May all beings develop insight knowledge and
realize the Truth!
THE CoMPILER
xviii
Nama tassa bhagavato arahato sammiisambuddhassa
Introduction
The Path of Insight

People everywhere are constantly engaged in a strenuous
attempt to achieve happiness and release from suffering, yet
despite such effort they repeatedly fail to arrive at their goal.
In the end they are left with nothing but frustration, misery,
and a feeling of inward emptiness. "Alas!" they lament, "We
yearned for happiness, we accumulated much wealth and
property, we pursued every avenue of pleasure we could
find. But though we have sought enjoyment here and there,
still we have failed to achieve genuine peace of heart! We
set out on an aimless, senseless journey! We expected hap-
piness, yet we find ourselves drained, left only with vain
illusions."
Why is it that so many reap such bitter disappointment as
the fruit of all their endeavours? The reason is that they are
ignorant of what constitutes real happiness. What people con-
sider to be happiness is merely a feeling of pleasure born
within their own minds. Unaware of the true nature of feel-
ing, they delude themselves into thinking, "I am feeling this
pleasure." They cling to their trifling pleasures and seek ever
more pleasure, unaware that their very quest sets the stage
for disappointment, misery, and despair.
Feelings of pleasure have no permanent core. They are
ephemeral; they cannot be bent to satisfy our desires; we do
not possess any mastery over them. When one pleasure fades
away, at once people run in pursuit of fresh pleasure, seek-
ing new pastures of enjoyment. Not even for a moment do
they pause to reflect that their course of activity actually con-
1
stitutes one mass of suffering. Neither are they aware that their
greed for illusory pleasure leads to even greater suffering in
the future. In this manner, while blindly wallowing in a mass
of suffering, they become enslaved to craving, which in turn
engenders only a further accumulation of misery. Thus the
frightful wheel of existence rolls on without interruption,
bringing still. more suffering, never genuine happiness or
peace.
The Buddha, who perfectly comprehended our existential
plight, has clarified for us the real nature of both sorrow and
happiness. He declares that conditioned existence, in its true
nature, is fraught with suffering. Craving, rooted in ignorance
of the true nature of existence, is the cause of suffering. Eradi-
cation of craving brings release from suffering and the attain-
ment of true happiness. The means of achieving freedom from
suffering lies in the cultivation of the Noble Eightfold Path,
which cuts through all defilements anchored in craving and
ignorance.
Each individual must personally realize true happiness
through the eradication of the mind's defilements. As suffering
is born within one's own mind, it must be overcome within
one's own mind. None can impart freedom from suffering to
another. To accomplish this aim one first has to understand
suffering and its cause, and then to develop the path leading
to release. Insight meditation, or vipassanii-bhiivanii, is the plan
of action culminating in final liberation. Apart from the devel-
opment of insight there is no other way to deliverance from
suffering. The Pali word vipassanii (insight) means "specialized
and diversified vision" (visesa-vividha-passanif); it is the under-
standing of the real nature of phenomena through direct,
immediate experience. 1 Bhiivanii (meditation) means "mental
development." Hence vipassanii-bhiivanii means the development
of true insight into the nature of things as an experience in one's
own mind.
2
Introduction
Several basic requirements have to be satisfied before one

can pursue the practice of insight meditation with success.
Let us briefly consider the most important of these.
For a beginner, it is desirable to practise meditation under
the guidance of an experienced meditation master. Even
though the student may be very learned in the Buddhist scrip-
tures, as he is journeying along a strange path, many occa-
sions may arise when he needs instruction and advice. 2 Hence
the personal supervision of an accomplished master is rec-
ommended. If one cannot practise directly under the medita-
tion master, in order to obtain the required guidance one
should occasionally inform him of the progress of one's medi-
tation by visiting him or even by correspondence.3 If such
guidance cannot be obtained from a qualified master, then
one must arouse the necessary motivation to practise on one's
own and seek guidance from reliable books; for during the
period when the Buddha's Teaching still exists in the world
it is our duty to obtain the maximum benefit from the fortu-
nate human birth that has come our way.
Prior to commencing meditation proper, it is essential to
achieve a satisfactory degree of seclusion by eliminating the
physical and mental impediments (pa!ibodha) that obstruct the
unbroken progress of meditative development. 4 This does not
imply that meditation cannot be practised merely because the
impediments are present. Certain meditators practise amidst
many impediments and achieve impressive results by utiliz-
ing their difficulties as a spur to effort. Yet even such medita-
tors must overcome the main impediments, at least tempo-
rarily, during their periods of practice. On the other hand,
the meditator who has found sufficient seclusion to develop
the practice should be wary not to fall victim to indolence
and complacency on account of that very freedom from ex-
ternal obstacles.
At the outset the meditator should become firmly
established in the appropriate code of morality (sila). The lay
3
follower should observe the five, eight, or ten precepts of the

laity; the novice and the fully ordained bhikkhu should adhere
to their respective codes of monastic rules. Thereby they can
achieve purity of conduct (sila-visuddhi). Simultaneously, they
should carefully develop those other principles crucial to the
success of meditation: restraint of the six sense faculties
(indriyasamvara-sila)--eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind;
the knowledge of the right measure in eating (bhojane
mattafifiutti); and the elimination of defilements through
wakefulness (jtigariytinuyoga). As the influence of defilements
becomes weakened through these measures, one becomes
capable of continuing the meditation with success.
Before deciding on a major meditation subject, it may be of
benefit to condition the mind for prolonged practice by medi-
tating initially on the four recollections (also called the four
basic or protective meditation subjects): the recollection of the
virtues of the Buddha, the meditation on loving-kindness,
attention to the impurity of the body, and mindfulness of
death. 5 The meditation master should be watchful to see
whether the practitioner has an innate aptitude to develop
serenity (samatha) meditation.
At this point certain aptitudes and proclivities from previ-
ous lives may come to the fore. If the meditator finds that he
can develop serenity meditation easily, he should continue
deepening concentration through a congenial meditation sub-
ject. Thereby he should suppress the five hindrances6 and try
to attain jhana, meditative absorption. 7 If he is successful in
generating a jhana, he should carefully safeguard it and at-
tain mastery over it. This will enable the meditator to embark
on insight meditation with that jhanic concentration as the
basis. Alternatively, instead of turning to insight meditation
immediately after gaining the first jhana, he may first develop
serenity meditation through the successive higher jhanas and
turn to insight meditation only later. 8
4
Introduction
Those who find it difficult to develop serenity meditation

to the level of absorption, or who have no suitable environ-
ment or time to suit its practice, may begin to develop insight
meditation after achieving a basic degree of concentration
through a general subject of meditation such as the four men-
tioned just above or mindfulness of breathing. This approach
may also be taken by those who have an innate proclivity for
insight meditation. By thus cultivating a subject of insight
meditation, the hindrances will be abandoned through the
"substitution of opposites" (tada1iga-pahtfna),9 resulting in
concentration (samiidhi). 10
This condition wherein the mind has become purified
through the removal of the five hindrances, whether by means
of the practice of serenity meditation or by insight medita-
tion, is designated purification of mind (cittavisuddhi). It is on
this foundation that true insight-wisdom unfolds.
The Three Stages of Insight

A short discourse by the Buddha, found in the Aftguttara
Nikaya, offers us a brief overview of the path of insight medi-
tation. Here the Buddha describes the questions that a jhana-
attainer, devoid of insight-wisdom, might pose to one who
has arrived at insight-wisdom, along with the answers that
the insight meditator might give:
1. "Friend, how should formations be viewed?" 11
"Friend, formations should be viewed in such and such
a way."
2. "How should formations be comprehended?"
"Formations should be comprehended in such and such
a way."
3. "How should formations be seen with insight?"
"Formations should be seen with insight in such and such
a way." 12
5
Through this catechistic method, a threefold course of in-

struction is disclosed which corresponds to three stages in
the process of insight meditation. These are the stages of: (i)
viewing, (ii) comprehending, and (iii) gaining insight. Now
let us briefly investigate how the path of insight can be de-
fined on this basis.
(i) The Stage of Viewing
The meditator undertaking insight meditation first has to

discern the ultimate constituents of actuality discoverable
through the chosen subject of meditation. Let us take as an
example a meditator who develops meditation on the four
elements (dhiituvavatthiina). He begins by defining the parts
of the body belonging to the earth element. He first directs
attJntion to the earth element of the hair, which is manifest
as its all-pervasive hardness. By intensifying his attention fur-
ther, he comprehends the ultimate nature of the earth ele-
ment in the hair, discriminating the solid or hard quality from
thelgross appearance of the hairs. He also comprehends, in a
similar way, the ultimate nature of the water, fire, and wind
elements in the hair. Proceeding thus with each bodily con-
stituent, he defines the ultimate elements inherent in all the
thirty-two parts of the body. He realizes that all these bodily
parts, composed of the four elements, constitute matter (nlpa).
The knowledge, or element of consciousness, that emerges
with each of these as an object is mind (nama). Thus the medi-
tator confirms through direct cognition that matter is one type
of reality and mind is another. This stage is known as the
knowledge of the delimitation of mind and matter (niimanipa-
pariccheda-fiii1'}a). Along with this purified knowledge there also
arises the purified vision that "in reality there is only mind
and matter; there is no independent being, no substantial indi-
vidual." Accordingly, this stage is also designated purifica-
tion of view (ditfhi-visuddhi).
6
Introduction
As the meditator expands his attention further, the condi-

tions responsible for the generation of mental and material
phenomena become clear. This is known as the knowledge
regarding the discernment of conditions (paccayapariggaha-
fiiir;.a). At this stage, by realizing clearly how living beings
exist as a series of causes and effects, the meditator elimi-
nates all doubt regarding the existence of beings in the past,
the present, and the future. This results in the next major stage
of progress, purification by overcoming doubt (kankhiivitarar;.a-
visuddhi).
This is how the stage of viewing is accomplished. What
basically happens here is that the meditator discerns the par-
ticular characteristics (paccatta-lakkha1J.a) of each of those con-
ditioned phenomena pertaining to the meditation subject, and
accordingly comes to realize that in the ultimate sense there
is no being or individual but only a continuity of conditioned
phenomena occurring in a causal chain. This stage is desig-
nated full understanding of the known (fiiita-parififiii)Y
(ii) The Stage of Comprehending
Here the meditator examines the psycho-physical assem-

blage of phenomena continuing unbroken in a cause-effect
series. Considering them from different angles and in certain
fixed groups (kaliipa), he comes to realize that because they
constantly undergo origination and dissolution, they are
stamped through and through with the mark of imperma-
nence (anicca). He also realizes that all such phenomena, be-
ing subject to distress and fearfulness on account of that im-
permanence, are permeated with suffering (dukkha). As there
is no substantial essence in _this impermanent and miserable
psycho-physical process, no core that might be regarded as a
self, he concludes that it is non-self (anattii). This initial grasp
of the fact that all groups of formations taken up for exami-
nation are, without exception, marked by these three charac-
7
teri9tics-impermanence, suffering, and selflessness-is called

the !knowledge of comprehension (sammasana-fiii1Ja).
Y}rith the further maturation of the knowledge of compre-
hen~ion, the meditator begins to see clearly how all forma-
tiorls on which he focuses, along with their causes and condi-
tion's, originate and dissolve right before his eyes. Accordingly,
he Jscertains that the three characteristics are invariably valid.
Thi~ is the immature stage of the knowledge regarding the
rise! and fall of phenomena (taru1Ja-udayabbaya-fiti1Ja). At this
poi:ht the corruptions of insight (vipassan'upakkilesa), such as
thejappearance of light, may become manifest. 14 The medita-
tor ~ealizes that to become deluded by these corruptions is to
dev!iate from the path of meditative development and that
the i correct path is to abide by his chosen subject of medita-
tiorL This is the purification of knowledge and vision regard-
ingf the correct path and the wrong path (maggtimaggafitilJa-
das~ana-visuddhi). When he eradicates the corruptions of insight
by ~learly discriminating between the two paths, there dawns,
qui~e powerfully, the mature knowledge regarding the rise
and fall of phenomena (balava-udayabbaya-fitilJa). This is the
beginning of the purification by knowledge and vision of the
I
way (patipadtifiti1Jadassana-visuddhi).
4-t this point the stage of comprehension (sammasana) becomes
perfected. Here one is able to gain a decisive insight regard-
ing the three common or general characteristics (stimafifia-
lakkha1Ja) of all formations-namely, their impermanence, suf-
fering, and selfless nature-which one penetrates with
increasing clarity. This stage is therefore defined as that of
ful~ understanding by investigation (ftralJa-parififiti) .15
(iii) The Stage of Gaining Insight
This stage indicates how insight is practised on an intensi-

fied level by observing wisely, and in diverse ways, the
operation of the three characteristics in all formations. The
8
Introduction
mature knowledge of the rise and fall of phenomena uncov-

ers both the origination and the dissolution of formations. As
this knowledge advances, at a certain point the meditator be-
gins to see only the dissolution of phenomena and not their
origination. This is the stage of knowledge of dissolution
(bhmiga-fiar;a). Then, in sequence, one comes to acquire: the
knowledge of the appearance of terror (bhayat'upa(thtina-fiiir;a),
which gives the meditator a definite conviction of the fearful-
ness in the incessant dissolution of formations; the knowl-
edge of danger (iidinava-fiii7J.a), when one sees formations to
be full of faults; and the knowledge of revulsion (nibbidii-fiiir;a),
which makes one turn away from formations. Thereafter, one
develops the knowledge of desire for deliverance (muficitu-
kamyatii-fiiir;a), prompting one to seek freedom from these for-
mations, followed by the knowledge of reflection (patisankhii-
fiiir;a), which repeatedly reviews the three characteristics as a
means for attaining freedom. This is followed by the knowl-
edge of equanimity towards formations (sankhiir'upekkhii-fiii7J.a).
When the knowledge of the three characteristics becomes
sharper here, it leads to the knowledge of conformity (anuloma-
fiii7J.a), when the mind fixes on a single one of the three char-
acteristics as its impetus for making the breakthrough to the
Deathless. Thereafter, abandoning all formations as the ob-
ject of knowledge, one transcends the "mundane lineage" and
passes into "the lineage of the noble ones," as the knowledge
of change-of-lineage (gotrablul-fiii7J.a) arises directly cognizing
the peace of Nibbana for the first time.
Subsequently, the meditator completes the realization of
the Four Noble Truths by attaining the knowledge of the path
of stream-entry (sotiipattimagga-fiii7J.a). With this he totally elimi-
nates, right down to their subtlest roots, the three fetters: the
false view of personality (sakkiiya-di(thi), doubt (vicikicchii), and
attachment to rites and rituals (silabbata-partimiisa). Next, as
the result of the supramundane path, he achieves the knowl-
edge of fruition (phala-fiii7J.a), which experiences the blissful
9
peafe of Nibbana. Following fruition there arises reviewing

knojwledge (paccavekkha1Ja-fiii1Ja), by which the meditator re-
vie~s the path, the fruit, and Nibbana; he also reviews the
defi:lements that have been eliminated and the defilements
tha~' remain. 16
With
I
the attainment of the knowledge of conformity, the
purification of knowledge and vision pertaining to the way
(pat,padiifiii1Jadassana-visuddhi) is perfected. In the scheme of
the :seven purifications, the attainment of the knowledge of
the path is designated the purification by knowledge and
vision (fiii1Jadassana-visuddhi).
The phase of practice ranging from the knowledge of
dissolution to the knowledge of conformity can be regarded
as the stage of gaining insight, which perfects full under-
standing by abandoning (pahiina-parififiii). 17 At this stage the
abandoning of defilements through the "substitution of
opposites" (tadmiga-pahiina) takes precedence, each factor of
insight serving to eliminate, temporarily, the particular defile-
melil-t or cognitive distortion to which it is directly opposed. 18
The foregoing account delineates the path of insight from
a general viewpoint. Although this fundamental pattern is
common, variations may occur in the experiences of individual
meditators depending on their temperaments. For one medi-
tator certain stages might be quite prominent, while other
stages are not so prominent; certain stages might reach com-
pletion quickly, while others progress slowly. At times, for
various reasons, one's attention may become broken, result-
ing ;in retrogression. Consequently one should respectfully
follow the instructions given by the meditation master in
regcl.rd to the unique experiences through which one may pass.
He~e we can provide only general guidelines.
As we expect to explain matters later on a more practical
basis, the reader should bear in mind the general instructions
so far presented.
10
Introduction
The Seven Contemplations

The texts analyse the path of insight in various ways. The
purpose of the present work is to call attention to one classi-
cal method, which describes the progress of insight as a
series of contemplations (anupassanii).
The P~ili term anupassanii means "seeing in different modes
repeatedly." 19 The term anupassanii has been used in varying
contexts. Thus the four foundations of mindfulness are called
contemplations (e.g. kiiyiinupassanii, contemplation of the body);
certain established insight knowledges are so described (e.g.
udayabbayiinupassanii-fiii1Ja, knowledge of contemplation of rise
and fall, and bhmigiinupassanii-fiii1Ja, knowledge of contempla-
tion of dissolution). 20 In fact, every form of insight knowl-
edge can be treated as a contemplation.
Practically speaking, both terms, vipassanii and anupassanii,
are very similar in meaning, but in the present context
anupassanii refers to special modes of attention contributing
to the maturation of insight knowledge. These contemplations
are not identical with the established insight knowledges; they
are, rather, cognitive evaluations contributing to the emer-
gence and development of those insight knowledges. At times
certain contemplations may function in the role of the estab-
lished insight knowledges, but often it may be necessary for
several contemplations to function alternately for a particu-
lar insight knowledge to attain maturity. Conversely, the same
contemplation may surface at different stages of insight
development, thus providing support for several types of
insight knowledge.
References to various contemplations of insight can be
found scattered in the Buddha's discourses. Although the term
anupassanii may not occur in all these contexts, the practices
described evidently belong to that category.
A collection of eighteen contemplations is preserved in the
Patisambhidiimagga, a treatise in the Khuddaka Nikaya of the
11
Sutta Pitaka/1 where we also find the fundamental pattern of

the kccepted sequence of insight knowledges. In many pas-
sagJs of this work insight is defined in relation to this series
of cbntemplations, which the commentary describes as "the
eigHteen principal insights" (afthifrasa-mahavipassanif). Some-
tim~s series of ten, nine, seven, or three of these contempla-
tio~s are also mentioned. 22 Accordingly, commentarial and
sub~commentarial works such as the Visuddhimagga have also
ocd.sionally given prominence to this group of eighteen. 23 One
stri~ing feature in this series of contemplations is that one
def~lement is eliminated by every contemplation developed,
that is, eliminated through the substitution of opposites.
I
']he first seven of these eighteen principal insights are pre-
sen1~ed as an independent group several times in the Patisam-
bhidamagga, which shows that they enjoy an elevated posi-
tior~ among the other contemplations. 24 The commentaries and
su~-commentaries, particularly the Visuddhimagga, introduce
theb under the name "the seven contemplations" (sattanu-
pasbana), and on several occasions use them to analyse the
prdgress of insight. 25 When considered from a practical point
of tiew, the system based on this sevenfold group appears to
be )self-sufficient, and, as we shall see in the course of this
wdrk, insight can be analysed in its entirety through these
co~temp lations.
The Visuddhimagga (XX,90) defines these seven as follows:
I
1. One who develops the contemplation of impermanence
/ (anicca) abandons the perception of permanence.
I
2. One who develops the contemplation of suffering
(dukkha) abandons the perception of pleasure.
One who develops the contemplation of non-self (anatta)
abandons the perception of self.
One who develops the contemplation of revulsion
(nibbidif) abandons delight.
12
Introduction
5. One who develops the contemplation of dispassion

(viriiga) abandons passion.
6. One who develops the contemplation of cessation
(nirodha) abandons origination.
7. One who develops the contemplation of relinquishment
(patinissagga) abandons grasping.
These seven can be briefly explained as follows:
1. One who repeatedly contemplates the impermanence
of formations (anicciinupassanii) relinquishes the wrong
perception that formations are permanent (niccasafifiii).
2. One who repeatedly contemplates the suffering
(dukkhiinupassanii) involved in formations relinquishes
the wrong perception that formations are pleasurable
(sukhasafifiii).
3. One who repeatedly contemplates the selflessness of
formations (anattiinupassanii) relinquishes the wrong per-
ception that formations have the nature of a self
(attasafifiii).
4. One who repeatedly contemplates the repulsiveness of
formations (nibbidiinupassanii) relinquishes delight
(nandi), that is, the craving associated with joy tied up
with formations.
5. One who repeatedly contemplates dispassion towards
formations (viriigiinupassanii) relinquishes passion (raga),
that is, attachment to formations.
6. One who repeatedly contemplates the cessation of for-
mations (nirodhiinupassanti) relinquishes origination
(samudaya), that is, the desire that causes formations to
continue emerging again and again.
7. One who repeatedly develops the contemplation of re-
linquishment (patinissaggiinupassana) abandons grasping
(iidiina), that is, the seizing of formations.
13
Here, the term bhavento means "one who develops." This

terrb_ has a wide range of meanings and, in its broadest
imp:lications, extends to the entire path of insight meditation.
Briefly stated, it points to the development of the contem-
plation leading to the emergence of the thirty-seven
conktituents of enlightenment.
I
FrobI
the next chapter onwards the seven contemplations will
be Ciescribed
I
individually in sequence. The discussion will
deai with the nature of each contemplation, the manner of
I
the'r emergence in insight meditation, their functional varia-
tio~s at different stages of the insight process, their relations
with different insight knowledges, how the respective defile-
me~ts are eliminated by each contemplation, and other im-
por/tant matters. Attempts will be made to keep the discus-
sio* as practical as possible. Due attention will also be paid
to s~milarities and contrasts among the contemplations as well
as ~o pertinent allusions made to them in the canonical texts
I
anq commentaries. Once all the contemplations have been

scnb_tinized individually, a synoptic analysis will be presented.
14
1
Contemplation of Impermanence
(Anicctinupassanii)
One who develops the contemplation of impermanence

abandons the perception of permanence.
(Anicctinupassanani bhtivento niccasaiiiiani pajahati.)
The Characteristic of Impermanence

Let us begin by examining the meaning of the term "imper-
manence" (aniccatif). The term "impermanence/' or the charac-
teristic of impermanence, signifies the nature of not being
permanent, of not being everlasting, of originating and
dissolving, of wasting away, decaying, and undergoing
transformation, etc. Arising is the beginning of impermanence;
decay is its middle point; dissolution is its end. 1 This charac-
teristic of impermanence is common to all the formations
comprised in the five aggregates that make up our empirical
personality: material form, feeling, perception, mental
formations (the volitional factors), and consciousness. These
five aggregates are designated "formations" (sankluirii) because
they originate from a combination ofconditions and disappear
with the transformation of those conditions. Here it is impor-
tant to distinguish between a thing that is impermanent and the
characteristic of impermanence. Formations-the five aggregates
themselves-are impermanent; they are the things that are
impermanent. Their inherent nature of not remaining perma-
nently, of undergoing transformation, is the characteristic of
impermanence.
Formations themselves demonstrate this impermanence. A
wise person with a developed mind will be able to discern
15
thel impermanence of formations hidden beneath the most

common events of ordinary life. A flower bud appears at the
en4 of a branch and gradually blossoms forth into a beauti-
ful) fragrant flower; then after it has mah1red, it withers away,
fallb to the ground, and decomposes. Don't we constantly
endounter profound revelations of impermanence even in the
sirrtplest incidents of daily life?
]f we examine the matter intelligently, we will notice how
impermanence is at work not only in the external world but
alsb within ourselves-in our own five aggregates. How many
trahsformations have you undergone from the time you first
ap*eared in the uterus as an almost indiscernible tiny foetus?
Not only do we change from year to year and from day to
dat, but we change at every moment. The action you per-
forbed a moment ago has now ended. The thought that came
to your mind an instant earlier is now no more. This constant
pa~sing away of whatever rises shows that impermanence is
an [intrinsic fact of life, one which cannot be separated from
thtj five aggregates that make up your very being. 2
The ignorant worldling who fails to grasp this truth re-
gaJds his own personal five aggregates as well as external
ob¥cts as permanent. Accordingly, all his mental, verbal, and
physical actions will be based on erroneous assumptions. His
igrtorance of the true situation, and the unwholesome deeds
he ferforms on account of that ignorance, make him a victim
of suffering, anxiety, and stress. Bound to the vicious cycle of
re~irths (sanisiira), he cannot realize true happiness and peace.
Even though formations shout out in every direction, "We
arJ impermanent," we still find it difficult to discard the
pe~ception of permanence, which, through prolonged habit
over countless lives, is embedded so deeply in our minds.
N9 matter how often we hear about impermanence, read about
impermanence, think about impermanence, that alone is not
caFable of replacing our habitual perception of permanence
wi{h the direct perception of impermanence in its stark reality.
16
Special effort is required to alter our modes of perception:

first we have to make the mind stable, then we have to see
for ourselves how formations are impermanent, how they
continually arise and break apart. Such a perception can only
be generated by,the actual practice of insight meditation.3
Contemplation or anupassanii refers to the continuously re-
peated occupation ofone's powers of observation with one's
chosen object of meditation as one engages in the practice of
insight meditation. This observation or "seeing" involves the
application of mindfulness and wisdom. It is also described
as the application of mindfulness and full awareness (sati-
sampajafifia) and as wise attention (yoniso manasikiira). Repeated
inspection, with insight knowledge, of the characteristic of
impermanence in regard to the five impermanent aggregates
is what is called the contemplation of impermanence (anicciinu-
passanii). This replaces the perception of permanence with the
direct perception of impermanence. 4
Uncovering the Mark of Impermanence

There is a dignified plan of action by following which the
contemplation of impermanence can be successfully accom-
plished. This plan unfolds step by step from the most basic
preliminaries of insight meditation to the stage called the full
understanding of the known (fiiita-parififiii). At the outset, after
becoming established on a foundation of purified morality,
the meditator suppresses the five hindrances and achieves
concentration. Thereafter, with a well concentrated mind, he
directly perceives the psycho-physical formations through
their individual or particular characteristics (paccatta-lakkhm;a).
He further discerns their causes and conditions, and through
this meditational knowledge comes to realize that the entire
compound of the five aggregates is merely a natural continuity
of phenomena bound together as causes and effects. With the
further refinement of mindfulness and awareness, the medi-
17
tator also realizes that in each material form, hitherto regarded

as a single entity, there are actually many constituents reveal-
ing themselves one after another. He also sees that even the
mental states apprehending these sense objects are subject to
continuous disintegration. Here he comprehends the changing
nature of these psycho-physical entities (ntima-riipadhamma).
Through this knowledge he understands how origination and
dissolution come about, thereby realizing the characteristic.
of impermanence.
Let us take an example for further clarification. A medita-
tor practising mindfulness of breathing with a concentrated
mind directs his attention to the in-breath and the out-breath
coming into contact either with the upper lip or the tip of the
nose. 5 Initially he would see any given in-breath or out-breath
as a single uniform entity. But later, as his mindfulness and
concentration improve, his attention becomes so precise that
he can discern the beginning, the middle, and the end phases
within any single breath, whether inward or outward. 6 At
this point the intermediate phases of each inhalation and ex-
halation become quite obvious to him. Gradually, he comes
to p.nderstand that within each of these stages there are fur-
the,r divisions in a sequential process. Simultaneously, he also
sees their appearance and disappearance and eventually it
besomes clear to him that not only the observed phenom-
enon but even the contemplating mind is subject to a process
of prigination and dissolution. In this manner the character-
istic of impermanence becomes manifest.
'fhe characteristic of impermanence cannot be easily ob-
served because it is obscured by the characteristic of continu-
ity: Through its conceptual activity the mind grasps the con-
tinuity of events as a compact mass, conceiving the sequential
psycho-physical process as a single whole? For this reason
one sees the psycho-physical phenomena as existing perma-
nently and not as a sequential process subject to origination
and dissolution. It is only by attending to the phenomena
18
with extremely keen attention, empowered by continuous

practice, that one can actually perceive the discrete origina-
tion and dissolution of the particular psycho-physical phe-
nomena normally concealed by the notion of continuity.
Through the power of directed attention one can dispel the
perception of the process as a compact mass and thereby per-
ceive the discrete phenomena in their precise particularity.
With the maturation of the discernment of conditions (paccaya-
pariggaha)-that is, the observation of the conditions for the
psycho-physical phenomena-those psycho-physical phenom-
ena that become the objects of one's mind should be carefully
contemplated in relation to their beginning, middle, and end. 8
Doing so will make manifest the rise and fall of each of these
phenomena and will thereby dissolve the concept of the con-
tinuity of events as a compact mass. This will usher in the
realization of the characteristic of impermanence. 9
It would also be beneficial to the understanding of imper-
manence to consider the following four factors that help to
expose the impermanence involved in all formations:
1. Everything that exists is marked by origination and dis-
solution.
2. Nothing remains without changing.
3. All phenomena are momentary or temporary.
4. There is no permanency anywhere. 10
In insight meditation it is advisable to allow the character-
istic of impermanence to surface naturally. For this to occur,
as a prerequisite the knowledge regarding the discernment
of conditions must first be matured. 11 This ushers in the puri-
fication by overcoming doubt (kmikhtivitararJa-visuddhi), in the
trail of which the concept of "I" is eclipsed in the meditator's
mind. The meditator comes to realize that personal existence
is only a cause-effect process of phenomena and that there
exists no permanent core that can be grasped as a truly exist-
19
ent "I" either inside or outside his own five aggregates. There-
fore, when the meditational knowledge arises discerning the
five aggregates as impermanent, the meditator will be able to
accept the impermanence of formations with equanimity, free
from trepidation. If the characteristic of impermanence should
appear while he still retains the sense of "I"-due to the incom-
pleteness of his knowledge regarding the discernment of con-
ditions-he might become frightened at the loss of his sense
of ego and might even be tempted to abandon meditation
altogether.
Venerable Channa was an obstinate monk who had to be
disciplined by the Sangha with the highest punishment after
the passing away of the Buddha. The other monks had agreed
that they would completely ignore him unless he changed
his ways. He had been practising insight meditation on im-
permanence and non-self without having developed the
knowledge regarding the discernment of conditions. As a con-
sequence he became frightened. He felt as if his "self" were
falling into an abyss and thought, "What has happened to
my 'self'? Oh, I am going to be annihilated!" Thus fear over-
came himY Similarly, when the Buddha first expounded the
Four Noble Truths, the deities of long life became thoroughly
frightened on learning of their impermanent state, as deer
become frightened on hearing the lion's roarY Hence, at the
very beginning of one's meditative training it is not advis-
able to focus attention on the characteristic of impermanence.
The contemplation of impermanence is the repeated observa-
tion of the impermanence of the five aggregates comprehended
through the meditation itself. This contemplation should be
allowed to progress until the perception of impermanence
becomes well established in one's mind. Very often, in the
initial stages of the contemplation of impermanence, one may
distinctly observe the breaking up in groups of the materiality
connected with the primary meditation subject (e.g. the in-
and-out breathing or the movement of the abdomen). Subse-
20
quently, the impermanence of the mental factors will also

become clear, leading to a general conviction that the com-
plex of the five aggregates is impermanent in its entirety. Based
on this conviction one contemplates the aggregates external
to one's own personal aggregates-that is, the aggregates of
other persons and of external nature-as being impermanent
too. By inference from the impermanence that is directly
visible, one concludes that all formations in the past were
impermanent and that all formations in the future will like-
wise be impermanent. Confirming the impermanence of the
psycho-physical phenomena in this concise manner, by clas-
sifying them into such various groups, adds strength to the
knowledge of comprehension (sammasana-fiii:!Ja) .14
As mindfulness and awareness become sharper, the medi-
tator clearly discerns the continuous origination and dissolu-
tion of any single object that comes under his observation
right in the present moment. This insight yields an even
stronger conviction of the characteristic of impermanence. The
causative factors behind the origination and dissolution of
each aggregate also become manifest. This is the "tender" stage
of the knowledge regarding the rise and fall of phenomena. 15
If one is misled by the corruptions of insight meditation
(vipassan'upakkilesa) arising at this stage and indulges in the
enjoyment of them, the contemplation on impermanence will
become feeble and will eventually collapse. The deft medita-
tor applies the perception of impermanence to all the impedi-
ments that arise in the course of contemplation and thereby
succeeds in clearing this hurdle. Thereafter, he will arrive at
a vividly clear vision of the characteristic of impermanence
and this will pave the way for the mature knowledge regard-
ing the rise and fall of phenomena.
As the meditator progresses further in the contemplation
of impermanence, at a certain point he transcends the con-
cern with the origination of phenomena and takes dissolu-
tion alone as the object of attention. The knowledge of the
21
contemplation of dissolution (bhmiganupassana-firiJJa) resulting

from this is a power-packed product of the contemplation of
impermanence. Following this knowledge, the contemplation
of impermanence surfaces in diverse forms and becomes im-
mensely helpful to the progress of the series of insight
knowledges. When insight meditation reaches its consumma-
tion, it is possible the contemplation of impermanence may
function as a door to liberation (vimokkha-mukha), directing
the meditator towards the experience of Nibbana by way of
the signless liberation (animitta-vimokkha). 16 Thus we find that
the contemplation of impermanence is a major contempla-
tion covering the entire gamut of the path of insight. For this
reason, in our discussion of the other contemplations in the
following chapters, the contemplation of impermanence will
frequently reappear in different forms.
Development and Abandoning

The term "one who develops" (bhrivento), mentioned in the
opening stanza of our discussion, indicates the plan of action
conducive to the development of contemplation. As much has
already been stated in this context, we here present only four
main common factors that help in the realization of all the
contemplations. These are:
1. Maintaining in balance the twin faculties of confidence
and wisdom on the one hand, and effort and concen-
tration on the other, as they are generated in the mind
in the pursuit of meditation.
2. An equalized maturation of all the faculties-confi-
dence, wisdom, effort, concentration, and mindfulness,
and their being directed to a single purpose.
3. Maintenance of effort to the standard required for the
purpose of meditation-neither too strained nor too
loose.
4. Reinforcement by constant practiceP
22
Many positive results may be obtained from the application

of attention in meditation, results that are lofty and serene as
well. If one wants to achieve these lofty and serene results,
one has to apply oneself with a mind consistently strong and
well charged with determination.
The term "abandons" (pajahati) implies the advantages ac-
cruing from the development of contemplation. This is the
disappearance of the corresponding defilements by way of
"the substitution of opposites." 18 Defilements are eliminated
in insight meditation somewhat in the way darkness disap-
pears with the rising of the sun: the one drives away the other
through its opposite nature without permanently eradicating
it. Therefore, when the power of contemplation weakens, these
defilements may surface again, just as the darkness returns
when the sun sets. But if one can generate the wisdom of the
supramundane path by developing the insight knowledges
to perfection, those defilements that disappear with the reali-
zation of each path-knowledge are completely cut off and will
never arise again.
The specific defilement eliminated through contemplation
of impermanence is the perception of permanence, which is
the wrong notion that "formations are permanent and ever-
lasting." This distortion of perception (safifiii-vipalliisa), which
results from ignorance of the real nature of formations, gath-
ers momenh1m through repeated occurrence and issues in a
distortion of consciousness (citta-vipalltisa). This in turn,
through further maturation, engenders a distortion of views
(ditthi-vipalliisa). 19 Eventually this wrong conviction that
"formations are permanent" becomes so strongly confirmed
in the mind that its elimination is a Herculean task.
How many times must this concept of permanence have
arisen in our minds throughout this beginningless cycle of
rebirths! And as a result, how deeply embedded must the
distorted view of permanence have become in our minds!
Therefore, although we are ever and again confronted with
23
the impermanence of formations, we consistently ignore these

revelations.of truth and let ourselves indulge in vain thoughts
of acquisition and enjoyment, thereby reinforcing the domi-
nance of the wrong perception of permanence over our minds.
Thus, even though we hear and see the dictum "all forma-
tions are impermanent" on all sides, we become deeply
grieved at the death of someone very close to us. While we
are offered the excellent opportunity of realizing this great
truth, the concept of permanence rules our minds so imperi-
ously that we find it almost impossible to fix our attention on
the mark of impermanence. In a short time, as our sorrow
diminishes, we settle back comfortably into our accustomed
lifestyle once again, with our view of permanence reconfirmed.
The case is quite different with the diligent meditator who
develops the contemplation of impermanence with a concen-
trated mind. With the meditator, the concept of permanence
cannot get even a foothold in his thoughts, for he realizes the
impermanent nature of formations through direct perception.
Thus there is no chance for any distortion of mind or any
distortion of views to arise in him in regard to the idea of
permanence. Further, he recognizes that the very notion of
permanence-whether as a perception, a thought, or a view-
which had previously been rooted so deeply in the mind, has
begun to wear away.
As the contemplation of impermanence becomes strength-
ened through repeated development, the perception of per-
manence subsides completely and the perception of imper-
manence becomes uppermost in the mind. The meditator
realizes that all the formations of the three worlds inclusive
of his own five aggregates are constantly changing and break-
ing up. Thus, as he goes on repeatedly developing the con-
templation of impermanence in relation to the impermanent
group of five aggregates, he abandons the wrong notion,
thought, and view that "the five aggregates are permanent
and everlasting."
24
* * *
"0 monks, a monk who clearly sees six benefits should

set up without limits the perception of impermanence in
relation to all formations. These six are:
1. 'All formations will appear to me as unstable.'
2. 'My mind will not take delight in all the three worlds
(sensuous, fine-material, and immaterial).'
3. 'My mind will emerge from all the three worlds.'
4. 'My mind will be oriented towards Nibbana.'
5. 'The fetters will be abandoned by me.'
6. 'I will be endowed with supreme recluseship.'" 20
25
2
Contemplation of Suffering
(Dukkhtinup assanii)
One who develops the contemplation of suffering aban-

dons the perception of pleasure.
(Dulckhifnupassanani bhavento sukhasaiiiiani pajahati.)
The Characteristic of Suffe:dng

In a debate with the disputant Saccaka the Buddha used the
following line of argument to convince him that the five
aggregates involve suffering:
"Aggivessana, what do you think, are material form,
feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness
permanent or impermanent?"
"Venerable Gotama, they are impermanent."
"If a thing is impermanent, is it pleasurable or painful?"
"Venerable Gotama, it is painful." 1
Many other discourses of the Master are cast in the same
mould. Accordingly, the five aggregates themselves, precisely
because they are impermanent, are necessarily suffering as
well. The nature of suffering inherent in the five aggregates
is referred to as the characteristic of suffering (dukkhalakkhm;.a).
This characteristic of suffering is nothing but the oppression,
the suppression, the obstruction, and the fearfulness brought
about by the continuous origination and dissolution of the
aggregates. 2
The suffering inherent in the five aggregates is a daily ex-
perience of ours in very much the same way as their imper-
26
manence is. Yet conviction regarding this truth eludes us be-

cause we fail to recognize this suffering as suffering. If we
remain immobile for some time in the same posture, or stand
in the sweltering sun, or get even a simple ailment like a head-
ache or a toothache, we experience physical pains and aches.
Ordinarily, we promptly dismiss such painful feelings as eva-
nescent and adventitious, but by doing so we fail to see that
every such experience of physical pain is an unmistakable
reminder of the reality of the ever-present suffering grounded
in the impermanent nature of material form. How many occa-
sions are there in our day-to-day life when physical suffering
is brought into focus?
Sorrow springs up when we are separated from loved ones
and from cherished objects. We become angryr jealous, and
anxious when the objects of our attention are unwelcome.
Grief, distress, and aversion overcome us when our expecta-
tions are disappointed. So often in the course of our lives do
we experience distress because of the impermanent nature of
things[ This bodilypain and psychological distress are together
designated "intrinsic suffering" (dukkha-dukkha); they are so
called because they are painful both by designation and by
nature. 3
After waking up in the morning you wash your face, brush
your teeth, and perhaps shave. Although you engage in these
activities day in and day out as routine habits, have you even
once given thought to how troublesome they really are? If
you analyse the situation realistically you will recognize that
the entire process is just a heap of suffering. It would be con-
soling if you could· keep the cleansed condition of the body
after washing once. But just imagine the amount of trouble
one has to undergo in repeating the process two or three times
a day for a whole lifetime! Isn't our life full of such repeti-
tive, cumbersome activities resulting from the continuous
alteration of formations? When one meets some difficulty in
breathing, as when one has a blocked nose or bronchitis, one
27
can see that even continuous inhalation and exhalation in-

volve suffering. Can we estimate the extent of suffering we
experience during our lifetime in our endeavour to obtain
and safeguard the requisites for the maintenance of life?
Owing to the rise and fall of the formations, their care and
maintenance involves much suffering, which is accordingly
designated "suffering due to formations" (sankhiira-dukkha).
While living in the midst of such a mass of affliction we
remain bogged down in it because we live in constant hope
of the pleasurable feelings we occasionally enjoy. We feel de-
lighted when our eyes meet a pleasant sight, when our ears
hear a sweet voice, when our nose catches a pleasing smell,
when our tongue encounters something tasty, when our body
feels a pleasant touch, and when our mind conceives of a
delightful object of thought. 4 Yet these pleasant experiences
do not remain permanently. They vanish along with the pleas-
urable objects from which they arise. This loss itself is suffer-
ing. As our wish for those delightful experiences to persist
becomes frustrated, suffering arises. This aspect of suffering
is designated "suffering due to change" (vipari1Jiima-dukkha). 5
As the happiness wished for is soon lost, we are impelled to
undergo further suffering in an attempt to regain more and
more of that happiness.
Life, or the continuity of the five aggregates, which we assi-
duously grasp as "pleasure," is in reality a constant mass of
suffering. The bliss obtained in the heavenly realms and the
Brahma-worlds is only a temporary, partial mitigation of this
affliction, not a genuine attainment of happiness. Moreover,
it is impossible for anyone to stay in the heavens or the
Brahma-worlds forever. Whatever be the form of becoming
into which one is born, so long as one holds on to one's inheri-
tance of formations one cannot escape suffering, for suffering
is inherent in all formations.
28
Uncovering the Mark of Suffering

To realize the universality of suffering, one has to develop
the contemplation of suffering, which is the repeated wise
observation, with deep concentration, of the characteristic of
suffering inherent in the five painful aggregates. Seeing suf-
fering in its true perspective thus stabilizes the perception of
suffering (i.e. the notion that "formations are nothing but a
heap of suffering") well in one's mind. 6
The main factor that obscures the characteristic of suffer-
ing from our minds is the habit of changing the postures.
This habit, precisely because it is so commonplace, invites
our special attention. There are four major postures: sitting,
standing, walking, and lying down. We spend every minute
of the day in one or another of these postures; we engage in
every activity in one or another of these postures. Our very
lives are intimately connected with them. A notion that "the
postures bring comfort to us" has become implanted in our
minds. Thus if we feel uncomfortable in one posture, we
promptly change to another for the sake of immediate relief.
We fail to see that the nature of suffering is inherent in every
posture. In order to camouflage from ourselves this oppres-
sion constantly being generated by the rise and fall of phe-
nomena, we hide inside a cocoon of comfort by changing our
posture. Just reflect on how casually we readjust our posture
in order to assuage the physical and mental stress impinging
on us so poignantly throughout our waking life. Thus we
should comprehend how the suffering inherent in the five
aggregates becomes eclipsed through the spontaneous, unre-
flecting manipulation of the postures.
The meditator must grasp this condition well; one should
reflect on the fact that each posture is a receptacle of suffer-
ing. One must come to know that we resort to a change of
posture, not for the sake of pleasure, but because it is un-
avoidable in the course of maintaining a physical body. Since
this is so, when one practises insight meditation one must be
29
· The Seven Contemplations of Insight
mindful of the st~ffering inherent in the postures. When it is

necessary to change the posture, one should do so with total
mindfulness of the change, aware why the change is being
made. If we can act with this understanding, we won't be
deluded by the assumption that suffering ceases with a change
of posture, and thereby we will be disposed to realize the
characteristic of suffering. Therefore, when the rise and fall
of formations become evident, the meditator, while remain-
ing totally attentive to the resulting stress, should not change
the posture even slightly to avoid the stress. Then he will be
able to discern the mark of suffering. 7
It is pertinent to attend to the following four factors that
also help to uncover the characteristic of suffering:
1. Strain and torment are recurrently experienced through
the threefold suffering: intrinsic suffering, suffering due
to formations, and suffering due to change.8
2. Unbearable stress results from this.
3. The five aggregates are the basis of this threefold suf-
fering and for all the suffering of sarilsara, the begin-
ningless journey through countless lives.
4. Formations are devoid of any real pleasure. 9
From the beginning of the meditation until he achieves
tranquillity (passaddhi, i.e. physical and mental buoyancy)
through the chosen object of meditation, the meditator will ·
experience physical pains of diverse types. 10 At times he will
encounter mental strain as well. This alone, however, will not
enable him to penetrate the characteristic of suffering, for he
has not yet properly penetrated the characteristic of imper-
manence.
The maturation of tranquillity brings about bliss (sukha),
which in turn results in concentration,U and this is the
condition that enables one to reach the discernment of
mentality-materiality (namanipa-pariggaha) and the discernment
of the conditionality of all phenomena (paccaya-pariggaha).
30
Next, observing how the psycho-physical phenomena that

appear in a cause-effect series perish in groups, one summarily
realizes the characteristic of impermanence. By being mindful
and aware of the oppressive, frightful nature of impermanent
phenomena, one realizes the characteristic of suffering in a
general way. Repeated application of mindfulness and
awareness to the characteristic of suffering thus realized is
designated the "contemplation of suffering" (dukkhiinupassanii).
At this initial stage one can establish the characteristic of
suffering on the basis of the impermanence of the aggregates
by allocating the five aggregates to eleven groupings-past,
present, or future, internal or external, gross or subtle, infe-
rior or superior, far or near (see Chap. 1, n.14). The contem-
plation of suffering thus performed is helpful in stabilizing
the knowledge of comprehension (sammasana-fi.ii!Ja). Once this
comprehension through meditation on groups reaches matu-
rity, impermanence will become clearly manifest in every
immediately known sense object. It then becomes easier to
understand the characteristic of suffering. At this stage the
knowledge of rise and fall (udayabbaya-fi.ii!Ja) will begin to func-
tion, though if one becomes deluded by the corruptions of
insight (vipassan'upakkilesa) contemplation of suffering will be
weakened.
As the contemplation of impermanence grows stronger the
knowledge of dissolution (bhmiga-fi.ii!Ja) arises. This knowl-
edge makes abundantly clear the frightful nature of all for-
mations on account of their incessant dissolution and thereby
sharpens the contemplation of suffering. This contemplation
gives rise in turn to the knowledge of appearance as terror
(bhayat'upafthiina-fi.ii!Ja). With further development of the con-
templation of suffering, one discerns quite clearly the inher-
ent defects of mentality-materiality and thus attains the knowl-
edge of danger (iidinava-fi.cfYJ.a). This is followed by the
knowledge of revulsion (nibbidii-fi.ii!Ja), which generates revul-
sion towards the five aggregates. This knowledge turns out
31
to be a significant juncture in the progress of insight medita-

tion, for revulsion is the experience that motivates the medi-
tator to strive earnestly for the realization of Nibbana.
Even in the subsequent stages of meditation the contem-
plation of suffering will operate in a variety of forms, thereby
further strengthening the series of insight knowledges. If the
contemplation of suffering takes precedence at the stage of
the knowledge of conformity (anuloma-fitir;a), it could even be
an opening towards Nibbana by way of the door of desireless
liberation (appar;ihita-vimokkhamukha-see Chap. 1, n.16).
In this manner the contemplation of suffering, in unison
with that of impermanence, plays an essential role in the suc-
cessful.completion of insight meditation. We will be discuss-
ing its different aspects in later chapters.
Development and Abandoning

In order to investigate a few ideas implied by the term bhtivento
("one who develops"), occurring in the epigram of this chap-
ter, let us consider the following words of the Buddha:
"Here, monks, a certain person lives contemplating the
suffering involved in all formations, perceiving and expe-
riencing it at all times without a break, without a lapse,
without mixing his contemplation with any other thought;
he mentally confirms it and immerses himself in it with
the wisdom of insight." 12
This passage delineates a programme of action commonly
applicable to the development of all the contemplations. It
may be summarized as follows:
1. One should develop contemplation at all times with-
out a break.
2. The thought following any thought of contemplation
should also be one of contemplation, in keeping with
the preceding one; that is, one should generate thoughts
of contemplation only, without a lapse.
32
3. One should not generate thoughts other than those of

contemplation.
4. One should confirm in one's own mind the object of
contemplation.
5. One should immerse oneself in the contemplation with
wisdom.
These meditational skills can be regarded as a graded se-
ries of steps leading progressively from one to the next. The
discourse quoted unveils a highly elevated standard in the
development of contemplation. This type of practice will pro-
vide a foundation for attaining the roads to power (iddhipiida),
which means that the meditator's efforts would be doubly
successfulP This is confirmed by the fact that this discourse
contains seven methods by which an insight meditator can
attain either arahantship or the stage of non-returner
(anagiimitii) in this very life.
By developing the contemplation of suffering the percep-
tion of pleasure disappears. The perception of pleasure is the
misconception or mistaken notion that the five aggregates are
a source of pleasure. Although it originates merely as a dis-
tortion of perception (saflfliivipalliisa), one should understand
how, through repeated confirmation, this misconception can
gather momentum and develop into a distortion of conscious-
ness (cittavipalliisa) and a distortion of view (ditthivipalliisa). 14
Observe for a while how deep-rooted in our minds is the no-
tion that our senses and their objects-the eye and the forms
it sees, the ear and the sounds it hears, the nose and the odours
it smells, the tongue and the tastes it experiences, the body
and the sensations it feels, the mind and its objects of
thought-are all sources of pleasure for us. Although we be-
come victims of various illnesses and related sufferings such
as stress, loss, rebuke, disappointment, etc., thousands of
times-nay, innumerable times-does the thought ever oc-
cur to us even momentarily that "these five aggregates are of
33
the nature of suffering"? Deluded by the grievously mistaken

view that "suffering and misfortune are adventitious; this
world, this life is essentially pleasurable," we camouflage even
the most acute form of suffering with the hope of some pro-
spective pleasure. It is owing to the intensity of our percep-
tion of pleasure that we torment ourselves searching for per-
manent happiness in this world of formations, as a thirsty
man runs in hot pursuit of a water-mirage.
When the meditator realizes, through the contemplation of
suffering, how widespread is the oppressive and frightful
nature of formations due to their incessant origination and
cessation, and when he reflects how this same law holds sway
over all the three worlds, he discovers that there is not even
an iota of happiness obtainable from them. Consequently, he
abandons the perception of pleasure in the five aggregates-
a perception that had become uppermost in his mind through-
out beginningless samsara. He replaces this deluded percep-
tion with the true perception of suffering, the recognition that
"the five aggregates are certainly of the nature of suffering."
In this manner, by repeatedly contemplating the nahtre of
suffering resulting from the oppression of change inherent in
the five aggregates, one who develops the contemplation of
suffering abandons the perception, the thought, and the view
that the five aggregates are pleasurable. Instead, he learns to
see them as merely a mass of suffering.
* * *
"0 monks, when a monk sees six benefits, it should be
enough for him to establish the perception of suffering
towards all formations without exception. What six?
1. 'Towards all formations a perception of revulsion will
be present in me, as towards a murderer with raised
sword.'
2. 'My mind will emerge from all the three worlds.'
34
3. 'I shall be a seer of serenity in Nibbana.'

4. 'The underlying tendencies (anusaya) will be extirpated
byrne.'
5. 'I shall be one who does his duty (as regards the four
paths).' .
6. 'I shall have waited upon the Teacher with loving min-
istration.' " 15
35
3
Contemplation of Non-self
(Anatttinupassana)
One who develops the contemplation of non-self aban-

dons the perception of self.
(Anatttfnupassanam bhiivento attasafifian1 pajahati.)
The Characteristic of Non-self

The term "non-self" (anattii) signifies the absence of an ever-
lasting substance identifiable as a self, a being, a person, or
some entity under one's control. 1 For purposes of communi-
cation we have to use terms such as "self," "being," or "per-
son," etc., but all such terms of personal reference are solely
conventional and do not denote anything existing independ-
ently of the five aggregates. Despite this hard fact, on account
of ignorance many subtle thinkers from time immemorial have
elaborated the spontaneous perception of self into the fixed
view that a self really exists; that we are substantial beings;
that at the core of every person there is an independent spir-
itual essence or soul. The Buddha's teaching runs "against
the grain" of all these religious and philosophical specula-
tions about a self precisely in its teaching of selflessness.
At the time the Buddha appeared in India most thinkers
agreed that beings have a permanent self, though they sharply
disagreed about the nature of that self. Some believed the
self is infinite, others that it is finite; some identified it with
perception, some with intelligence, some with bliss. The great
majority said the self was spirit and would exist eternally,
but an outspoken minority said the self was material and per-
36
ished at death. All these views of self arose because they failed
to penetrate the purely functional nature of the five aggre-
gates. In such an age the Buddha, through his supreme knowl-
edge of reality, declared that a real self does not exist any-
where in any way. Thereby, with his doctrine of non-self, he
triggered off a major revolution in human thought. 2 By ana-
lysing beings in diverse ways into aggregates, elements, and
sense spheres (khandha-dhiitu-ii:yatana), he demonstrated that
no entity can ever be taken as a self. 3 He further proved that
because these formations occur as processes in a cause-effect
relationship, they are not subject to control by a self.4 He clearly
demonstrated that in the face of the universal laws of imper-
manence and suffering, the very concept of a self collapses. 5
In the Yavakalapi Sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya the Bud-
dha provides a trenchant account of how the perception of
self becomes settled in the human mind. 6 He begins the dis-
course with a parable: Once upon a time the gods had de-
feated .the asuras (titans) in battle. They bound the asura chief
Vepacitti by a fivefold celestial bond and brought him into
the presence of Sakka, king of the gods. Whenever the thought
occurred to Vepacitti, "The gods are righteous and the asuras
unrighteous; now I shall enter the city of the gods here it-
self," his bonds loosened and he could enjoy the five kinds of
celestial sense pleasures. If he thought, "The asuras are right-
eous and the gods unrighteous; now I shall enter the city of
the asuras here itself," the celestial sense pleasures disappeared
and he found himself again bound by the fivefold bond.
Referring to this subtle celestial bondage wherein becom-
ing bound or unbound depends on the very thoughts of the
victim, the Buddha declares:
"0 monks, see how subtle the bondage of Vepacitti is; but
the bondage of Mara the Evil One is even subtler. One
who imagines is bound by the Evil One? One who does
not imagine is freed from the Evil One. 'I am' is an imag-
37
ining (mafifiita); 'I am this' is an imagining; 'I shall be' is

an imagining; 'I shall not be' is an imagining; 'I shall pos-
sess material form' is an imagining; 'I shall be formless' is
an imagining; 'I shall be conscious' is an imagining; 'I shall
be unconscious' is an imagining; 'I shall be neither con-
scious nor unconscious' is an imagining. This imagining,
monks, is a disease, a boil, a dart.
"Therefore, monks, you should train yourselves thus: 'Let
us abide with our minds free from imaginings': that is
how you should train yourselves, monks. 'I am' is an agi-
tation (ifijita) ... 'I am' is a palpitation (phandita) ... 'I am' is
a conceptual proliferation (papaficita) ... 'I am' is a conceit
(managata)."
In order to understand this discourse well, let us inquire
how this "imagining" takes place. Potent defilements lie
dormant as underlying tendencies (anusaya) in the mundane
consciousness of all unenlightened beings. 8 These include
ignorance (avijja), not knowing the truth; craving (tar;ha),
attachment, desire, enjoyment, possessiveness; conceit (mana),
application of the "I" -concept as the dominant standard of
judgement; and view (ditthi), adherence to a distorted opinion
as truth. Unless one is mindful and thoroughly attentive when
cognizing objects through the six sense faculties-the eye, ear,
nose, tongue, body, and mind-these defilements will surface
and become activated.9
Visual consciousness arises because of the eye and visible
forms; the "coming together" of these three things-eye, forms,
and consciousness-is contact; because of contact there arises
feeling; whatever is felt is perceived. As in the case of the
eye, this same process operates in relation to the other sense
faculties as well. 10 Owing to ignorance one fails to compre-
hend this very rapid process. Hence the person with an un-
developed mind will exercise this perception in a perverted
manner in keeping with deeply ingrained habit. Although the
38
formations are in reality impermanent, foul, suffering, and

non-self, we perceive them to be permanent, beautiful, a source
of happiness, and self, and thereby we kindle the defilements
of craving, conceit, and view. Consequently, the real nature
of phenomena remains concealed beneath the false appear-
ances that we erroneously ascribe to them. This error leads to
the fabrication of mistaken notions, theories, and suppositions.
The Buddha refers to this fabricating activity as "imagina-
tion" (mafifianii) and to its products as "imaginings" (mafifiita)Y
The Threefold Imagining

The above discourse helps us to identify three main stages in
the unfolding of "imagination," culminating in a full-fledged
view of a self. Let us now see how the process of imagining
develops.
(i) The imagining "I am" (asmi)
Through the enjoyment of the feeling generated in relation

to any of the six sense objects, the imaginative activity of crav-
ing (taJJ.hii-mafifianii) comes into play based on the perverted
perception. Governed by this imaginative activity, and again
based on the perverted perception, the imaginative activity
of conceit (miina-mafifiana) starts, which leads to the conceiv-
ing of the sense object in terms of either "I" or "mine," or
"he/ she," or "his/hers." If this conceiving refers to other peo-
ple, a further evaluation of them may occur by which they
are ranked as "superior," "equal," or "inferior" in relation to
oneself-to one's own "!"-concept. On account of the imagi-
native activity of wrong view (ditfhi-mafifianii), in keeping with
the initial distortion of perception, this distorted perception
and the conclusions based on the imaginative activity of con-
ceit are vividly imagined to be real. The imaginative activity
of craving emerges repeatedly and enjoys the imaginings of
conceit and views based on the wrong notion of "I." It enjoys
39
them and becomes immersed in them. Craving further imag-

ines it can possess the sense object as "mine" and retain it
forever. 12 The cumulative effect of these imaginative activi-
ties, which can be mutually conditioning in various ways, is
the firm stabilization of the concept "I am" within the mind. 13
For the worldling, whose mind is enveloped on all sides
by the darkness of ignorance, at least one of the imaginings
of craving, conceit, or view will occur whenever he cognizes
sense objects. Considered in this light it will become clear
how strongly the concept of "I am" has become entrenched
in the deluded mind. Consequently, a strong belief becomes
firmly settled in the mind to the effect that there truly is an
"I," a permanent and substantial entity which sees, hears,
smells, tastes, feels, thinks, perceives, experiences, activates
the body, and controls both the mind and the body. We
imagine this "I" to be a sovereign and independent unit
divorced from the external world. We develop a strong
attachment towards this "I," take great interest in maintaining
and protecting it, long to satisfy its desires. We struggle to
accumulate all types of animate and inanimate possessions
"for myself"; we hold tightly to opinions, views, and concepts
which we consider "mine." It can be stated without any doubt
that these twin concepts of "I" and "mine" are the root cause
of all the world's problems, conflicts, divisions, and quarrels,
both individually and collectively.
"I am" is a perverted notion, an imagining, generated in
relation to all the five aggregates in generaP 4 This can be
explained as the initial stage of the self-view. 15
(ii) The imagining "I am this" (ayani ahani asmi)
The unenlightened worldling, who relishes his deep

attachment to the initial imagining "I am," eagerly seeks
further confirmation of this vague "I" -concept. Conceiving it
as a "self" endowed with attributes familiar to him through
40
experience, he confers on it a definite form. 16 He confirms his

imagined view "This I am" as follows: He imagines the
aggregate of material form by identifying some particular
internal or external material form thus: "This is what I am;
this is my self"; the aggregate of feeling, by imagining: "It is
this I, my self, that feels"; the aggregate of perception, by
imagining: "It is this I, my self, that perceives"; the aggregate
of mental formations, by imagining: "It is this I, my self, that
activates the body and accumulates kamma," etc.; the
aggregate of consciousness, by imagining: "It is this I, my
self, that knows." 17 In keeping with the imagined view (ditfhi-
mafifianti) "This is my self" (eso me attii), there also sets in the
function of the imaginative activity of conceit (miina-mafifianti),
which thinks "This I am" (eso'ham asmi), and the imaginative
activity of craving (tar;hii-mafifianti), which thinks "This is
mine" (etani mama). 18
It is one or another of the five aggregates-or the five
aggregates as a whole-that is knowingly or unknowingly
conceived as a self in this manner. 19 This view of self-which
can develop in any of four available modes in relation to each
of the five aggregates-is referred to as "personality view"
or the "false view of individuality" (sakktiya-ditfhi). It is on
this basis that people firmly adhere to the diverse religious
and philosophical beliefs confirming the concept of a self.20
(iii) Imaginings regarding the future

In a world that is impermanent, uncertain, and incompre-
hensible, the self that is imagined on the basis of the premise
"This I am" offers the unenlightened worldling a delusive
sense of security and stability. 21 As a result, he eagerly em-
braces the notion of self and engages in speculation about the
future of this self in divergent ways to the extent that his
powers of imagination permit. 22 If he tenaciously adopts the
hypothesis, "My self is everlasting; I shall exist eternally
41
(bhavissani)," this amounts to the view of eternalism (sassata-

ditthi).23 By speculating further regarding the nature of such
an everlasting self, the following imaginings will occur to him:
"I shall possess material form" (nipf bhavissani); "I shall be
formless" (an!pf bhavissani); "I shall be conscious" (saiiiif
bhavissani); "I shall be unconscious" (asaiiiifbhavissani); "I shall
be neither conscious nor unconscious" (n' eva saiiiii niisaiiiii
bhavissani). 24
If he adopts the hypothesis, "My self will terminate at death;
I shall not exist in the future (na bhavissani)," this amounts to
the view of annihilationism (uccheda-ditthi). This view is less
appealing than eternalism, but is favoured by those who feel
oppressed, humiliated, and repelled by existence. These peo-
ple find delight in the annihilationist view and "overshoot"
the path to Nibbana by proclaiming: "Friend, this self, with
the breakup of the physical body, disintegrates, is annihilated
and destroyed, and does not exist any more after death. Such
a condition would be serene, excellent, the true reality." 25
In this way, once he has accepted the thesis that there is a
self, the worldling bolsters the notion of self by adopting a
theoretical view to explain the self's nature and destiny: either
the view of eternalism, which affirms the eternal existence of
the self; or the view of annihilationism, which denies the self
a future beyond death. 26
In the Yavakalapi Sutta the Buddha has demonstrated that
all terms pertaining to "I" or "self" are mere figments of one's
imagination, offshoots of the defilements of craving, conceit,
and view, propelled by ignorance. In instructing us to keep
our minds free from such reckless ideas by treating them as
snares of Mara, as diseases, boils, and darts, the Buddha has
exposed the vanity, the danger, and the root cause of the doc-
trine of self along with the way to achieve freedom from it. 27
It seems that even those who are not attached to the doctrine
of self as a religious tenet still find it difficult to realize the
42
truth of non-self, for they remain strongly influenced by the

"I" -concept, the pre-theoretical imagining "I am." When a
vessel or some precious utensil breaks, people find consola-
tion by reminding themselves of the characteristic of imper-
manence. At funerals they always recite, "Subject to decay,
alas, are all formations/' and when they are stricken by ill-
ness or grief, they remind themselves of the characteristic of
suffering. People console themselves in misfortune or distress
by referring to both impermanence and suffering. But there
is hardly anyone on such occasions who refers to the charac-
teristic of non-self!
If we view life with an investigating mind, we will not find
it too difficult to obtain a certain degree of conviction about
the truth of non-self. We always want to continue living in
good health, we wish to remain young, and we want to en-
hance and preserve our happiness. We do not like to fall ill_
to grow old, to suffer, or to die. Nevertheless, despite such
desires, everything we seek to avoid eventually catches up
with us: we fall ill_ we grow old, we suffer, and we will cer-
tainly die. Doesn't this show that there is no self regulating
our lives or exercising authority over our minds and bodies?
Just imagine yourself to be seriously ill or in an advanced
state of senility. Then your hands and feet are not amenable
to your control. Even your eyes, ears, and nose refuse to obey
you. And very often the mind, too, is not under your com-
mand. Could this happen if there were an 'T' exercising
authority over your body and mind?
The following four factors too will be helpful in under-
standing the characteristic of non-self in the five aggregates:
1. Owing to the absence of an indwelling sout an agent,
an experiencer, or a supervisor within the five aggre-
gates, they are void.
2. As no one has ownership over the five aggregates, they
are ownerless.
43
3. There is no domination or mastery over the character-

istic of change inherent in the five aggregates.
4. They preclude the nature of a self, i.e. of the hypo-
thetical self accepted by the adherents of other belief
systems. 28
The Mark of Non-self in Insight Meditation

Now let us consider how the characteristic of non-self emerges
in insight meditation. The meditator who has achieved
purification of mind has thereby made the mind serene. Now
it is workable to the extent that mindfulness and awareness
can be successfully applied. Let us suppose that the meditator
has chosen the rise and fall of the abdomen as his primary
subject of meditation. With full concentration he directs his
attention to the abdominal movement, and therein he clearly
distinguishes the nature of motion, the air element (vayo-dhiitu).
At times he might feel a sensation of heat within, which is
the fire element (tejo-dhtitu). Or he might experience a hard
sensation of support, the earth element (pathavi-dhtitu); or a
cohesive or flowing sensation, the water element (tipo-dhtitu). 29
Presently he realizes that there is a faculty knowing each of
these objects--consciousness (vififiti1Ja); the encounter between
the knowing faculty and the object-contact (phassa); the
experiencing of the object's "flavour"-feeling (vedanii); the
perceiving of the object-perception (safifiii); the intentional
mental activity regarding the object-volition (cetanti); the
advertence of the mind to the object-attention (manasiktira).
In this way, as he comprehends these formations in their
true nature, it becomes clear to him that there are two cate-
gories of phenomena: (i) those whose nature it is to cognize
objects, i.e. the mental phenomena (ntima-dhammti) such as
contact, feeling, perception, volition, and consciousness, which
are capable of taking objects; and (ii) those whose nature it is
not to cognize objects, the material phenomena (nlpa-dhammii)
44
such as the elements of earth, water, heat, and air, which are
incapable of taking objects.
By classifying the mental phenomena further into thecate-
gories of consciousness, feeling, perception, and mental for-
mations (i.e. the remaining mental phenomena headed by
volition), and by then combining them with material form,
he will be able to comprehend them as the five aggregates.
He will also understand how these five aggregates are inter-
related.30
This is the stage of knowledge of delimitation of mentality
and materiality (niimariipapariccheda-fiiitJa). Once this knowl-
edge begins to function properly, the meditator's mind will
shift away from conventional entities and become established
in the ultimate realities-the mental and material phenom-
ena. He also knows that all the objects impinging on the six
sense faculties, even those external to his main subject of medi-
tation, are just mental and material phenomena. As ignorance
is held in check and wise attention comes to the fore, there
will be no scope for distorted perceptions to arise in regard
to mental and material phenomena, and as a result the imagi-
nation cannot find any chance to speculate about the self. The
meditator will personally realize that there is no entity of any
kind that can be, or should be, treated as "I" or "mine." He
does not see an "I" or a "self" or "a being," but merely bare
mental and material phenomena. He realizes there is no doer,
no experiencer, no thinker, no perceiver, no ego dwelling
within. The perception of self that had appeared so solid all
along now melts away and the nature of non-self emerges.
He confirms for himself, as personal knowledge, the right view
that "in reality there are only mental and material phenom-
ena but not a self, a being, or a person-no truly existent 'I."'
This fulfils the purification of view (ditthi-visuddhi).
With the further refinement of mindfulness and awareness,
and with the bolstering of concentration, the meditator real-
izes that different mental and material phenomena come into
45
existence owing to the efficacy of their own appropriate causes.

He understands that material phenomena are produced by
causes and conditions such as ignorance, craving, kamma,
nutriment, mind, and the heat element. He also discerns the
causes for the generation of mental phenomena. He compre-
hends the doctrine of dependent arising (paticca samuppiida)
in diverse ways and realizes the uninterrupted occurrence of
the continuity of mental and material phenomena on the ba-
sis of the cause-and-effect relationship. By inference from his
direct cognition of the present, he concludes that even in the
past such a process of bare mental and material phenomena
occurred, interconnected by the principle of cause and effect.
He also comprehends that even in the future it will be so. He
realizes: "There is no creator, sustainer, or destroyer of the
world, yet the world does not come into being causelessly.
There is no self-sufficient soul arising and subsisting inde-
pendent of conditions. Mere natural phenomena alone occur
by way of causes and effects."
All theories about the self generated through ignorance of
dependent arising evaporate like dew at sunrise, replaced by
the exclusive perception of non-self. Through realization that
in all the three times-the past, the present, and the future-
there is no permanent person designated "I" but only a con-
tinuum of phenomena linked as causes and effects, the medi-
tator frees himself from all doubts pertaining to the three times,
such as: "Was I in the past?" or "Am I at present?" or "Will I
be in the future?" Accordingly, this stage is referred to as
purification by overcoming doubt (kankhii-vitarar;a-visuddhi).
As mindfulness and awareness develop further, the medi-
tator will discern in outline the origination and dissolution of
the various groups of mental and material phenomena that
he had comprehended in their occurrence by way of cause
and effect. By collecting them into groups, he ascertains that
all mental and material phenomena are impermanent as
follows:
46
"Past material forms disappeared in the past itself; they

did not proceed to the present; therefore past material
forms are impermanent. Present material forms undergo
destruction in the present itself; they shall not proceed to
the future; therefore present material forms are imperma-
nent. Future material forms will disappear in the future
itself; therefore they too are impermanent. Those internal
material forms belonging to my combination of five aggre-
gates will undergo destruction internally; therefore they
are impermanent. All other material forms external to them
will undergo destruction externally; therefore they too are
impermanent."
The same pattern of reflection is then extended to the
phenomena included in the four mental aggregates. He then
concludes that these mental and material phenomena, being
subject to continuous destruction, are of a frightful nature and
thus have the characteristic of suffering. Eventually he
concludes that these mental and material phenomena, treated
in groups as described above, are of the nature of non-self.
For mental and material phenomena which are impermanent
and suffering have no essence of their own; they are not under
one's sway; they are devoid of a self.
In this manner the repeated contemplation of the charac-
teristic of non-self uncovered in diverse ways is the contem-
plation of non-self. By this method the erroneous perception
of self will be replaced by the correct perception of non-sel£.3 1
When the clear conviction dawns that each and every object
entering through the six sense doors appears only to disappear
in the very present, the meditator further verifies that there
is no permanent essence in the five aggregates that can be
grasped as a "self" or an "I." The insight into the origination
of the aggregates will clearly convince the meditator of the
hollowness of the view of annihilationism (uccheda-ditthi),
while insight into the dissolution of the aggregates will
47
convince him of the vanity of the view of eternalism (sassata-

difthi). He will come to understand that there is no self
whatsoever that has any power over the incessant rising and
passing away of the aggregates. He also will realize that the
impermanent and painful aggregates cannot belong to a
permanent self. The contemplation of non-self will gradually
assume greater depth and, in combination with the contem-
plations of impermanence and suffering, will help to uncover
the successive stages of insight knowledge.
Contemplation of non-self can be especially helpful in con-
solidating the knowledge of equanimity towards formations
(saizkhiir'upekkhii-fiii7J.a). Equanimity towards formations be-
comes established only when their voidness or nature of non-
self is fully comprehended. Realization will come that these
formations, which are devoid of any being, person, or self,
are mere elements or activities, powerless and helpless. More-
over, it is only with the consummate realization of the knowl-
edge of equanimity towards all formations that one becomes
capable of renouncing all formations and directing the mind
to Nibbana. If the contemplation of non-self comes to the fore
during the knowledge of conformity (anuloma-fiii7J.a)-the next
knowledge to arise in the series-it becomes the door to the
void-liberation (sufifiatii-vimokkha-mukha) and accordingly re-
veals a vision of Nibbana in its aspect of voidness (sufifiatii).
Like the deluded notions of permanence and pleasure, the
concept of self too grows in three successive stages: by way
of perception, consciousness, and view (safifiii, citta, ditthi).
Along with the total elimination of the underlying tendency
to views (difthiinusaya) by the attainment of stream-entry
(sotiipatti), these three stages of distortion (vipalliisa) are all
extirpated simultaneously. 32 Yet, as the underlying tendency
to the conceit "I am" (mtintinusaya) persists, the notion "I am"
will linger even in the noble disciple's mind until it is extri-
cated by the path of arahantship. Although it is not a deeply
rooted attachment like a full-fledged view (ditthi), this con-
48
ceit "I am" is still capable of functioning like a view in so far

as it affirms the ego, though in a subdued way. 33
* * *
"0 monks, when a monk sees six benefits, it should be
enough for him to establish the perception of non-self
towards all phenomena without exception. What six?
1. 'I shall be unidentified with anything in the world.'
2. 'Egotism will cease in me.'
3. 'Possessiveness will cease in me.'
4. 'I shall become endowed with an uncommon knowl-
edge.'
5. 'Causal phenomena will be thoroughly seen by me.'
6. 'Causally arisen phenomena will be thoroughly seen
by me."' 34
49
4
Contemplation of Revulsion
(Nib bidtinup ass anti)
One who develops the contemplation of revulsion aban-

dons delight.
(Nibbidiinupassanani bhiivento nandini pajahati.)
How Revulsion Emerges in Insight Meditation

The term nibbidii means revulsion or disenchantment. In in-
sight meditation this revulsion emerges in relation to forma-
tions, the phenomena of the five aggregates. When the true
nature of formations is realized through insight knowledge,
the delight (nandi) that the worldly mind takes in formations
subsides and revulsion then emerges. 1
In order to drive this point home the Buddha once cited
the following parable to the wandering ascetic Magandiya: 2
A person who had been blind from birth heard people
say, "A white cloth is very attractive, clean and pleasant."
Accordingly he desired to obtain a white cloth. A certain
man learned of this and brought him a dark piece of coarse
cloth, soiled with oil and soot. When handing it over to
him, he praised it, saying: "Friend, this is a white cloth-
pleasant, good, beautiful, and clean. Wear this and it will
make you appear much more dignified." The blind man
accepted it quite happily, put it on, and went about
proudly, praising his so-called beautiful white cloth. Later
his relatives and friends took him to an eye surgeon who
restored his sight. After seeing his beloved white cloth
with his own eyes, he understood that he had been cheated.
50
Immediately, he abandoned his love for the cloth and be-

came repelled by it.
In like manner the meditator who develops the eye of

insight knowledge sees the true nature of the five aggregates
and realizes that all this time he had been deluded into taking
them as permanent, pleasurable, and self. With the deepening
of insight he drains off delight in all formations and establishes
himself solely in revulsion.
How revulsion emerges in insight meditation has been ex-
plained in many different ways in the scriptures. Let us now
consider a few basic passages, in the Buddha's own words,
on the transition from insight to revulsion:
(i) "Monks, material form is impermanent, feeling is

impermanent, perception is impermanent, mental forma-
tions are impermanent, consciousness is impermanent; the
instructed noble disciple, endowed with this insight,
develops revulsion towards the five aggregates-towards
material form, feeling, perception, mental formations, and
• 1'13
conscwusness.... ·
(ii) "Monks, material form is impermanent; whatever

is impermanent is suffering; whatever is suffering is non-
self; whatever is non-self is not mine, not I, not my self.
In this manner one should understand all material form
in its true nature with insight knowledge. In like manner
one should understand feeling, perception, mental forma-
tions, and consciousness. Accordingly, monks, the
instructed noble disciple, endowed with this insight, culti-
vates revulsion towards each of these five aggregates." 4
(iii) "Monks, material form of the past and of the future

is impermanent. What to speak of the present form? (It is
certainly impermanent.) Monks, the instructed noble
disciple, endowed with this insight, abandons interest in
51
the past material form; he does not wish for the future
material form; he practises the way for revulsion, non-
attachment, and cessation regarding the present material
form. Arid so too for the aggregates of feeling, perception,
mental formations, and consciousness pertaining to the
three times." 5
(iv) "Monks, material form is impermanent. Whatever
be the cause or the condition for the arising of material
form, that too is impermanent. Monks, how can material
form, which is born from what is impermanent, be per-
manent? The other four aggregates are similarly imper-
manent. Monks, the instructed noble disciple, endowed
with this insight, develops revulsion towards all the five
aggregates." 6
(v) "Monks, the instructed noble disciple contemplates
wisely and thoroughly the principle of dependent arising
thus: 'When this (cause) exists, that (result) comes to be;
with this (cause) arising, that (result) arises. When this
· (cause) does not exist, that (result) does not come to be;
with the cessation of this (cause), that (result) ceases;
namely, through ignorance are conditioned the formations;
through formations is conditioned consciousness ...
through birth are conditioned decay and death, sorrow,
lamentation, pain, grief, and despair. Such is the origin of
this whole mass of suffering. By the complete cessation of
ignorance, the formations cease ... and through the cessa-
tion of birth comes the cessation of decay and death, sor-
row, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair. Thus comes
about the cessation of this whole mass of suffering.' Monks,
the instructed noble disciple, endowed with this insight,
develops revulsion towards material form ... towards con-
.
sc10usness .... "7
(vi) "Monks, here the instructed noble disciple reflects
wisely and thoroughly on dependent arising thus: 'In this
52
manner, when this exists, that comes to be ... with the

cessation of this, that ceases.' Pleasurable feeling is
produced through its condition, an appropriate contact;
through the cessation of that same contact there also comes
about the cessation, the allayment, of its own product, the
pleasurable feeling. Painful feeling is produced through
its condition, an appropriate contact; through the cessation
of that same contact there also comes about the cessation,
the allayment, of its own product, the painful feeling. Neu-
tral feeling (neither pleasure nor pain) is produced through
its condition, an appropriate contact; through the cessation
of that same contact there also comes about the cessation,
the allayment, of its own product, the neutral feeling.
"Monks, just as heat is produced by the friction and
abrasion of two sticks, and that heat ceases and comes to
an end by the separation and disconnection of the sticks,
even so the pleasurable feeling, etc., is produced through
its condition, an appropriate contact, and ceases through
the cessatio:Q- of that contact.. .. Monks, the instructed noble
disciple, seeing thus, develops revulsion towards contact,
feeling, perception, mental formations, and conscious-
ness .... "8
(vii) "Monks, because of the eye and visible forms there
arises eye-consciousness. The coming together of these
three (i.e. eye, forms, and eye-consciousness) is contact.
Through contact there arises feeling. Monks, the instructed
noble disciple, endowed with this insight, develops re-
vulsion towards the eye, towards forms, towards eye-con-
sciousness, towards eye-contact, and towards the associ-
ated feeling. Similarly, he develops revulsion towards the
ear, sound, and ear-consciousness; towards the nose, smell,
and nose-consciousness; towards the tongue, taste, and
tongue-consciousness; towards the body, touch, and body-
consciousness; towards the mind, mental objects, and
mind-consciousness, and towards the respective contacts
and the associated feelings." 9
53
(viii) "Rahula, the instructed noble disciple (who has

seen with insight the sense faculties and their related
formations as impermanent, suffering, and non-self)
develops revulsion towards the eye, the visible form, eye-
consciousness, eye-contact, and also towards any feeling,
perception, mental formations, or consciousness condi-
tioned by eye-contact. And so too for the other senses." 10
(ix) "Monks, everything is burning. And what is every-
thing that is burning? Monks, the eye is burning, visible
forms are burning, eye-consciousness is burning, eye-
contact is burning: whatever feeling, pleasant, painful, or
neutral, is generated through eye-contact, all that too is
burning. Burning with what? All that, I declare, is burning
with the fire of lust, the fire of hatred, and the fire of delu-
sion-burning with birth, decay, death, sorrow, lamen-
tation, pain, grief, and despair. The ear is burning ... The
nose ... The tongue ... The body ... The mind is burning ...
burning with the fire of lust, the fire of hatred, and the
fire of delusion ....
"Monks, seeing thus the instructed noble disciple feels
revulsion towards the eye, towards forms, towards eye-
consciousness, towards eye-contact, and also towards the
pleasant, painful, or neutral feelings generated through
eye-contact . . . towards the mind . . . or neutral feelings
generated through mind-contact." 11
(x) "Radha, when material form is present, death will
be present, the killer and the one who dies also will be
present. Therefore; Radha, you should regard material
form as death, as the killer, or as the one who dies: re-
gard it as a disease, as a boil, as a dart, as a misfortune, as
a source of misfortune. Those who regard material form
in this manner regard it rightly .... And so too for feeling,
perception, mental formations, and consciousness."
54
"Venerable sir, what is the purpose in regarding it

rightly?"
"Radha, regarding it rightly is for the purpose of re-
vulsion."12
(xi) "Rahula, is the earth element permanent or imper-

manent?"
"Venerable sir, it is impermanent;'.. ·~
"If a thing is impermanent, is it painful or pleasant?"
"Venerable sir, it is painful."
"If a thing is impermanent, painful, and changeable, is
it proper to consider it as 'this is mine,' 'this I am,' or 'this
is my self'?"
"Venerable sir, it is not proper."
(Having pointed out in the same way the three charac-
teristics in the other elements-water, fire, air, space, and
consciousness-the Buddha continues thus:)
"Rahula, seeing thus through insight, the wise noble
disciple feels revulsion towards the elements of earth,
water, heat, air, space, and consciousness." 13
(xii) "0 monk, if one lives contemplating continuously

the rise and fall of the eye-faculty, one feels revulsion
towards the eye-faculty. Similarly if one lives contem-
plating continuously the rise and fall of the sense faculties
of ear, nose, tongue, body, or mind, one feels revulsion
towards each of them. " 14
The Development of Revulsion

Although the Buddha has taught in many different ways in
keeping with the mentality of each of his disciples, when we
collate these different expositions of the Dhamma it becomes
possible for us to define a common programme of action for
the development of revulsion. The fundamentals of such a
system of insight development can be briefly explained thus:
55
1. One first comprehends the mental and material phe-

nomena in their different categories as aggregates,
bases, elements, or faculties, according to the capacity
of each meditator. This is the comprehension of indi-
vidual characteristics (paccattalakkhaJJ.a-pativedha).
2. One then realizes that all formations understood in the
aforesaid manner are linked by the law of cause and
effect (paccaya-pariggaha).
3. One next realizes that all these causal and resultant
phenomena are subject to the three common charac-
teristics of impermanence, suffering, and non-self, and
therefore are sources of danger.
The clear understanding of the dangers in formations-their
being beset by the three characteristics-functions as the im-
mediate cause for the generation of revulsion. 15
In many discourses (mainly in the Ati.guttara Nikaya) the
Buddha states that the foundation for revulsion is correct
knowledge and vision (yathtiblnlta-fiiiJJ.adassana), which in turn
is the result of right concentration. 16 The phrase yathtibhiita-
fiti1Jadassana conveys the idea of seeing reality with insight
knowledge. This single phrase summarizes all the three stages
given above as the foundation of revulsion. 17 The commen-
taries explain "correct knowledge and vision" as "tender
insight" (tarurJa-vipassanii) and revulsion as "strong insight"
(balava-vipassanti). 18
The repeated application of attention and insight-wisdom
for the development of revulsion generated through insight
is the contemplation of revulsion (nibbidtinupassanti). It is· only
by the uninterrupted and sustained application of wise atten-
tion that the contemplation of revulsion can succeed. When
the mind is distracted concentration falters. Interruptions make
mindfulness and conc~ntration slack, and consequently the
mental process cannot acquire the strong focus needed to con-
56
template the three characteristics. The development of con-

templation consists simply in steering the mind in a direction
conducive to the emergence and development of mindfulness,
concentration, and wisdom.
With the gradual maturation of the three contemplations
of impermanence, suffering, and non-self, the perilous nature
of conditioned phenomena becomes evident. This generates
revulsion towards formations. This contemplation of revul-
sion develops gradually. When the knowledge of the disso-
lution of formations (bhanga-fitiiJa) sets in, the contemplation
of revulsion also gathers sufficient power to subdue delight.I 9
From this point on the contemplation gradually gains mo-
mentum, reaching its climax with the dawning of the insight
knowledge of revulsion (nibbidti-fitiiJa). Thereafter, when the
knowledge of equanimity towards formations (sankhtir'upekkhti-
fitiiJa) is attained, the contemplation of revulsion recedes. 20
Delight, as well as any semblance of revulsion, will disap-
pear and the meditation of insight will continue in a serene
and dispassionate manner.
The contemplation of revulsion assumes a place of para-
mount significance in insight meditation. The greater there-
vulsion, the easier the abandonment of formations. Through
the complete abandonment of formations one will realize
Nibbana. For those fortunate people sufficiently advanced in
their journey towards arahantship-those whose spiritual fac-
ulties have reached a high degree of maturity through the
prolonged practice of tranquillity and insight meditation in
their previous lives-revulsion may set in immediately and
intensively through a deep realization of the three character-
istics. They will be able to attain the consummation of insight
meditation quickly without need to spend much time on the
contemplation of revulsion. 21
A lofty individual with a well-developed mind might bring
forth intense revulsion even in regard to a sense object that
normally rouses passion. One example of this is the case of
57
the Elder Nagasamala. Once, as he entered the city for alms,

this elder saw a nautch girl performing in public to the accom-
paniment of music. She was attractively dressed with sandal-
wood cream applied on her body and decked with ornaments
and flower garlands. But to the elder she appeared as nothing
other than a well-devised death trap set up by Mara the Evil
One. As he developed wise attention the dangers of formations
became doubly clear to him and intense revulsion set in. Then,
right on the spot, the elder attained arahantship along with
the three higher knowledges. 22
The meditator not endowed with such a high degree of
innate mental strength has to apply wise attention repeatedly
in such a way that revulsion is cultivated and brought to the
required degree of intensity.
The contemplation of revulsion is the outcome of the three
preceding contemplations, but by its own intrinsic nature it
should be regarded as a special form of the contemplation of
suffering. This is also implied by the fact that the delight it
eliminates is closely related to the perception of pleasure that
is eliminated by the contemplation of suffering.
Revulsion and Delight
At this point in our inquiry it is pertinent to discuss the role

of delight (nandi). Delight is craving accompanied by zest-23 It
is the habit of enjoying formations gleefully and avariciously
under the delusion that they are "I" or "mine," taking them,
through ignorance of their true nature, to be pleasing, wel-
come, agreeable, and pleasurable. Let us now turn our atten-
tion to a discourse of the Buddha which shows how delight
originates and leads to bitter consequences:
"Having seen a pleasant form, he becomes attached to it;
when the form is unpleasant he detests it; ignorant of the
true nature of the body he lives with unwholesome
58
thoughts. He is ignorant of that heart-deliverance and

wisdom-deliverance (the fruition of arahantship), wherein
such evil, unwholesome thoughts utterly cease. While con-
fronted with this ambivalence of compliance and conflict,
whatever feeling he experiences, whether pleasant, pain-
ful, or neutral, he welcomes it. Conditioned by his crav-
ing, he now thinks, 'It is I, it is mine'; and he immerses
himself in that feeling with a degree of craving so intense
that escape from it becomes almost impossible.
To one who finds pleasure in this feeling, who immerses
himself in it calling it 'I' and 'mine,' there arises delight
(nandi). When delight arises in relation to any kind of feel-
ing the result is clinging (uptidtina). This in turn conditions
becoming (bhava). Becoming conditions birth, which con-
ditions decay and death, sorrow, lamentation, pa1n, grief,
and despair. In this manner there arises this entire mass
of suffering. Having heard a sound ... Having smelt an
odour ... Having experienced a taste ... Having experienced
a touch ... Having thought of a mental object ... In this
manner there arises ... suffering. " 24
Just ponder for a moment how many of your daily activi-
ties are imbued with this delight, which arises when you fail
to set up wise attention and awareness over the acts of con-
sciousness occurring at the six sense faculties. Every time you
lose restraint over your sense faculties this delight is gener-
ated, driving you into future existences where you will under-
go a vast mass of suffering in the form of birth, decay, and
death, sorrow and grief, illness and stress. By contemplating
this fact you can bring forth a keen sense of urgency and
devote yourself to the contemplation of revulsion with inten-
sified earnestness.
The meditator who engages in insight meditation with a
concentrated mind comprehends the process of sense percep-
tion in its true nature. He fully realizes that what takes place
59
at all times is just the continuous functioning of a group of

mental and material phenomena on the basis of the cause-
and-effect relationship. He also realizes that each of these for-
mations is subject to momentary origination and cessation,
that they are stressful, and also that they are totally devoid of
any inner core of a self. He comprehends the dangers involved
in formations in diverse ways. At this stage the relishing of
formations that had become entrenched in his mind, along
with the habit of gleefully welcoming them, begins to slip
away. In their place revulsion towards formations sets in and
gathers momentum. Nothing is selfishly' adhered to as "I" or
"mine." One does not adhere to worldly enjoyments. The de-
light is subdued by the matured revulsion in exactly the same
way as the blind man, on gaining his eyesight, loses interest
in the loathsome piece of cloth which tmtil then he had clasped
with so much love and care.
With the gradual development of the contemplation of re-
vulsion, the meditator will begin to abhor even the realms of
gods and Brahma.s. Feelings of delight relating to the sensu-
ous, fine-material, and immaterial spheres will dry up. The
meditator will begin to make statements like the following:
"At first I wanted only to free myself from the realms of mis-
ery, but now this entire triple world appears as one whole
conflagration, a heap of suffering. I have no liking for any
form of becoming." His mind has no more room for worldly
thoughts of enjoyment. A strong urge to free himself from all
defilements becomes established. 25
When the contemplation of revulsion is extended in this
manner to all internal and external phenomena, certain medi-
tators tend to become confused. Here a meditator loses inter-
est in everything, including such essential activities as par-
taking of food or performing the daily chores. He feels driven
to change his clothing and seat constantly. He might begin to
dislike his cell or home, his meditation cushion, or even his
meditation master. He might even feel compelled to give up
60
everything and wander aimlessly. Yet for all that, he is never

prompted to give up meditation.
If such a situation arises, one should confide it to the
meditation master or to an experienced meditator without
concealing anything. One should recognize that while this
disenchantment arises in relation to formations, the correct
course of action is that of continuing with the meditation
uninterruptedly. By thus remaining engaged in the unimpeded
contemplation of revulsion, a stage will be reached when this
revulsion ceases and the mind becomes exceedingly peaceful.
* * *
"0 monks, I declare that when one lives engaged in the
contemplation of revulsion towards things that fetter, one
abandons lust, hatred, and delusion. By abandoning lust,
hatred, and delusion one achieves freedom from the suf-
fering of repeated birth, decay and death, sorrow, lamen-
tation, pain, grief, and despair." 26
61
5
Contemplation of Dispassion
(Virtigiinupassanii)
One who develops the contemplation of dispassion

abandons passion.
(Vinigiinupassanam bhiivento riigam pajahati.)
The Meaning of Dispassion

The term virtiga, which generally means dispassion or non-
attachment, has been used in various senses in the texts. 1 A
few of the meanings relevant to the present context are the
following:
1. The "fading away" or removal of passion and lust
towards formations, which is achieved by means of
insight wisdom through the method of "substitution
of opposites"; because dispassion replaces passion in
the course of contemplation, this could be referred to
as "substitutional dispassion" (tadmiga-viraga). 2
2. The momentary dissolution of formations, called
"destructional dispassion" (i.e. "destruction as a form
of dispassion" or "fading away by destruction," khaya-
virtiga).3
3. Nibbana, which is the ultimate dispassion (accanta-
virtiga) or emancipatory dispassion (nissaraJ!a-viraga). 4
4. The supramundane path, which uproots passion per-
manently and thus may be called extirpative dispas-
sion (samuccheda-viraga). 5
62
It appears that the first definition of dispassion here-i.e.

the fading away of passion as a consequence of insight-best
describes the contemplation of dispassion as understood in
the context of the seven contemplations. 6 As such, we shall
delineate the contemplation of dispassion on the basis of that
definition while at the same time relating the discussion to
the other meanings as well.
The Contemplation of Dispassion

The contemplation of dispassion does not become manifest
until one reaches the mature insight knowledge regarding rise
and fall. When this deep knowledge becomes activated, the
meditator clearly grasps the three characteristics of phenom-
ena; and this knowledge serves as a condition for the partial
occurrence of the contemplation of revulsion as well. Simul-
taneously, there sets in non-attachment towards formations.
The contemplation of dispassion through the substitution of
opposites is the application of insight contemplation to facili-
tate the development of this non-attachment.
At this stage, even though the meditator clearly grasps both
11
the rise and fall of phenomena, as a result of this contem-
plation of dispassion through the substitution of opposites"
his attention fixes more intently upon their fall than upon
their rise. As the falling away of formations becomes more
prominent, contemplation of impermanence becomes sharper.
This paves the way for the knowledge of dissolution '(bhanga-
fziir;.a), at which stage the meditator altogether abandons con-
cern with the rise of formations and fixes his attention solely
on their momentary dissolution. When this momentary dis-
11
solution is considered as destructional dispassion," it can be
seen how the contemplation of dispassion gathers momen-
tum through the repeated observation of 11 destructional dis-
passion."
When the meditator sees how all the mental and material
63
formations that become the objects of the mind-along with

those very states of mind that perform the contemplation-
are constantly breaking up and dissolving, he comprehends
the great fearfulness in the world of formations. Also, by con-
templating how formations are always fading away by de-
struction, their manifold dangers become evident. As a re-
sult, the contemplation of revulsion emerges and gathers
strength. The non-attachment that follows brings to promi-
nence the contemplation of dispassion through the substitu-
tion of opposites. Although the contemplation of revulsion
gradually subsides after the knowledge of revulsion has
reached its consummation, the contemplation of dispassion
continues to gain momentum. This contemplation of "substitu-
tional dispassion" subdues passion and paves the way for
the emergence of equanimity. It thereby becomes an im-
mensely powerful supporting condition for the stage of in-
sight knowledge called knowledge of equanimity towards
formations (sankhtir'upekkhti-fitiJJa) to arise. This itself is the fore-
runner to the emergence of the supramundane path process.
By this time the meditator has acquired an inferential knowl-
edge that Nibbana is the ultimate state of dispassion. While
engaged in the contemplation of "destructional dispassion,"
i.e. contemplation of the momentary dissolution of phenom-
ena, he has also realized: "Nibbana, called the state of dis-
passion, is exceedingly serene and lofty, for it transcends the
continuous dissolution of formations." While engaged in the
contemplation of "dispassion through the substitution of
opposites" it occurs to him: "Nibbana, called the state of dis-
passion, is exceedingly serene and lofty, for it is entirely free
from all formations and devoid of even a vestige of passion." 7
The repeated experience of this observation can also be iden-
tified as the contemplation of dispassion.
The consummation of insight is regarded as the acme of
the contemplation of dispassion. When, through the success-
ful fulfilment of the contemplation of dispassion, the medita-
64
tor has suppressed passion for all formations by means of the

substitution of opposites, with the utter relinquishing of all
formations as objects he will directly experience Nibbana, the
ultimate state of dispassion. This supramundane path condi-
tion, known as "extirpative dispassion" or the extirpation of
passion (samuccheda-viriiga), is also described in the commen-
taries as a form of the contemplation of dispassion. 8
Of the sixteen stages of mindfulness of breathing, the four-
teenth is the contemplation of dispassion, which the Patisam-
bhidiimagga describes in the following terms (the bracketed
portions are from the commentary):
Having seen [onwards from the knowledge of dissolution]
the dangers involved in material form and endowed with
a [wholesome] desire [generated by knowledge obtained
from the scriptures] for dispassion towards material form
(i.e. for Nibbana), he decides on [that Nibbana] with full
confidence. The meditator's mind is also firmly established
[in destructional dispassion, which is the destruction of
material phenomena, as an object of the mind, and in
Nibbana, on the basis of the scriptures, which is the ulti-
mate state of dispassion]. (In this manner) he trains him-
self repeatedly thus, "I shall breathe in contemplating dis-
passion towards material form; I shall breathe out
contemplating dispassion towards material form." (This
account is repeated in relation to the remaining four ag-
gregates with "material form" replaced successively by
feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness.) 9
The Visuddhimagga, in defining the contemplation of dis-
passion as the same fourteenth stage in mindfulness of breath-
ing, emphasizes dispassion as the momentary destruction of
formations and remains silent on dispassion through the sub-
stitution of opposites. 10 The commentary to the Patisambhidti-
magga, too, seems to have followed that tradition here. Yet,
since the text contains the phrase "having seen the danger
65
involved in material form," one can easily bring dispassion

through the substitution of opposites into the context too, for
it was shown earlier how revulsion and dispassion through
the substitution of opposites follow when one comprehends
the dangers in phenomena (see p.64 above). Dispassion
through substitution, it should be noted, can also result from
the contemplation of destructional dispassion, i.e~ from con-
templation of the momentary destruction of phenomena. 11
Dispassion and Revulsion

The contemplation of revulsion that emerges from the reali-
zation of the dangers involved in formations, and the con-
templation of dispassion that gathers momentum from this
realization, are closely relatedY The Pafisambhidamagga Com-
mentary in one place has even identified the contemplation of
dispassion with that of revulsion. 13 In some suttas the Bud-
dha has joined the two terms "revulsion" and "dispassion"
into the compound "revulsion-dispassion" (nibbida-viraga). 14
Also, the contemplation referred to in the texts as "the per-
ception of distaste for the whole world" (sabbaloke anabhirata-
saiiiia) can be identified either as the contemplation of revul-
sion (which is preferred by the commentaries and the
sub-commentaries) or as the contemplation of dispassionY
The close similarity between delight (nandi) and passion
(raga), which are respectively eliminated by the contempla-
tion of revulsion and that of dispassion, also confirms the
similarity between these two contemplations. Nandi is the
greed produced by delight, raga the greed produced by attach-
ment.16 It is also stated that whereas nandi is craving accom-
panied by zest (sappttika-tar;.ha), raga is craving devoid of zest
(nippttika-tar;.htf). 17 Discourses are not tmcommon in which nandi
and raga occur in the compound nandi-raga: "Monks, one who
contemplates material form and comprehends it as it really is
in respect of its impermanence, develops revulsion towards
66
material form. By the elimination of delight, passion is elimi-

nated; by the elimination of passion, delight is eliminated. By
the elimination of both delight and passion (nandi-raga), the
mind is completely liberated." 18 These words of the Buddha
indicate underline the close link between nandi and raga.
If that be so, are revulsion (nibbida) and dispassion (viraga)
identical? Though the two are very similar, other discourses
of the Buddha indicate a difference, a cause-and-effect
relationship, between them: "Monks, I declare that dispassion
is with cause and not without cause. What is the cause of
dispassion? It has to be stated: revulsion." 19
Here the commentary describes revulsion as intensified
insight and dispassion as the supramundane path. 20 In the
discourses where revulsion and dispassion occur together
(especially in places where the three stages of revulsion, dis-
passion, and liberation are cited in sequence), very often the
commentary interprets dispassion as the supramundane path. 21
(Among the examples adduced in Chapter 4 for the divergent
ways in which revulsion can emerge, all but one deal with
the process from revulsion to dispassion and liberation.)
Nevertheless, there is evidence in the texts that dispassion
following on revulsion need not always be supramundane.
For instance, consider the following passage:
"Monks, it is said that of all the inhabitants and rulers of
Kasi-Kosala, King Pasenadi is the foremost. Yet King
Pasenadi is certainly subject to change, subject to death.
Monks, the instructed noble disciple who comprehends
this fact develops revulsion even towards kingship and
becomes dispassionate (virajjati) even towards the fore-
most, the crown of Kosala. This being the case, what need
is there to speak of those inferior sensual pleasures?" 22
It is clear that "becomes dispassionate" (virajjati) here denotes
a mundane variety of dispassion, and from this example and
the others cited in the sutta it becomes plain that dispassion
67
can be cultivated in relation even to the ordinary objects be-

longing to the external world.
In the Dhatuvibhanga Sutta, the Buddha explains how, in
advanced insight, mundane dispassion is achieved immedi-
ately after revulsion. The detailed account of the meditation
on elements given there can be summarized as follows:
The meditator, with right insight knowledge, comprehends
both the internal earth element and the external earth ele-
ment as simply the earth element. He contemplates it as
'not mine, not I, not my self.' Thereby he develops revul-
sion towards the earth element and his mind becomes dis-
passionate towards it (i.e. he develops mundane dispas-
sion). In like manner he develops revulsion and dispassion
towards the elements of water, fire, air, and space. Now
there remains only that consciousness, purified and re-
splendent. Through this consciousness he comes to under-
stand that all feelings, whether pleasant, painful, or neu-
tral, arise through contact and cease in the absence of
contact. 23 Eventually he achieves equanimity (upekkhii),
purified, pliable, amenable, and resplendent. He does not
abuse this condition to accumulate formations that pro-
long the cycle of existence. Without grasping anything
mundane, never incited by craving, he realizes arahant-
ship by extinguishing the fires of passion (i.e. he experi-
ences supramundane dispassion). 24
Here it appears that dispassion towards the five material
elements-earth, water, fire, air, and space-occurs at an ele-
vated stage of insight meditation. Nevertheless, this must
pertain to the mundane level because at the supramundane
level dispassion towards both mind and matter together
should occur simultaneously. The supramundane condition
dawns only with the subsequent perfection of insight by ex-
tending it to embrace the mental phenomena as well. Hence
it can be stated that the dispassion resulting from revulsion
68
is initially a mundane condition and it is through further

development that it attains to the supramundane leveP5
The Maturation of Dispassion

This viewpoint receives confirmation when we inquire how
the two contemplations of revulsion and of dispassion func-
tion in mutual association at the practical level. It is by seeing
the dangers harboured in formations that revulsion is pro-
duced, and this in turn issues in dispassion. These two con-
templations continue to develop in unison as a cause-and-
effect nexus until they reach the acme of the knowledge of
revulsion. At this stage it would be difficult to distinguish
between the two as separate contemplations.
With the further development of insight and the consequent
stabilization of the knowledge of equanimity towards
formations, the contemplation of revulsion begins to decline
as there is no further need for it. 26 Yet the contemplation of
dispassion now exercises its ftmction with still greater strength,
tending more and more towards equanimity of insight, an
evenness of mind free from all attachment and conflict,
without a trace of revulsion.
Even at the stage of equanimity towards formations, the
object of one's attention will be one of the three characteristics
of phenomena. Yet what results from this will not be revulsion
(as in the earlier phase) but sheer dispassion, a mature phase
of dispassion that reveals itself as equanimity. In consequence,
the contemplation of dispassion unfolds effortlessly. At this
stage, however, although the contemplation of revulsion has
faded out, it is due to the initial impetus imparted by the
contemplation of revulsion that the contemplation of
dispassion could achieve, in this later phase, the degree of
intensity it now commands. Therefore it can be maintained
that even this phase of the contemplation of dispassion is a
product of the contemplation of revulsion.
69
Let us clarify this point with an illustration. Imagine a child

is rolling a wheel along a straight road. Though the child and
the wheel are both moving in unison, the wheel actually rolls
on owing to the thrust imparted to it by the child. As the
child gradually increases his speed, the wheel too accelerates.
When the child is running at his topmost speed he comes to
a decline in the road. Here he stops and allows the wheel to
proceed on its own, as there is no further need for him to
push it. However, the wheel rolls on down the decline with
increasing speed because of the initial impetus given to it by
the child. If we compare the child to the contemplation of
revulsion, the wheel to the contemplation of dispassion,
intensified insight meditation to the straight roadway, and
the decline to the knowledge of equanimity towards forma-
tions, the meaning of the simile should be clear.
When equanimity towards formations is achieved the con-
templation of dispassion reaches maturity. After this it issues
in the supramundane path, whereby it acquires a supra-
mundane quality. Accordingly it has to be stated that dispas-
sion, realized as a fruit of revulsion, initially emerges on the
mundane level and subsequently attains to the supramundane
level, while revulsion itself always remains on the mundane
level. We make this assertion on the premise that revulsion
and dispassion are two contemplations that unfold gradually
in intensified insight meditation, not by taking revulsion
either as a broad term designating insight in general or as a
special stage of insight knowledge called "knowledge of re-
vulsion" (see Chap. 4, n.l8).
Therefore, in the suttas which posit the stages of revulsion,
dispassion, and liberation in causal sequence (see Chap. 4,
n.21), if we bear in mind the functions of the contemplations
of revulsion and of dispassion in the advanced insight medi-
tation of the ordinary meditator, we cannot regard such dis-
passion as exclusively the supramundane state itself. It would
be more reasonable to treat the term "dispassion" (viraga) here
70
as embracing both the initial mundane stage of the contem-

plation of dispassion as well as its supramundane stage.
The Subduing of Passion

Since it is passion that is eliminated through the contemplation
of dispassion, this contemplation can be regarded as a
particular aspect of the contemplation of suffering, on the
ground that the contemplation of suffering is an antidote to
craving and passion is a synonym of craving. Yet when
dispassion is interpreted as the momentary destruction of
phenomena, it should be understood as an aspect of the con-
templation of impermanence, i.e. as seeing repeatedly the
momentary dissolution of formations. Further, by recognizing
that dispassion through the substitution of opposites-i.e. the
fading out of passion-can result from the contemplation of
the momentary destruction of phenomena, we can again
classify the contemplation of dispassion as a form of the
contemplation of suffering.
Cogent evidence can also be cited from the Patisambhida-
magga to establish that the contemplation of dispassion in it-
self is directly an aspect of the contemplation of suffering. In
the Patisambhida we find a classification of contemplations
on the basis of the type of clinging (upadana) eliminated by
each contemplation. According to this classification, the con-
templations of impermanence, of non-self, and others of simi-
lar nature constitute one category, while those of suffering
and others of similar nature constitute another category. The
contemplation of revulsion and of dispassion are also included
in the latter category, which eliminates only the "clinging to
sensual pleasures." 27
The lust or passion (raga) that is eliminated through the
contemplation of dispassion is indeed a defilement deeply
rooted in the mind. It is owing to our passionate attachment
and clinging to formations that we are trapped in this dread-
71
ful cycle of existence, wandering from one state of becoming

to another. We can hardly conceive how tightly we have
chained ourselves to the fetters of lust throughout this long,
beginningless cycle of existence! "Lust destroys vision, lust
destroys wisdom; it is on the side of suffering; it does not
lead to Nibbana." 28
Correct knowledge and vision (yathabh~Lta-fia1Jadassana)
arises by the proper practice of insight meditation. The
meditator will realize directly that all formations are subject
to origination and cessation and as such are mere natural
phenomena devoid of any such essence as a self, a person, or
a being; inevitably they bring suffering in their wake. He
clearly discerns that there is nothing in them worth clinging
to, nothing worth attaching oneself to, nothing worth hoping
for. Consequently the passion ingrained in his mind becomes
exhausted.
As the contemplation of dispassion progresses, the medi-
tator will realize that he no longer experiences the attach-
ments he formerly had towards the beauty, youthfulness,
health, and strength of his physical body. He sees as vain all
our efforts to adorn the body with lovely clothes, scents and
cosmetics, unguents, and jewellery. The task of maintaining
this worthless body, which is a heap of impurities, is felt as a
heavy burden. One no longer entertains even the least urge
to see attractive forms, to hear lovely sounds, to enjoy pleas-
ant smells, to partake of tasty food, to enjoy pleasurable tac-
tile sensations, or to wallow in passionate thoughts. All the
old bonds of affection for persons and possessions are torn
asunder. All expectations for gain, fame, property, power, and
other mundane attainments drop away. Even the desire for
future happiness in heqvenly and earthly realms vanishes.
When the contemplation of dispassion reaches its culmina-
tion, passion becomes utterly subdued and the mind is com-
pletely purified. Even if one deliberately directs one's atten-
tion to desirable sense objects, no desire will emerge; the mind
72
remains passionless. However, caution is needed here, for

insight knowledge only suspends lust; it does not eradicate
it. Because one's mind appears pure one might assume that
one has attained to the paths and fruits and eliminated all
defilements. However, because one has only temporarily re-
moved the defilements through the substitution of opposites,
if one were to stop insight meditation for a while one would
observe how they return. Accordingly, if one grasps one's
real situation with the help of the meditation master and con-
tinues with the meditation, one will in time experience the
supramundane dispassion, the true goal of the practice.
* * *
"Monks, the contemplation of dispassion, when developed
and cultivated, brings about great fruit and great profit." 29
73
6
Contemplation of Cessation
(Nirodhiinupassanii)
One who develops the contemplation of cessation aban-

dons origination.
(Nirodhtfnupassanan1 bhtivento samudayani pajahati.)
The Meaning of Cessation

Cessation (nirodha) can be explained in three ways: (i) in terms
of the person or entity that ceases; (ii) as the act of ceasing; or
(iii) as the state of having ceased, i.e. the termination of conti-
nuity.1 Let us examine the nature of cessation in relation to
the present topic.
Venerable Ananda, seated beside the Buddha, once put the
following question to him:
"Venerable sir, it is often said 'cessation, cessation.' What
are the phenomena that should cease for this term 'cessa-
tion' to be used?"
"Ananda, material form is impermanent, conditioned,
dependently arisen, subject to destruction, to fall, to
breaking up, to ceasing. Because of its ceasing the word
'cessation' is used. Feeling is impermanent ... Perception
is impermanent ... Mental formations are impermanent ...
Consciousness is impermanent ... Because of its ceasing
the word 'cessation' is used." 2
Thus the term nirodha refers to the cessation, termination,
dissolution, and stoppage of the conditioned formations com-
prised in the five aggregates. This cessation occurs in two
main stages:
74
1. The first stage is the ordinary cessation of formations

incessantly occurring in a way conditional to their con-
tinued emergence. This is the term "cessation leading to
continued origination" (uppada-nirodha). When the refer-
ence is to the momentary cessation of phenomena it is
also designated "destructional cessation" (khaya-nirodha =
cessation through destruction). 3
2. The second stage is the extirpation of formations with-
out any re-origination (samuccheda-nirodha or anuppada-
nirodha).4 This stage is tantamount to the supramundane
path, wherein Nibbana is realized as the ultimate cessation
(accanta-nirodha) or the emancipatory cessation (nissarar;a-
nirodha).5
In this examination of the contemplation of cessation much
of our attention will be devoted to the momentary cessation
of formations. The ultimate cessation, cessation without re-
origination, will be treated as the special stage when the con-
templation of cessation reaches its consummation.
The Emergence of Cessation

The contemplation of cessation is the repeated investigation
of the cessation of formations with insight-wisdom. 6 This con-
templation becomes manifest in varying forms in the course
of insight meditation. Let us first explain, by means of an
illustration, how it appears in its most rudimentary form.
The insight meditator who is observing the rise and fall of
the abdomen as his primary subject of meditation gradually
sharpens his mindfulness and concentration. As he does so,
he becomes capable of clearly noticing the beginning and the
end of each rise of the abdomen; he also considers that in
between the beginning and the end of the rising movement is
the ~iddle stage of the rise. Immediately following the end
of the rising movement, the falling movement begins, which
ceases instantly, invariably followed by another rise. This, too,
75
quickly ceases, followed by still another fall. By contemplat-

ing this process continuously with a concentrated mind the
meditator reaches success in the contemplation of imperma-
nence. In this phase of meditation, the precise and undeflected
observation of the endpoints of each rise and fall can be con-
sidered the initial form of the contemplation of cessation.
As the meditator further refines his attention, his insight
knowledge will enable him to discern a number of successive
"minor rises" occurring within a single full rise of the abdo-
men. Each of these minor rises has its own origin and cessa-
tion, which in time become clear to the attentive meditator.
So too, within each complete falling movement of the abdo-
men there occurs a number of successive "minor falls," each
having its own origin and cessation. These, too, the medita-
tor discerns. Gradually the meditator becomes capable of
knowing directly, in the same manner, the continuous origin
and cessation of all the objects of the six sense faculties. For
instance, in place of what was previously cognized as a sin-
gle unit of sound, he now perceives a series of discrete units
of sound, each with its own origination and cessation. Even
thoughts are clearly seen as arising and ceasing in serial suc-
cession. In this manner, as the contemplation of imperma-
nence gradually deepens and intensifies, the knowledge of
the rise and fall of phenomena dawns and comes to maturity,
enabling the meditator to see clearly, at any given moment,
how the entire phenomenal world is subject to the law of
momentary origination and cessation. Along with the con-
templation of impermanence, the contemplation of cessation
too grows and develops concurrently.
At the next stage in the maturation of insight the contem-
plation of cessation comes to the fore. Now it is the cessation
of formations rather than their origination that becomes promi-
nent. The meditator will clearly comprehend how every for-
mation that he attends to promptly dissolves as soon as it has
arisen. Sometimes he may even get the impression that the
76
object has already ceased before he has noted it. He also ob-
serves how the contemplating mind too breaks up in the very
process of noting the dissolving object. The meditator might
feel that his mindfulness has regressed, but in reality this is a
sign of progress. By now he has transcended the knowledge
of rise and fall and arrived at the knowledge of dissolution
(bhmiga-iiiir;.a). At this stage the presently occurring momen-
tary cessation of formations, in other words their cessation
through dissolution (khaya-nirodha), will strongly impress
itself on the meditator's mind. This constitutes an intensified
stage in the contemplation of cessation. 7
Through inferential knowledge the meditator will next real-
ize that in the past too, in exactly the same way, formations
were incessantly subject to dissolution, and that in the future
too this momentary cessation will continue unabated. 8 He fur-
ther realizes, with the force of direct cognition~ that this is the
fundamental nature of things, not only in his own five aggre-
gates but throughout the entire triple world. Accordingly he
penetrates the intensely frightening nature of formations,
which brings the knowledge of appearance as terror (bhayat'
upatthiina-fiiiJJ.a). Likewise, he realizes in a variety of ways the
extensive dangers involved in formations, i.e. knowledge of
danger (iidinava-fiiir;.a).
Based on this he develops revulsion towards formations-
knowledge of revulsion (nibbidii-fiiiJJ.a). There arises in him a
deep wish for the eternal allayment, the discontinuance, of
this continuity of formations, which keep on ceasing inces-
santly.9 Accordingly, when the meditator directly realizes ces-
sation as the dissolution of formations, his attention repeat-
edly turns, by way of inferential knowledge, to Nibbana as
the ultimate cessation. This can be regarded as still another
facet of the contemplation of cessation. 1°Conjoined with this
contemplation, the wish to achieve deliverance from forma-
tions becomes stronger. Thus the meditator arrives at the
knowledge of desire for deliverance (muficitukamyatii-iiiir;.a).U
77
At times the meditator's main meditation subject may van-

ish completely. The person who practises mindfulness of
breathing ceases to feel the breath. One who attends to the
rise and fall of the abdomen ceases to feel the rising and fall-
ing movement in the abdominal region. One who fixes atten-
tion on the posture of sitting loses the sense of the presence
of the body. Occasionally one might even feel that one's head
or some other part of one's body has vanished. One attend-
ing to the various touch sensations of the body might cease
to experience tangibility. When the meditator developing the
contemplation of elements analyses and separates them as
earth, water, fire, and air, he may fail to discern the presence
of his body. For some, the entire perception of material form
ceases, leaving only the mental flux as the object of atten-
tionY Contemplating the cessation of perception in regard to
the different parts of the physical form can be adduced as yet
another aspect of the contemplation of cessation.
When they lose perception of the main subject of medita-
tion, some meditators are overcome by fear while others
convince themselves that they have attained a supramundane
realization. But such bizarre experiences are only incidental
by-products marking some degree of progress in mundane
insight. If the primary meditation subject disappears, the
meditator should not allow either fear or pride to prevail.
Instead, he should direct his attention to some other object
that is clear to him. If no discernment of any material form is
possible, he should fix his attention on his presently occurring
continuity of consciousness. It is possible that while he is
contemplating a different subject, the earlier subject of
meditation may reappear; in such a case he should revert to
that earlier subject. If he ceases to experience any object
apprehended through the five sense doors, and instead
experiences only the continuity of consciousness through the
mind-door, such a condition should be regarded as an exalted
mundane state of concentration.
78
As the meditator's concentration deepens, the cessation of

every object of sense cognition becomes immediately appar-
ent to him. He comprehends how, when a formation ceases,
it ceases forever without any possibility of re-emergence. What
emerges subsequently is an entirely new formation, which
also fully ceases in an instant. 13 The contemplation of cessa-
tion, by engendering this direct realization of the momentary
extirpation of every object cognized as well as of every cog-
nizing mind state, clearly discloses the nature of non-self in
regard to all formations. Presently, the meditator penetrates
the following truth: If it is the case that all formations relat-
ing to the five aggregates completely cease at one moment,
followed by the emergence of new formations at the subse-
quent moment, and if at the very next moment these too cease
completely, then there cannot be any substance in these five
aggregates; they are totally devoid of anything that can be
taken as a truly existent "1." 14 He thus realizes the voidness
of formations, which are wholly and completely devoid of
the nature of a self. 15
An experienced meditator will see how, through the gradual
development of insight knowledge gained by contemplation,
the defilements rooted in his mind are ceasing by way of
substitution of opposites. 16 As the real nature of formations is
progressively revealed by the light of insight knowledge, the
darkness of ignorance disappears, overwhelmed by the
luminosity of wisdom. One eliminates the false view that there
is an "I," a person, within the five aggregates. Craving ceases,
since one is no longer disposed to cling to formations as "I"
or "mine." Conceit vanishes, as one does not apprehend an
"I" to use as the criterion for judging oneself and others. Anger
is relinquished, for the beings and persons with whom one
normally enters into conflict are now seen to be merely
congeries of formations rather than concrete individuals. One's
mind is utterly purged of the perverted perception that the
world of formations is permanent, pleasurable, and beautiful.
79
One loses one's deeply ingrained longing for the prolonged.

continuity of the flux of formations.
When the meditator realizes that these defilements-which
have kept him tethered to the cycle of existence-cease
through substitution by their opposites, he becomes convinced
that for him the suffering of samsara itself is also subsiding
right in the present. By developing an attitude of wise equa-
nimity towards the different aspects of suffering such as old
age, disease, physical pain, and death, their tormenting nature
comes to an end. One is no longer subject to the lashings of
sorrow, lamentation, despair, grief, stress, frustration, and
similar misfortunes. The mass of samsaric suffering, to which
one had been subject for so long by clinging to the five
aggregates, also fades away through the substitution of oppo-
sites. Stated otherwise, the meditator sees how suffering ceases
when the cycle of dependent arising is terminated by
nullifying the root defilements of ignorance and cravingP
With the perfection of the thirty-seven requisites of enlight-
enment (bodhipakkhiya dharmnii), a well-sharpened process of
intense insight meditation spontaneously sets in. Then, at an
unexpected but conspicuous stage of the meditative process,
the contemplation of cessation reaches its consummation. As
one is profoundly immersed in one of the three contempla-
tions-of impermanence, suffering, or non-self-suddenly the
object of contemplation totally ceases and, for just a moment,
even while remaining extremely alert, the mind forsakes all
mundane objects. Then it immediately takes up once again
the subject of meditation and reverts to the contemplation of
insight, experiencing great joy. What takes place in that
momentary shift in consciousness is the opening of the stain-
less and immaculate eye of the Dhamma: "Whatever is of the
nature of origination, all that is of the nature of cessation." 18
This is nothing other than the attainment of the supramundane
path and fruit, which have as their object of realization
Nibbana, the ultimate cessation (accanta-nirodha) or emanci-
80
patory cessation (nissaraJJ.a-nirodha). 19 At this stage, by the pene-

tration of Nibbana as ultimate cessation, one accomplishes
the extirpative cessation (anuppada- or samuccheda-nirodha) of
defilements, eradicating them so that they can never again
emerge in the future. 20
Abandoning Origination
It is said "the contemplation of cessation abandons origina-
tion." Considering the basic nature of this contemplation, the
term "origination" (samudaya) here can be taken as convey-
ing the idea of the origination or birth of formations, 21 for
when the contemplation is confined to momentary dissolu-
tion, one stops attending to their origination. Nevertheless,
when the wide area covered by the contemplation of cessa-
tion is taken into account, and when we consider that the
term "origination" should signify a defilement eliminated by
this contemplation, we can conclude that the "origination"
here conveys a still deeper meaning. That is, it can signify
the condition responsible for the repeated emergence of forma-
tions in the future, i.e. the defilements, specifically craving.
This assumption becomes justifiable on the ground that the
repeated observation of the cessation of formations leads to
revulsion towards them and disenchantment with them, which
in turn eliminates the craving for the further prolongation of
this continuity of formations. As such it can be stated that, in
this context, all the defilements responsible for the continued
emergence of formations are comprised by the term origina-
tion (samudaya). 22
The Patisambhidamagga Commentary, while interpreting the
contemplation of cessation as contemplation of the cessation
of passion, explains origination as the coming into being of
passion. 23 Whether passion (raga) is regarded as a term repre-
senting all the defilements pertaining to origination or as one
major defilement of this category, it corresponds with the inter-
pretation of the term given above, that is, as meaning the
81
The Seven Contemplations of 1nsight
cause for the continued arising of formations in the cycle of

rebirths.
In the light of the comprehensive interpretation of the
contemplation of cessation and of origination so far adduced,
this contemplation becomes definable as an amalgamation of
all the three contemplations of impermanence, suffering, and
non-self. The Patisambhidtimagga says that all these three
contemplations become operative within the knowledge of
dissolution (bhmiga-fitiJJ.a), which is an important stage in the
contemplation of cessation. 24 In the same work, where the
contemplations have been classified on the basis of the kind
of clinging they eliminate, the contemplation of cessation again
seems to be an amalgamation of all three contemplations, or
at least of two of them. 25 But considering the basic nature of
the contemplation of cessation, as attention to the passing
away of formations, it would be better to treat it mainly as a
variant of the contemplation of impermanence.
In many places where the contemplations of impermanence,
of dispassion, and of cessation occur together, the commen-
tary analyses the latter two in identical terms. It classifies dis-
passiof\ as destructional dispassion (lchaya-virtiga) and as ulti-
mate dispassion (accanta-virtiga), while it classifies cessation
as destructional cessation (lchaya-nirodha) and as ultimate ces-
sation (accanta-nirodha). Here the commentary explains that
cl.estructional dispassion and destructional cessation both re-
fer to the momentary dissolution of formations, while ulti-
mate dispassion and ultimate cessation both refer to Nibbana. 26
Hence these two contemplations appear to be identical. In
addition, passion and origination (of suffering), which are the
two defilements respectively eliminated by these two contem-
plations, also display a close similarity to each other, both
being synonyms for craving (taJJ.hti).
Nevertheless, the Patisambhidtimagga Commentary has
attempted to indicate a distinction between these two contem-
plations. In explaining the schedule on mindfulness of breath-
82
ing (tinliplinasati-mtitika), this commentary· says that the

contemplation of dispassion is the insight capable of gener-
ating detachment towards formations (i.e. emphasizing here
dispassion through the substitution of opposites), whereas the
contemplation of cessation is a more potent variety of insight
capable of effecting the cessation of defilementsY
In its gloss on the knowledge of comprehension (sammasana-
Pitf1Ja) the same commentary says that while dispassion is the
total transcendence of the existing state, cessation is the com-
plete and irreversible extinction of that state. 28 What is ex-
plained here under dispassion is the momentary destruction
of phenomena (khaya-viraga). Considered in this light, the con-
templation of cessation by way of the destruction of phenom-
ena goes deeper than the contemplation of dispassion by way
of the destruction of phenomena.
In describing insight through mindfulness of breathing, the
Patisambhidamagga includes a special analysis of the doctrine
of dependent arising when recounting the contemplation of
cessation but not when recounting the contemplation of
dispassion. According to the commentary, this is an indication
of the superiority of the former contemplation over the latter. 29
The Patisambhidamagga Commentary further indicates that
the contemplation of cessation goes deeper than that of dis-
passion because the former eradicates the origin or source of
passion while the latter removes passion alone.
Both ultimate dispassion and ultimate cessation, as stated
earlier, refer to Nibbana. If the contemplation of dispassion is
regarded as a variant of the contemplation of suffering and
the contemplation of cessation as a variant of the contempla-
tion of impermanence, then it follows that the two contem-
plations become distinct doors to liberation (vimokkha-mukha)
revealing different aspects of Nibbana. Accordingly, ultimate
dispassion turns out to be Nibbana apprehended by way of
the desireless liberation (i.e. as liberation devoid of any yearn-
ing for pleasure) at the moment when the contemplation of
83
dispassion reaches its culmination; ultimate cessation turns

out to be Nibbana apprehended by way of the signless lib-
eration (i.e. liberation devoid of any fixed sign of permanence
in formations) at the moment when the contemplation of ces-
sation reaches its culmination. 30
Practically speaking, in insight meditation, dispassion is
very often experienced as the fading away of passion, or as
equanimity, while cessation is frequently realized as the ces-
sation of formations occurring in diverse ways.
Mindfulness of death never leaves the meditator who seri-
ously engages in the contemplation of cessation. Therefore
he applies himself to insight meditation with increasing dili-
gence, hoping to achieve thereby the extirpative cessation of
formations.
* * *
"Monks, through the development and cultivation of the
contemplation of cessation one ·may expect one of two
fruits: either the final knowledge of arahantship in this
very life, or if any more defilements still remain, the stage
of non-returner." 31
84
7
Contemplation of Relinquishment
(P atinissaggtinup ass anti)
One who develops the contemplation of relinquishment

abandons grasping.
(Patinissagganupassanani bhlivento iidiinarfl pajahati.)
Two.Types of Relinquishment
In the texts, two meanings have been adduced for the term
pafinissagga,I "relinquishment": (i) giving up (pariccaga); and
(ii) entering into (pakkhandana). 2 The more important of the
two is the idea of "giving up," which implies the sense of
"abandonment" or "dropping off" (pahana). 3 Accordingly, on
the authority of the analysis of relinquishment in the "Mind-
fulness of Breathing" chapter of the Pafisambhidamagga, it can
be concluded that relinquishment by way of abandonment
(pariccaga-pafinissagga) signifies the "dropping off" or aban-
doning of the totality of formations categorized diversely as
the aggregates, elements, sense bases, faculties, spheres of
becoming, jhanas, factors of dependent origination, etc. 4
The following discourse of the Buddha clarifies how aban-
donment in the sense of giving up should be extended to the
entire gamut of formations:
"Monks, everything should be abandoned. And what is
this everything that should be abandoned? The eye should
be abandoned. So too visible forms, eye-consciousness, eye-
contact, and whatever feeling is generated through such
contact-whether pleasant, painful, or neutral-all this
should be abandoned." 5
85
The Buddha then applies the same formula to the ear, nose,
tongue, body, and mind.
The knowledge born of contemplation removes ignorance,
thereby exposing the true nature of formations. As a result,
the passionate desire or craving that compels one to grasp
formations as "I" and "mine" disappears by way of the sub-
stitution of opposites, paving the way for the abandonment
of all formations by way of the substitution of opposites in
the very present. 6
The giving up of presently occurring formations achieved
in the course of insight meditation reaches its consummation
with the total and permanent relinquishment of formations
via the attainment of the supramundane path. When the supra-
mundane path is reached, all formations totally drop away
as objects of cognition and the mind directly penetrates the
unconditioned state, Nibbana. Here the defilements pertain-
ing to each path and the respective kamma they would gen-
erate, along with the aggregates that they would produce in
the future, are all given up by way of extirpation. For this
reason the supramundane path, too, is referred to as "relin-
quishment by way of giving up" (paricctiga-patinissagga)?
The other meaning conveyed by the term patinissagga is
"entering into," "launching into," or "immersion in." It is the
mind's entering into Nibbana that is referred to as "relinquish-
ment (of formations) through immersion."8
The act of "relinquishment through entering into" becomes
functional in the same two stages: insight and the supra-
mundane path. When the meditator sees the dangers inher-
ent in formations with the knowledge of insight, his mind
inclines towards Nibbana as a state free from such danger-
ous formations; this is the "relinquishment through entering
into" that becomes functional at the level of insight. Then, at
the stage of the supramundane path, one relinquishes all
formations by actually fully immersing the mind in Nibbana;
86
thus the supramundane path too has been defined as "relin-

quishment through entering into." 9
The repeated development of insight knowledge for the
cultivation of the two aspects of relinquishment-as the giving
up of formations and as entering into Nibbana-constitutes
the contemplation of relinquishment. 10
This "giving up" and "immersion" pertaining to the
contemplation of relinquishment can actually be shown as
two aspects of the same attainment. Simultaneously with the
abandonment of defilements and other formations the mind
becomes oriented towards Nibbana; this orientation becomes
increasingly more evident in the higher stages of insight
meditation. At the stage of the supramundane path both these
events occur at the same instant: at the very same moment
that the mind enters into Nibbana by taking Nibbana as its
direct object, the defilements to be eradicated by that path,
and the formations to be produced by those defilements, are
forever abandoned. Thus it can be maintained that although
relinquishment is twofold in theory, it is unitary in direct
experience.
Abandonment is in fact the essence of insight meditation,
underlying and embracing the entire meditative path. Relin-
quishment begins initially on a low key and gradually gathers
momentum until it reaches such a high pitch that it gives one
the enormous strength required to abandon the defilements
and formations in their entirety.
The Unfolding Process of Relinquishment

The first major task of the meditator developing a subject of
pure insight meditation is the elimination of the hindranc~s
(nivara1J.a): this is a giving up of defilements. Following their
removal, when the meditator's mind becomes fully concen-
trated, the knowledge of the delimitation of mind and matter
(namanTpapariccheda-fiti1J.a) dawns, debilitating the habitual
87
perception of a self. With the perfect maturation of this knowl-

edge one realizes that all along one had been subject to a
monstrous delusion: the delusion of regarding a mere bundle
of mental and material phenomena as "I" and "mine." This
prepares the foundation for the giving up of formations. The
strong grip on formations becomes relaxed.
This is followed by the successful attainment of the knowl-
edge regarding the discernment of conditions (paccaya-
pariggaha-fiii1JB). Here the grasping of formations becomes still
further attenuated through confirmation of the fact that there
is no "I" controlling or presiding over the process of mind
and matter. One discerns that the entire process of experi-
ence occurs as a continuous series of conditionally related
causes and effects. This realization gives impetus to the aban-
donment of formations.
The contemplation of impermanence begins to develop next
in sequence. As the meditator sees how the five aggregates
are subject to origination and cessation, he understands that
this continuum of formations cannot contain an "I." In
conformity with the contemplation of impermanence, the
contemplation of suffering also becomes activated. The
conviction dawns: "How can these five aggregates, which are
a heap of suffering, be 'I' or 'mine'? They are simply a heap
of worthless rubbish that should be totally abandoned." In
this manner the contemplation of non-self also becomes
sharpened, resulting in the gradual erosion of the "I" -concept.
The meditator becomes more and more inclined towards
relinquishment.
When he cultivates the contemplation of cessation, the medi-
tator repeatedly observes the dissolution of the five aggre-
gates. Thereby the dangers inherent in formations become
increasingly apparent to him and intensify his contemplation
of revulsion. Here the habit of finding delight (nandi) through
the conceiving of formations as "I" or "mine" ceases and the
attitude of relinquishment gathers momentum. The urge to
88
achieve freedom from all formations becomes uppermost in

the meditator's mind.
In consequence, the attachment with which one had nursed
the sense faculties of the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body-
affectionately holding to them as "I" and "mine"-dies off,
resulting in their spontaneous abandonment. The fivefold sen-
sual pleasures of form, sound, smell, taste, and touch, which
the meditator had been enjoying with egoistic attachment, also
drop off when he realizes their frightful nature. As the "I"-
concept is eliminated, he witnesses the defilements that had
so far been haunting his mental continuum gradually falling
away-the attachments and aversions, the likes and dislikes,
the expectations, views, perverted perceptions, and theories-
and he becomes equanimous.
Thus the contemplation of dispassion reaches maturity. The
meditator presently becomes indifferent towards every for-
mation that impinges on his senses; he sees to it that each
object of sense dissolves then and there and is abandoned.
He does not entertain any hopes for the future nor any
regrets about the pastY Serenity is achieved presently and
immediate!y.
With his mind deeply concentrated, the meditator expe-
riences the true nature of the triple world. With his
equanimous attitude fortified, he witnesses how the all-
embracing laws of impermanence, suffering, and non-self
operate continuously and universally. He penetrates the fact
that the entire universe is merely a process constituted by a
mutually conditioned combination of forces totally devoid of
any nature of a self. There is no "I" in his range of vision, no
essential difference between his group of five aggregates and
the external world; no divisive separation as "here" and
"there," and therefore nothing between the twoY Duality has
been obliterated-the duality of entities, of beings, of places.
Everywhere and at every moment there is only uniformity:
one and the same nature of things, one and the same reality.
89
Here, there, and everywhere this reality is such. That nature

of things was such yesterday; it is such today; it will be such
tomorrow.
In this way he realizes the "suchness" (tathata)-the real
nature of things, the true nature of phenomena-that had so
long been hidden behind the delusive screen of ignorance. 13
Respectfully he bows his head to that invariable true nature
of things (avitathata); 14 he falls in line with it; he does not run
counter to it. He does not take naturally existent phenomena
as "I" or "mine," not even the thirty-seven requisites of enlight-
enment that have been so immensely helpful to him. 15 In the
same way that a river, whose farther shore is visible, by giv-
ing up the designation "river" unites with the great ocean,
whose farther shore is invisible, the meditator, by abandon-
ing everything divisively conceived as "I" and "mine," unites
with the great flow of Dhamma.
The past has been abandoned; the future has been aban-
doned. As for the present, he sees that mere formations occur.
Even this is abandoned by penetrating it as impermanent or
suffering or non-self, thereby weakening the power of the
underlying tendencies (anusaya). 16 Now his mind, without
grasping any formation as object, becomes submerged in the
realization of Nibbana, called the state of non-grasping
(anridrina), or the relinquishment of grasping (ridrina-
patinissagga), or the relinquishment of all substrata of existence
(sabb'upadhi-patinissagga)Y Simultaneously, the defilements to
be eradicated by each of the supramundane paths are also
totally abandoned forever. Consequently, all the formations
that might have been produced by these defilements in the
future are also abandoned, even while as yet unborn.
It is in this way that the contemplation of relinquishment,
which functions by abandoning formations at various stages
of insight meditation, reaches its consummation at the supra-
mundane stage.
Relinquishment by way of giving up can also be explained
90
as the abandonment of defilements accompanied by aggre-

gates and kamma-formations. This is the definition given in
the commentaries headed by the Visuddhimagga. 18 When it is
defined as the giving up of all formations (as was discussed
earlier in this chapter), defilements, aggregates, and kammic
actions too are included. However, the elimination of defile-
ments through the substitution of opposites occurs through-
out the path of insight meditation. 19 Every contemplation so
far described abandons defilements of some sort. As such,
the attention to the giving up of different defilements and the
resulting orientation towards Nibbana jointly also constitute
a contemplation of relinquishment. 20
As was said earlier, the abandonment of aggregates occurs
concurrently with the elimination of defilements by the
substitution of opposites. Also, as long as this temporary
elimination of defilements persists, no new kamma is
generated by the abandoned defilements. Since these kammas
remain unborn, they will not be able to produce any resultant
aggregates in the future. Therefore, when defilements are
eliminated by the substitution-of-opposites method, the related
kamma and aggregates are also said to be abandoned. 21 In
other words, this is tantamount to the relinquishment of the
"three rounds" (tivatta): the rounds of defilements, kamma,
and kamma-results. If one clearly discerns by insight knowl-
edge how these three rounds are relinquished, that too can
be considered a variant of the contemplation of relin-
quishment.
Contemplation of relinquishment develops gradually from
the initial stages of insight meditation, widening and spreading
deeper as it evolves. This contemplation, which can be
regarded as the cumulative outcome of the other contem-
plations, is extremely helpful in rendering the insight
meditation fruitful. It becomes extremely powerful· in the
advanced stages of insight meditation, particularly in the
knowledge of desire for deliverance (mufi.citukamyatii-fi.iir;a) and
91
the knowledge of equanimity towards formations (smilchcfr'

upekkha-fiif1J-a). 22
Release from Grasping

The grasping eliminated through the contemplation of relin-
quishment can be described as the craving which clings to
formations as "I" and "mine." 23 This type of egoistic grasping
occurs solely because of our inherent delusion or ignorance.
It prevents us from achieving freedom from samsaric becom-
ing and drives us on through the cycle of existence, in which
we undergo immense suffering. However, the powerful
knowledge obtained by contemplation strips away the veil of
ignorance. The clear light of wisdom dawns, laying bare the
true nature of the world of formations. The meditator real-
izes that no formation possesses any essence or value; he sees
that nothing is worth grasping as 'T' or "mine." He under-
stands that no such discriminations and distinctions have any
validity. The flux of formations continues uninterrupted, sub-
ject to origination and cessation. The meditator becomes con-
vinced that within this flux there cannot be an 'T' or an indi-
vidual essence or some everlasting core. He clearly recognizes
that the notion "I" is a deceit, a mirage, an illusion, a mere
product of imagination, a mockery of truth. 24
The meditator realizes how, by making a fruitless attempt
to engender and maintain an illusory "I," one takes upon one-
self an immeasurable burden of suffering. Every formation
grasped in terms of "I" or "mine" changes and ceases, and
this results in misery. Yet, in one's blindness, one is ready to
strive, repeatedly and relentlessly, to cling to these fleeting
formations in order to establish some sense of personal iden-
tity. The meditator also sees how one becomes engulfed in
conflagrations of suffering by grasping even excessively harm-
ful defilements like ignorance, craving, conceit, and views in
terms of 'T' and "mine." He feels that the grasping of any
92
formation whatsoever is a dreadful hazard, a mighty blun-

der, like embracing a massive, red-hot iron ball or a deadly
serpent.
With the maturation of this direct realization, grasping it-
self is relinquished and the contemplation of relinquishment
penetrates still more deeply. Repeated grasping of formations
is suspended; holding is abandoned.
Since the abandonment of formations centres around the
characteristic of non-self, the contemplation of relinquishment
seems to be a variant of the contemplation of non-self. As the
grasping eliminated here is based on craving, it contains an
element of the contemplation of suffering as well. However,
the contemplation of relinquishment can be regarded as the
consummation of the three basic contemplations. 25
A special mode of the contemplation of relinquishment is
found in the Dighanakha Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya. 26 To
Dighanakha, the wandering ascetic, the Buddha first deliv-
ered a discourse on the abandonment of the wrong views of
annihilationism, eternalism, and partial eternalism so that
Dighanakha could discard the annihilationist viewpoint that
he had adopted earlier. In order to remove his attachment to
the physical body, the Buddha next taught him eleven ways
to contemplate the body:
"This body, Aggivessana-which is material, made up of
the four great elements, originating from parents, nour-
ished on porridge and sour milk, subject to impermanence,
to rubbing, pounding, breaking apart, and dispersal-
should be regarded as impermanent, suffering, a disease,
a boil, a dart, a misfortune, an affliction, as something
alien, as subject to disintegration, as empty, as non-self.
When he regards this body thus, whatever desire, affec-
tion, or subservience there is towards this body is eli:i:ni-
nated."
93
Then the Master enumerated the three feelings-pleasant,

painful, and neutral-showing that when one of these is
present the other two are absent; thereby he highlighted the
characteristics of impermanence and non-self. He also ex-
plained to him how revulsion (nibbidct), dispassion (viniga),
and release (vimutti) can be realized by comprehending that
all three types of feeling are impermanent, conditioned, de-
pendently arisen, subject to destruction, falling away, fading
away, and cessation. At the conclusion of the sermon Digha-
nakha became a stream-enterer (sotiipanna).
While this discourse was being spoken, the Venerable
Sariputta listened closely while fanning the Buddha. It then
occurred to him: "The Blessed One has taught us to abandon
different formations by understanding them thoroughly with
wisdom. The Well-farer has told us to relinquish different for-
mations by comprehending them clearly with wisdom." While
reflecting in this way, the Venerable Sariputta's mind was
released from the cankers and he became an arahant. Accord-
ingly, it is clear that by correctly applying one's mind to the
elimination or relinquishment of formations, the contempla-
tion of relinquishment will gain momentum and culminate
in the realization of arahantship.
The meditator can currently achieve much solace by relin-
quishing formations inclusive of defilements. By taking upon
himself the deadweight of formations grasped as "I" and
"mine," he has all along been a slave to defilements, blissfully
ignorant of his defenceless condition. But at last he beholds
the truth through insight-wisdom. When he realizes how he
has been suffering pointlessly under a useless burden, he
gradually throws off this oppressive load of formations. As
he experiences partial relief by partial elimination of the
burden, he becomes eager to rid himself, permanently and
totally, of the whole burden. Eventually, 0e throws off the
entire load, experiencing here and now great relief, peace,
consolation, serenity, and coolness-a sense of freedom and
bliss too deep for words. 27
94
* * *
"Therefore, monks, whatever is not yours, abandon it.
Abandoning it will lead to your well-being and happi-
ness for a long time.
"And what is it, monks, that is not yours? Material
form is not yours: abandon it! Abandoning it will lead to
your well-being and happiness for a long time. Feeling is
not yours ... Perception is not yours ... Mental formations
are not yours ... Consciousness is not yours: abandon it!
Abandoning it will lead to your well-being and happi-
ness for a long time." 28
95
8
Synopsis
In the preceding chapters we have discussed the seven con-

templations of insight individually, only occasionally throw-
ing sidelong glances at their interconnections. Let us now con-
sider the seven contemplations as a whole.
The Patisambhidamagga defines the functional nature of the
seven contemplations of insight as follows:
One repeatedly sees in terms of impermanence, not in
terms of permanence. One repeatedly sees in terms of
suffering, not in terms of happiness. One repeatedly sees
in terms of non-self, not in terms of self. One develops
revulsion; one does not find delight. One becomes dis-
passionate; one does not become attached. One brings to
cessation; one does not originate. One relinquishes; one
does not grasp.
Seeing repeatedly in terms of impermanence, one aban-
dons the perception of permanence. Seeing repeatedly in
terms of suffering, one abandons the perception of happi-
ness. Seeing repeatedly in terms of non-self, one abandons
the perception of self. Becoming repelled, one abandons
delight. Not attaching oneself, one abandons passion.
Bringing to cessation, one abandons origination. Relin-
quishing, one abandons grasping. 1
This passage demonstrates that among the seven contem-
plations, the contemplations of impermanence, suffering, and
non-self form the nucleus, serving as the foundation for the
remaining four. The Patisambhidamagga refers to the first three
as contemplations (anupassanil) and to the other four as insights
(vipassana). 2 In actuality, it is the variations of these three pri-
96
Synopsis
mary contemplations that function throughout insight medi-

tation.
Further, a methodical relationship among the seven con-
templations is displayed here. The relationships among the
three basic contemplations were discussed in earlier chapters.
Generally, the contemplation of impermanence entails con-
templation of suffering, while both entail the contemplation
of non-self. These three contemplations generate revulsion,
the contemplation of which produces dispassion. The con-
templation of dispassion brings cessation; the contemplation
of cessation, relinquishment.
In theory the path of insight contemplation can be
elucidated entirely by this method. In living experience, how-
ever, insight does not invariably unfold in this order. The
development of insight is a complex process in which any
contemplation may condition the others in a wide variety of
ways. In one passage the Patisambhidtimagga itself shows how
cessation (nirodha) occurs subsequent to relinquishment (pati-
nissagga).3 Further, either the contemplation of cessation as
the momentary destruction of phenomena, or of dispassion
as the momentary destruction of phenomena, can be respon-
sible for the generation and activation of the remaining
contemplations. Also, the supramundane path, which is the
consummation of insight, can be presented as any one from
among the contemplations of dispassion, cessation, and
relinquishment.
In the delineation of the contemplations we have seen how
one and the same contemplation can come to the fore at dif-
ferent stages along the path of insight. With the gradual matu-
ration of insight the contemplation becomes correspondingly
deeper and wider, while the resulting realization and the aban-
donment of defilements also become correspondingly sharper.
Accordingly, there is no hard and fast rule that one contem-
plation has to reach its zenith before the next in the series can
begin. The contemplations are characterized by a gradual evo-
97
Tile Seven Contemplations of Insight
lution and reciprocal influence. But at certain junctures along

the path of insight a particular contemplation may become
especially prominent. At other times several contemplations
may function alternately. Also the same contemplation will
surface in different forms under different conditions.
It appears that certain contemplations bear close resem-
blances to one another. Looking at the matter from a practical
point of view, it is difficult to decide to which contemplation
certain stages of insight should be assigned. But this should
not be a burden to the meditator. If mindfulness and clear
comprehension are correctly applied, suitable contemplations
will arise and develop almost effortlessly. It is not necessary
for one to be concerned with labelling the particular type of
contemplation in which one is engaged while practising
insight. Even if such a conviction emerges spontaneously, one
should incorporate that too into the development of insight
by contemplating it as a mere formation.
When one considers the variations in the individual
aptitudes of people, it is difficult to present a common
programme of contemplation suitable for everyone. But it can
be stated that for any meditator who progresses along the
path of insight systematically and correctly, all these seven
contemplations will develop. It appears that in this context
the meditator's prior experiences in insight meditation in past
lives play a major role.
However, if there are interruptions and retrogressions in
the insight meditation, or if mental hindrances (nivara1J-a)
emerge intermittently, it is advisable to pay greater attention
to a contemplation befitting the context. For example, a cer-
tain meditator, confronted with an onset of violent passion,
developed the contemplation of dispassion. His attention then
gradually assumed depth, culminating in the total abandon-
ment of passion, so that even by effort he could not generate
a passionate thought!
The Patisambhidamagga states that the seven contemplations
98
Synopsis
(as they were shown at the beginning of this chapter) become

functional within the knowledge of dissolution (bhanga-iitir;a),4
which confirms that this knowledge has a wide diffusion.
Accordingly, the Visuddhimagga says that the seven contem-
plations become predominant at the third stage of the path of
insight, known as the full understanding of abandonment
(pahtina-pariiiiiti), which extends from the knowledge of dis-
solution upwards. 5
This, however, does not imply that these contemplations
do not become active prior to the stage of the knowledge of
dissolution. This fact is clearly stated in the Visuddhimagga
itsel£. 6 By introducing the path of insight entirely through the
eighteen principal insights headed by the seven contempla-
tions, even the Patisambhidtimagga indicates in several places
that these contemplations become functional starting from the
initial stages of insight meditation? But it can be said that it
is from the knowledge of dissolution onwards that the con-
templations acquire formidable power in eliminating the
defilements on a major scale. The knowledge of dissolution
is thus an important juncture in the path of insight. If treated
as a contemplation, the knowledge of dissolution can be clas-
sified either as the contemplation of cessation (considered as
the momentary cessation of formations) or as the contempla-
tion of dispassion (considered as the momentary destruction
of formations).
In the Patisambhidtimagga the four foundations of mindful-
ness-mindfulness of the body, feelings, mind, and mind-
objects-are also defined as contemplations to be practised
on the basis of the seven contemplations. 8 Likewise, the same
treatise explains how to practise insight through the seven
contemplations at each of the sixteen steps in meditation on
mindfulness of breathing. 9
The seven contemplations have been designated as "insight
powers" (vipassanti-bala) in the sense that they cannot be shaken
by the defilements that they relinquish. 10 This condition be-
99
comes a basis for the attainment of cessation (nirodha-samiipatti)

as wellY In the presentation of various other definitions, too,
the Patisambhidiimagga refers to the seven contemplations and
the defilements eliminated by themY
But apart from the Patisambhidiimagga, there is no other text
in the Sutta Pitaka in which the seven contemplations and
the defilements eliminated by them are presented in this man-
ner. Although some of the Buddha's discourses mention one
or several of these seven contemplations by name, 13 we have
not come across a single discourse in which all seven are enu-
merated together.
In certain discourses the Buddha designates these contem-
plations as "perceptions" (safifiii). 14 These, along with their
counterparts among the contemplations, are as follows:
1. Perception of impermanence= contemplation of imper-
manence.
2. Perception of suffering = contemplation of suffering.
3. Perception of non-self= contemplation of non-self.
4. Perception of distaste for the whole world = contem-
plation of revulsion.
5. Perception of dispassion= contemplation of dispassion.
6. Perception of cessation = contemplation of cessation.
7. Perception of abandonment = contemplation of relin-
quishment.
In certain contexts these seven perceptions are found pre-
ceded by three other perceptions pertaining to serenity medi-
tation (samatha-safifiii). 15 Of course, many discourses make
mention of these perceptions either individually or in smaller
groups. 16
Several discourses contain the expression "perception of
impermanence in all formations" (sabbasaitkhtiresu aniccasafifiti).
The way it is explained here gives the impression that this
refers to revulsion or dispassion. 17
100
Synopsis
In many discourses the Buddha demonstrates how revul-

sion (nibbidti) and dispassion (virtiga) are generated following
the three contemplations of impermanence, suffering, and non-
self (most of the passages cited in Chapter 4 are of this type).
There are also discourses in which the three terms-revul-
sion, dispassion, and cessation-occur consecutively. 18
Another method of contemplation commonly occurring in
the texts involves examining the five aggregates and other
formations thus: "It is impermanent, conditioned, dependently
arisen, subject to destruction, subject to fall, subject to dispas-
sion, subject to cessation." 19 In this technique the characteris-
tic of impermanence takes precedence. "Destruction" and
"fall" (khaya and vaya) here represent the contemplation of
cessation, though among the eighteen principal insights these
are enumerated in their own right as separate contemplations
(see Appendix 5). "Dispassion" might refer to the momen-
tary destruction of phenomena (khaya-virtiga) or to dispassion
as detachment occurring through the substitution of oppo-
sites. Both the terms "conditioned" (smikhata) and "depend-
ently arisen" (paficca-samuppanna) indicate impermanence as
well as the nature of non-self.
In certain discourses dealing with the elimination of de-
filements, the terms destruction (khaya), dispassion (virtiga),
cessation (nirodha), giving up (ctiga), and relinquishment
(patinissagga) occur consecutively. 20 Here "giving up" (ctiga)
is synonymous with relinquishment (pafinissagga) itself.
There are other methods of contemplation expounded in
diverse ways without overt reference to the seven contem-
plations. In the Patisambhidtimagga we find a collection of spe-
cial terms expressive of contemplations of this category. This
collection consists of forty terms including impermanence,
suffering, and non-self. The text further distributes these forty
terms among the three contemplations of impermanence, suf-
fering, and non-sel£.21 Although no single discourse of the
Buddha is found mentioning all these forty methods of con-
101
templation together, many discourses cite eleven or fewer of

them. 22 The Visuddhimagga too employs these forty contem-
plations for elucidating several stages of the path of insight. 23
It was stated at the very outset that the seven contempla-
tions constitute the basic segment of the eighteen principal
insights. Even the other great contemplations of this series
represent diversified expressions of this basic segment of
seven. 24
The analysis of the seven contemplations is hereby con-
cluded. This series of seven contemplations is indeed a flight
of steps leading infallibly to Nibbana.
* * *
The contemplation of impermanence, when developed and
cultivated, fulfils swift wisdom.
The contemplation of suffering, when developed and
cultivated, fulfils discriminating wisdom.
The contemplation of non-self, when developed and cul-
tivated, fulfils great wisdom.
The contemplation of revulsion, when developed and
cultivated, fulfils sharp wisdom.
The contemplation of dispassion, when developed and
cultivated, fulfils extensive wisdom.
The contemplation of cessation, when developed and
cultivated, fulfils deep wisdom.
The contemplation of relinquishment, when developed
and cultivated, fulfils unapproachable wisdom.
By developing and cultivating these seven contem-
plations, there comes fulfilment of sagacious wisdom
[characterized by the knowledges of equanimity towards
formations, of conformity with truth, and of change-of-
lineage].
By developing and cultivating these eight forms of wis-
dom, there comes the fulfilment of diversified wide wis-
dom [characterized by the knowledge of path and fruit].
102
Synopsis
By developing and cultivating these nine forms of

wisdom, there comes the fulfilment of delightful wisdom
[designated reviewing knowledge]. 25
Postscript
So far we have been offering a few pointers in the path to the

overcoming of sorrow and the realization of genuine happi-
ness. It is the responsibility of each individual to develop this
path and to realize that happiness. Therefore let all those who
are endowed with confidence and wisdom be diligent in mak-
ing full use of this rare opportunity of being born as human
beings at the correct time, obtained through previous merit.
* * *
"Monks, whatever should be done by a sincere and com-
passionate teacher out of compassion for the well-being
of his disciples, that has been done by me for you. These
are the roots of trees, these are empty places. Meditate,
monks, do not be negligent, lest you be remorseful later.
This is our admonition to you. " 26
103
Appendix 1
Conventional and Ultimate Truth
Truth is twofold: conventional truth (sammuti-sacca) and ulti-

mate truth (paramattha-sacca). There are certain situations and
objects that are true by usage, as they seem to be true by
ordinary criteria and they make communication easier. These
are accordingly designated. conventional truths or conven-
tional realities. When these conventional realities are ana-
lysed with wisdom, we find that they do not exist in the
way they are conceived. While they are conceived to be real,
substantial entities, in actuality they are mere conceptual
constructs superimposed upon truly existent phenomena.
Those things that are truly existent are called ultimate truths
or ultimate realities.
Consider your own personality. You make use of the
expression "I." Such commonplace phrases as "I go," "I
experience," "I recognize," "I act," "I know," etc., convey the
impression that there is a real independent "I" within oneself.
But if this entity called "I" is investigated to discover its real
identity, all we find is a combination of the five aggregates-
material form, feeling, perception, mental formations, and
consciousness-which are further bifurcated as mind and
matter. Among all these phenomena of existence, what is it
that can be taken as a real"I"? If the physical body is analysed
further into the thirty-two parts-head hairs, body hairs, nails,
teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones, etc.-the conventional notion
of "I" collapses. When these material phenomena are analysed
still further with wisdom, it will be seen that they are all
composed of the basic elements: the hard-soft, coarse nature
(= the earth element; pathavi-dhtitu); the cohesive-fluid,
adhesive nature(= the water element; apo-dhtitu); the hot-cold,
104
Appendixes
digestive nature(= the fire element; tejo-dhiitu); the supportive-

mobile, expanding nature(= the air element; viiyo-dhiitu); and
the void, empty nature (=the space element; iikiisa-dhiitu).
The mind is also a mere form of energy capable of cogniz-
ing objects; thus it too is classified as an element, namely,
"the element of consciousness" (vififiiir;a-dhiitu). Accordingly,
although "I" is accepted as an actuality at the level of con-
vention, there is no "I" in the ultimate sense. What is found
in reality is a compound of six elements devoid of any nature
of a being or an individual.
In reality what is diffused throughout the entire universe
is only these six elements of solidity, fluidity, heat, motion,
space, and consciousness. These are not substances, but mere
forms of energy continuously changing on the basis of a cause-
and-effect relationship. They are merely continuities of dyna-
mic processes originating and ceasing so quickly that their
tranformations cannot be perceived by ordinary means.
All entities that are supposed to exist-whether conscious
or without consciousness-are merely diverse combinations
of these elements. They can be regarded as real only within
the limits of convention; the same applies to the designations
accepted for their identification. Accordingly, terms such as
sea, mountain, tree, land, house, bed, chair, clothes, people,
gods, animals, "I," and "you" along with the things they de-
note, are all mere concepts (pafifiatti) or conventions (sammuti).
When words themselves are mere conventions, it follows that
the terms identifying ultimate realities are also mere conven-
tions. Still, whatever conventional terms are used to desig-
nate them, their nature as ultimate realities remains unaffected.
Within and around us, the ultimate realities are in opera-
tion all the time, but we do not see this truth because of our
delusion-which too is an ultimate reality pertaining to the
element of consciousness, namely, avijjii or ignorance. By
accepting convention itself as the ultimate truth, we accumu-
late more and more suffering.
105
The technique prescribed for removing this veil of ignorance

and bringing to light the ultimate truth is insight meditation.
Insight meditation begins with a conventional reality as object,
such as mindfulness of breathing, the thirty-two constituents
of the body, or the rise and fall of the abdomen. As the medi-
tator's mindfulness and awareness deepen, he will surpass
the conventional level and directly discern the ultimate
realities. By repeatedly contemplating these ultimate realities
from various angles the meditator gains insight into the true
nature of the conditioned world. Through this insight he
eradicates attachment to the world and realizes the supra-
mundane ultimate reality, Nibbana, thereby gaining release
from suffering.
The mundane ultimate realities, recounted here as the six
elements, have to be comprehended as they really are through
personal experience. Nevertheless, up to a certain point they
can also be verbally described, though inadequately. In con-
trast, the supramundane ultimate reality, Nibbana, resists all
attempts at verbal description, for it is beyond all mundane
standards, conventions, and designations such as space and
time. Nibbana, however, can be directly perceived by intui-
tive wisdom, which arises by fulfilling the path to enlighten-
ment.
In our day to day activities we have to resort to conven-
tion, but it is good to remember that it is not the ultimate
truth.
106
Appendixes
Appendix 2
Two Kinds of Knowledge
Erudition acquired by studying the Dhamma is theoretical

knowledge, knowledge based on "hearing" or learning
(sutamaya-fiiir;.a). This type of knowledge is confined to the
conventional level. Direct personal understanding of the
Dhamma gained through insight meditation is experiential
knowledge, knowledge based on meditation (bhiivaniimaya-
fiiir;.a).
Extensive learning is not critically necessary for a medita-
tor who resides with an experienced meditation master and
practises under his personal guidance. This is because he re-
ceives the necessary instructions from the teacher systemati-
cally at the appropriate times. A person who practises medi-
tation without such personal guidance will require a very clear
theoretical knowledge about the path of meditation. Stories
about some of the early monks who practised on their own
reveal that at the very outset they had acquired from their
teachers sufficient theoretical knowledge about the way of
practice right up to arahantship. It was only after they had
mastered such knowledge that they resorted to seclusion in
order to practise what they had learnt. It appears that in the
Visuddhimagga and the commentaries a method of mental de-
velopment has been indicated whereby knowledge based on
meditation can be generated solely through the guidance of
knowledge based on learning. The schedule on knowledge
(fiii1JB-miitikii) in the Pafisambhidiimagga, too, emphasizes knowl-
edge based on learning.
Knowledge based on learning can sometimes become an
obstruction to meditation. The meditator who knows the dif-
ferent stages in the path of practice may wait expectantly for
107
them to arise. At times he may even delude himself into think-

ing he has reached them. If the meditation develops prop-
erly, he becomes exultant and clings to his experiences, gives
rise to conceit, or adopts a wrong view; if it does not develop
properly, he becomes dejected and disappointed. If such situ-
ations are not overcome promptly either through one's own
intelligent examination or through the advice of a teacher,
the meditation will degenerate.
Therefore the meditator endowed with theoretical knowl-
edge should always recognize the primacy of the knowledge
based on meditation. Although theoretical knowledge is use-
ful as an aid for generating the knowledge based on medita-
tion, one should be cautious not to identify the two.
Theoretical knowledge can be employed to eliminate cer-
tain impediments on the path of meditation. For instance, the
meditator who is aware of the "corruptions of insight" (vipas-
san'upakkilesa), which may set in during the initial stage of
the knowledge of rise and fall, might find such knowledge
helpful in overcoming them. Likewise, theoretical knowledge
can help to identify in conventional terms the realizations
achieved in meditation. When one realizes the nature of the
earth element through meditational knowledge, the identifi-
cation of it as "the earth element" follows only if one has
proper theoretical knowledge. Yet the progress of meditation
does not depend on the ability to comprehend in conventional
terms the diverse realizations attained through the practice.
This is because insight meditation, being aimed at the pene-
tration of the ultimate realities, supersedes the level of con-
ventional realities. Preoccupation with conventional terms can
actually be an obstacle to meditation. There is no harm if the
juxtaposition of meditational experiences with conventional
concepts occurs spontaneously. But otherwise, contemplation
should be continued without dallying with conceptual inter-
pretations.
108
Appendixes
The realization of truth can be consummated only through

meditational knowledge. Only a partial mastery of truth can
be achieved through knowledge based on learning and on
reasoning. Therefore, without becoming complacent over one's
scholastic proficiency and powers of reasoning, one should
make every effort to attain direct knowledge, which is possi-
ble only through insight meditation.
109
Appendix 3
The Four Protective Meditations
Four subjects of meditation can help the novice meditator to

stabilize his mind: meditation on the virtues of the Buddha,
meditation on loving-kindness, meditation on foulness, and
mindfulness of death. These four are also known as "the fqur
protective meditations" (caturtirakkhtf-bhavana) on account of
the nourishment and protection they afford in diverse ways
to the basic meditation practice.
By meditating on the virtues of the Buddha (buddhagu7J-a-
bhtivanti or buddhanussati) strong confidence in the Master is
established. This serves as a basis for generating the courage
required to pursue the meditation unobstructed. It will in-
crease zest and make the mind serene, thereby creating the
mental framework appropriate for meditation.
Meditation on loving-kindness (mettti-bhtivanti) makes the
mind supple. It subdues anger, which is a powerful impedi-
ment to meditation. It enables one to continue the meditation
happily, unobstructed, overcoming all impediments. It allows
one to develop concentration up to the third jhana.
Meditation on foulness (asubha-bhtivanti or ktiyagattisati) re-
moves sensual desire, a major hindrance to concentration. By
casting out all undue expectations regarding one's physical
body and enabling one to endure the physical suffering, it
makes one's mind quite amenable to meditation. Through this
meditation the first jhana can be attained as well as insight.
By developing mindfulness of death (mara7J-asati), intoxica-
tion with life is removed. Fear of sani.sara is increased. A vig-
orous attempt is made to consummate the meditation. One
becomes more adept in applying oneself to insight medita-
tion.
110
Appendixes
A mind that has achieved some degree of proficiency in

these four subjects becomes properly equipped for cultivat-
ing any of the fundamental meditation subjects. Until the mind
attains to full concentration through the fundamental medi-
tation subject, it is advisable, at least at the beginning of the
day's initial meditation session, to first settle the mind by de-
veloping briefly one round of these four subjects of medita-
tion. One need not practise all four; it would be sufficient to
attend to one or two that foster the required level of concen-
tration. When this has been achieved, one may then direct
attention to the fundamental meditation subject.
In cultivating these four subjects of meditation, if the medi-
tator finds that he can develop any one of them with ease, he
can utilize that particular meditation subject itself to perfect
his concentration and thereby make it a basis for insight. It is
even possible that insight might emerge on its own through
these subjects of meditation. In such a situation it is advis-
able to take the cue and resort to insight.
There is another way in which the cultivation of these sub-
jects of meditation will prove to be purposeful. Let us sup-
pose that when a fundamental meditation subject is being
developed, one of the hindrances erupts and impedes the prac-
tice. In such a situation one should suspend the fundamental
meditation subject, take up instead whichever of the four pro-
tective meditation subjects fits the context, and use it to sup-
press the defilement. Then one can return to the fundamental
meditation subject and develop it with ease.
To be specific: When one is beset by dislike, doubt, or per-
plexity regarding the meditation, one should recollect the
Buddha's virtues. When strong anger or fear arises, one should
meditate on loving-kindness. If strong lust arises, one should
contemplate the foulness of the body. For indolence and de-
spondency, one should reflect on death or on the Buddha's
virtues. If the mind becomes distracted or bored, one should
meditate on the Buddha's virtues or on loving-kindness.
111
Appendix 4
Personality View
The five aggregates, tenaciously clung to, are designated "per-

sonality" (sakktiya).l Here clinging signifies lustful desire
(chandartiga) or craving (ta1Jhti). 2 When the five aggregates are
clung to strongly with craving, they are mistakenly conceived
to be a self or the belongings of a self. The outcome is what is
called personality view (sakktiya-difthi). This personality view
can occur in four modes in relation to each aggregate, mak-
ing a total of twenty such modes. 3 These modes, found in the
oldest suttas, are explained in detail in the Pafisambhidtimagga. 4
Let us discuss them succinctly.
The Twenty Modes of Personality View

(i) Views of Self based on Form
1. One regards material form as the self (ntpani attato
samanupassati): The first type of personality view based on
material form is obtained by conceiving the five sense facul-
ties such as the eye, etc., the thirty-two constituents of the
body beginning with head-hairs, and the counterpart signs,
etc., obtained in kasi1Ja meditation, in terms of "I" and "self."
The holder of this view contends that "just as the burning
flame of an oil-lamp is not different from its colour but iden-
tical with it, even so, material form and the self are not differ-
ent but identical."
2. One regards the self as the possessor of material form
(n""ipavantani atttinani samanupassati): Here the non-material
constituents (nama) are identified with the self. These are the
four aggregates of feeling, perception, mental formations, and
consciousness: "This non-material self ('I') is one thing,
material form is another. As such the self ('I') is the owner of
112
Appendixes
material form." This is the second personality view based on

material form. The illustration cited for this is a tree in relation
to its shadow: although the tree and its shadow are different
from each other, the tree is said to have a shadow.
3. One regards material form as in the self (attani nTpam
samanupassati): In this view too the concept of self is main-
tained in relation to the four non-material aggregates. After
deciding that material form is in the non-material self on the
basis of the existence of material form in association with the
mind, the holder of this view maintains: "Material form is
one thing, the non-material self is another; that material form
exists in this self." He then cites an illustration: "In a fragrant
flower the fragrance is one thing, the flower is another; the
fragrance exists in the flower. In like manner, material form
exists in the non-material self."
4. One regards the self as in material form (nYpasmim attiinam
samanupassati): The holder of this view conceives the four non-
material aggregates to be the self and imagines this self to be
existent in material form. He maintains: "This is material form;
this is the self; this self exists in this material form." He then
cites the illustration: "There is a gem in a casket: the casket is
different from the gem; the gem is in the casket. In like man-
ner, the self is in material form."·
(ii) Views of Self based on Feeling

5. Identification of feeling (vedanii) with self. The feeling
experienced through the six senses-or the three feelings of
pleasure, pain, and neutral feeling-are identified with self:
this is the first personality view related to feeling. It resem-
bles the first personality view conceived on the basis of mate-
rial form, discussed above. ..
6. Identification of self as the possessor of feeling.
7. Identification of feeling as in self.
8. Identification of self as in feeling.
113
In these three views, the self conceived consists of the four

aggregates-material form, perception, mental formations, and
consciousness-and feeling is posited in relation to this self.
These views resemble the three corresponding views based
on material form, explained above.
(iii) Views of Self based on Perception

9. Identification of perception (saiifiii) as self. It is the six
perceptions pertaining to the six sense faculties that are here
conceived as self. This resembles the first personality view
based on material form.
10. Identification of self as the possessor of perception.
11. Identification of perception as in self.
12. Identification of self as in perception.
In the above three cases the aggregates of material form,
feeling, mental formations, and consciousness are collectively
treated as self. These resemble the corresponding views based
on material form.
(iv) Views of Self based on Mental Formations

13. Identification of mental formations (sankhiirii) as self. In
this first personality view based on mental formations it is
volition (cetanif) that is mainly conceived as self. It too can be
considered as sixfold by relating it to the six sense faculties.
It is also possible to conceive as self any of the other mental
factors coming under the heading of mental formations. This
resembles the first p~rsonality view based on material form.
14. Identification of self as the possessor of mental forma-
tions.
15. Identification of mental formations as in self.
16. Identification of self as in mental formations.
In the above three cases it is the aggregates of material form,
feeling, perception, and consciousness that are collectively
114
Appendixes
treated as the self. These resemble the corresponding views

based on material form.
(v) Views of Self based on Consciousness

17. Identification of consciousness (vifi.fi.ii1'}a) as self. In this
first vieW, consciousness itself, which has been classified in
diverse ways, is conceived as the self. It is the counterpart of
the first view based on material form.
18. Identification of self as the possessor of consciousness.
19. Identification of consciousness as in self.
20. Identification of self as in consciousness.
In these three views, material form, feeling, perception, and
mental formations are collectively conceived as the self. They
resemble the corresponding views based on material form.
The Fetter of Views

Although the Buddha has analysed personality view in rela-
tion to all the five aggregates, the unenlightened worldling
becomes enslaved by this view owing to his inability to under-
stand this analysis. While some conceive all the five aggre-
gates as self, others conceive one or several of them as self, as
shown above. Personality view, which is also referred to as
"clinging to a doctrine of self" (attaviid'upiidiina), is more dif-
ficult to comprehend than the other three forms of clinging;5
it is the most subtle manifestation of the underlying tendency
to views (difth'anusaya). So long as this tendency has not been
extirpated, the ignorant worldling dwells with his mind op-
pressed by personality view and does not know how to elimi-
nate it. 6 Personality view thereby becomes strengthened and
turns into a fetter binding the worldling to samsara, the cycle
of birth and death. Being ignorant of the good Dhamma, he
is born in bondage, grows old in bondage, and dies in bond-
age; he also goes to the next birth in bondage? Like a dog
tethered to a post or a pole with an iron chain, he runs round
115
and round the five aggregates; he rolls on following the

aggregates; he cannot free himself from the aggregates, and
thus he is not free from birth, decay, and death, from sorrow,
lamentation, physical pain, mental stress, and despair. 8
It is on account of personality view that people adopt the
two extremist views of annihilationism and eternalism. If a
self is admitted it must be destined either to annihilation or
to eternal existence. The Patisambhidtimagga states that the five
personality views which treat each aggregate individually as
self (nos. 1, 5, 9, 13, and 17 above) are based on annihilationism,
while the other fifteen views are based on eternalism. 9
As the fetter of personality view along with the underly-
ing tendency to views is totally eradicated at the stage of
stream-entry,l 0 the noble disciple does not entertain person-
ality view. When he personally realizes the characteristic of
non-self in the course of insight meditation, the insight medi-
tator eliminates personality view tentatively by way of the
substitution of opposites (tadanga-pahtina ). The commentaries
maintain that this temporary elimination occurs by perfect-
ing the knowledge delimiting mentality and materiality
(ncfman!papariccheda-fltfJJa).H The wise worldling who has ac-
quired a definite ascertainment regarding the nature of non-
self through the study of the Dhamma may also be able to
curb the active stage of personality view.
116
Appendixes
Appendix 5
The Eighteen PrinCipal Insights
The seven contemplations of insight appear as the first seven

members of a list of eighteen principal insights (attharasa
mahtivipassanti). A fairly thorough analysis of the seven con-
templations has just been provided. Now we intend to offer
a brief description of the remaining eleven insights, compar-
ing the different ways they have been characterized by the
great expositors of the Dhamma in the Theravada tradition.
The Patisambhidtimagga is the only work in the Tipitaka to
mention all eighteen insights, but it does not elaborate on
them. It is in the Visuddhimagga that we find the first analyti-
cal discussion of all the eighteen insights collectivelyY Here
it is stated that these insights develop in a way appropriate
to the different stages of insight meditation. But a later work,
the commentary to the Patisambhidtimagga, maintains that the
path of insight is accomplished gradually with all the con-
templations linking up sequentially like a flight of stairs. 13
This commentarial manner of presenting the insights in se-
quence is based on the "Discussion of Faculties" chapter
(Indriyakathti) in the Patisambhidtimagga, which introduces just
such a sequence. 14
Consequently, these two important works-the Visuddhi-
magga and the Pafisambhidiimagga Commentan;-show distinct
differences in their interpretation of certain contemplations.
In what follows we will indicate such differences whenever
they occur, :referring to the two methods of explanation sepa-
rately as "Vism. Exp." and as "PmA. Exp." The former will
draw upon both the Visuddhimagga itself and its commentary,
the Visuddhimagga Mahiitikti (Vism'"f.), also known as the Para-
matthamafijtTsti.
* * *
117
8. "One who develops the contemplation of destruction

abandons the perception of compactness" (khaytinupas-
sanani bhtivento ghanasafifiani pajahati).
Vism. Exp. (:XXII,114): "Contemplation of destruction, how-
ever, is the knowledge in one who effects the resolution of
the compact and so sees destruction as 'impermanent in the
sense of destruction."'
PmA. Exp. (74): "The contemplation of destruction is see-
ing the destruction of the existent aggregates immediately
followed by seeing the destruction of the very mind and men-
tal factors that perceived those aggregates."
The disintegration of the compactness in continuity (santati-
ghana) first occurs at the levels of the knowledge of compre-
hension (sammasana-fiii1Ja) and the knowledge of rise and fall
(udayabbaya-fiii1Ja). The observation that "it is impermanent in
the sense of destruction" pertains to the knowledge of com-
prehension (Pm.i,53). Accordingly, PmA., disagreeing with the
explanation provided by Vism., analyses the contemplation
of destruction under the stage of the knowledge of dissolu-
tion (bhanga-fitiJJa). VismT ., too, while approving of the
explanation given in Vism., at one point states that the contem-
plation of destruction means contemplation of the momen-
tary dissolution of formations (ii,417).
However, in terms of the seven contemplations, this con-
templation would be a constitutent either of the contempla-
tion of impermanence or that of cessation.
Although PmA. says that the perception of compactness
means the conception of a continuity as a compact entity, the
sub-commentaries state that this perception refers to four
categories of compactness: compactness of continuity (santati-
ghana), compactness of assemblage (sam~Tha-ghana), compact-
ness of functions (lcicca-ghana), and compactness of objects
(arammaJJa-ghana). 15 As the contemplation of destruction is a
meditation on impermanence, the PmA. interpretation seems
acceptable.
118
Appendixes
9. "One who develops the contemplation of fall aban-

dons the accumulation of formations (or of kamma)"
(vaytinupassanani bhtivento tiyt""ihanani pajahati).
The contemplation of fall is defined as intentness on cessa-
tion, i.e. on dissolution, after seeing the dissolution of present
formations by personal experience and of past and future for-
mations by inference. 16 It appears that in presenting this exe-
gesis Vism. utilized the following stanza occurring in the Pm.
chapter on the knowledge of dissolution (bhmiga-fiiiJ!a):
ArammatJani anvayena ubho ekavavatthanii
Nirodhe adhimuttatii vayalakkhaJ!ii vipassanii.
"Defining both to be alike
By inference from that same object,
Intentness on cessation-these
Are insight in the mark of fall."
Accordingly, the contemplation of fall too is a constituent of
either the contemplation of impermanence or of cessation.
10. "One who develops the contemplation of change
abandons the perception of stability" (viparitJtimtinupas-
sanani bhtivento dhuvasafifiani pajahati).
Vism. Exp.: "The contemplation of change is seeing the
twofold change in whatever has arisen, i.e. through decay
and death, or it is seeing the change-over of each state deter-
mined by way of the material septad, etc." 17
PmA. Exp.: "The contemplation of change is the knowl-
edge which sees the changing nature of ~ll formations per-
taining to the three times-past, present, and future-as one
is totally occupied with their dissolution."
Here Vism. highlights the knowledge of comprehension,
while PmA. highlights the knowledge of dissolution. The con-
templation of change is yet another aspect of the contempla-
tion of impermanence.
119
11. uone who develops the contemplation of the signless

abandons the sign" (animitttinupassanani bhtivento
nimittani pajahati).
The meditator who repeatedly observes that formations are
devoid of permanent "signs" or attributes abandons the habit
of perceiving formations unitarily as endowed with permanent
signs. Here "sign" (nimitta) means the gross nature involved
in perceiving a continuity of formations as a permanent and
compact whole. The contemplation of the signless is an aspect
of the contemplation of impermanence (Vism. XX,91).
12. uone who develops the contemplation of the
desireless abandons desire" (appa1Jihittinupassanani
bhtivento pa1Jidhini pajahati).
One who repeatedly develops the observation of the
absence of anything desirable in formations abandons the
longing or craving bound up with formations. This is an aspect
of the contemplation of suffering (Vism. XX,91).
13. uone who develops the contemplation of voidness
abandons adherence" (suiiiiattinupassanani bhtivento
abhinivesani pajahati).
One who contemplates the voidness of selfhood in forma-
tions abandons adherence to the view of self. This is an
aspect of the contemplation of non-sel£.18
14. uone who develops the 'insight into phenomena that
is higher wisdom' abandons adherence to the grasping
after substance" (adhipaiiiiti-dhammavipassanani
bhtivento stirtidtinabhinivesani pajahati).
On the interpretation of this contemplation, Vism. itself of-
fers different explanations in different chapters:
(i) XX,91: "The 'insight into phenomena that is higher wis-
dom' embraces all forms of insight meditation."
120
Appendixes
(ii) XXII,118: "The 'insight into phenomena that is higher

wisdom' is the insight into voidness, through dissolution,
occurring thus: 'Only formations disintegrate; it is the death
of formations that takes place; there is nothing more.' This
insight results from seeing the disintegration both of the
object and the mind that apprehended that object."
PmA. approves the second characterization given above.
This definition seems to be based on a stanza cited in the
chapter on knowledge of dissolution, where we find the phrase
"insight that is higher wisdom" (adhipafifiii-vipassanii).l 9 The
full expression "insight into phenomena that is higher wis-
dom" (adhipafifiii-dhammavipassantt) occurs in several discourses
of the Anguttara Nikaya, where it bears a wide sense com-
prising all three stages of the path of insight meditation: see-
ing (dafthabba), comprehension (sammasitabba), and insight
proper (vipassitabba). 20 This hypothesis is further confirmed
by the statement in the Puggalapafifiatti asserting that the per-
son endowed with the insight into phenomena that is higher
wisdom is a winner of the paths and fruits. 21 The phrase
adhipafifiii-dhammavipassanii, then, does not denote a particu-
lar stage or aspect of insight but is a general term for true
insight itself. Accordingly, the first definition of Vism. above
is more appropriate, in which case it becomes rather difficult
to take the phrase adhipafifiii-dhammavipassanii as referring to
a single contemplation. We should further note that unlike
the names of the other contemplations in this series, this des-
ignation does not end in -anupassanii.
15. JJOne who develops the correct knowledge and
vision abandons adherence to bewilderment" (yathii-
bhutafititJadassanani bhavento sammohiibhinivesani
pajahati).
This means that the person who develops insight into the
real nature of formations gives up the tendency to become
confused about the nature of formations.
121
Vism. Exp.: "Correct knowledge and vision is the compre-

hension of mind and matter along· with their causes and
conditions, i.e. the knowledge of delimitation of mind and
matter and of the discernment of conditions" (Vism. XXII,119).
PmA. Exp.: "Correct knowledge and vision is the knowl-
edge of appearance as terror; this is the realization that for-
mations are fraught with terror, which results from seeing
their dissolution."
As these two statements refer to different stages of insight,
we have to resort to the Buddha's own words to discover
what is really meant by "correct knowledge and vision"
(yathabhtlta-fiti7Jadassana). In a number of discourses the Bud-
dha recommends an unfailing method for developing dispas-
sion by means of revulsion. 22 The latter results from correct
knowledge and vision, which in turn arises from concentra-
tion. From this it is clear that correct knowledge and vision
pervades the entire process of insight meditation from its start-
ing point through to the knowledge of revulsion or the
mature contemplation of revulsion. In this regard the Samyutta
Commentary says that "correct knowledge and vision" ex-
tends from the knowledge of delimitation of mind and mat-
ter up to the knowledge of what is path and non-path (i.e.
the mature knowledge of rise and fall), while "revulsion" ex-
tends from the knowledge of appearance as terror up to the
knowledge of equanimity regarding formations. 23 In several
places the commentaries to the above-mentioned discourses
state that "correct knowledge and vision" is initial insight
(taru7Ja-vipassanti), while "revulsion" is mature insight (balava-
vipassanti).24 Hence it is obvious that "correct knowledge and
vision" does not represent a single contemplation but is a
phrase designating a particular stage comprising a number
of contemplations along the path of insight meditation. Here
too the designation yathlibhii:ta-fiti1Jadassana does not terminate
in -anupassana. Since "correct knowledge and vision" covers
122
Appendixes
such a wide range, elsewhere this expression has been used

to designate certain other stages of realization. 25
16. "One who develops the contemplation of danger
abandons adherence (to formations) due to attachment"
(adinavanupassanani bhavento alayabhinivesani
pajahati).
One who develops meditation by repeatedly examining the
dangers involved in formations relinquishes the adherence
to formations with attachment. Both Vism. and PmA. iden-
tify this contemplation with knowledge of danger resulting
from the knowledge of appearance as terror. Pm.A. further
states that the contemplation of revulsion is also included
within this contemplation of danger, which in turn is an
aspect of the contemplation of suffering.
17. "One who develops the contemplation of reflection
abandons non-reflection" (patisankhanupassanani
bhavento appatisankhani pajahati).
One who repeatedly sees with wisdom the three character-
istics relinquishes delusion, here called "non-reflection."
Vism. Exp.: "The contemplation of reflection is the knowl-
edge of reflection which effects the means to gain liberation
from formations" (Vism. XXII,l20).
PmA. Exp.: "The contemplation of reflection is a combina-
tion of the contemplations of impermanence, suffering, and
non-self, resulting from the knowledge of desire for deliver-
ance; it is undertaken for achieving liberation from forma-
tions. This contemplation comprises all the three insight
knowledges of desire for deliverance, of reflection, and of
equanimity towards formations."
18. "One who develops the contemplation of turning
away abandons adherence due to bondage" (vivatta nu-
passanani bhtivento samyogtibhinivesani pajahati).
123
The person who develops the contemplation on turning

away from formations, inclining towards Nibbana, relin-
quishes the strong adherence to formations that results from
intimate association with them.
Vism.Exp.: "The contemplation of turning away comprises
the two knowledges of equanimity about formations (satikhar'
upekkhii-fiiiJJa) and conformity (anuloma-fitiJJa). Here the mind
turns away and recoils from all formations." 26
PmA.Exp.: "The contemplation of turning away is the
knowledge of change-of-lineage (gotrablni) resulting from the
knowledge of conformity." (The absence of an adverting con-
sciousness for the contemplation of turning away in the
Patisambhidtimagga is the reason for this conclusion.)27
The knowledge of change-of-lineage occurs only in a sin-
gle consciousness. If this is identical with the contemplation
of turning away the problem arises of accommodating the
idea of "repeatedly" implied by the term anupassanti. (It is
true that the supramundane path wisdom occurring only in
a single consciousness too has been referred to in the com-
mentaries as the contemplations of dispassion, of cessation,
and of relinquishment; 28 but these are only alternatives to the
corresponding mundane contemplations.) The contemplation
of turning away can be regarded as a contemplation of relin-
quishment.
Although a certain developmental sequence can be discerned

in the seven contemplations, such a progression seems unten-
able in regard to the eighteen principal insights as a set. To
posit a serial progression would lead to absurd conclusions.
The contemplation of danger would then have to follow that
of revulsion. Likewise, the contemplations of dispassion, of
cessation, and of relinquishment are mature contemplations
extending up to the consummation of insight. By introducing
the contemplations of destruction, of fall, and of change after
124
Appendixes
them, a retrogression in insight would be indicated. In the

Buddha's discourses the contemplations of destruction and
of fall are generally cited before those of dispassion, cessa-
tion, and relinquishment. 29
Even the contemplations of the signless, the desireless, and
voidness turn out to be gateways to liberation which become
functional at the acme of insight meditation. Hence the in-
sight into phenomena that is higher wisdom, correct knowl-
edge and vision, and contemplation of danger cannot follow
them temporally, for this would indicate a relapse. Further,
as was shown earlier, the insight into phenomena that is higher
wisdom and correct knowledge and vision are not individual
contemplations confined to a particular stage but general terms
covering a wide range of insights. Similarly, even the con-
templation of reflection, in the literal sense, can be taken as
an umbrella term. At the same time several of the contempla-
tions are very similar to one another (e.g. the contemplations
of destruction and of fall).
Such being the case, it would be better to take this series of
eighteen principal insights, not as a linear succession of con-
templations, but as a compendium of contemplations drawn
from various sources. Several of these sets partly overlap. The
three contemplations of impermanence, of suffering, and of
non-self have been placed at the head of the list, for they con-
stitute the pivotal foundation common to the entire system of
insight meditation. Because they pervade the path of insight
in its entirety, these three may even be treated as an inde-
pendent system of insight meditation.
Next, the series comprising the contemplations of imper-
manence, of suffering, of non-self, of revulsion, and of
dispassion, comprises another prominent system of insight
meditation. The contemplations of impermanence, of dis-
passion, of cessation, and of relinquishment make up still
another significant group. There is another series obtained
by appending the contemplation of fall (vaya) to the last-
125
mentioned fourfold group (see S.iv,211-12). A few more such

classifications within the seven principal contemplations were
mentioned earlier in Chapter 8.
The sevenfold group comprises another major system.
Several additional groups also have been created by combining
some of the seven with the contemplations of destruction and
of fall (e.g. impermanence, suffering, non-self, destruction, fall,
dispassion, cessation, and relinquishment: A.v,360-61;
destruction, decay, dispassion, cessation: S.ii,60). At times the
contemplation of change is also added (e.g. impermanence,
destruction, fall, dispassion, cessation, change: S.iv,216-17).
Yet another important categorization is made up of correct
knowledge and vision, revulsion, and dispassion. Different
systems of insight meditation can be improvised from the dis-
courses wherein the term saiiiitf (= perception) has been used
to denote a method of meditation (e.g. the perceptions of im-
permanence, of non-self, of foulness, of danger, of abandon-
ment, of dispassion, of cessation: D.ii,79; iii,253, 282).
Many systems of insight meditation of this type, occurring
in the discourses of the Buddha, can be incorporated into the
eighteen principal insights. Therefore we can infer that this
series of eighteen insights is a compendium which the ancient
teachers compiled by combining the meditations designated
as contemplations with other meditations which, although not
referred to as such, still belong to the same general category.
The succession of eighteen principal insights can also be
analysed as a graded series with several phases of progress.
A meditator endowed with good moral strength obtained
through the practice of the perfections (parami) can easily ful-
fil the first three contemplations, followed by a sharp con-
templation of revulsion; thereafter he can achieve the con-
summation of insight through the contemplation of dispassion.
One who fails in this undertaking will have to develop all the
seven contemplations. If he still fails, he will have to progress
further in the contemplations of destruction, of fall, and of
126
Appendixes
change and then achieve consummation of insight through

one of the three contemplations-of the signless, of the
desireless, or of voidness. The higher wisdom of insight into
phenomena can be said to represent all the contemplations
mentioned here. And then correct knowledge and vision, fol-
lowed by the contemplations of danger, of reflection, and of
turning away can be cited as comprising still another inde-
pendent system.
The path of insight may also be brought to maturity by
practising any contemplation suited to the occasion instead
of following an accepted but rigid pattern. This is what is
applicable to the ordinary meditator.
The Patisambhidiimagga often presents the path of insight
through the eighteen principal insights, yet it does not fur-
nish an exegetical analysis of them. This suggests that at the
time the Patisambhidiimagga was compiled, this series of prin-
cipal contemplations may have been used so widely that a
precise analysis of them was thought unnecessary. But it is a
cause for wonder that there is no reference to this group of
eighteen insights elsewhere in the Sutta Pitaka.
Even today the meditator can personally experience these
principal insights, though all eighteen may not be commonly
attested to by every meditator. A newcomer to insight medi-
tation need not attempt the contemplations separately one by
one. But at certain stages, if one suspects that one's progress
has been retarded, it would be fruitful to pay special atten-
tion to a suitable contemplation.
127
Notes
Introduction
1. See Appendix 1: Conventional and Ultimate Truth.
2. See Appendix 2: Two Kinds of Knowledge.
3. Certain meditators, once they have made a little progress
in their practice, think that they are now proficient enough
to proceed on their own and no longer need to listen to the
meditation master. As a result they lose their way and their
meditation practice degenerates. To ensure success, one
should always keep the teacher informed of one's progress
and strictly follow his guidance. If any doubts arise about
the teacher, his instructions, or the subject of meditation,
the meditator should get them resolved immediately in a
suitable manner; otherwise the meditation may stagnate.
4. Vism. (III,29ff.) enumerates ten impediments: (i) abodes-
attachment to dwelling places; (ii) family-attachment to
helpful relatives, friends, etc.; (iii) gain-receiving too many
requisites; (iv) group-teaching a group or class of students;
(v) work-tasks connected with putting up buildings; (vi)
travel-travelling long distances; (vii) kin-family relations,
teachers, pupils, colleagues, group-mates, etc., whom one
is obliged to look after in time of illness; (viii) affliction-
any kind of illness; (ix) pooks-being responsible for study,
writing, etc.; (x) supernormal powers-the maintenance of
which is an obstacle for insight meditation though not for
· tranquillity meditation. However, elsewhere (e.g. at
KhuA.22) reputation (kitti) is mentioned as an alternative
to supernatural powers.
5. See Appendix 3: The Four Protective Meditations.
6. The five hindrances (pafica nivaraiJii) are: sensual lust, ill-
will or anger, sloth and torpor, agitation and worry, and
doubt. As these are the major obstacles to the development
of concentration and wisdom, meditators have to guard
against them very vigilantly. Many meditators fail to achieve
progress owing to their inability to overcome these obsta-
128
Notes
des. When confronted with the hindrances one must train

oneself to identify them and eliminate them at once, deter-
mining to prevent them from re-emerging; for if a hindrance
is allowed to surface repeatedly it will gather strength and
become difficult to subdue.
7. For more on the jhanas, see Ven. Mahathera MiHara Shri
Nar:tarama, The Seven Stages of Purification and the Insight
Knowledges, 2nd ed. (Kandy: BPS, 1993), pp.15-18. As stated
in Vism. (III,105-7), the eight subjects of recollective medi-
tation (anussati)-the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha;
virtue (stla), generosity (ctiga), the gods (devatti), peace
(upasama), and death (mara!Ja)-as well as the perception of
the repulsiveness of food (tihtire patikkiila-saflflti), and atten-
tion to elements (dhtitu-manasiktira)-though unable to in-
duce absorption (appanti), can engender access concentra-
tion (upactira-samtidhi) sufficiently strong to suppress the
hindrances. One should embark on insight meditation with
this access concentration as the basis. Vism. remarks fur-
ther (at VII,121-27) that although the first six recollections
succeed only with noble disciples, a virtuous worldling may
use them to suppress the hindrances and then, on that
basis, begin the practice of insight meditation. The recollec-
tion of peace is dealt with in the same way (Vism. VIII,250).
One achieves the first jhana alone through the ten per-
ceptions of foulness (asubha) and mindfulness directed to
the body (ktiyagattisati); the first three jhanas through lov-
ing-kindness (mettti), compassion (karu!Jti), and altruistic joy
(muditti), and the fourth jhana only through equanimity
(upekkhti). All the four jhanas are attainable through the ten
kasi!Jas and mindfulness of breathing (tintipiina-sati). The four
immaterial states (iiruppa), as subjects of meditation, are spe-
cific for the corresponding four immaterial jhanas (Vism.
III,107).
8. A jhana attainer may remain attached to the bliss and calm
of the jhanas and fail to take up insight meditation. Here
one should specially bear in mind that not only jhanic bliss
but even birth in the Brahma-worlds through the power of
jhana is impermanent. The aim of Buddhism is not serenity
but the peace of the path, fruition, and Nibbana, which is
attainable only through insight-wisdom. Hence one should
129
devote oneself to insight meditation. It may be easy to make

.progress in serenity meditation if one can initially subdue
the defilements to a certain degree through insight medita-
tion. However, some meditators who are solely accustomed
to insight meditation might occasionally find it difficult or
disagreeable to practise serenity meditation.
9. The defilements, including the hindrances, are generally
eliminated in three main stages: (i) through the power of
sense-sphere wholesome activity, one removes them by the
"substitution of opposites" (tadanga-pahifna); (ii) through the
power of the fine-material and immaterial sphere jhanas
one removes them by suppression (vikkhambhana-pahifna);
and (iii) through the power of the supramundane paths one
completely eradicates them (samuccheda-pa}ufna). The
supramundane paths cut off the defilements along with their
underlying tendencies (anusaya) so that they can never arise
again. The first two methods eliminate the defilements tem-
porarily, only for as long as the corresponding wholesome
activity is operative. Since the underlying tendencies have
not been eradicated, the suppressed defilements may later
re-emerge. Insight meditation eliminates defilements
through the "substitution of opposites" (tadanga), which
paves the way for the final and complete eradication by the
supramundane paths.
10. According to Pm.i,166ff., concentration, whether achieved
through serenity meditation or insight meditation, should
possess the following ten characteristics:
(i) the mind is not distracted (vikkhitta) by pursuing the
past;
(ii) nor agitated (kampi,ta) by longing for the future;
(iii) nor shrunk through lethargy (kusita);
(iv) nor agitated through restlessness (uddhacca);
(v) nor servile through passion (raga);
(vi) nor stubborn through anger (vyapada);
(vii) the two pairs of faculties-confidence/wisdom and
energy I concentration-should be in equilibrium;
(viii) the faculties of confidence, energy, mindfulness, con-
centration, and wisdom should be directed towards
a single purpose;
130
Notes
(ix) energy should be sufficient for the last two purposes;

(x) concentration should be strengthened through re-
peated practice.
The insight knowledges dawn only when the mental con-
centration is characterized by these qualities.
11. "Formations" (smikhara) denotes everything produced
through causes and conditions, hence everything comprised
by the two terms "mind" and "matter" (nama and nipa). The
ultimate entities (paramattha) designated "mind" (nama) are
the eighty-nine states of consciousness (citta) and the fifty-
two mental factors (cetasika); "matter" (nlpa), the twenty-
eight ultimate material phenomena. This same psycho-
physical complex is also analysed into the five aggregates,
the four immaterial aggregates-feeling, perception, men-
tal formations (= all mental factors except feeling and per-
ception), and consciousness-constituting niima; the aggre-
gate of matter constitutes nlpa. This same psycho-physical
complex is also sub-divided into twelve sense bases (ayatana),
six or eighteen elements (dhatu), and so on.
The Buddha had to introduce these separate classifica-
tions to suit the varying intellectual capacities of the beings
needing his instructions. It should be noted that "forma-
tions" (smikhifra) is used above in two different senses: (i)
as all conditioned phenomena, and (ii) as the fourth of the
five aggregates. To distinguish them we refer to (ii) as
"mental formations." Smikhifra is used in the formula of
dependent arising (paticca-samuppiida) to refer to "kamma-
formations," kammically active volitions.
12. The sutta is fotmd at A.ii,94. The three Pali terms in the
catechism are: datthabba, sammasitabba, and vipassitabba. Since
at Pug. 61-62 the insight-attainer is defined as one who has
attained a supramundane state, we can conclude that the
catechism quoted here covers the whole path of insight.
13. "Full understanding" in the mundane sense is threefold: (i)
full understanding of the known (fiiita-parififia); (ii) full
understanding as investigation (tirm;a-parififia); and (iii) full
understanding as abandoning (pahana-parififia). For details
see Vism. XX,3-4.
131
14. The "corruptions of insight" are ten extraordinary

experiences that arise when insight meditation begins to
gather momentum, particularly in the tender phase of the
knowledge of rise and fall: the perception of an aura around
oneself, sharp increase in understanding, zest, tranquillity,
happiness, confidence, energy, mindfulness, equanimity, and
strong attachment to these states. Some meditators may
encounter only a few of them. It is the attachment which
turns these into "corruptions," for when one becomes
attached to them one may presume that one has achieved
some supramundane realization and may even neglect one's
own meditation in order to teach others. Here the danger
lies not in the experiences themselves, but in the enjoyment
of them and the misconceptions about their significance.
To avoid these pitfalls one must contemplate such expe-
riences in the light of the three characteristics and seek the
teacher's help when necessary.
15. See note 13.
16. At this point the meditator may be able to harness for fur-
ther progress the powerful insight that has been built up in
his mental continuum through the realization of the path
and fruit of stream-entry. Accordingly, he may temporarily
drop his concern for mastering the fruit of the first path
and resume insight meditation with the aim of attaining
the second path, that of once-returning. This will generate
the series of insight knowledges with even sharper pen-
etration than on the earlier occasion, thereby providing the
necessary basis for the arising of the second path. In this
manner the meditator might attempt to extend the practice
of insight meditation even up to arahantship.
A meditator who cannot do this should, after realizing
the first path, master the attainment of fruition. This will
help to consolidate the insight knowledges in their proper
sequence. (If the meditator does not attend to this punctu-
ally he might find it difficult to regain fruition on a later
occasion.) Once the attainment of fruition has been firmly
established, he should not pursue it further but should in-
stead arouse insight for the attainment of the next path. (If
any concern with the previous fruition were to linger on he
might revert to it and become confused.) In this manner
132
Notes
insight will continue on to its consummation with the

gradual realization of arahantship. See The Seven Stages of
Purification for a detailed discussion of the purifications and
insight knowledges.
17. See note 13.
18. See note 9.
19. Anupassati ti anu anu passati, anekehi iikiirehi punappunani
passati ti attho (Vism. XXI,14; PmA.182).
20. Pm.i,54, 57, 58; Vism. XXI,l.
21. Pm.i,20, 24, 25, 32, 47, etc. An English translation of Pm. by
Bhikkhu Nar:tamoli is published under the title The Path of
Disrimination (PTS, 1982). ·
22. Pm.i,10, 211; ii,42-43, 241-42.
23. Vism. XX,90; XXII,l13, DA.i,47-48; AT.ii,275, etc.
24. Pm.i,10, 56, 57-58, 76-78; ii,185-86.
25. E.g. Vism. VIII,233, XX,4; MA.i,141-42; ST.ii,453-54.
Chapter 1: Contemplation of Impermanence

1. "Bhikkhus, there are these three characteristics that mark
the conditioned as conditioned. What three? An arising is
discerned, a passing away is discerned, an alteration of what
persists is discerned" (A.i,152). See also S.iii,37--40.
2. "When the aggregates are born, decay, and die, moment by
moment, you, bhikkhu, are born, decay, and die" (KhuA.50).
3. Certain highly meritorious people who have trained their
minds over a long time in sarnsara and. fulfilled the piiramis
(perfections) can realize Nibbana merely by listening to an
exposition of the Dhamma. Even while listening they can
purify their virtue, gain concentration, and awaken insight
sufficient to attain Nibbana. This is substantiated by suttas
such as the Bahiya Sutta (Ud.8, UdA.63), theVimuttayatana
Sutta (A.iii,21ff., AA.ii,588), and the Sangiti Sutta (D.iii,241ff.,
DA.ii,756). Not only by listening to the Dhamma but also
by preaching, reciting, pondering over the teaching, or even
by a lucid understanding of any subject of meditation one
can generate rapture through comprehending the Dhamma.
By further developing this state one can achieve access con-
centration, on the basis of which one can practise insight
133
meditation and attain arahantship, as explained in the

Vimuttayatana Sutta and its commentary (see above). Only
those who exert themselves diligently with the supportive
strength of the piiramis can achieve Nibbana so swiftly. For
most people the realization of Nibbana must occur through
the earnest practice of meditation for an extended period
until the requisites of enlightenment (bodhipakkhiyif dhammii)
reach maturity. ·
4. The perception of impermanence (anicca-safifiii) is explained
in the Girimananda Sutta (A.v,l09): "And what, Ananda, is
the perception of impermanence? Here, Ananda, a bhikkhu
who has gone to a forest or to the foot of a tree or to an
empty hut considers thus: 'Material form is impermanent.
Feeling ... Perception ... Mental formations ... Consciousness
is impermanent.' Thus he dwells contemplating imperma-
nence in regard to the five aggregates of grasping. This is
called the perception of impermanence." See too DA.ii,757;
Uf.74.
5. Pm.i,l71. The commentary adds that the meditator with a
long nose should select the tip of the nose; one with a short
nose, the upper lip (PmA.328).
6. SabbakayapaUsanived{ assasissiimrti sikkhati; sabbakiiya-
patisanivedf passasissiimi'ti sikkhati: (D.ii,291; M.i,56). '"Expe-
riencing the whole (breath-) body, I shall breathe in,' thus
he trains himself. 'Experiencing the whole (breath-) body I
shall breathe out,' thus he trains himself." The term "whole
(breath-) body" refers to the entire mass of in-breathing and
out-breathing, not to the physical body. Vism. VIII,l71 fur-
ther explains that the meditator should be conscious of the
beginning, the middle, and the end of each inhalation and
exhalation. To accomplish this, he should keep his atten-
tion fixed exclusively on the point where the breath is felt,
either the nose tip or the upper lip. Further details are given
at Vism. VIII,l98ff. At Pm.i,l64 the meditator is warned not
to follow the breath in its passage inside the body, as this
can be an obstacle to concentration. Therefore the begin-
ning of a breath is the moment it initially touches the tip of
the nose or the upper lip; the end is the moment the touch
sensation ceases; and the middle is the phase between these
two points.
134
Notes
7. "The characteristic of impermanence does not become ap-

parent because, when rise and fall are not given attention,
it is concealed by continuity" (Vism. XXI,3).
8. "The perception of impermanence, etc., are accomplished
by one who, by means of the discernment of mentality-
materiality and the overcoming of doubt, has removed the
obstructive delusion and thereby becomes established in the
full understanding of the known" (D'"f.73).
9. "When continuity is disrupted by discerning rise and fall,
the characteristic of impermanence becomes apparent in its
true nature" (Vism. XXI,4).
10. "All formations are impermanent. Why? Because of the
occurrence of rise and fall, because of change, because of
temporariness, and because of preclusion of permanence"
(Vism. XX,47). See also MA.ii,93.
11. To facilitate the discernment of conditions (paccaya-
pariggaha), after discerning mentality-materiality the medi-
tator should expand his attention by noting intention.
Before any action one should note the intention to act, e.g.
before raising one's hand one should first note the inten-
tion to raise the hand. Initially this requires a deliberate
effort, but with practice the noting becomes spontaneous.
This helps to clarify how mind and matter function in a
cause-and-effect relationship, i.e. because of the intention
the act of raising the hand occurs.
12. See the Channa Sutta (S.iii,132-33) and its commentary
(SA.ii,232).
13. See A.ii,33-34; S.iii,85.
14. The texts enumerate eleven methods whereby the charac-
teristic of impermanence can be comprehended by way of
groups: "Whatever material form is (i-iii) past, present, or
future, (iv-v) internal or external, (vi-vii) gross or subtle,
(vii-ix) inferior or superior, (x-xi) distant or close-all such
material form one defines as impermanent. This is the first
form of comprehension... " (Pm.i,53). The other four aggre-
gates are similarly comprehended. The range over which
the comprehension by groups extends depends on the
strength of the meditator's wisdom.
135
15. Knowledge of rise and fall is consummated in fifty ways.

First the comprehension of the origination of materiality
occurs by way of five observations: (i) by observing the
characteristic of origination; (ii-v) by observing that
materiality originates because ofignorance, craving, kamma,
and nutriment. Next, the cessation of materiality is com-
prehended in five ways: (i) by observing the characteristic
of change inherent in materiality; (ii-v) by observing that
materiality ceases by the cessation of each of the same four
conditions. The observation of the rise and fall of the men-
tal aggregates also occurs in this same tenfold manner, but
mentality-materiality (niima-riipa) replaces nutriment as a
condition for the aggregate of consciousness, contact (phassa)
as a condition for the three aggregates of feeling, percep-
tion, and mental formations (Pm.i,54'--57).
16. With conformity knowledge (anuloma-iiii1Ja) one of the three
contemplations of impermanence, suffering, or non-self be-
comes prominent, immediately after which the· meditator
experiences Nibbana. This experience is called liberation
(vimokkha). The aspect of Nibbana that is experienced de-
pends on the contemplation that emerged with conformity
knowledge. Hence, at the stage of conformity, the three con-
templations are called doors of liberation (vimokkha-mukha).
If the door is the contemplation of impermanence, the
signless liberation (animitta-vimokkha) arises; if it is the con-
templation of suffering, the desireless liberation (appm:zihita-
vimokkha) arises; if it is the contemplation of non-self, the
void liberation (suiiiiata-vimokkha) arises (Pm.ii,48; Vism.
XXI,66ff. ).
17. Pm.i,30-31. On how these four factors occur in relation to
the contemplations, see Pm.i,32-33. In every aspect of both
samatha and vipassanii meditation the fulfilment of these four
conditions brings success.
18. See Introduction, note 9.
19. A.ii,52; Pm.ii,SO. All three distortions are extirpated with
the attainment of stream-entry: Pm.ii,81; Vism. XXII,68.
20. A.iii,443.
136
Notes
Chapter 2: Contemplation of Suffering

1. M.i,232.
2. Udayabbayapaript?itatta. Vism. XVI,35. See too Vism. XXI,7.
3. On the various classifications of suffering, see Vism. XVI,35.
4. All objects conceived by the mind, apart from sense
objects, are collectively designated "mental objects" or "ob-
jects of thought" (dhammiframmar;a). This embraces all for-
mations, Nibbana, and all concepts and ideas (pafifiatti).
5. "Pleasant feelings are designated 'suffering due to change'
because they are a cause for the arising of pain owing to
their changing nature" (Vism. XVI,35).
6. In several of the Buddha's discourses the contemplation of
suffering has been referred to as "the perception of suffer-
ing in impermanence" (anicce dukkha-safifiil): e.g. A.iii,334,
452; iv,52; D.iii,243, 251; S.v,l32. See too DA.iq57; AA.ii,665.
7. See Vism. XXI,3, 4, and VismT.ii,437.
8. At S.iv,259 the Venerable Sariputta says: "Friend, there are
these three forms of suffering, namely, intrinsic suffering
(dukkhadukkhatti), suffering due to formations (sankhifra-
dukkhatil), and suffering due to change (viparir;.ifma-dukkhatif)."
Vism. XVI,34 enumerates four more forms of suffering: con-
cealed or exposed, and direct or indirect. Even these can be
included within the aforementioned threefold suffering.
9. "But since arisen formations have arrived at presence and
when present are afflicted by aging and on arriving at
aging are bound to dissolve, they are therefore painful be-
cause of continual oppression, because of being hard to bear,
because of being the basis of suffering, and because of pre-
cluding pleasure" (Vism. XXA7). See also MA.ii,93.
10. Some meditators temporarily change their postures or re-
adjust their bodily alignment to ease their" pain. This habit
deprives them of the opportunity to realize the true nature
of suffering. When one realizes that the feeling of pain is
merely a formation (sankhifra) and not something to be
grasped as "I" or "mine/' the subjective grasp of "I" and
"mine" that engulfs the painful feeling is loosened. One then
experiences merely the nature of pain. By enduring severely
137
painful feelings one fortifies one's concentration. If onere-

mains steadily in one posture for about two hours, unshaken
and with attention fixed on one's meditation object, the feel-
ing loses its oppressive nature and concentration becomes
stronger. In this state insight contemplation can function
quite effectively.
11. . "For him gladness arises. For one who is gladdened rap-
ture arises. For one elated by rapture the body becomes
calm. One calm in body feels happiness. For one who is
happy the mind is concentrated" (A.iii,21-24, etc.).
12. A.iv,14. See too AA.ii,700.
13. The four iddhipada, "roads to power" or "bases for success,"
included in the thirty-seven requisites of enlightenment, are:
the intention (chanda) to continue one's spiritual exercises;
effort (viriya) to maintain the unbroken continuity of medi-
tation; consciousness (citta) always bent on meditation; and
investigation (vfmamsii) or sustained inquiry. These become
roads to power when they are practised without break from
the beginning to the end of the meditation. It is by fulfilling
the iddhipadas that meditation is perfected. If at least one of
the four is sufficiently strengthened, the others too will
mature and produce the desired results.
14. A.ii,52; Pm.ii,80. Distortion of views (ditthi-vipallasa) disap-
pears completely with the attainment of stream-entry
(Pm.ii,81), while the distortions of perception (safifiii) and
of consciousness (citta) disappear with the attainment of
arahantship (Vism. XXII,68).
15. A.iii,443. According to the commentary (AA.ii,695), those
who are still in training engage in loving ministration
(mettavataya) to the Master; those who have attained ara-
hantship have fulfilled loving ministration to him.
Chapter 3: Contemplation of Non-self
1. na + atta = an + atta = anatta. Here na is a negative prefix

and the word atta refers to the "apparent self," "person,"
"being," etc. Pali texts also employ atta in the sense of "one-
self," "mind," "body," the collective unit of the aggregates
during a single lifetime. In such contexts the term is a mere
138
Notes
conventional expression without any egoistic connotations.

The Buddha says, "These, Citta, are worldly designations,
worldly terms, worldly expressions, worldly concepts, by
means of which the Tathagata expresses himself without
clinging to them" (D.i,202). See too M.i,SOO.
2. Some important sources for the doctrine of non-self are the
Anattalakkhar:ta Sutta (S.iii,66-68), the Alaggadupama Sutta
(M.i,130-42), the Cu~asaccaka Sutta (M.i,227-37), the Maha-
rahulovada Sutta (M.i,420-26), and the Chachakka Sutta
(M.iii,280-87). If, on certain occasions, the Buddha kept si-
lent when asked about the self, we should understand that
he adopted silence for one of three reasons: (i) it was not an
opportune time to reply; (ii) the question was wrongly
framed; or (iii) the question was not oriented towards
Nibbana. For the most noteworthy example, see S.iv,400-1.
3. See M.i,230-33; A.ii,164-65; S.iv,2, 3, etc.
4. See M.i,258-64; S.iv,167, etc.
5. See M.i,232-33; M.iii,282-84; S.iii,21-24.
6. S.iv,202-3. See also SA.iii,82.
7. The terms "imagine" (mafifiati) and "imagining" (mafifiita)
imply conceiving the five aggregates-or, more broadly, any
aspect of experience-by way of craving, conceit, and views
(ta1Jhti-miina-difthi). The term papaficita, "conceptual prolif-
eration," just below, is virtually synonymous with mafifiita
(see MA.i,23). Papaficita is the past participle of papaficeti
(from the root paci, in the sense of "spreading out") and
here implies the idea of a perverted concept. On the term
papafica, see Bhikkhu Nar:tananda, Concept and Reality in Early
Buddhist Thought (BPS, 1971).
8. M.i,109-10; A.iv,9; Vism. XXII,60. As to the manner of their
gradual disappearance with the development of the path,
see Vism. XXII,64.
9. See Sabbasava Sutta, the section on sanivara-pahiina (M.i,9-
10) and its commentary (MA.i,70-72).
10. M.i,l11-12.
11. M.i,l. See also the commentary, MA.i,23, translated in
Bhikkhu Bodhi, Discourse on the Root of Existence, 2nd. ed.
(BPS, 1992), pp.S-12.
139
12. The three defilements-craving (taJJhcf), conceit (mana), and

views (ditfhi)-occur in the unwholesome states of mind
rooted in greed (lobha). Craving (the mental factor of greed)
occurs in every state of mind rooted in greed. Sometimes it
occurs without conceit and views, at other times with one
or the other, but never with both simultaneously. Never-
theless, though occurring separately, conceit and views may
reinforce each other. The proximate causes for the three
imaginings are: feeling, for the imagining of craving; per-
ception, for the imagining of views; and applied thought
(vitakka), for the imagining of conceit (UdA.248).
13. S.iii,46. See also SA.ii,196-97.
14. S.iii,105. Also SA.ii,225; AA.ii,575.
15. The Khemaka Sutta (S.iii,126-32) explains that the non-
returner (anagamin)-who has eliminated personality view
(sakkaya-ditthi) and sensual passion (kamaraga)-still retains
a subtle residue of the conceit "I am" (asmimana), the desire
"I am" (asmichanda), and the underlying tendency (anusaya)
to egoistic thoughts. Thus, though the egoistic view "this
am I" (ayam aham asmi) does not arise in him in relation to
tl<e five aggregates, he still harbours a subtle notion "I am"
in relation to the five aggregates collectively (samtthato
paficasu pi khandhesu asmi ti adhigato: SA.ii,231). This notion
"I am," generated by the extremely subtle operations of
ignorance (avijja), desire for becoming (bhava-raga), and
conceit (mana), may be regarded as the subtlest, most
fundamental mode of the imagining "I am," which at a
grosser level is responsible for the view of self (atta-ditthi)
in the unenlightened worldling.
16. S.iii,96.
17. SA.ii,196.
18. Pm.i,135; PmA.298-99. See also M.i,135; S.iii,204.
19. S.iii,46.
20. Personality view is treated in detail in Appendix 4. On per-
sonality view as a basis for the other types of speculative
views, see S.iv,287.
21. The Buddha often shows how, because of the hollowness
of personality view, the security and the stability built
140
Notes
thereon are easily shattered, to the consternation of the

unenlightened worldling (e.g. M.i,8; 136-37; S.iii,15-18, 42,
138, etc.).
22. Certain thinkers extend the concept of the self to the past
and the future through mere logical reasoning, while cer-
tain meditators settle on various views regarding the self
as a result of misconstruing the signs (nimitta), absorptions
(jhtina), higher knowledges (abhififiti), etc., produced by the
development of tranquillity meditation. (See D.i,12-38 and
its commentary DA.i,72-86, and also D.ii,64 and its com-
mentary DA.i,345-46.) By accepting the teachings of such
theorists uncritically, many other people become established
in their views about the self.
23. S.iii,98.
24. The Brahmajala Sutta enumerates the thirty-two etemalist
views based on these five imaginings. With the addition of
eighteen etemalist views relating to the past and five views
on "Nibbana in this very life," a total of fifty-five etemalist
views are expounded in this discourse (D.i,12-38).
25. See Pm.i,159; It.43-44. The Brahmajala Sutta elaborates seven
annihilationist views (D.i,34-35). In the Alagaddupama Sutta
(M.i,140-41) the Buddha rejects as false and baseless the
charge that he is an annihilationist.
26. "Kaccayana, the beings of this world usually base their views
on two things: on existence and non-existence .... Imprisoned
by the habit of pursuing, grasping, and settling in systems
is this world .... 'Everything exists'-this is one extreme;
'nothing exists'-this is the other extreme. Avoiding both
these extremes, the Tathagata teaches the Dhamma by the
middle" (S.ii,17; iii,134-35). SA.ii,25 explains the two ex-
tremes here as etemalism and annihilationism, respectively.
27. At Pm.i,138 the causes and conditions responsible for the
generation of views (ditthi) have been summarized as eight-
fold: (1) the five aggregates; (2) ignorance; (3) contact; (4)
perception; (5) applied thought; (6) unwise attention; (7) bad
company; and (8) listening to others' views. PmA.299-300
cites examples for these:
The way to abandon views of self lies in the cessation of
the false imagination, as explained by the Buddha at S.iv,24:
141
"Monks, whatever is imagined (to be the self) or wherever

(the self) is imagined to exist or whatever (the self) is imag-
ined to be external to, or whatever is imagined to be 'mine'-
all these become otherwise. However, beings attached to
becoming, which has the nature to change, find delight in
this same becoming. Monks, so far as there are aggregates,
elements, or sense spheres, one does not imagine them (to
be self), nor does one imagine (the self) as inside them or
outside them or as 'mine.' By not imagining thus, one does
not grasp anything in the world. Not grasping, one does
not become agitated through craving. Not being agitated,
one fully realizes Nibbana in this very life (through the com-
plete extinction of defilements). Then one comes to know:
'Destroyed is birth; lived is the holy life; done is what should
be done; nothing further remains to be done.' Monks, this
is the proper practice that enables one to eradicate all
imaginings."
28.· Vism. XX,47. See too VismT.ii,407; MA.ii,94.
29. The term element (dhtitu) denotes a subtle phenomenon de-
void of any nature of a being or a self. As cohesion (water)
is subtler than the other three primary elements, initially it
may be harder to understand. Therefore, when contemplat-
ing the elements, one must consider that the water element
has the nature of binding the earth element. As mindful-
ness, concentration, and wisdom develop, conviction
through direct experience will dawn. The meditator will
comprehend the various kinds of material form derived from
these four primary elements according to the level of his
intelligence.
30. As an example, let us suppose you have fixed your attention
on the movement of the abdomen. The elements of earth,
fire, air, or water that you discern in the present moment
belong to the aggregate of material form; the cognizing mind
belongs to the aggregate of consciousness. The faculty
identifying the object, occurring in the same mind-moment,
belongs to the aggregate of perception. The coexistent mental
factor which experiences the object as pleasurable, painful,
or neutral-to the aggregate of feeling. All the other
coexistent mental phenomena headed by volition-to the
aggregate of mental formations (M.i,l90). When the mind
142
Notes
takes an immaterial object the supportive heart-base (hadaya-

vatthu) pertains to the aggregate of matter. In this way it
becomes clear in insight meditation how the five aggregates
are always present collectively-a fact which certain
meditators realize only at an advanced stage. Thereby it
becomes possible to contemplate the five aggregates
collectively as a single whole.
31. "Ananda, what is the perception of non-self? Herein,
a
A.nanda, a monk resorts to forest or to the foot of a tree or
to an empty house and reflects thus: 'Eye and forms, ear
and sounds, nose and smells, tongue and tastes, body and
touches, mind and mental objects-all these are non-self.'
In this manner he lives contemplating the nature of non-
self in the six internal and external sense spheres. Such,
Ananda, is the perception of non-self" (A.v,109).
In some texts the contemplation of non-self is referred to
as "the perception of non-self in suffering"--dukkhe anatta-
safifiii (D.iii,243, 251; S.v,133; A.iii,85 etc.). Also it is said in
the commentaries: "The perception of non-self in suffering
is the perception arisen in the contemplative knowledge of
non-self" (dukkhe anatta-safificf' ti anattcfnupassancf-ficfYJ.e
uppanna-safifiii; DA.ii,757; AA.ii,665).
32. Pm.ii,S0-81; Vism. XXII,68.
33. "Having abandoned entirely the underlying tendency to
passion and dispelled the underlying tendency to aversion,
having uprooted the underlying tendency to the view and
conceit 'I am,' having abandoned ignorance and aroused
knowledge, he puts an end to suffering in this very life"
(M.i,47).
The commentary (MA.i,186) explains: "The expression
'underlying tendency to the view and conceit "I am"' means
the underlying tendency to conceit which is similar to a view
(ditfhisadisani miiniinusayani). This is said because the ten-
dency to conceit is similar to a view in that it occurs based
on the notion 'I am.'"
See too the Khemaka Sutta (S.iii,126-32) and note 15
above, and also the second division of the Mulapariyaya
Sutta (M.i,3--4).
34. A.iii,444. See also AA.ii,695.
143
Chapter 4: Contemplation of Revulsion

1. The revulsion that arises through insight must be distin-
guished from unwholesome revulsion, which is an aspect
of aversion (patigha) or hatred (dosa).
2. M.i,509ff.
3. S.iii,21. Parallel passages follow dealing with suffering and
non-self.
4. S.iii,22-23.
5. S.iii,19-20. The same is said regarding suffering and non-
self.
6. S.iii,23. In the same manner he develops revulsion towards
the aggregates after seeing their characteristics of suffering
and non-self.
7. S.ii,95.
8. S.ii,96-97.
9. S.iv,32-33.
10. M.iii,278ff; S.iv,106-7.
11. S.iv,19-20.
12. S.iii,189.
· 13. S.ii,248-49.
14. S.iv,140.
15. The following texts make clear the dangers (ridfnava) in for-
mations: "As all material form is impermanent, suffering,
and subject to change-this is the danger in material form .... "
(S.iii,28). "Monks, because there is danger in material form,
people develop revulsion towards material form" (S.iii,30).
The same formula is applied to the other aggregates as
well. The texts referred to in notes 4, 10, and 13 above show
how the formations are devoid of a self owing to their be-
ing subject to impermanence, suffering, and change. The
three characteristics-of impermanence, suffering, and non-
self-constitute the dangers inherent in formations, by high-
lighting which one can generate revulsion.
16. A.v,311ff.; S.ii,30; A.v,315ff.
17. At SA.ii,40 it is said that correct knowledge and vision
144
Notes
(yathiibhiita-fiii1Jadassana) extends from the knowledge of the

definition of mentality-materiality (niimanlpapariccheda-fiii1Ja)
to the knowledge and vision of what is path and non-path
(maggiimagga-fiii1Jadassana). This embraces three stages: the
penetration of individual characteristics (paccattalakkhmJa-
pativedha), the discernment of conditions (paccaya-pariggaha),
and the penetration of the universal characteristics (siimafifia-
lakkha1Ja-pativedha). See also Appendix 5, §15.
18. AA.ii,587, 676, 725; SA.ii,40, etc. SA takes revulsion here as
meaning strong insight (balava-vipassanii), that is, the four
insight knowledges: the appearance of terror (bhayat'upa-
tthiina), contemplation of danger (iidtnaviinupassanii), desire
for deliverance (muficitukamyatii), and equanimity about for-
mations (sankhiir'upekkhii). At Pm.ii,63 it is said that the
knowledges of appearance of terror and of danger, as well
as revulsion, are one and the same in meaning; they differ
only in name. Vism. XXI,l, 29-43 describes these as three
successive insight knowledges. MA.ii,94 identifies revulsion
(nibbidii) with the insight leading to the emergence of the
transcendental path (vutthiinagtimint vipassanii). Certain
commentarial contexts indicate that nibbidii is a common
term referring to insight (DA.ii,477; PmA.152, 316, etc.).
19. Pm.i,57-58.
20. Pm.i,195 states: "One contemplating impermanence knows
and sees in-breath as it is, thus there is knowledge of revul-
sion .... The wisdom of appearance of terror due to in-breath
in one contemplating impermanence is knowledge of what
is in conformity with revulsion .... The wisdom of reflexion
and composure due to in-breath in one contemplating im-
permanence is knowledge as tranquillization of revulsion"
(trans. after Ven. Nfu:tamoli). PmA.363-64 demonstrates how
this series of knowledges connected to revulsion extends
from comprehension in groups (kaliipasammasana-fiti1Ja) to
the consummation of insight.
21. "Through revulsion one becomes dispassionate, whereby
one achieves liberation. When liberated one realizes that
one is liberated" (M.i,500). MA.ii,95, commenting on this
passage, identifies the onset of dispassion with the supra-
mundane path.
145
22. Thag. 267-69.

23. Nandin' ti sappitikani tm;hani (Vism. XXI,19).
24. M.i,266-67. Similar discourses are found at M.iii,267ff.;
S.iii,14, etc. See too MA.ii,259.
25. On the expression "perception of distaste for the whole
world" (sabbaloke anabhirata-saiiiiif) see A.i,41, 42; ii,150; iii,79;
iv,46, 50; v,111; M.i,336. AA.ii,540 explains "world" (loka)
here as the triple world (tedhiituka)-the sensuous, fine-
material, and immaterial realms of the Buddhist cosmos;
"distaste" (anabhirati), as lack of desire for life in these three
realms. AT.ii,342 confirms that this perception is the
contemplation of revulsion. See too Chap. 5, n.15.
26. A.i,51.
Chapter 5: Contemplation of Dispassion

1. For example, at Pm.ii,220 we find the following: "What are
the five kinds of dispassion? Dispassion by suppression, dis-
passion by substitution of opposites, dispassion by extirpa-
tion, dispassion by subsiding, dispassion by emancipation.
Dispassion by suppression occurs in regard to the five hin-
drances for one who develops the first jhana; dispassion by
substitution of opposites occurs in regard to views for one
who develops concentration partaking of penetration (i.e.
insight); dispassion by extirpation occurs for one who devel-
ops the supramundane path leading to destruction; dispas-
sion by subsiding occurs at the moment of the fruit; dispas-
sion by emancipation is the deathless element." See too
PmA.513-15; AA.i,287. For further discussions see Pm.ii,
140ff., Vism. VIII,235; DA.ii,506; DT 330; PmA.177; ItA.190.
2. This kind of dispassion seems to be referred to in the fol-
lowing text: "Monks, without directly knowing and fully
understanding all, without developing dispassion for all and
abandoning all, one is incapable of eradicating suffering;
but by directly knowing and fully understanding all, by
developing dispassion for all and abandoning all, one is
capable of eradicating suffering" (It.3-4). The commentary
(ItA.42-43) demonstrates how this discourse encapsulates
the entire path of insight meditation.
146
Notes
3. "Herein, 'fading away as destruction' is the momentary dis-

solution of formations. 'Absolute [ultimate] fading away' is
Nibbana" (Vism. VIII,235).
4. "Whatever phenomena there are, conditioned or uncondi-
tioned, dispassion is said to be the highest among them;
that is, the end of craving, termination of passion, cessation
(of formations), Nibbana" (A.ii,34; It.88, etc.).
5. "Dispassion is the (supramundane) path .... Nibbana is also
dispassion. As all the phenomena arisen with Nibbana as
their object are also free from passion, these too are desig-
nated dispassion" (Pm.ii,140ff.).
6. At Pm.i,57-58 the seven contemplations are explained in
relation to bhaflga-fuir.za, the knowledge of dissolution (see
pp.98-99 in the present work). According to this explana-
tion the contemplation of dispassion refers to dispassion
through the substitution of opposites. Here there is no ref-
erence either to the momentary dissolution of phenomena
(khaya-viriiga) or to the supramundane dispassion. If the ref-
erence here were to khaya-viriiga this would have been the
best context to say so, for the latter appears in the knowl-
edge of dissolution. Among the texts which confirm that
viriigiinupassanii here refers to tadaflga-viriiga are the follow-
ing: PmA.64-65, 182; Vism. XXI,l6; Vism.T.ii,441-42; DT.74;
AA.ii,829; ItA.42-43; AT-ii,275. Outside the context of the
seven contemplations, however, the commentaries some-
times explain the contemplation of dispassion in relation to
khaya-viriiga; see e.g. Vism. VIII,235; MA.ii,249; AA.ii,722.
7. (i) "Here, Ananda, a bhikkhu ... reflects thus: 'This is the
peaceful, this is the sublime, that is, the stilling of all for-
mations, the relinquishment of all substrata of existence,
the destruction of craving, dispassion, Nibbana.' This is
called the perception of dispassion" (A.v,llO). Viriiga-safiiiii
in this context is described either as a subject of meditation
on Nibbana as peace (upasama: Vism. VIII,245ff.) or as a sub-
ject of meditation for entering into the attainment of frui-
tion (phala-samiipatti: A.v,321-22, 354ff.). The perception of
dispassion (virtiga-saiifiii) is described as the perception
generated in the contemplation of dispassion (DA.ii,757;
AA.ii,665) and also as the perception generated in relation
to the fivefold dispassion beginning with the suppression
147
(vikkhambhana) of defilements (AA.i,287ff.). See n.1 to the

present chapter .
(ii) "The knowledge regarding the (Nibbanic) state of
peace recognizes that there is suffering when there is occur-
rence (of formations) and happiness when there is no such
occurrence (i.e. in Nibbana)" (Pm.i,59; see too PmA.185).
8. MA.ii,249; AA.ii,722.
9. Pm.i,192; see too PmA.361.
10. Vism. VIII,235. Here the contemplation of dispassion is
understood to imply two forms of dispassion: that of
momentary dissolution and that of Nibbana as the state
completely free from passion. Thus "contemplation of
dispassion" occurs as the seeing of both these aspects by
way of insight and the supramundane path respectively.
11. (i) This is expressed in a verse:
"Having known, 'This is suffering,'
Of what is transient and disintegrating,
Seeing its dissolution with wisdom,
One becomes dispassionate towards it."
(S.iv,205; see too SA.iii,83)
(ii) After defining the mundane dispassion as momentary
dissolution, when describing the contemplation of dispas-
sion in relation to mindfulness of breathing, PmA.347-48
says: "Here, 'contemplating dispassion' means (contem-
plating) with the insight that enables one to become dispas-
sionate towards formations." See too n.13 below, and Chap.
8,n.17.
12. Henceforth when the term "dispassion" and the phrase "con-
templation of dispassion" are used without qualification it
is always dispassion through the substitution of opposites
that is intended.
13. "The contemplation of dispassion by way of the contempla-
tion of revulsion" (viriigifnupassanii'ti nibbidiinupassanifvasena)"
(PmA.215).
14. A.iii,19, 200; iv.99, 336; v,2-6. The commentary says that in
these instances virifga implies the supramundane path
(AA.ii,587, 676, 725, 817). The point is discussed more fully
later in this chapter (pp.67).
148
Notes
15. (i) A.v,l11 succinctly explains sabbaloke anabhirata-safifiii as

follows: "Here, .Ananda, by abandoning any concern (upaya:
craving, conceit, and view), clinging (upiidiina: sensual lust,
views, attachment to rituals, and belief in a self), established
belief (cetaso adhifthiina: the two views of eternity and of
annihilation), adherence (abhinivesa: self-view), and inher-
ent unwholesome tendencies (the seven anusaya), one be-
comes disenchanted with the whole world."
(ii) "Monks, when a monk lives often cultivating in mind
the perception of distaste for the whole world, his mind
bends away from the beautiful things in the world, recoils
from them, draws back from them, refuses to go forward;
either equanimity or revulsion becomes established"
(A.iv,50).
The relationship of this to the contemplation of revul-
sion was discussed in Chap.4, n.25 above.
16. "Raga, etc., are synonyms for lobha; it is riiga in the sense of
attachment, nandi in the sense of delighting, and tar;.hii in
the sense of craving" (SA.ii,85). See too MA.iv,65.
17. PmA.94.
18. S.iii,52. See too S.iv,142-44; SA.ii,197-98; iii,33.
19. S.ii,30. See too A.v,312-17.
20. SA.ii,40.
21. DA.ii,477; MA.ii,95; AA.ii,587, 676, 725, 817, etc. This
commentarial tradition could have developed on the basis
of the statement at Pm.ii,140ff. that virtiga is the supra-
mundane path and vimutti its fruition. Nevertheless, in the
same text (Pm.ii,143) vipassaniitoo is called virtiga in the sense
of contemplating.
22. A.v,59. See too AA.ii,831-32.
23. This is explained in detail in (vi) at pp.52-53 above. It is
shown there how at this stage revulsion and dispassion are
developed towards mental phenomena.
24. M.iii,243. The equanimity referred to here, though explained
as the equanimity of jhana in the commentary (MA.iv, 188-
89), can also be taken as the equanimity of insight conjoined
with jhanic concentration. The liberative power of this dis-
course is demonstrated by the fact that Pukkasati became a
non-returner (aniigtimin) while listening to it.
149
25. See above p.67. S'".f.ii,222 explains that in the phrase "by the
elimination of delight, passion is eliminated," the elimina-
tion of delight is the consummation of the function of in-
sight, issuing in "insight leading to emergence" (vutfhiina-
giimini-vipassanii); in the phrase "by the elimination of
passion, delight is eliminated," the elimination of passion
is the destruction of passion by the insight leading to emer-
gence, and "the elimination of delight" the eradication of
delight by the supramundane path. See too A.v,50-51 and
AA.ii,829.
26. See Pm.i,l95.
27. Pm.ii,47-48.
28. A.i,216.
29. S.v,l33.
Chapter 6: Contemplation of Cessation

1. Nirujjhati, nirujjhanani, vii nirodho. Ni + rodha = nirodha. '"It
ceases' means it does not exist (nirujjhati ti na bhavati)"
(PmA.362).
2. S.iii,24-25.
3. "Cessation is twofold as momentary (temporary) cessation
and final (permanent) cessation" (AA.ii,722).
4. The final cessation of all formations occurs with the extinc-
tion of the five aggregates upon the demise of the arahant.
Nevertheless, at the stage of the supramundane path the
cluster of defilements eliminated by each path also becomes
extinct. Accordingly, these defilements (which are forma-
tions too), as well as the other formations that might have
resulted from them, are also extinguished. In this sense the
supramundane path is regarded as cessation by extirpation
(samuccheda-nirodha) or cessation without further emergence
(anuppiida-nirodha).
5. Five kinds of cessation are enumerated at Pm.ii,221. These
are in effect the same as the five kinds of dispassion, on
which see Chap.5, n.l above.
6. "Contemplation of cessation is the contemplation of the ces-
sation of formations" (D'"f.74). See too n.7 (i) just below.
150
Notes
7. (i) "Contemplation of cessation (nirodhiinupassanii) means

contemplation of dissolution (bhanga)" (PmA.215).
(ii) "How does the wisdom that sees the recurrent disso-
lution of phenomena through reflection on the sense object
turn out to be insight-wisdom? The mind that takes mate-
rial form as object originates and ceases. Having reflected
on the dissolution of that object, one contemplates the dis-
solution of that reflecting mind itself by means of the suc-
ceeding mind" (Pm.i,57). See also PmA.182; Vism. XXI,13.
8. Pm.i,58. See also PmA.183; Vism. XXI,21.
9. (i) "Here, Ananda, a bhikkhu ... reflects thus: 'This is the
peaceful, this is the. sublime, that is, the stilling of all for-
mations, the relinquishment of all substrata of existence,
the destruction of craving, cessation, Nibbana.' This is called
the perception of cessation" (A.v,ll0-11).
"The perception of cessation is the perception arisen in the
knowledge contemplating cessation" (AA.ii,665).
(ii) "The knowledge of the state of peace: 'Arising is fear-
ful, non-arising is safety .... Accumulation of kamma is
worldly, non-accumulation is unworldly.... The sign is for-
mations, the signless is Nibbana'" (Pm.i,59-60).
10. (i) "Having seen the danger in material form, he becomes
desirous of the cessation of material form, he is resolute
through faith, and his mind is well settled thereon; he trains
thus, 'I shall breathe in contemplating cessation in material
form'; he trains thus, 'I shall breathe out contemplating ces-
sation in material form"' (Pm.ii,192).
(ii) "He develops the perception of cessation: he develops the
perception that arises making the cessation of formations
the object. They also interpret this as the perception that
arises making Nibbana the object" (AA.i,287).
11. "Hence he says, 'By the contemplation of cessation one
makes cease, one does not originate'; for this is desire for
deliverance that has become strong" (D'"f.74).
12. "Then there remains only consciousness, purified and
cleansed" (M.iii,242).
13. "Or contemplation of cessation is the contemplation, 'Those
formations just cease; they do not arise by way of future
origination'" (DT.74).
151
14. "Meghiya, when one is endowed with the perception of

impermanence, the perception of non-self becomes estab-
lished" (Ud.37; A.iv,358). See also A.iv,353 and M.i,424-25.
15. "After reflecting on the sense object one contemplates dis-
solution (bhmiga) thereby realizing the voidness of forma-
tions: this is the insight that is higher wisdom" (Pm.i,58).
For further explanations see Vism. XXI,23, 24; PmA.183.
16. '"He contemplates cessation': it should be understood that
this is stated by way of insight through its ability to bring
defilements to cessation" (PmA.347-48).
· 17. "Ignorance ceases with the cessation of its source ... with
the cessation of its origin ... with the cessation of its gen-
esis ... with the cessation of its production ... with the ces-
sation of its cause ... with the cessation of its condition ...
with the arousing of knowledge ... with the appearance of
cessation" (Pm.ii,193).
18. Virajani vz1amalani dhammacakkhun'i udapadi: Yani kinci sam-
udayadhammani sabbani tani nirodhadhamman ti. M.i,501;
S.v,423, etc.
19. "Whatever there is that has come to be, conditioned, depen-
dently arisen-the escape from it is cessation" (It.61;
Pm.ii,221).
20. To ascertain whether a person has genuinely realized
Nibbana, several things have tobe considered: (i) Whether,
immediately after such experience, any form of reviewing
knowledge (paccavekkhana-niiJ!a) occurs involuntarily. (ii)
Whether, beginning with either the knowledge of the defi-
nition of mentality-materiality or the knowledge of rise and
fall, one can enter and abide for a predetermined time in
the successive insight know ledges and fruition attainment.
(iii) Whether, at the realization of each insight knowledge,
the ten characteristics enumerated in Chap. 1, n.10 are
present. As experiences partly similar to the realization of
Nibbana may occur for various reasons, one has to be quite
wary in coming to a judgement regarding this stage.
21. So it is said at PmA.94: "Samudaya is the origination of for-
mations, by seeing their very dissolutio11 in the contempla-
tion of dissolution." See also Vism. XXI,16-17 and Vism.T-
ii,442.
152
Notes
22. PmA65. This seems to be based on Pm.i,57-58 and Vism.

XXI,l6-17.
23. "Samudaya refers to the origination of passion ... " (PmA.94
= PmA.183).
24. "He contemplates dissolution. How does he contemplate?
He contemplates as impermanent, not as permanent; he con-
templates as suffering, not as happiness; he contemplates
as non-self, not as self" (Pm.i,57-58).
25. At Pm.ii,46 it is said that the contemplations of imperma-
nence and of non-self eliminate three forms of clinging
(upiidiina), and the contemplation of suffering only one, while
the contemplation of cessation eliminates all four forms of
clinging. This may be taken as an indication that the con-
templation of cessation is an amalgamation either of all the
three basic contemplations or of the contemplation of suf-
fering with one of the other two.
26. MA.ii,249; AA.ii,722; Vism. VIII,235; VismTi,28-81.
27. PmA.347-48.
28. PmA.177.
29. PmA.362. See also Pm.i,192ff.
30. Pm.ii,65-66.
31. S.v,l33.
Chapter 7: Contemplation of Relinquishment

1. Pati + ni + saj.
2. Pm.i,194.
3. Pm.i,87. See too PmA.24, 211; VismT-i,281.
4. "The abandonment of material form is relinquishment as
giving up (paricciiga-patinissagga). Similarly, the abandon-
ment of feeling ... perception ... mental formations ... con-
sciousness ... eye ... ear ... decay and death is relinquish-
ment as giving up" (Pm.i,l94). For the complete list, see
Pm.i,5ff.
5. S.iv,29; Pm.i,27.
6. (i) "Seeing material form, he abandons. Seeing feeling ...
perception ... mental formations ... consciousness ... the
eye ... decay and death, he abandons" (Pm.i,27).
153
(ii) "0 monks, whatever desire, lust, delight, or craving

there is in you in regard to material form, abandon it; thus
that form will be abandoned .... Whatever desire ... or crav-
ing there is in you in regard to consciousness, abandon it;
thus that consciousness will be abandoned" (S.iii,161).
7. Vism. VIII,236; PmA.347.
8. Nibbane cittani pakkhandati ti pakkhandana-patinissaggo
(Pm.i,194).
9. Vism. VIII,236; PmA.347.
10. See VismT.i,279; DT.74.
11. See M.iil,187:
"Let not a person revive the past
Or on the future build his hopes;
For the past has been left behind
And the future has not been reached.
Instead with insight let him see
Each presently arisen state .... "
12. "There is neither here nor there nor in between the two"
(Ud.S).
13. "What is impermanent is suffering; what is suffering is im-
permanent. What is impermanent and suffering is non-self.
What is impermanent, suffering, and non-self-that is 'such'
(tatha). What is impermanent, suffering, non-self, and
'such'-that is truth (sacca). What is impermanent, suffer-
ing, non-self, 'such,' and truth-that is comprised in one
(ekasangahita). What is comprised in one-that is oneness
(ekatta)" (Pm.ii,106).
14. "Monks, these four are realities (tathani), not unrealities
(avitathtini); they never become otherwise (anafifiathiini). What
four? Suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suf-
fering, and the path leading to the cessation of suffering"
(S.v,430-31; Pm.ii,104). See too the commentarial gloss at
SA.iii,228. The terms tathata, avitathata, anafifiatha have also
been cited as qualifying paticca samuppada, dependent origi-
nation, at S.ii,26.
15. See M.i,135: "Even good qualities (dhamma) you should
abandon, how much more then bad qualities (adhamma)?"
154
Notes
MA.ii;90 identifies the "good qualities" here with serenity

and insight (samatha-vipassanti).
16. See Dhp.348:
"Let go what is behind, let go what is in front,
Let go in the middle, go beyond becoming.
With a mind that is everywhere released
Do not come again to birth and decay."
17. See Sn.1094, Dhp.89, A.v,ll0-11 (cited above, Chap. 6, n.9(i)).
18. Vism. VIII,236; PmA.347, etc.
19. For example: "Ananda, what is the perception of abandon-
ment? Here a monk ... does not tolerate any evil unwhole-
some states that may arise; he abandons them, drives them
away, relinquishes them, and terminates them-this is called
the perception of abandonment" (A.v,llO).
Perception of abandonment (pahiina-sai'ifiii) refers to the
fivefold abandonment (AA.i,287), i.e. by way of suppres-
sion, substitution of opposites, extirpation, subsiding, and
emancipation (Pm.i,26: vikkhambhana, tadmiga, samuccheda,
patippassaddhi, nissara1J-a). These five terms are explained in
the same way as the five kinds of dispassion and cessa-
tion-see Chap.5, n.1 and Chap.6, n.5. In insight medita-
tion it is abandonment by substitution of opposites that is
relevant. In this context perception of abandonment may
be regarded as synonymous with contemplation of relin-
quishment. See DA.ii,757; AA.ii,665.
20. "He sees the abandonment of covetousness and grief (de-
filements rooted in craving and hatred) through his wis-
dom and becomes quite equanimous therein" (M.iii,84-85;
S.v,324, 330-31, 337). For further explanation .see MA.iv,98
or SA.iii,212.
21. "One who abandons defilements abandons the kamma
based on them, and thereby the aggregates which would
be produced through that kamma" (Vism'"f.ii,442).
22. (i) "Contemplation of relinquishment is the stabilization of
reflection" (DT.47).
(ii) " 'He contemplates relinquishment': it should be under-
stood that this is said by way of extremely sharp in-
sight in the vicinity of the path" (PmA.348).
155
(iii) "'He contemplates relinquishment': by way of insight

leading to emergence" (PmA.215).
23. See PmA.94; D'"f.74; CNd.296.
24. "A self and what belongs to self are not to be found as real
and valid" (M.i,138).
25. At Pm.ii,46-47 itis stated that contemplation of relinquish-
ment is liberated from all four kinds of clinging; thus it
seems to be an amalgamation of all three basic contempla-
tions. PmA.393 explains that by abandoning defilements the
contemplation of relinquishment frees one from all kinds
of clin.ging.
26. M.i,477-501.
27. "One who has relinquished all is called 'one at peace'"
(Sn.946).
28. M.i,140-41; S.iii,33. See too S.iv,80-82, where the same for-
mula is applied to the six sense organs.
Chapter 8: Synopsis
1. Pm.i,57-58, 178, etc.
2. Pm.i,58. See also Vism. XXI,26; PmA.183-84.
3. Pm.ii,24f.: "Because of relinquishment there follows cessa-
tion" (vossajjitattii tato nirujjhati). See the commentarial gloss
at PmA.380.
4. Pm.i,57.
5. Vism. XX,4.
6. Vism. XX,89ff. At SA.ii,83 it is said that all the seven con-
templations become functional at the stage of the knowl-
edge of comprehension (sammasana-fiii7Ja).
7. Pm.i,20, 24-25, 32-33, 45-46, 169.
8. Pm.ii,232.
9. Pm.i,178, 183ff. The four final stages of this subject of medi-
tation are the contemplations of impermahence, dispassion,
cessation, and relinquishment. It is worth investigating why
each of these has here been redefined in terms of the seven
contemplations.
10. Pm.i,98ff; ii,172ff.
156
Notes
11. Pm.i,98-99. The attainment of cessation is the ability to sus-

pend all consciousness for a pre-determined duration (up
to a maximum of seven days). It can be achieved by a non-
returner or an arahant who has mastered all the eight ab-
sorptions.
12. Pm.i,76ff.
13. Aniccanupassi, dukkhanupassz~ and anattanupassi: S.iii,41;
A.iv,13-14; A.v,109. Nibbidanupassf: A.i,50. Aniccanupassi,
viraganupassi, nirodhanupassi, patinissaggiinupassi: M.i,251;
iii,84; S.iv,212-14; v,324-37; A.iv,88, etc. Anicciinupassi,
dukkhiinupassi, anattiinupassi, k!zayiinupassi, vayanupassi,
viriigiinupassi, nirodhiinupassi, patinissaggiinupassi: A.v,359-61.
14. Relevant references are given in Chap.1, n.4; Chap.2, n.6,
12; Chap.3, n.31; Chap.4, n.25; Chap.S, n.7, 15, 29; Chap.6,
n.9, 31; Chap.7, n.15. See too the passages cited at pp.25,
34-35, and 49.
15. D.iii,291; A.v,105; A.i,41.
16. D.ii,79; D.iii,251, 253, 283, 289-90; S.v,132-33; A.iii,79, 83-85,
334, 452; v.105, 106, etc.
17. Idh'.Ananda bhikkhu sabbasmikhiirehi attfyati hariiyati jigucchati.
Ayani vuccat'.Ananda sabbasmikhiiresu aniccasafzfza (A.v,ll).
"Ananda, herein a monk is troubled by, ashamed of, and
disgusted with all formations: this is called the perception
of impermanence in all formations." The text seems to imply
the emergence of substihttional dispassion (tadanga-viriiga),
i.e. the removal of defilements through the substitution of
opposites, by means of destructional dispassion (khaya-
viriiga), i.e. by contemplation of the momentary dissolution
of formations.
18. (i) "He is practising for revulsion, dispassion, and cessa-
tion" (nibbidiiya, viriigiiya, nirodhiiya patipanno hoti). S.ii,48;
iii,19-20; A.i,64.
(ii) "It conduces to full revulsion, dispassion, cessation, tran-
quillity, higher knowledge, enlightenment, Nibbana"
(D.ii,251; A.i,30; iii,83, etc.).
19. Aniccani sanklzatani pa\icca-samuppanani, klzayadhammani
vayadhammani viriigadhammarri nirodhadhanzmani: M.i.,500;
S.ii,26; iii,24-25, etc.
157
20. M.i,6, iii,32ff; A.iii,452.

21. Pm.ii,283ff.
22. M.i,436; S.iii,167-69, 189; A.ii,128, etc. Some examples are
quoted in Chaps. 3, 4, and 7.
23. Vism. XX,18ff., XXI 48, 59.
24. See Appendix 5.
25. Pm.ii,185. See the commentarial gloss at PmA.466.
26. Quoted from M.iii,302.
Appendixes
1. S.iii,159.
2. S.iii,101.
3. See e.g. M.i,300; S.iii,102.
4. Pm.i,143--49.
5. At M.i,66 the Buddha indicates that the outside spiritual
teachers might gain some understanding of the clinging to
sensual pleasures, to rules and observances, and to false
views, but apart from a Fully Enlightened One and his dis-
ciples none can fully understand the clinging to a doctrine
of self.
6. M.i,433.
7. S.iii,164-65.
8. S.iii,150, 151.
9. Pm.i,150-51.
10. Pm.i,195.
11. See e.g. MA.i,21.
12. Vism. XX,89-92; XXII,ll3-21.
13. PmA.74-75.
14. Pm.ii,12-13.
15. E.g. Vism'".f.ii;417; D'"f-74.
16. Pm.i,58. The translation of the definition and of the follow-
ing verse are based on Ven. Nal_lamoli's rendering at Vism.
XXII,l15. See too Vism. XXI,11.
158
Notes
17. The definition is at Vism. XXII,116. For details on using the

methods of the material and immaterial septads, see Vism.
XX,46ff.
18. Pm.ii,63; Vism. XX,91.
19. See Chap. 6, n.15. The verse is at Pm.i,58.
20. At A.ii,92-95. See Introduction, pp.5-9.
21. Pug.61-62.
22. A.v,1-7, 311-37; S.ii,29-32.
23. SA.ii,40.
24. E.g. SA.ii,40; AA.ii,587, 676, 725.
25. For instance, at S.v,422-23 it is used to mean the Buddha's
knowledge of the Four Noble Truths on the occasion of his
enlightenment.
26. Vism. XXII,121.
27. Pm.i,66-67; PmA.75.
28. See e.g. MA.ii,249; Vism. VIII,235-36.
29. See e.g. A.iv,146-47.
159
Index
abandonment (pahifna) 10,12-13,23, 151n.10, 151n.11, 151n.13, 152n.16,

85-86, 91, 95, 153n.4, 153n.6, 153n.25; perception of 100, 151n.9,
154n.15, 155n.19, 155n.20, 155n.21; 151n.10
perception of 100, 155n.19. See too: change (vipari7Jifma) 28, 67, 119
substitution of opposites change-of-lineage (gotrabhti) 9, 102,
abdomen, movement of 75-76, 124
142n.30
Channa20
aggregates, five (paiicakkhandhif) 15,
characteristics (lakkhm.ta): common 8,
16,21,24,26-27,30,31,33-34,37,
56; particular .7, 17, 56; three 7-8,
40,41,43-44,45,47,51-52,54~55,
56, 123. See too: impermanence,
74, 79, 86, 88, 91, 95, 104, 112-16,
non-self, suffering
131n.11, 140n.15,. 142n.30
clinging (upadaiui) 59, 71, 115,
air element (vifyo-dhiftu) 44, 105
153n.25, 156n.25, 15Sn.5
Ananda 74
compactness (ghana) 118
anger 79, 110
comprehension (sammasana) 8, 21, 31,
annihilationism (uccheda-ditthi) 42,
83, 118, 119, 121, 135n.14, 156n.6
47, 116, 140n.25
conceit (mana) 38; 39, 48, 79, 140n.12,
appearance as terror (bhayat'upa~
143n.33
thifna) 9, 31, 77, 122, 123
concentration (samifdhi) 5, 30, 45, 79,
arahantship 33, 48, 57, 58, 84, 94,
129n.7, 130n.10, 138n.10
132n.16, 13Sn.14, 138n.15
asuras 38-38 conditionality 17, 46
attention, wise (yoniso manasikifra) 17, conformity (anuloma) 9, 32, 48, 102,
58 124, 136n.16
consciousness (viiifia7:za) 38, 41, 42, 44,
becoming (bhava) 59 105, 142n.30
bliss (sukha) 30 contact (phassa) 38, 44, 53
body 93, 104 contemplation (anupassanif) 11-12,
Brahmajala Sutta 140n.24, 140n.25 17, 32-33, 56-57, 71, 97-98; forty
breathing, mindfulness of (ifnifpifna- 101-2; seven 12-14, 96-103, 117,
sati) 5, 18, 65, 82-83, 99, 134n.6, 126, 156n.6, 156n.9; three 57, 63,
156n.9 80,82,93,96-97,101,125
Buddha, meditation on (buddhifnus- continuity (santat1) 18-19, 118, 135n.7
satt) 4, 110, 111 conventional truth (sammuti-sacca)
104-6, 107, 108
cessation (nirodha) 74-75, 76, 80-81,
82, 136n.15, 150n.1, 150n.3, 150n.4, correCt knowledge and vision
150n.5, 152n.17, 152n.19; attain- (yathifbhtlta-fiif7Jadassana) 56, 72,
ment of 100, 157n.11; contempla- 121-23, 144n.17
tion of 13,75--84, 88, 96, 97, 99, 101, craving (talthif) 2, 38, 39-40, 58, 59,
102, 118, 119, 150n.6, 151n.7, 66, 71, 79, 81, 82, 92, 112, 140n.12
160
Index
danger (iidinava) 56, 60, 64, 65-66, 88, doubt (vicikiccha)9, 46

144n.15; knowledge of 9, 31, 77, duality 89
123
earth element (pathavf-dhiitu) 6, 44,
death, mindfulness of (marm.w-sati)
55,68, 104,108
84, 110, 111
elements (dhiitu) 6, 37, 44, 55, 68, 104-
defilements (kilesa) 23, 79, 81, 83, 86,
5, 131n.11, 142n.29, 142n.30
87, 89, 90, 91, 94, 130n.9
equanimity towards formations
delight (nandi) 12, 13, 50, 57, 58-60,
(smikhiir'upekklui) 9, 48, 57, 64, 69,
66-67, 88, 149n.16, 150n.25
70, 92, 102, 122, 124
delimitation of mind and matter
entering (pakkhandana) 85, 86
(ntimanlpa-pariccheda) 6, 17, 30, 45,
87-88, 116, 122, 135n.8 eternalism (sassata-ditthi) 42, 48; 116,
141n.24
dependent arising (paficca samup-
piida) 46, 52-53, 80, 83, 131n.11 eye of Dhamma (dhammacakkhu) 80
desire for deliverance (muficitukam- faculties (indriya): sense 53, 54,. 56,
yatii) 9, 77, 91, 123, 151n.11 59, 85-86, 89, 113-14, 143n.31; spir-
desireless (appm:zihita): contemplation itual22, 57, 130n.10
120, 136n.16; liberation 32, 83 fall (vaya) 101, 119
destruction (khaya) 62, 63, 66, 75, 101; feeling (vedanti) 2, 38, 41, 44, 94, 113-
contemplation of 118 14, 142n.30
development (bhiivanii) 14, 32 fetters (saniyojana) 9, 115-16
Dhatuvibhanga Sutta 68 fire element (tejo-dhatu) 44, 104-5
Dighanakha Sutta 93-94 formations (smikhiirii) 5, 15-16, 27-
discernment of conditions (paccaya- 28,30,34,48,50,57,63-64,65, 75,
pariggaha) 7, 19-20, 30, 56, 88, 122, 77, 79, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88,
135n.11 90, 92, 94, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124,
dispassion (virifga) 62-63, 65, 66-69, 131n.11, 135n.10, 137n.9, 144n.15;
70-71,82-84, 101, 145n.21, 146n.l, kamma- 91, 131n.11; mental 41,
146n.2, 147n.4, 147n.5, 148n.14; 114-15, 131n.11, 142n.30
contemplation of 13, 63-66, 69-73, foulness (asubha) 4, 110, 111
82-84, 89, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, fruition (phala) 9-10, 80, 102, 132n.16
147n.6, 148n.10, 148n.11, 148n.13; full understanding (parif1fiti) 7, 8, 10,
perception of 100, 147n.7 99, 131n.13, 135n.8
dissolution (bhmiga) 26, 47, 62, 64, 71,
82, 88; knowledge of 9, 21-22, 31, giving up (paricciiga) 85, 90-91, 101
57, 63, 77, 82, 99, 118, 119, 151n.7, gods 37-38
152n.21, 153n.24 grasping (iidiina) 13, 90, 92-93
distaste for whole world (sabbaloke
hindrances (nivarar;a) 4, 5, 87, 98,
anabhirata) 100, 146n.25, 149n.15
128n.6
distortion (vipallasa) 23-24, 33-34,
38-39, 48, 79, 136n.19, 138n.14 "I am" 39-40, 48-49, 88, 89, 92, 104-
doors of liberation (vimoxkkhadviira) 5, 140n.15, 143n.33
22, 32, 48, 83, 136n.16 "I am this" 40-41, 140n.15
161
ignorance (avijjti) 2, 38, 79, 92, 105, Nagasamala 58

106, 152n.17 Nibbana 9-10, 25, 32, 35, 48, 57, 62,
imagining (maiifiita) 37-42, 139n.7, 64,65,75,77,80-81,82,83,84,86-
141n.27 87, 90, 91, 106, 133n.3, 147n.4,
impediments (paJibodha) 3, 128n.4 - 147n.5, 147n.7, 152n.20
impermanence (anicca) 7, 15-25, 26, noble disciple 51-55, 116
47, 118, 135n.10; characteristic of non-returner (antigtimt) 33, 84,
15, 18-21, 31, 101, 135n.7, 135n.9, 140n.15
135n.14; contemplation of 12, 13, non-self (anattii) 7, 36, 43, 45, 46, 47,
17,20-22,24,25,31,63, 71,76,82, 79, 138n.l, 138n.2; characteristic of
88, 96, 100, 102, 118, 119, 136n.l6, 36, 43-44, 116; contemplation of
145n.20; perception of 100, 134n.4, 12, 13, 48, 93, 96, 97, 100, 102, 120,
134n.8, 157n.17 136n.l6, 143n.31; perception of 46,
insight (vipassantf) 2, 5-10,21,31, 44, 49, 100, 143n.31. See too: self
56,57,67,68, 72,80,86,87,90,91-
92, 97-98, 99, 106, 107, 116, 121, origination (samudaya) 13, 26, 47, 81-
122, 125-27, 129n.8, 130n.9; cor- 83, 136n.l5, 152n.21, 153n.23
ruptions of 8, 21, 31, 108, 132n.14; overcoming doubt (kmikhtivitarm:za) 7,
eighteen 11-12, 99, 102, 117-27; 19,46
into phenomena 120-21, 152n.15
pain 26-27, 137n.10
jhana 4, 110, 129n.7, 129n.8, 129n.9
Pasenadi, King 67
kamma 86,91
passion (raga) 13, 62, 64, 66-67, 71-
Khemaka Sutta 140n.15 72, 81, 83, 149n.16, 150n.25
knowledge, twofold 107-9
path: eightfold 2; not path and 8, 122;
liberation (vimokkha) 136. See too: supramundane 9, 23, 62, 64, 65, 67,
doors of libenition 70, 75, 80-81, 86-87, 90, 97, 102,
loving-kindness (metta) 4, 110, 111 124, 130n.9, 132n.16, 146n.l, 150n.4
Magandiya 50 Patisambhidamagga 11-12, 65, 71,
Mara 37,58 82, 83, 85, 96,97-103,107, 112, 116,
117-27
matter, material form (nipa) 6, 41, 42,
44, 45, 46, 47, 65, 104, 112-15, perception (safifia) 41, 44, 100, 114,
131n.11, 136n.15, 142n.30 126, 142n.30
meditation master 3, 61, 107, 128n.3 permanence (nicca) 12, 13, 16, 23, 24
mind, mentality (nama) 6, 44, 45, 46, personality (sakkaya) 112-16; view 9,
105, 112-15, 131n.11, 136n.15 41, 112-16, 140n.l5, 140n.20,
140n.21
mind and matter (ntfmanipa) 30, 45,
46, 88, 104. See too: delimitation of pleasure (sukha) 12, 13, 33-34
mind and matter postures 29-30, 137n.10
mindfulness (sati): awareness and 17, protective meditations 4, 110-11
45, 46, 98, 106; four foundations Puggalapafifiatti 121
of 11, 99. See too: breathing, mind- purifications, seven (visuddhi) 6-10
fulness of
morality (sl1a) 3-4
162
Index
reflection knowledge (patisarikhii- substitution of opposites (tadariga-

ilii!Ja) 9, 123 pahiina) 10, 23, 62, 63, 64, 71, 73,
relinquishment (patinissagga) 85-87, 79, 80, 86, 91, 116, 130n.9, 146n.1,
94, 101, 153n.4; contemplation of 157n.17
13, 87, 90-93, 96, 97, 100, 102, 124, suchness (tathatii) 90, 154n.13,
155n.22, 156n.25 154n.14
requisites of enlightenment (bodhi- suffering (dukkha) 2, 7, 26-28,30,33-
pakkhiyii dhammii) 80 34, 47, 59, 60, 92, 115-16, 137n.8,
reviewing knowledge (paccavek- 137n.9; characteristic of 26, 29-30,
kha1;a-ilii1Ja) 10, 103 31; contemplation of 12, 13, 29, 31,
32, 48, 58, 71, 88, 93, 96, 97, 100,
revulsion (nibbidii) 50, 51-61, 66-69,
102, 120, 123, 136n.16, 137n.6; per-
70, 122, 144n.1, 145n.18; contem-
ception of 34, 100, 137n.6
plation of 12, 13, 56-58, 59, 60-61,
63, 64, 66, 69-70, 88, 96, 97, 102, supramundane path. See: path, sup-
123; knowledge of 9, 31, 57, 64, 69, ramundane
77, 122 triple world 25, 34, 35, 60, 77, 89,
rise and fall (udayabbaya) 8, 19, 21, 146n.25
31, 55, 63, 75-76, 118, 136n.15 turning away (vivatta) 123-24
roads to power (iddhiptida) 33, ultimate truth (paramattha-sacca) 104-
138n.13 6
rounds, three (tivatta) 91 underlying tendencies (anusaya) 35,
Saccaka 26 38, 48, 90, 115, 116, 130n.9, 143n.33
Sakka 37 Vepacitti 37-38
sarilsara 16, 30, 34, 80, 92, 115-16 view (ditthi) 38, 39, 41, 48, 79, 115,
116, 138n.14, 140n.12, 141n.27,
Sariputta 94 143n.33. See too: personality view;
self (attii) 12, 13, 36-37, 41-42, 48, self, view of
112-16, 138n.1; perception of 37, viewing, stage of 6-7, 135n.14
47, 48; view of 40-42, 48, 115-16, Visuddhimagga 12-13, 65, 91, 99,
140n.15, 141n.22. See too: non-self; 102, 107, 117-27
personality view voidness (sunnatti) 48, 79, 120,
serenity (samatha) 4, 100, 129n.8 136n.16; contemplation of 121
sign (nimitta) 120 water element (iipo-dhiitu) 44, 104,
signless (animitta) 22, 84; contempla- 142n.29
tion 120, 136n.16 wisdom 5, 79, 92, 94, 102-3, 106, 120-
space element (iikiisa-dhtitu) 105 21. See too: insight meditation
stream-entry (sotiipatti) 9, 48, 116, worldling (puthujjana) 40, 115-16
132n.16, 136n.19
Yavakalapi Sutta 37-38, 42
163
THE BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
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the Teaching of the Buddha, which has a vital message for
people of all creeds. Founded in 1958, the BPS has published
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165
THE SEVEN CONTEMPLATIONS OF INSIGHT
The present book evolved out of a series of discourses on the

"eighteen principal insights" that the Venerable M<Hara Sri
Naryarama Mahathera gave in 1981 to the meditating monks
at his monastery, the Nissaral)a Vanaya Hermitage, in
Mitirigala, Sri Lanka. Prepared by a pupil of Ven. Nal)arama
under his personal guidance, this book offers the reader an
in-depth study of the first seven insights, which form a dis-
tinct and self-sufficient system known as "the seven contem-
plations" (salta anupassana). At once theoretically rigorous yet
pragmatic and precise, the book weaves together extensive
material from the Buddha's discourses and the commentaries
with concrete guidelines to mental training. By giving us a
viv•d picture of hO\" these se\'en contemplations are to be
applied in the actual course of meditation practice, this work
serves to fill a major gap in our understanding of Buddhist
insight meditation.
Venerable Matara Sri :\'aryarama Mahathera (1901-92), the in-
spiration and guiding light behind this book, was one of Sri
Lanka's most distinguished meditation masters of recent times.
From 1967 until his death in 1992 he was the resident medi-
tation master of the Nissararya Vanaya Hermitage and also
the head master of the Sri Kalyaryi Yogasrama Ac;sociation, a
monastic organization of the forest tradition.

Kandy • Sri Lanka
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The Seven

Prepared under the guidance of

This book was prepared under the guidance of the Venerable

Buddhist Publication Society

Copyright© 1997 by The Sangha,

Originally published in Sinhala as Sat Anupassana by Mithra

Typeset at the BPS

Printed in Sri Lanka by

Prepared under the guidance of

by one of his pupil-monks

English translation from the Sinhala by

Buddhist Publication Society

A. Anguttara Nikaya (PTS)

By following the Buddha's instruction and bringing the

Most Venerable Pa:q.qita

Thus, Lord, even though many diverse forms percepti-

Ven. Nauyane Ariyadhamma Mahathera

The omniscient Buddha declared Nibbana to be the highest

message of mind development and insight has been recorded

Gl.mawardhana Yogasrama Centre

In 1981 our teacher, the Most Venerable Matara Sri Nal).arama

insights found in the commentarialliterature. In order to break

intended to serve three main purposes: to clarify obscure

explored systematically, in all their implications, a separate

For us it was a source of immense pleasure that we could

affairs with great success. When the original Sinhala edition

The Buddha's constant injunction to his disciples was to

The Path of Insight

Several basic requirements have to be satisfied before one

follower should observe the five, eight, or ten precepts of the

Those who find it difficult to develop serenity meditation

The Three Stages of Insight

Through this catechistic method, a threefold course of in-

(i) The Stage of Viewing

The meditator undertaking insight meditation first has to

As the meditator expands his attention further, the condi-

(ii) The Stage of Comprehending

Here the meditator examines the psycho-physical assem-

teri9tics-impermanence, suffering, and selflessness-is called

(iii) The Stage of Gaining Insight

This stage indicates how insight is practised on an intensi-

mature knowledge of the rise and fall of phenomena uncov-

peafe of Nibbana. Following fruition there arises reviewing

The Seven Contemplations

Sutta Pitaka/1 where we also find the fundamental pattern of

5. One who develops the contemplation of dispassion

Here, the term bhavento means "one who develops." This

anq commentaries. Once all the contemplations have been

One who develops the contemplation of impermanence

The Characteristic of Impermanence

thel impermanence of formations hidden beneath the most

Special effort is required to alter our modes of perception:

Uncovering the Mark of Impermanence

tator also realizes that in each material form, hitherto regarded

with extremely keen attention, empowered by continuous

quently, the impermanence of the mental factors will also

contemplation of dissolution (bhmiganupassana-firiJJa) resulting

Development and Abandoning

Many positive results may be obtained from the application

the impermanence of formations, we consistently ignore these